FREQUENCY MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

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INSTRUCTION MANUAL










Frequency modulation and demodulation
AIM:
Frequency modulation and demodulation has been designed to study the frequency modulation and
demodulation
SALIENT FEATURES:
The instrument comprises of the following parts
Fixed output dc regulated power supply of +12V
Built in audio frequency generator of 2khz, 4khz , 3 Volt Peak to peak amplitude.
Circuit diagram of modulator and demodulator are printed on the front panel and components
are soldered behind the front panel
Modulator using ICL8038 and the Demodulator using the IC 565.


Theory:
Applications of FM:
Frequency modulation is widely used for radio transmissions for a wide variety of applications from
broadcasting to general point to point communications. Frequency modulation, FM offers many
advantages, particularly in mobile radio applications where its resistance to fading and interference is a
great advantage. It is also widely used for broadcasting on VHF frequencies where it is able to provide a
medium for high quality audio transmissions.
In view of its widespread use receivers need to be able to demodulate these transmissions. There is a
wide variety of different techniques and circuits that can be sued including the Foster-Seeley, and ratio
detectors using discreet components, and where integrated circuits are used the phase locked loop and
quadrature detectors are more widely used
What is frequency modulation, FM
As the name suggests frequency modulation, FM uses changes in frequency to carry the sound or other
information that is required to be placed onto the carrier. As shown below it can be seen that as the
modulating or base band signal voltage varies, so the frequency of the signal changes in line with it. This
type of modulation brings several advantages with it:
Interference reduction: When compared to AM, FM offers a marked
improvement in interference. In view of the fact that most received
noise is amplitude noise, an FM receiver can remove any amplitude
sensitivity by driving the IF into limiting.
Removal of many effects of signal strength variations: FM is widely
used for mobile applications because the amplitude variations do not
cause a change in audio level. As the audio is carried by frequency
variations rather than amplitude ones, under good signal strength
conditions, this does not manifest itself as a change in audio level.
Transmitter amplifier efficiency: As the modulation is carried by
frequency variations, this means that the transmitter power
amplifiers can be made non-linear. These amplifiers can be made to
be far more efficient than linear ones, thereby saving valuable
battery power - a valuable commodity for mobile or portable
equipment.
These advantages mean that FM has been widely used for many broadcasting and mobile applications.

Frequency modulating a signal

Wide band and Narrow band FM
When a signal is frequency modulated, the carrier shifts in frequency in line with the modulation. This is
called the deviation. In the same way that the modulation level can be varied for an amplitude
modulated signal, the same is true for a frequency modulated one, although there is not a maximum or
100% modulation level as in the case of AM.
The level of modulation is governed by a number of factors. The bandwidth that is available is one. It is
also found that signals with a large deviation are able to support higher quality transmissions although
they naturally occupy a greater bandwidth. As a result of these conflicting requirements different levels
of deviation are used according to the application that is used.
Those with low levels of deviation are called narrow band frequency modulation (NBFM) and typically
levels of +/- 3 kHz or more are used dependent upon the bandwidth available. Generally NBFM is used
for point to point communications. Much higher levels of deviation are used for broadcasting. This is
called wide band FM (WBFM) and for broadcasting deviation of +/- 75 kHz is used.
Receiving FM
In order to be able to receive FM a receiver must be sensitive to the frequency variations of the
incoming signals. As already mentioned these may be wide or narrow band. However the set is made
insensitive to the amplitude variations. This is achieved by having a high gain IF amplifier. Here the
signals are amplified to such a degree that the amplifier runs into limiting. In this way any amplitude
variations are removed.
In order to be able to convert the frequency variations into voltage variations, the demodulator must be
frequency dependent. The ideal response is a perfectly linear voltage to frequency characteristic. Here it
can be seen that the centre frequency is in the middle of the response curve and this is where the un-
modulated carrier would be located when the receiver is correctly tuned into the signal. In other words
there would be no offset DC voltage present.
The ideal response is not achievable because all systems have a finite bandwidth and as a result a
response curve known as an "S" curve is obtained. Outside the bandwidth of the system, the response
falls, as would be expected. It can be seen that the frequency variations of the signal are converted into
voltage variations which can be amplified by an audio amplifier before being passed into headphones, a
loudspeaker, or passed into other electronic circuitry for the appropriate processing.

Characteristic "S" curve of an FM demodulator
To enable the best detection to take place the signal should be centred about the middle of the curve. If
it moves off too far then the characteristic becomes less linear and higher levels of distortion result.
Often the linear region is designed to extend well beyond the bandwidth of a signal so that this does not
occur. In this way the optimum linearity is achieved. Typically the bandwidth of a circuit for receiving
VHF FM broadcasts may be about 1 MHz whereas the signal is only 200 kHz wide.

FM demodulators
There are a number of circuits that can be used to demodulate FM. Each type has its own advantages
and disadvantages, some being used when receivers used discrete components, and others now that ICs
are widely used.
Below is a list of some of the main types of FM demodulator or FM detector. In view of the widespread
use of FM, even with the competition from digital modes that are widely used today, FM demodulators
are needed in many new designs of electronics equipment.
Slope FM detector
Foster-Seeley FM detector
Ratio detector
PLL, Phase locked loop FM demodulator
Quadrature FM demodulator
Coincidence FM demodulator
Phase locked loop, PLL FM demodulator or detector is a form of FM demodulator that has gained
widespread acceptance in recent years. PLL FM detectors can easily be made from the variety of phase
locked loop integrated circuits that are available, and as a result, PLL FM demodulators are found in
many types of radio equipment ranging from broadcast receivers to high performance communications
equipment.
The PLL FM demodulation integrated circuits started to appear when integrated circuit technology
developed to the degree to allow RF analogue circuits to be manufactured. Although high frequencies
are not normally needed, for PLL FM demodulators, the circuit must be capable of operating at the
intermediate frequency of the receiver, and for receivers using FM this was often 10.7 MHz. Although by
today's standards, this is not high, it was necessary for the technology to reach this state before PLL FM
demodulators became available.

PLL FM demodulation basics
The way in which a phase locked loop, PLL FM demodulator works is relatively straightforward. It
requires no changes to the basic phase locked loop, itself, utilising the basic operation of the loop to
provide the required output.
The way in which a PLL FM demodulator operates is quite straightforward. The loop consists of a phase
detector into which the incoming signal is passed, along with the output from the voltage controlled
oscillator (VCO) contained within the phase locked loop. The output from the phase detector is passed
into a loop filter and then used as the control voltage for the VCO.

Phase locked loop (PLL) FM demodulator
With no modulation applied and the carrier in the centre position of the pass-band the voltage on the
tune line to the VCO is set to the mid position. However if the carrier deviates in frequency, the loop will
try to keep the loop in lock. For this to happen the VCO frequency must follow the incoming signal, and
in turn for this to occur the tune line voltage must vary. Monitoring the tune line shows that the
variations in voltage correspond to the modulation applied to the signal. By amplifying the variations in
voltage on the tune line it is possible to generate the demodulated signal.

PLL FM demodulator performance
The PLL FM demodulator is normally considered a relatively high performance form of FM demodulator
or detector. Accordingly they are used in many FM receiver applications.
The PLL FM demodulator has a number of key advantages:
Linearity: The linearity of the PLL FM demodulator is governed by
the voltage to frequency characteristic of the VCO within the PLL. As
the frequency deviation of the incoming signal normally only swings
over a small portion of the PLL bandwidth, and the characteristic of
the VCO can be made relatively linear, the distortion levels from
phase locked loop demodulators are normally very low. Distortion
levels are typically a tenth of a percent.
Manufacturing costs: The PLL FM demodulator lends itself to
integrated circuit technology. Only a few external components are
required, and in some instances it may not be necessary to use an
inductor as part of the resonant circuit for the VCO. These facts make
the PLL FM demodulator particularly attractive for modern
applications.

PLL FM demodulator design considerations
When designing a PLL system for use as an FM demodulator, one of the key considerations is the loop
filter. This must be chosen to be sufficiently wide that it is able to follow the anticipated variations of the
frequency modulated signal. Accordingly the loop response time should be short when compared to the
anticipated shortest time scale of the variations of the signal being demodulated.
A further design consideration is the linearity of the VCO. This should be designed for the voltage to
frequency curve to be as linear as possible over the signal range that will be encountered, i.e. the centre
frequency plus and minus the maximum deviation anticipated.
In general the PLL VCO linearity is not a major problem for average systems, but some attention may be
required to ensure the linearity is sufficiently good for hi-fi systems
EQUATIONS:
Bandwidth of FM signal depends upon the modulation index.
Which is equal to the total deviation in the frequency and the frequency of the modulation signal
m=F/Fm
from the modulation index Bessel function can be determined which helps to plot the frequency
modulation spectrum. The modulator efficiency is calculated as
modulator efficiency = KF=F/VFm Hz/volt
where VFm is the peak amplitude of the modulating signal.
Circuit descriptions:
The obective is to generate single- and multi-tone FM signals using a voltage controlled oscillator and
observe the waveforms in the time and spectral domains.
Implement the Frequency Modulator circuit shown in the data sheet (reproduced in Figure 2
below). The output of the VCO when no modulation is applied (i.e. the carrier frequency) is
given by f = 0.33/RC, where R = R
A
= R
B
= R
L
.Design the circuit for a carrier frequency of 30 kHz.
Test the system response by feeding a 1-Hz audio-frequency tone to the FM sweep input pin.
Observe the waveforms on the oscilloscope.


Experiment with varying the modulating signal frequency and amplitude. Observe the input and
output waveforms.
Determine the range of modulation indices and modulating frequencies at which this circuit will
operate. Digitally capture a few input/output waveforms in this range and perform spectral
analysis. Confirm your observations with theoretical predictions.
Experiment with feeding in multi-tone modulating signals at the modulating signal input of this
circuit.
Use the slope detector circuit you have designed in Part A to recover the baseband signal (for
both single- and multi-tone). Observe and listen.
The objective is to generate an FM signal using a voltage controlled oscillator and observe the
waveforms in the time and spectral domains.
Design the test circuit shown in Figure 3. Choose the free-running frequency of the PLL equal to
the carrier frequency of the FM signal. The design equation is f
0
= 0.3/RC, where R = R
1
+ R
2


Below figure show the Complete FM modulator using VCO chip ICL8038. Where it performs the function
of frequency modulation. the 8038 is basically used for waveform generation. The generated frequency
is determined primarily by the timing resistor RT 3.3K. The timing capacitor 0.001F and the dc bias
voltage at the input signal. In present circuit resistor R2 In conjunction with R1 and the voltage divide
R1K and R5K. Determine the free run frequency which may be considered as carrier frequency. External
modulating signal can be inserted at appropriate input through the dc blocking 0.1F. The free run
frequency of the VCO changes in rhythm of input signal polarity and amplitude. Hence frequency
modulation achieved. The obtained signal is further amplified by an amplifier and terminated to FM out
through DC blocking capacitor 0.1F.
The signal source.
As stated earlier VCO itself generates the free run frequency called carrier. Addition to this the board
has built in 2&4 KHZ Approximately 0 phase synchronized AF generator. That is called the modulating
signal with 0-3Vpp amplitude. The output impedance of the modulator is 1K.
A Synchronization signal is given to trigger CRO in external trigger mode.
For demodulation
The phase lock loop consist of a free run voltage controlled oscillator VCO and a digital phase
comparator circuit. The prime aim of the it to generate a signal of such frequency Fo Which as same
frequency as the phase comparator input. Lets see the figure of demodulator where a basic block
diagram of PLL shown above. The VCO free run signals connected back to one input of phase
comparator. The process of tracking is continued (called capture process) till both Fin and Fo held same
phase lock loop to demodulate the frequency modulated signal. In fig below the circuit of frequency
modulator is shown. The NE565 has inbuilt voltage controlled oscillator(the free run frequency of which
depends upon control voltage controlled oscillator form PC out Pin no. 7 ) timing resistor RT 10K 56 and
timing capacitor CT 0.001F A phase comparator an amplifier and a input 3.6K resistor connected
between VCO signal input and PC out. In present circuit 10K is made variable using potentiometer 10K
To bring VCO free run frequency close to the carrier frequency for proper tracking. The pc out is filtered
by 0.01F and 1F capacitors and further amplified to recover the modulating signal.
The frequency demodulation by PLL
When un-modulated carried is feed to PLL signal input and RT (P1)assumed to adjusted for same run
frequency as input the pc out has no pulse since Fin=Fo , The output at the pc is assumed to zero. When
modulated signal is feed at input the pc output has different width of pulses since the input signal is
continuously deviating. The deviating dc voltage at pc out is used to track VCO and same is amplified by
passing through LPF to recover the modulating signal. The capture range of 565 has 1:3 ratio of its free
run frequency thus at 60 kHz carrier it demodulated at +/-10 kHz deviated signal.
PROCEDURE TO IMPLEMENT EXPERIMENT ON THE TRAINER.
For modulation
Connect the AF signal socket with the AF Signal input modulator circuit.
Keep amplitude control at minimum. Select modulating signal frequency 2 KHz.
Connect CRO with the frequency modulation output socket and ground. Display the signal upon
the CRO which the carrier wave and measure its un-modulated frequency (1/T) with calibrated
time base of CRO
Note down it in the observation table.
Now connect AF Signal output to the AF signal input of the modulator circuit. Adjust amplitude
control of modulating signal. Trigger CRO with the SYNC signal.
Observe the modulating signal. Trace it on the paper .Measure the maximum deviation by using
X magnification, easy to measure at negative slope of modulating signal.
Now from the observations
Un-modulated carrier frequency=-----------------KHz.. (1)
Modulated and deviated carrier frequency =-----------KHz (at negative slope of
modulating signal)(2)
The frequency deviation =f= 1-2= KHz
Total deviation at both side of the modulation signal is 2f = -----------+kHz
Modulating signal fm= KHZ
The modulation index (modulation factor) m= 2f/fm
The modulating signal amplitude A in -----------Vpp
The modulator efficiency kf= 2f./A
Now change the modulation signal to 4khz measure the frequency devation as before while the
amplitude must be same as before 3vpp
And repeat the process for observations of 4 kHz frequency
Compute the resulted observation for the both the input modulating signal and see the
modulation index is changed and the f will not be changed.
For demodulation
Connect frequency modulated output to the input of the demodulator section. Remain the CRO
with the same AF signal output as earlier.
Connect he CRO with frequency demodulated output socket. Keep the keep the modulating
signal amplitude at minimum position. Select fm = 2 kHz
Keep P1 near the centre trigger CRO. Now bring the modulation frequency by applying 3Vpp
signal at the modulating input. Observe the demodulation signal
Adjust P1 Control to obtain maximum amplitude signal.
Change fm to 4KHZ. The demodulated output has small amplitude than 2khz due to frequency
roll off present by the low pass filter.
WAVEFORM


At the demodulation you will receive the modulating signal back but some less amplitude and some
distorted.
Standard accessories
Four single point patch cords for interconnections
Instruction manual
Optional accessories
Cathode ray oscilloscope.