2011 PhDCourse SpecialElectricalMachines

Special electric machines Special electric machines
Scuola di Dottorato in Ingegneria Industriale

Attivit didattica 2011 in Ingegneria Elettrotecnica
Dr. A. Dr. A. Tortella Tortella
Laboratory of Electric Machines Laboratory of Electric Machines

Dipartimento di Ingegneria Elettrica
2
Summary Summary
Introduction (motor classification and characteristics)
Magnetic materials (permanent magnets, SMC)
Small electric motors
ooLine-start single-phase induction and synchronous motors
oSingle-phase PM brushless motors
oC ser!omotors
Single-phase self-e"cited alternators (lo# rate)
Step motors (reluctance, PM and hybrid types)
S#itched reluctance motors S#itched reluctance motors
Linear machines
oifferences #ith rotating electrical machines
oInduction and synchronous machines
oIndustry and transport applications
3
Medium and high rated motors Medium and high rated motors
Conventional motors (I
st
row)
o $ormal operation if supplied directly by
the mains
o Self-starting #ithout adopting au"iliary
de!ices
o Constant steady-state tor%ue
T.J.E. Miller : Brushless
Permanent-Magnet and
elu!tan!e Motor "rives#
$ll the motors suita%le &or varia%le s'eed
"C !ommutator
(!onventional e(!itation)
)-'hase s*n!hronous
(!onventional e(!itation)
)-'hase indu!tion
Motors &or ele!tri! drives (II
nd
e III
rd
rows)
o $ormally operated using a po#er
con!erter #ith a suitable control
o &a!orable operating and manufacturing
features #ith respect to the con!entional
motors
o Possibility of high speed operation
(reluctance type machines)
PM "C !ommutator )-'hase h*%rid-PM
$ll the motors suita%le &or varia%le s'eed
drives
o 'nergy sa!ing (ma"imum process
efficiency, lo#er po#er for cooling)
o Position(speed control
o Impro!ement of transient phenomena
(limitation of electric and mechanical
stresses, suitability for start(stop
processes)
PM "C !ommutator )-'hase h*%rid-PM
s*n!hronous
"C or sinusoidal %rushless
(PM e(!itation)
+wit!hed relu!tan!e
4
Small electric motors Small electric motors
Single-phase or C supply generally re%uested for both industrial and
home appliances ()*+C, portable tools, #ashing machines, ,)
-ated po#er ranging from some W to several hundreds of W
-e%uested performances often different from the high rated machines
o Reduced weight and volume
o Reliability (application and #or.ing cycles not defined in ad!ance)
o Reduced costs and maintenance
o Low EMC and acoustic noise emissions
esign and manufacturing issues to obtain self-starting capability (+C)
o 2-phase stator winding (main and au"iliary) #ith cage-type rotors
o Pole air-gap shaping (PM machines) o Pole air-gap shaping (PM machines)
Commutation concerns because of the low number of slots, in!ol!ing
current and tor%ue ripple (C)
Pulsating component (bac.#ard field) and harmonics in the main field (+C)
o Efficiency and power factor lower than 3-phase machines
o ignificant tor!ue ripple (especially /
nd
harmonic)
5
Permanent magnets Permanent magnets
-eplacement of the conventional e"citation in C and +C synchronous
machines
Efficiency impro!ement and volume reduction
Problems #ith flu" control and operating temperature
)igh range of applications from some tens of 0 (ferrites) to M0
machines (rare earths)
)ard magnetic materials (1rinell hardness !alues as high as 234)
Wide hysteresis cycle (high amount of magneti5ing and
demagneti5ing energy)
#igh coercivity #ith respect to the soft magnetic materials (operation
in the II %uadrant of 1-) cur!e) in the II %uadrant of 1-) cur!e)
Low permeability at the normal operating point
Main materials (solid often sintered form, bonded or molded)
Ceramics (strontium and barium ferrites)
$lnico (alloy of aluminum, nic.el and cobalt)
Rare earths (samarium-cobalt, neodymium-iron)
6
Examples of PM machines Examples of PM machines
Small DC motors Small DC motors
High speed rotor High speed rotor
Traction motor (IPM) Traction motor (IPM)
Small and high rated generators for wind Small and high rated generators for wind
turbines (axial and radial flux) turbines (axial and radial flux) turbines (axial and radial flux) turbines (axial and radial flux)
!!" "# characteristics # characteristics

% 6
4
# 7 8 $ormal hysteresis loop
8-) cur!e Intrinsic loop (domain
orientation)
'"perimental determination
o Increasing ) field in the !irgin
,eadon: -.and%oo/ o& small ele!tri! motors0
8
16
4
)78
Intrinsic (8, )
i
)
o Increasing ) field in the !irgin
material
o omain orientation (868
s
)
o ) 5ero setting (161
r
8
s
)
o ) in!ersion demagneti5ing
cur!e
o Cancellation of 1 ()6)
c
)
Influence of the magnetic &nee
Magneti5ation cur!es
Influence of the magnetic &nee
position (%uadrant II or III)
o 9)9 reduction abo!e the .nee
1 1
r
o 9)9 reduction belo# the .nee
1 1:
r
; 1
r
o -ecoil line based on
rec
$
PM typical properties PM typical properties
emanen!e
r
< defines the PM section needed to obtain a gi!en magnetic flu"
1'erating remanen!e %
d
< 1 !alue after remo!ing the magnetic load
o Linear cur!e 1
d
1
r
o $on-linear cur!e 1
d
depends on
rec
related to the linear part
Coer!ivit* # < defines the ma"imum allo#able electric load #ithout the material Coer!ivit* #
c
< defines the ma"imum allo#able electric load #ithout the material
demagneti5ation
Ma(imum s'e!i&i! energ* or grade %#
ma"
< defines the minimum PM !olume to
obtain a gi!en (air-gap) energy
o =ptimal operating point to minimi5e costs (important for design purpose)
o Constraint on the tor%ue density (1
m
(+
m
, )
m
$I(l
m
)
Tem'erature !oe&&i!ients 'C(%
r
), 'C(#
c
)< define the 1) cur!e modification #hen Tem'erature !oe&&i!ients 'C(%
r
), 'C(#
c
)< define the 1) cur!e modification #hen
the operating temperature changes
o >C(1
r
)6(d1
r
(d>)(1
r
?@44 A >C()
c
)6(d)
c
(d>)()
c
?@44
o -e!ersible during cooling only if the cur!e remains linear (condition fi"ed by
the ma"imum temperature '
ma"
), other#ise a ne# magneti5ation is needed
Curie tem'erature '
C
< defines the temperature limit after #hich the magnetic
domains lose their orientation complete and irre!ersible demagneti5ation
%
&lnico &lnico
)igh temperature stability (operation up to **+ ) and relati!ely high remanence
,on- linear %-# curve #ith lo# )
c
(long and thin shapes, use of magnetic shunts)
Production #ith casting processes (for comple" shapes) or by sintering
>roublesome machining because of the hardness and brittleness of the material
"e(ter Magnet Te!hnolog*: Permanent Magnet Catalog#
>roublesome machining because of the hardness and brittleness of the material
-sotropic (un-oriented particles #hich can be magneti5ed #ith any pattern) or
anisotropic (particles oriented according to the magneti5ation direction) property
'(
)errites )errites
#igh coercivity (demagneti5ation robustness), resistance to o"idation and low
electric conductivity
Cheap material #idespread for lo# rated PM machines (no#adays considered also
for medium si5ed machines because of the cost)
Ceramics ferrites troublesome to machine because of the hardness and Ceramics ferrites troublesome to machine because of the hardness and
brittleness of the material (cut effecti!ely only #ith diamond tools)
.le"ible ferrites (combined #ith rubber) to obtain comple" shapes or direct
incorporation #ith shaft
Brade @< anisotropic (not oriented)
Brade C< readily a!ailable and !ery ine"pensi!e
Brade D< 1-) cur!e .nee belo# the ) a"is (high le!el of resistance
to demagneti5ation)
Brade E (and !arious subgrades)< more po#erful, useful for ne#
design of ferrite permanent-magnet motors and actuators
Magnetic .nee
''
*eodymium *eodymium" "+ron +ron" "!oron !oron
#ighest magnetic performances (remanence and grade)
Low temperature and o"idation resistance (protection coating made of 5inc,
nic.el or polymers), electric conductivity (shielding re%uires), troublesome
production and machining (brittleness, to"ic materials, dangerous to handle,
damage of de!ices sensiti!e to high magnetic fields) damage of de!ices sensiti!e to high magnetic fields)
Production by direct particle sintering (sintered magnets) or co!ering them by
polymers as nylon or epo"y resins (bonded magnets lo#er performances,
easier production and shaping, lo# conducti!ity)
efine operating temperature
'2
Samarium cobalt Samarium cobalt
Common compositions Sm
@
Co
C
and Sm
/
Co
@D
Less po#erful and more e"pensi!e than neodymium-iron, !ery brittle (small pieces),
very good temperature (/C4 C), linear curve and corrosion resistance
Production by sintering or by bonding #ith polymer binders (needed also in case
of large assemblies, lo#er operating temperature) of large assemblies, lo#er operating temperature)
+m2Co3 +m4Co25
'3
!onded magnets !onded magnets
Pre!ision< superior mechanical tolerances because of the elimination of the
sintering operation, finish machining not re%uired (more cost-effecti!e)
Isotro'i! %ehavior< multiple magneti5ation patterns including a"ial, diametric, radial
and multi-pole are possible
6orm< compacted to the net shape through a die (elimination of subse%uent 6orm< compacted to the net shape through a die (elimination of subse%uent
machining, greater consistency)
7egligi%le edd* !urrents< insulation due to the polymer bonding
Tem'erature de'enden!e
Magneti! 'ro'erties (rare earth)
'4
Magneti,ation Magneti,ation for for radial radial flux flux machines machines
>hree basic orientations #ith bonded magnets
2) +traight: &lu" lines are parallel and unconstrained by magnet geometry
4) adial: &lu" enters and e"its the ring along a radial !ector
)) .al%a!h: &lu" orientation is continuously rotating #ith respect to the magnet
http://www.mitechnolog!.com
(only one side is magneti5ed)
Im'li!ations regarding the &lu(
densit* 'ro&ile and the %a!/-
iron design
+inusoidal
ma!hine
"C %rushless
ma!hine
ma!hine
'5
Magneti,ation Magneti,ation s-e.ing s-e.ing
http://www.mitechnolog!.com
+dopted to reduce cogging or noise in a motor without s&ewing armature
laminations (too comple" and e"pensi!e)
-eduction of the magnetic flu" harmonic content according to the #ell-.no#n
s&ewing coefficient
( ) ( ) ( ) 2 2 sin
, sk sk sk h sk
hp hp f =
h< harmonic order
p< pole pairs
< s.e#ing angle
E(am'le o& &i(tures
289 s/ewing
( ) ( ) ( )
, sk sk sk h sk

s.
< s.e#ing angle
o >otal amplitude reduction
o Shape modification (important #hen
cogging is used for the motor
starting)
o Proper choice to a!oid e"cessi!e
decrease of the output tor%ue
+teel 'lates
289 s/ewing
'6
/ommercial bonded magnets /ommercial bonded magnets
are earths
TT
op op
( (C) =110 C) =110- -150 150

rec rec
= 1.10 = 1.10- -1.20 1.20
6errites
TT
op op
( (C) =80 C) =80- -120 120
4F@
4F@C
4F/
1 G>H
interpolation InterpF (I-III harmF) Measured
ing PM a(ial .al%a!h magneti:ation
TT
op op
( (C) =80 C) =80- -120 120

rec rec
= 1.3 = 1.3
-4F/
-4F@C
-4F@
-4F4C
4
4F4C
4F@
4 /4 I4 24 E4 @44 @/4 @I4 @24 @E4
GJH
C C
'
Permeance coefficient0 calculation example Permeance coefficient0 calculation example
+
t

m
t
t
t
(/
t
(/

rushless motor with surface magnets
( )
m m m
L h t r A = 2 3 2
1
( ) [ ] ( ) t L t t r A 2 2 2 3 2 + + =
PM se!tion:
$ir-ga' se!tion:
PM &lu(
!on!entration
&a!tor t
m
A
A
C =
r
@
+
m
+
t
h
m
t
r

m4
r4
/

r4
/
( ) [ ] ( ) t L t t r A
m t
2 2 2 3 2
1
+ + =
$ir-ga' se!tion:
&a!tor t
( )
0 0 0
1
r m r m m
p + = + =
t
c
t
A
t k
0

=
m
m rec
m
h
A
0
0
=
$ir-ga' relu!tan!e:
PM 'ermean!e:
otor 'ermean!e:
'
r;
< (;.;3;.4)
otor lea/age
!oe&&i!ient
'$
Permeance coefficient0 calculation example Permeance coefficient0 calculation example
$ir-ga' &lu( densit*:
r
t m
t
B
C
B
+
=
1

r
t m
t

+
=
1
1
PM &lu( densit*: r
t m
t r
m
B B
+
+
=
1
1
Magneti! !ir!uit
!hara!teristi!
m
t r
t

+
=
1
1
=

+
=
=
rec
t m
t r
m
m
H
B
0 0
1
PC
t k C
L
L t k C
L t k C p
c
m
m c
m c rec r
+
=

0
1
1y substituting PC in the magnetic circuit
1
1
r
PC
t m
+ 1
t r
+ 1
Permean!e !oe&&i!ient:
PM !hara!teristi!
rec
m r
m
B B
H

=
0
rec r
m
PC
PC
B
B
+
=
1y substituting PC in the magnetic circuit
characteristic
85 . 0
r
m
B
B
PC (! ")
)
c
)
PC
)
m
1
m
P
'%
Parametric 1ariations Parametric 1ariations
#ir$gap %ariation
(linear motors=
e!!entri!it*
'ro%lems) 'ro%lems)
&xternal m'm'f'
(no-load to load
!ondition= short- !ondition= short-
!ir!uit= >)
2(
Summary of PM characteristics Summary of PM characteristics
?er* interesting as &ar as !ost@energ* ratio
/istance point 0
* mm
.lu" density %
0
1++ m'
(eference si)es
?er* interesting as &ar as !ost@energ* ratio
is !on!erned
*d+e
SmCo
2'
*eodymium *eodymiummagnet magnet cost cost 22('(3 22('(3
http://www.ndmagnets.com
Price determined by three categories
o manufacturing process
o supply of its ra# materials
o re%uired performance
Sintered $eo< anisotropic material #hose Sintered $eo< anisotropic material #hose
alignment is imposed during the pressing
operation
Isotropic bonded $eo magnets< made
from isotropic po#der magneti5ed after
molding simpler and more economic
process, though methods #hich de!elop
greater densification conse%uently
produce higher magnetic remanence and
hence better price performance
1ther &a!tors a&&e!ting the 'ri!e
Prices of certain rare earth elements (such as
hence better price performance
+nisotropic bonded $eo magnets< highest
K(.g because their fine po#der is %uite
unstable and has to be handled in a batch
process, #hich must also incorporate the
magnetic aligning fieldL but this orientation
produces far superior magnetic properties
compared to isotropic bonded magnetsF
Prices of certain rare earth elements (such as
dysprosium or terbium) employed to enhance
the magnet ability to #ithstand more e"treme
operating or en!ironmental conditions
(a!ailability only in some regions)
Impro!ement in densification of the magnet
material and(or #ith better orientation of the
magnetic po#der (anisotropic sintered $eo is
!ery fa!orable)
22
Soft magnetic composites 2SM/3 Soft magnetic composites 2SM/3
Inno!ati!e material adopted to produce magnetic cores of C and +C
electric machines #ith isotropic magnetic properties
Iron particle po#der co!ered by an insulating material (organic resin,
polymers) thermally and mechanically processed to obtain
uncon!entional M shapes
Main features
o -eali5ation of comple" magnetic geometries #ith 3/ flu" patterns
(a"ial or trans!erse flu" machines, ,) using suitable moulds
o Low eddy current losses high fre%uency (speed) applications
o Manufacturing automation (final form obtained by combining t#o
or three moulds, easy mounting of the #inding coils)
o Easy to recycle (crumbling and separation from the #inding)
o 'emperature stability of the magnetic properties
23
/omparison .ith laminations /omparison .ith laminations
adial &lu( ma!hines
Poles &or a(ial &lu( ma!hines
Ainear tu%ular
ma!hines
(stator
assem%lies)
24
/omparison .ith laminations /omparison .ith laminations
W/kg
f = 50 Hz f = 100 Hz f = 200 Hz f = 400 Hz
45* 6 &ncor7 Lam735 45* 6 &ncor7 Lam735 45* 6 &ncor7 Lam735 45* 6 &ncor7 Lam735
!8(75 9 '7$5 (755 37$' '76 $7( 27% '74 7(
!8'7( 9 67($ '76 '275 47( 2675 '(7( 5$7 247(
more than Buadrati!
Moreo!er<
o Lo#er mechanical resistance and thermal conductivity
o Nnsuited for reluctance machines (too high magneti2ing current)
o )igh production costs
o /ifficult efficiency prediction from prototypes obtained from
sample machining (loss of particle electrical insulation)
more than Buadrati!
more than dou%le
1
Single Single- -phase induction motors phase induction motors
Main winding directly supplied by the mains presence of
a pulsating field which can be decomposed in two rotating
fields F
+
and F
-
, with forward (+) and backward direction (-)
( ) ( ) ( ) t p
F
t p
F
p t F t F
M M
+ + = = cos cos cos cos ,
F
( ) ( ) ( ) t p t p p t F t F
M M
M
+ + = = cos
2
cos
2
cos cos ,
1
F
+
F

/p /p
F
F
+
Induced e.m.f. E
+
and E
-
related to the rotatin field
components which represents the rotor reaction due to the
eddy current in the cae bars
R
R
I
1
X
1
I
12
+
Electromagnetic torque
Absence of a starting
X
R
12
X
I
1
I
12
+
I
12
m
2
X
m
2
E
+
E
s 2
R
s
12
2 2
12
2
X
12
2
V
-
!
-".#
"
".#
!
n/n
"
$
+
$
$
Absence of a starting
torque due to the balanced
field action (s%!)
&ull tor'ue for s(" (n)n
"
)
Reduced steady torque
with respect to a *symmetric+
motor (neati,e tor'ue due
to the backward fields)
-resence of a pulsating
torque (.kp, k%!,.,/)
2
Starting methods Starting methods
0doption of an auxiliary circuit with 90 spatial displacement
with respect to the main one and supplied by a current ha,in a
pase sifting possibly near to 90 (.-phase windin system)
o -resence of a startin tor'ue o -resence of a startin tor'ue
o 1fficiency, power factor and tor'ue impro,ement (both mean
and pulsatin ,alues) because of the backward field reduction
!) 2plit phase
.) $apacitor start
Main starting arrangements
Preliminary torque comparison
.) $apacitor start
3) -ermanent-split capacitor
4) $apacitor start and run (two
capacitors)
#) 2haded pole
3
Split phase Split phase
Auxiliary winding having different reactance/resistance ratio
5ated power ! "00 #
6ih resistance, low inductance open slots, small wire gauge
17cluded at $%& of the rated speed by a centrifual switch to limit losses
8wo application cateories
o '(tandard)9 startin tor'ue comparable to the rated one, low startin
current because of the fre'uent startin and lon operatin cycles
(fans, burners)
o '(pecial)9 hih startin tor'ue and currents with intermittent operation
(washin machines)
4
Capacitor start Capacitor start
Capacitor connected to the auxiliary winding excluded before
reaching the operating speed
Lower phase
displacement
5ated power ! $%0 #, hih startin tor'ue
suitable for ig inertia loads
*iger torque for a i,en line current wit
respect to a split-pase motor respect to a split-pase motor
+apacitor ,oltage increasin with speed (as
faster as hiher is $ ,alue) e7clusion at about
:"; of the synchronous speed
Electrolytic-type capacitor more suitable mainly
for cost reason and intermittent operation
I
I
a
I
m
I
m
I
a
|!
a
| " |
a
|
5
Permanent Permanent- -split capacitor split capacitor
Capacitor permanently connected to the auxiliary winding
$ondition nearest to the pure --pase supply better efficiency and
power factor, smoother tor'ue
.mpregnated paper capacitor suitable for continuous operation low
,alue of + because of the cost and ma7imum ,oltae re'uirements,
pro,idin startin tor'ue lower than the rated one
#plit capacitor
pro,idin startin tor'ue lower than the rated one
Increase of the starting performance in combination with9
o 2plit-phase windin9 capacitor connected at a proper speed to a,oid
an o,er,oltae condition (efficiency problem at the rated condition)
o $apacitor-start and run (two ,alue capacitors)9 startin capacitor
e7cluded at a i,en speed ($
start
%!""<#"" F = $
perm
%!<!" F)
Capacitor Capacitor- -t!pe motors "commercial data# t!pe motors "commercial data#
-
>?@
n
>rpm@
I
>0@
(at .." A)
cos
$
>F@
?eiht
>k@
B. .C"" !.C# ".C ..33 ..# !.: ." D.!
rated
s
I
I
rated
s
8
8
rated
ma7
8
8
Capacitor start
B. .C"" !.C# ".C ..33 ..# !.: ." D.!
.#" .:"" ..B ".C. 3 ..D . .# B.:
C#" .:#" D.: ".CD 4 ..# ... #" !C
Permanent split capacitor
$
Re%ersing rotation "PSC# Re%ersing rotation "PSC#
#inding
A
+
/
-
i
A
i
0
t
!
t
.
t
1 ON
A + +
i i
0 + +
#inding
0
/
0)
1 ON
2 ON
i
0
i
A
t
!
t
.
t
2 ON
0
A)
A

A

R
t $ t
%

A

R

1
t $ t
&

0

R

A

R

1
t $ t
%
t $ t
&
&
'ultiple speed operation 'ultiple speed operation
Insertion of one or more
intermediate windings between
the line and the main windin
(same spatial position)
Reduction of te air-gap flux (for
$
E
3
'perating speed
dependant on the load
Reduction of te air-gap flux (for
a i,en ,oltae) because of the
increased number of turns when
the intermediate windin is inserted
29 low speed
*9 hih speed
*
M
n
2
E
!
E
.
dependant on the load
characteristic L(n)
(nstable operation with
high loads and selector
switched on low speed
)problem with voltage
variations*
(
Shaded pole induction motor Shaded pole induction motor

(
1
19 main windin
(9 shadin coil

s
9 flu7 due to the coil
current

p
)9 main flu7 in the
-
s

+

p
F
p
F -
s
(

(

p
)
p
3

p
shaded part

p
39 main flu7 in the
open part
9 spatial displacement
between open and
shaded parts (4#GD"G
electr.)
s
-
s
1
s
I
s
p
+
p
+ +
s
Phasor diagram

r
Rotating direction
p
F-
s
p
++
s
t%"

p
F-
s
p
++
s
t%/

r
+otating direction from
the open to the shaded
part
ntroduction of two
shaded coils to
modify the rotating
direction
1)
'otor characteristics 'otor characteristics
Design solutions
+ound,frame design )- poles*
.C! ,frame design
)&,poles*
/lux bridges and
notched poles0
increase lea1age
then flux in
shading coil
Tpical applications
8in openers
6ood aspirators
2mall fans
Hicrowa,e o,ens
Aideo-proIectors
Aideo-recorders
2mall pumps
8imers
!eneral c"aracteristics
A
!eneral c"aracteristics
Po#er rating9 fraction of ? to 3"=4" ?
$%%icienc0 ".! = "..
Po#er %actor0 ".4 = ".D
&peed0 !#"" = 3""" rpm
&i'es0 related to power (see table)
0
>cm@
".B# !..C !.#B !.B! .... ..#4
-
>?@
3.4" #.44 C.CC !3.D !#.! !B.4
11
E*ample motor E*ample motor
2haded
coil
Hain
windin
2aturable
bride
#
!"
!#
."
."
4"
D"
:"
!""
!."
>m&m@ >?@ >;@
>m0@
tor'ue
efficiency
input power
current
6ole for
bearin
support
0luminium
bars
"
"
#
."
"
.
4
D
:
!"
" #"" !""" !#"" .""" .#"" 3"""
>rpm@
tor'ue (ball bearins)
efficiency (ball bearins)
tor'ue (standard bearins)
efficiency (standard bearins)
>m&m@ >;@
5ated ,oltae/power .3" A// #,
stack lenth !. mm, resistance
C#"
/4 bars aluminum cae,
s5ewed slots
Eocked rotor and runnin tests
"
" #"" !""" !#"" .""" .#"" 3"""
"
3
D
B
!.
!#
!:
!3" !#" !C" !B" .!" .3"
"
."
4"
D"
:"
!""
!."
>
m
&
m
@

>
?
@
>
m
0
@
>A@
tor'ue
input power
current
linear
quadratic
12
Instantaneous tor+ue and current Instantaneous tor+ue and current
D
:
".!
".!#
"..
2 $ &34 2 5 loc1ed rotor
.
4
>
m
&
m
@
tor'ue mean ,alue
-".!#
-".!
-"."#
"
"."#
$urrent
>
0
@
"
" # !" !# ." .#
>G@
-"..
-".!#
$urrent
8or'ue
#econd harmonic components in the torque profile )often odd harmonics
because of air,gap asymmetries 4637 mm*
8igh harmonic content in the current waveform because of the magnetic
saturation
13
,ine ,ine- -start single phase s!nchronous motors start single phase s!nchronous motors
2trictly constant operatin speed (n % D"f/p)
-ower ratins ranin from fractional #to a few 5#and speed ranin
from / rpm (with reduction ears) to -0000 rpm
8ypical appliances re'uirin pre-defined and repetiti,e wor5ing cycles 8ypical appliances re'uirin pre-defined and repetiti,e wor5ing cycles
$locks and timers for relay
-rinters, recorders, instrumentation
?indin systems for te7tile industry, /
5e'uirements
(elf-starting with sinle-phase supply and load synchroniJation
(double-phase stator, rotor caes, low inertia loads) (double-phase stator, rotor caes, low inertia loads)
Absence of 6+ excitation (small rated motors)
Hain types different as concerns the rotor confiuration9 reluctance,
ysteresis and permanent magnet
14
S!nchronous reluctance motor S!nchronous reluctance motor
b b+
Po#er (alance (linear condition)
p
e
9 input electric power
p
em
9 con,erted power
p
ec
9 power related to the manetic field
ec em e
p p p + =
( )
di
i l i
dl
i l
d
i
d
i p + = =
=
2
2
2
1
i
d
dl
c
em

=
e6m6 torque
( )
dt
di
i l i
d
dl
i l
dt
d
i
dt
d
i p
e
+
= =
=
2
dt
di
i l i
d
dl
i l
dt
d
dt
dW
p
ec
ec
+
= =
2 2
2
1
2
1
=
= =
em ec e em
c i
d
dl
p p p
2
2
1
&inc"ronous speed (
e
)p )
( ) ( ) [ ] 2 4 sin 2 2 sin 2 2 sin
2
2
2 ,
+ = p p I L
p
c
b b em
9ean value C
em:4
C
em:&
)* C
em:-
)*
( ) ( ) ( ) + = + = = p L L p N
m
m
N
m
m
l
b b b b b
p
s
b b
p
s
b
2 cos 2 cos
2 , 0 , 2 , 0 ,
2 2
&inc"ronous speed (
e
)p )
( ) =
p L p
d
dl
b
b
2 sin 2
2 ,
( ) ( ) ( ) + = + = p I t I t i
b e b b
cos 2 cos 2
( ) ( ) [ ] + + = 2 2 cos 1
2 2
p I t i
b b
Parallel connected coils
#eries connected coils
2
2
2 ,
0 ,
q d
b
q d
b

=
+
=
15
-or+ue pro.ile -or+ue pro.ile
"..
".4
".D
".:
!
inductance
E
b,"
E
b,.
%"G
%/4
%"G
$
".3
-!
-".#
"
".#
!
coil
current
"
"..
Electrical angle
%/4
%"G
$
em,"
e6m6 torque
-"..
-".!
"
".!
"..
.pi Cpi/4 3pi/. #pi/4 pi 3pi/4 pi/. pi/4 "
;orque production only on half a cycle
1
22- -phase /indings phase /indings
!
!
.
( ) 2 cos
2 , 11 0 , 11 11
+ = L L l
( ) ( ) 2 cos 2 2 cos
2 , 11 0 , 11 2 , 22 0 , 22 22
= + + = L L L L l
( ) ( ) 2 sin 4 2 cos
2 , 12 0 , 12 2 , 12 0 , 12 12
+ = + = L L L L l
dentical windings
.
Po#er (alance (linear condition)
( ) ( )
+ + + +
+ + =
= + + + = + =
dt
di
i
dt
di
i l
dt
di
i l
dt
di
i l i i
d
dl
i
d
dl
i
d
dl
i l i l
dt
d
i i l i l
dt
d
i
dt
d
i
dt
d
i p
m
e
1
2
2
1 12
2
2 22
1
1 11 2 1
12
2
2
22
2
1
11
2 22 1 12 2 2 12 1 11 1
2
2
1
1
2

( ) ( ) + = t I t i
m
cos
1
( ) ( ) 2 cos
2
+ = t I t i
m
If the windins are
identical and are
supplied by a
+ + + +
+ + =
dt
i
dt
i l
dt
i l
dt
i l i i
d
i
d
i
d
m 2 1 12 2 22 1 11 2 1 2 1
2

+ + + +
+
+ + =
+ + =
dt
di
i
dt
di
i l
dt
di
i l
dt
di
i l
i i
d
dl
i
d
dl
i
d
dl
i i l i l i l
dt
d
p
m
ec
1
2
2
1 12
2
2 22
1
1 11
2 1
12
2
2
22
2
1
11
2 1 12
2
1 11
2
1 11
2
2 2
1
2
1

2 1
12
2
1
22
2
1
11
2
1
2
1
i i
d
dl
i
d
dl
i
d
dl
c
em

+ + =
m em ec e em
c p p p = =
balanced current set
(.-phase balanced
symmetrical system),
the tor'ue is constant
1$
Rotor con.igurations Rotor con.igurations
(alient rotor obtained by a cae
rotor lamination, cuttin some teeth
to enerate the saliencies
$ae is kept for starting and
d
q
$ae is kept for starting and
syncroni7ation purpose
Asymmetric teet cutting to
weaken the dependence of
starting torque on rotor position
and to limit cogging effects due to
slottin (possibly null resultant
d
d
q
Flu7 barriers
slottin (possibly null resultant
alinment tor'ue actin on the
poles)
Increase of the reluctance effects
by insertin suitable flux barriers
q
1&
Starting and stead! Starting and stead!- -state operation state operation
2tartin usin asynchronous tor'ue (.-phase
stator windin K rotor cae)
/
-
0t the startin phase +
s
+ +
A
8 +
m
+ +
i
o +
s
9 pulsatin synchronous tor'ue (
m
"
/p) o +
s
9 pulsatin synchronous tor'ue (
m
"
/p)
o +
A
9 asynchronous tor'ue acti,e durin the
whole startin (,edi cur,e / and -)
o +
m
9 load tor'ue
o +
i
9 inertial tor'ue LMd
m
/dt
+
sm
2ynchroniJation durin the half cycle when
reluctance tor'ue is acceleratin +
sm
8+
m
+equirements to ease synchroni<ation9 low cae resistance ($
0
! when
speed!), low inertial loads ($
i
")
2teady-state operation with lower efficiency and power factor than an
induction motor with the same power ratin (larer mean air-ap, absence
of N$ e7citation)
reluctance tor'ue is acceleratin +
sm
8+
m
1(
0!steresis s!nchronous motor 0!steresis s!nchronous motor
#haft
=on magnetic cylinder
with low mass )brass*
#tator having a &,phase
winding generating the main
field
(
2tator flu7 (() crossin the
rotor in two points the rotor
surface (. poles) which rotates
at the synchronous speed
-ulsatin field across the rotor
with low mass )brass*
8ard magnetic material )iron,
cobalt alloys: Alnico*
-ulsatin field across the rotor
which enerates hysteresis
losses
R
O
"
6
O
P
(
6
L

+otor field lagging by with
respect to the stator field
because of the hysteresis effect
2)
Electromechanical characteristics Electromechanical characteristics
8or'ue almost independant from speed durin startin phase
Hain dependence on the hysteresis loop area (not on fre'uency)
Out/presence of eddy current losses
5otor and stator field synchronous at steady state
Qperation like a con,entiona -H synchronous machine
2teady-state load anle same as in transient condition
-ossibility to accelerate the loads that can be dri,en at steady state
$haracteristics with tor'ue on
abscissa
Qutput power ." ? Qutput power ." ?
Ha7imum current and tor'ue at
startin (!.. 0 e B &m)
Ha7 efficiency 4#; at steady
state
2tartin/rated tor'ue !.3
21
'ain 'ain +uantities +uantities .rom .romdata data- -sheets sheets
Rated starting tor*ue9 tor'ue de,eloped after switchin on the motor supply systemR it is not
uaranteed the reachin of synchronous speed
Running tor*ue9 tor'ue de,eloped before reachin the synchronous speed (it can be related to
the ma7imum).
&nc"ronous tor*ue9 rated synchronous tor'ue
Hodel / - 4 " %
2tartin >&cm@ !!.3 .:.3 !4.! 3!.C C".D
2ynchronous >&cm@ .D.! .D.! !4.! .4.C !B.C
5unnin >&cm@ 4C.3 #C.. !4.! C.." !"#.B
8emperature rise >G$@ 4" #" #" #" !""
Input power >?@ ..# 4." 4." #." :."
2peed >rpm@ !:"" (D" 6J) = !#"" (#" 6J)
!. Snidirectional, low enery consumption (..# ? = 4 A0), use for hih temperature or sealin en,ironments
.. Snidirectional, 4 ? = #.C# A0, hih tor'ue, use for continuous operation
3. Snidirectional, 4 ? = #.C# A0, presence of anothe ear to obtain till ! round e,ery 3! days, low tor'ue.
4. Oi-directional, # ? = D A0, capacitor start
#. Oi-directional, : ? = !! A0, capacitor start , hih tor'ue, intermittent operation with ade'uate coolin de,ice
;orque values at >4 8< 5 % rpm
22
E*ample /ith /ound stator E*ample /ith /ound stator
/rame with cooling
holes
?eadon0 .8andboo1 of small electric motors!
@inding with concentric coils
)capacitor start*
+otor with surface Alnico ring
23
Small P' motors Small P' motors
2tator with sinle-phase windin (concentrated coil) with
manetic circuit ha,in some asymmetries to enable the
startin
-Hs on the rotor with hih coerci,ity (enerally ferrites)
mounted on a manetic cylinder mounted on a manetic cylinder
&on null Hean tor'ue only at synchronous speed
o (incroni7ation only durin alf cycle of te supply
,oltage because of the pulsatin rotor tor'ue
o 0pplication only to low inertial loads
&-,poles rotor
%
9ndetermined rotating direction at startin as it depends on
the initial position
%6 Cam with teeth
&6 8oo1ing system
36 +eturn spring
&
3
the initial position
o adoption of a mechanical de,ice (monodirectional) or
electrical one with au7iliary capacitor (bidirectional)
&umber of *linkin positions+ dependant on the number of poles,
displacement between stator and rotor poles defined by the
load tor'ue
24
Cloc1 motors Cloc1 motors
#upply cable
+eduction gear
#tator teeth
Asymmetric distribution of
the stator teeth to limit
cogging effect
bearing
?eadon0 .8andboo1 of small electric motors!
cogging effect
+otor with surface P9 ring
)ferrite*
25
Single Single- -phase phase 2rushless 2rushless motors motors
Hotors enerally supplied by a square wa,e
,oltage controlled by an electronic con,erter
2tator poles suitably saped to enable the
motor startin
?indin made by series-connected
concentrated coils
5otor -H rin (ferrite or bonded rare earts)
cast on the shaft or mounted in a plastic support
to be coupled to the shaft
Aery hih speed achie,able accordin to the
ma7imum supply ,oltae and the load ma7imum supply ,oltae and the load
mechanical parameters (from 4000 to -0000
rpm)
Hain applications in small home appliances
(fans, ,acuum cleaner, small washin machines)
replacin uni,ersal or shaded pole motors to
impro,e reliability, noise and efficiency
2
Con%entional Con%entional starting starting tecni+ues tecni+ues
1ole soe saping to loc5 te rotor in a position wit respect to te winding
axis (asymmetric air-ap profile)
Cogging torque profile more regular tapered air,gap )only two opposite
pea1s per period: one stable point*
2$
Suppl! Suppl! 2! 2! 00- -2ridge 2ridge con%erter con%erter
(ingle pase rectifier wit ,oltage
le,eling capacitor A
dc
2witch commutation to obtain a 'uadrature
condition between the m.m.f. and the -H
field (phase concordance between current field (phase concordance between current
and induced bac5-emf)
Adoption of *all sensor to detect the -H
position and control accordinly the switch
commutations (a current control is also
possible at low speed)
1roblematic positioning:acti,ation of te 1roblematic positioning:acti,ation of te
*all sensors because of the phase la
caused by the coil inductance at hih speed
or by manetic saturation (neati,e tor'ue
must be a,oided)
!) -hase ad,ancin tecni'ue
.) -ulse width control
;echnique % ;echnique &
2&
3a%e.orms 3a%e.orms o. o. a a %acuum %acuumcleaner cleaner motor motor
;echnique % )34 advance* ;ecnique & )%&4 conduction* Conventional
+
dc
),- + . n),--- rpm
+
dc
)//- + . n)2---- rpm
N0102 Noticea(le tor*ue ripple (ecause no current control is implemented
2(
0al. 0al.- -2ridge 2ridge con%erter con%erter suppl! suppl!
+eap solution re'uirin only two switches
2tator bifilar winding (subdi,ision in two
separate strictly coupled coils wound in
opposite direction supplied by only one opposite direction supplied by only one
switch)
8he double of te supplied ,oltage
applied to the windin terminals choice of
a suitable wire insulation (double
insulated wire)
1,ery semi-coil is supplied by the whole
current for half of the period the double current for half of the period the double
of te turns:pole are needed to obtain te
same torque of a con,entional windin
(small wire aues difficult wirin,
resistance increase)
'vervoltage due to the non,
perfect coil coupling
3)
Comparison Comparison /ith /ith an an uni%ersal uni%ersal motor motor
A=mB
A=mB
;orque,speed
3ni4ersal Motor 1rus"less
8igh variation
with speed
#tiff characteristics
ACB
ACB
Efficiency,speed
3ni4ersal motor 1rus"less
with speed
8igher efficiency
ACB
ACB
8igh variation
with speed
31
Sensorless Sensorless suppl! suppl!
6all sensors are costly; sensiti,e to
temperature canges and ysteresis
errors and troublesome to place
adoption of alternati,e tecni'ue which
enable sensor remo,al enable sensor remo,al
0doption for small fans (room and cost
problems)
Hain problem9 -re,ent ,ariation of the
rotatin direction because of the . possible
alinment positions ((
/
, (
-
)
Current pulse wide enough to align the P9 with the winding
&
1
&
2
Current pulse wide enough to align the P9 with the winding
axis: force current to <ero and then supply the motor according
the pre,defined control technique
%* Long duration pulse with very slow current decrease )absence of oscillations
around the standstill position* Met"od 1
&* #hort duration pulse with fast current decrease Met"od 2
32
Starting Starting process process " "method method 1# 1#
Standstill position 1
Rotor speed
4inal position
Standstill position 2
+loc5wise and counter-cloc5wise rotation accordin to the current pulse sign +loc5wise and counter-cloc5wise rotation accordin to the current pulse sign
(possibility to modify the standstill position by !:")
2low current decrese to a,oid oscillations and ,ibrations, which can lead to an
incorrect direction at start if the motor is supplied too soon
Inter,als (t
/
; t
-
< and =t
-
; t
4
< suited accordin to the motor and load characteristics
(friction; inertia, /)
33
Starting Starting process process " "method method 2# 2#
5lignment due to the
cogging tor+ue
4ree motion determined 2!
the initial energ!
Orief pulse duration (instant t t ) rotor alignment because of te cogging Orief pulse duration (instant t
#
t
!
) rotor alignment because of te cogging
torque enerated by the air-ap shapin
$ounter-clockwise rotation indipendently from the current pulse clockwise
direction achie,able only by mirroring te air-gap sape
Faster alignment, but some oscillations could arise around the standstill position
34
Sensorless Sensorless suppl! suppl! scheme scheme
0ac5-emf measured at the windin teminals by an auxiliary circuit which forces
the current to Jero (inter,al (
4
-(
"
) 2witchin is made with hih back-emf ,alues,
measure with low back-emf ,alues (low tor'ue)
6etection of te 7ero e>m>f>9 all switches at QFF, use of two au7ialiary resistances
(5
!
, 5
.
) much reater than the phase one, A
"
measure when the current is Jero
Heasure of the delay after which the current becomes Jero with respect to the Jero
of the back-emf to decide the increase or decrease of te switc conduction
inter,al in the ne7t supply inter,al (inter,al (
%
)
35
Single Single- -phase phase 6C 6C 2rushless 2rushless motor motor
P' designed to pro%ide a trape7oidal 2ac1-em. /a%e.orm
0-2ridge con%erter controlled 2! a 0all sensor signal
Current regulated according to a dead 2eat control strateg! dead 2eat control strateg!
Maximum back Maximum back e.m.f e.m.f. zone . zone
"

!
"
+/p
!
+/p
-I
ma7
I
ma7
"
Maximum back Maximum back e.m.f e.m.f. zone . zone
Voltage chopped at constant
frequency and varying the switch
duty cycle to limit the current
value (constant constant II
max max
)
PM polarity inversion zone PM polarity inversion zone
8 Current pro.ile can 2e simulated 2! numerical
PM polarity inversion zone PM polarity inversion zone
Current transition determined by the
voltage equation
L
Ri
d
d
U
L
Ri e U
d
di
dc
dc
#
=
#
=

0
0
8 Current pro.ile can 2e simulated 2! numerical
integration "2ac1-em. e e
00
and inductance LL
pre-calculated 2! 26 4E' code#
8 Choice o. the leading angle leading angle
00
/ith respect to
the null-.lu* position ma*imi7ation o. the
mean electromagnetic tor+ue
3
9rushless 9rushless motor motor .or .or small small .an s!stem .an s!stem
5aplacement of an e7istin ,ery low efficient shaded-pole motor
2elf-startin thanks to the -H misaliment because of the presence of the shaded
coil slot (asymmetric air-ap not applied as the laminations must be unchaned)
0doption of a -H ferrite (O
r
%"... 8 and 6
c
%-!#! k0/m)
0ssumption to supply by both 6 bride (series-connected coils) or by half-bride
con,erter (bifilar windin) commutated accordin a 6all sensor sinal
3$
6!namic model 6!namic model
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
$
$
=
=
%
& &
+ %
&
=

& &
+
&
= '
1
1
1
, ,
0
, ,
sin cos ,
sin cos ,
n
k
s k s s k s s em
n
k
s k s s k s s s
k i k i i T
k i k i i
/lux and torque as functions of
the position and current
determined by interpolating the
results of magnetostatic 5$M
2D analses
$
=1 k
2D analses
s s s
i L k + ' = '
' 0
*
Correction formulas to include /D e%%ects )P9 longer
than the lamination stac1: end,winding lea1age:
lea1age fluxes from the laminations* using a set of 3D
analyses
em T em
T k T =
*
Dynamic equations Dynamic equations
=umerical solution by a
#imulin1 model
Analisys for the optimal
choice of the 8all sensor
position and of the winding
parameters
3&
4E' models 4E' models
2D model
(nchanged mesh because of the rotation
of the magneti<ation axis
/D model
(sed also to evaluate the activation flux
density
"."B
".!.
J
6
%-C mm
-".!.
-"."B
-"."D
-"."3
"
"."3
"."D
"."B
-!#" -!"" -#" " #" !"" !#"
O
n
>
8
@
2tator anular coordinate >G@
J
6
%-: mm
3(
'odel at stead! 'odel at stead!- -state speed state speed
'utput
characteristics
'ptimal sensor positioning
;emperature
changes
&c"eme %or parametric analsis
@inding parameters
P9 characteristic
DC lin1 voltage variations
4)
'agnetic .lu* model 'agnetic .lu* model
;otal flux Eac1,emf
96m6f6
ncremental voltage
41
Electromagnetic tor+ue model Electromagnetic tor+ue model
/ourier series expansion
3D correction
coefficient
96m6f6
Current dependant
coefficients
42
'ain results 'ain results
C"ec6 o% t"e /D correction %ormulas
(sinusoidal currents)
/D e%%ects e4aluation
(sinusoidal currents)
!"
!#
8
em
>m&m@
F1H 3N
2tatic measurements
-!#
-!"
-#
"
#
" D" !." !:" .4" 3"" 3D"
Interpolatin cur,es
constant current supply
Limited torque and flux increase
+elevant end,winding lea1age
constant current supply
ood areement with the measurements,
but sliht uncertainties near ma7imum
tor'ue position
o appro7imated measurement set-up
o difficult impro,in the 3N air-ap mesh
o presence of mechanical tolerances
o uncertainties of the -H and lamination
characteristics
43
7all sensor positioning (stead.state)
$urrent and back-emf
displacement " when
H
-3"
2tartin tor'ue
30
35
40
45
20
25
30
m
N
m
]

[
m
A
]
[
N
m
/
A
*
T
em,0
I
s
T
em,0
/I
s
2
2tartin tor'ue
re'uirements may also be
concerned (ma7imum
,alue for
H
"G)
5
10
15
20
25
30
-60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10
5
10
15
20
[
r
p
m
]
1
0
-
2
[
m
N
m
[
N
m
/
A
2
]
H
[]
Optimal range
.""
.#"
4"
D"
6
% "
6
% -3"
e
s
6iher current and lower
speed and output power
-.#"
-.""
-!#"
-!""
-#"
"
#"
!""
!#"
..3 ..3"# ..3! ..3!# ..3. ..3.# ..33 ..33# ..34
-D"
-4"
-."
"
."
4"
>
A
@
>
m
0
@
>s@
i
s
37>4 rpm
& @
&F&4 rpm
%6F @
speed and output power
in case of inaccurate 6all
position
6ih harmonic content in
both back-emf and
current wa,eform
44
Per%ormances #it" di%%erent #indings
1
DC servomotors DC servomotors
magnets
DC supply
(battery)
+
-
V
magnets
i
commutator
2
No No- -load magnetic network load magnetic network
+
0
M
m
=H
c
h
m
s
( )
t
w
t
w
r
t r
w
r
r r
c c
c
c
c
c
c
c c
c
+ + =
=
+
+
=
2
1
2
1 2
2 1
2
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
Slot effect evaluation

1
w
c
!"
c
r
( )
t w
t w
r
t t
r
c
c
c
c
+
=
+ + =
5
2
1
2
2
2
1
0 $
#
1-%
c
w
c
d
c c
c
P
w
k

=

1
Carter factor: k
c
=1/k
c
Air-gap reluctance:
m m
c
t
w L
t k
0
=
w
m
, L
m
, h
m
: larghezza, profondit, altezza magnete
t: ampiezza traferro - k
s
:fattore di stipamento
L , L : profondit statore, rotore
PM reluctance:
m m m
m
w L
h
=
0
eeth reluctance:
d d r s d
d
d
n w L k
h
Stator !oke reluctance

:
s s
s
s
h L
R
0
2
= "otor !oke reluctance:

r r s r
r
r
h L k
R
2
=
L
#
, L
r
: profondit statore, rotore
h
s
, h
r
: altezza statore, rotore
"
s
, "
r
: raggio medio statore, rotore
s
,
r
,
m
: permea$ilit statore, rotore, magnete
w
d
, h
d
,
d
: larghezza, altezza, permea$ilit dente
n%
d
: n& medio denti sotto un magnete
3
No No- -load operation load operation
Motor driven at the speed

and with no mechanical load
( )
t s d t
m
M
+ + + +
=
0
0
2
2
* *
0
*
0 0
2

= = =
e e
K k
N
E
F.e.m. indotta alle spazzole
& Valuta'ione in se#e #i progetto #ella tensione alle spa''ole alla (elocit) nominale & Valuta'ione in se#e #i progetto #ella tensione alle spa''ole alla (elocit) nominale
& Valuta'ione in se#e sperimentale #el *lusso
0
e #ella somma #elle per#ite
meccaniche $
m
(
+
) e nel *erro $
*e
(
+
) #alla poten'a s(iluppata #al motore primo
No-load test: voltae ! applied and no mechanical load
,
0
-
a
-
sp
& Misura (olt-amperometrica #i -
a
. -
sp
(,) con
=0 (o -
a
+-
sp
(,))
V
/
0

& Misura #i ,
0
con V (ariabile (a #i(erse (elocit))
( ) ( ) ( )
2
0 0
I R R I V P P
sp a fe m
+ = +
( )
0 0
I R R V E
sp a
+ =
=
e
k
E
0
0
4
Motor operatin mode: voltae ! applied and = cost.
& Corrente assorbita alle spa''ole (ariabile nel tempo. a causa #el transitorio #o(uto
alle matasse in commuta'ione si consi#era un (alore me#io , = cost0
& ,potesi1
0
/ /
0
(a parit) #i ) e V
sp
-
sp
2,
velocit a vuoto
Load operation Load operation
Caratteristica elettromeccanica della velocit"
( ) ( )
e
sp a
e
sp a
K
I R R
k
I R R V +
=
+
=
0
Caratteristica elettromeccanica della coppia I K I k I

N
C
t t
= = =
2
costante
di coppia
Caratteristica meccanica ( )
+
=
0
sp a
e t
R R
K K
C
#eenerative $rakin
& Motore *atto ruotare #a un carico esterno a# una (elocit) >
0
a V=cost0 oppure
abbassamento #i V con =cost0
& $oten'a $ = /2, erogata (erso l"alimenta'ione ricarica batterie
%rake operatin mode
3pplica'ione #i una coppia #i carico in opposi'ione I = (V + | E|)/(R
a
+R
sp
)
'orrente circa doppia di (uella allo spunto
5
& Riduzione campo nei pressi dellasse neutro
o 4celta opportuna #ella larghe''a #el magnete
o 4agomatura #el tra*erro ai bor#i #el magnete
& Riduzione dellinduttanza #ell"a((olgimento #i armatura
Solutions to improve current commutation Solutions to improve current commutation
& Riduzione dellinduttanza #ell"a((olgimento #i armatura
o Ca(e meno pro*on#e
o 4celta opportuna #ella larghe''a #ell"apertura #i ca(a
o -i#u'ione #el numero #i spire
& Spostamento del piano di commutazione in anticipo rispetto alla posi'ione
naturale
o 4pa''ole arretrate rispetto al senso #el moto per *0e0m0 che aiutano
& 5so #i spazzole in elettrograite
o 3lta ca#uta #i tensione che compensa la *0e0m0 in#otta nella matassa in
commuta'ione
o 4pa''ole arretrate rispetto al senso #el moto per *0e0m0 che aiutano
l"in(ersione #ella corrente
o Vali#o per carichi praticamente costanti (, poco (ariabile)
6
#ated power 1&' (
)nal*sis at n = +''' rpm,

10
1%06
3mpere
C
-
r
r
e
n
t
!ample !ample
706
10
s0
C
-
r
r
e
n
t

160
(/-8) 90m

1
%
8
(/-8) :eber
.oad Fl-/
100
1%6
00008 0000; 00006 0000< 00007 0000=
s0
0
o
r
1
-
e
-8
-%
-1
0
%06/-8 00006 706/-8
s0
"
( )
+
=
K
I R R V
a sp
2 1
+ = I
2peed characteristic
'alcolo
)
e
*
dalla
caratteristica
elettromeccanica della
velocit
C#aracteri$ation %rom measurements C#aracteri$ation %rom measurements
2haft tor1-e characteristic

K
V
b I
K
R R
b K
b I K C
sp a
L
+
+ =
=
4 3
+ = I C
L
'alcolo
+
e
,
dalla caratteristica
elettromeccanica
della coppia
all%asse
3erived 1-antities 3erived 1-antities
V
K
b R K R
K
V
a sp

4
1
2
= = =
100
3 3 3

+
=

K
R R
b K
sp a
-tilizzata per verifica
&
2 1
+ = I
0
=
%
!perimental data interpolation !perimental data interpolation
3
n
g
u
l
a
r
s
p
e
e
#
4
h
a
*
t
t
o
r
>
u
e
C
?
4 3
+ = I C
L
4upplie# current ,
C
0
=
;
'
& Determina'ione sperimentale #elle caratteristiche elettromeccaniche 45, e C
.
45,
& @ran#e''e #eri(ate #alle caratteristiche elettromeccaniche
o Alusso
o -esisten'a e>ui(alente #elle spa''ole #
sp
(otor general per%ormances (otor general per%ormances
o -esisten'a e>ui(alente #elle spa''ole #
sp
o Coe**iciente #i attrito $
& 3ltre gran#e''e #eri(ate
o $oten'a assorbita 6
a
= !75
o $oten'a resa 6
.
= C
.
7
o $er#ite ohmiche 6
8
= 4#
a
9 #
sp
, 75
:
& @ran#e''e calcolate & @ran#e''e calcolate
o Coppia elettromagnetica C = ;7 75
o $oten'a con(ertita 6 = C7
o $er#ite meccaniche 6
m
= $7
2 22 2
o $er#ite nel *erro(+a##i'ionali) 6
Fe
=6
a
- 6
m
- 6
8
- 6
.
1)
& 5so per motori DC a# alte prestazioni
& Con*igura'ioni generalmente con ! o "
poli (minor *lusso per polo)
& Magneti''a'ione nel senso #ella
polo
polo
in(olucro
Con%iguration wit# *lnico +(s Con%iguration wit# *lnico +(s
& Magneti''a'ione nel senso #ella
lunghe''a per resistere agli eetti
della reazione dindotto
& 4trutture che si #i**eren'iano in base
alla *un'ione #ell"in(olucro esterno
(a)# materiale non magnetico con
*un'ione #i solo contenimento
(c)# materiale magnetico (acciaio
(a) (b)
nuclei
(c)# materiale magnetico (acciaio
#olce) per ottenere la richiusura
#el *lusso
& 5so anche #i magneti #i tipo
anisotropo per micromotori (e)
(c) (#)
(e)
11
B
B
$1 'ona #el magnete
piC sensibile alla
smagneti''a'ione
Demagneti$ation due to t#e armature m,m,%, Demagneti$ation due to t#e armature m,m,%,
3 (uoto 4olo armatura 3 carico
$
D
$
D
r
r
so(racorrente
$E
$"
r"
D
$E
& 3 causa #i una so(racorrente (es0 in(ersione
#ella V per #ecelerare il motore) % %&
& Aorte riduzione del lusso e >uin#i #ella coppia
per l"abbassamento #ella retta #i recupero
((eri*ica #alla misura #ella (elocit) a (uoto)
H
$
H
c
r"
H
$E
poli
Magnete
& Contromisure
5so #i espansioni polari (miglioramento
#istribu'ione #i *lusso. incremento costante
tempo elettrica) che sono soli#e solo se il
rotore F pri(o #i ca(e
'raerro incrementato ai bor#i #el magnete
12
nucleo
polo
magnete
nucleo & Magneti con ele(ato campo coerciti(o
spessore ri#otto con ampia area per
incrementare il *lusso
& $ossibilit) #i utili''o #i espansioni
Con%iguration wit# Con%iguration wit# -errite +(s -errite +(s
nucleo
& $ossibilit) #i utili''o #i espansioni
polari (() per ri#urre ancora lo
spessore #el magnete e migliorare la
concentrazione del lusso
& )ucleo con unzioni magnetic*e
coinci#ente con l"in(olucro #el motore
(d) (spessore #el nucleo e >uin#i peso
molto ri#otto)
(a) (b)
molto ri#otto)
& +agnete sempre pi, lungo del pacco
rotorico per aumentare il *lusso e >uin#i
la coppia
& 5so anche #i magneti #i tipo anisotropo
per micromotori (c)
(c)
(#)
13
polo
magnete
polo
magnete
& 5so per motori ad alte
prestazioni (alto campo
coerciti(o e in#u'ione resi#ua)
& +inore spessore rispetto a#
Comparison wit# rare Comparison wit# rare- -eart# +(s eart# +(s
4amario-cobalto 3lnico
3lnico con piC ampie espansioni
polari (*lusso meglio #istribuito)
& 3 parit) #i area e #i lunghe''a.
lusso doppio rispetto a >uello
pro#otto #a una *errite
Comparison for a iven motor size
(3)1 4mCo
(D)1 Aerrite
Gor>ue
C
3
H C
D
MaI power
$
maI.3
H $
maI.D
Mechanical time
constant
G
m.3
H G
m.D
/lectrical time
constant
G
e.3
H G
e.D
106 %00 006 007
Comparison for a iven motor size
14
& Con#uttori in *ilo smaltato inseriti in
ca(e #i tipo semic*iuso
& Ca(e inclinate e possibilmente in
numero ele(ato per ri#urre il cogging" e
>uin#i la rumorosit)
.otor slots and winding .otor slots and winding
(a) (b)
>uin#i la rumorosit)
& 9umero #i ca-e dispari per ri#urre il
cogging". ma piC diicile da costruire
in genere si sceglie un numero pari
& 3 parit) #i coppia 9,
a
. copper
motor (a) oppure 9,
a
. iron motor (()
(a)1 uso con *erriti per il basso (alore #i
(a) (b)
(c)
*lusso (#enti sottili. molti con#uttori)
(()1 uso con 3lnico (#enti larghi per non
portarli in satura'ione)
& 4istema'ione #ei con#uttori sul ondo
ca-a per applica'ioni a# alta dinamica
(basso s*ruttamento #el motore)
15
*lternative structures *lternative structures
& -otore con con#uttori *issati al nucleo in
*erro sen'a usare le ca(e (slotless motor")
& .assa inerzia e assenza di /cogging
& Aissaggio con#uttori problematico anche a
causa #ell"a'ione #iretta esercitata #alla
nucleo
Motori slotless
causa #ell"a'ione #iretta esercitata #alla
*or'a elettromagnetica
& 5tili''o #i magneti a terre rare o 0lnico
per a(ere un *lusso accettabile
Aibra #i (etro
& -otore *ormato #a un cilindro ca-o in
i(ra di -etro su cui sono *issati i con#uttori
inserito tra due nuclei magnetici issi
Motori movin-coil
inserito tra due nuclei magnetici issi
& .assissima inerzia. -elocit1 ed
accelerazioni molto ele-ate e assenza di
/cogging
& Costru'ione complessa. tra*erro ele(ato
(uso #i 3lnico). problemi #i ra**re##amento
9ucleo interno
16
Motori con cave
(otor comparison (otor comparison
Motori slotless
2
2
1
Single Single- -phase phase self self- -excited excited alternator alternator
d
2
2
2
1
Stator windings
Main winding (1) connected to
the load
Auxiliary winding (2) connected
q
b
1
3 3
3 3
b
2
b
6
b
5
b
b
8
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Auxiliary winding (2) connected
to a capacitor (huge backward
field component to enable self-
excitation)
Rotor windings
Field winding (3) connected to
a diode (rectifying the induced
b
4
b
3
b
7
b
8
2
2
2 2
1
1
1
1
a diode (rectifying the induced
emfs)
!eparate damping cages (b1-
b2-b3-b4 e b5-b6-b7-b8) to
reduce "oltage harmonic
distortion without weakening
the backward field
2
Self Self- -excitation excitation process process
Residual magnetism emf induced in the stator windings
#ackward rotating field due to the stator currents emfs induced in the
field winding (II harmonic order components)
Non!ero mean "lu# in the field winding due to the rectified emfs flux Non!ero mean "lu# in the field winding due to the rectified emfs flux
and current increase in the stator winding
Final working point dependent on the magnetic saturation and on the
terminal impedances
$
%
&
'$
(
i
3
[A]

3
[Wb]
)
*
'
(
+
$
) ))$ )* )*$ )' )'$ )( )($
)
)$
*
*$
'
) ))$ )* )*$ )' )'$ )( )($
t [s]
3
II
22
growth growth during during self self- -excitation excitation ( (no no- -load load) )
$
c
%
2
$
m
(I
2
)
$

I
2
Equiva!nt "ir"uit o# t$!
au%iiar& winding
S!ri!s o# instants at "onstant !%"itation #u% '
3
("ost)*
%
2&1
($
m&1
'$

'$
c
)I
2

%
2&3
($ '$

'$ )I

3&3
(
3&2
%
2&2
($
m&2
'$

'$
c
)I
2
%
2
au%iiar& winding
I
2
I
2&1

3&1
I
2
I
2&3
($
m&3
'$

'$
c
)I
2
I
2
I
2&2

3&2
(
3&1
I
2
increases
3
increasesboth E
2
and magnetic saturation
increase (X
m
) I
2
increases further
4
Steady Steady- -state state operation operation
Auxiliary current ,
'
-) leading the emf .
'
phasor
/hmic load (current ,
*
in phase with the emf .
*
)
.
*
-) leading the emf .
'
phasor (windings
displaced b) *+ )
Main current
Auxiliary
current
Low phase displacement between I
1
and I
2
High backward field component
agnetic a!es of the main field rotated of
less than "# with respect to the d a!is
current
Linee di Flusso
+oad #u% in!s
Mappa Magnitudine Induzione
+oad #u% d!nsit& ,a-
5
Output Output characteristic characteristic
*%)
'))
'+)
'0)
1
2
3
2
)
4
n
5'' k2A6 2
n
5'+) 2
,agneti!ing e""ect due to the
combined action of ,
*
and ,
'
at light
loads
-uic. reduction at high currents
)
+)
0)
*')
) *) ') () +)
1
2
3
1A3
,
cc
,
n
-uic. reduction at high currents
because of "oltage drop6 saturation
effects (lower flux) and machine
heating
I
cc
4 I
n
to guarantee adequate
"oltage stability
4 5* k2A6 2 5*)) 26 without damping cages 4
n
5* k2A6 2
n
5*)) 26 without damping cages
I
2
increase /ith 0 leading to higher 2
)
7hoice of 7 in order to ha"e 2
*
cost
0 smaller 1
1
(I
1
) increase because of the series
magneti8ation produced by the load current and the
lower saturation with reduced ,
'
"alues
,
*
1A3
2
*
,
'
1A3
,
'
2
*
1
2
3
!ffects of the da"ping cages !ffects of the da"ping cages

$elf%e!citation process
agnetic saturation
&eduction of the harmonic distortion
100
1
2 2
6
2
5
2
4
2
3
2
2
+ + + + + +
=
E
E E E E E E
THD
n
L
'uo(a $accardo otori documentation
Wit$ da,-ing "ag!s Wit$out da,-ing "ag!s
&eduction of the harmonic distortion
1
E
.ar,oni" ord!r
1 3 5 7
.ar,oni" s-!"tru,
.ar,oni" ord!r
.ar,oni" s-!"tru,
#
$achine $achine "odel "odel
2igh harmonic content in the air-gap mmf
0omple# rotor con"iguration
/ain -rob!,s
,agnetic saturation in the polar shoes (cross-coupling between d and
3 axes)
'ew method ()E
magnetostatic module)
)E transient *nal+tical methods
o 9efinition of a general
d3 model
o ,ntegration procedure
to sol"e the dynamical
equations
o Multiple solutions for
each configuration
o :igh number of
simulations
o .laboration time
o 9ifficult to obtain a
general formulation
o Approach limited to
analy8e the steady
state conditions
%
!lectric !lectric e&uations e&uations
/ain winding
dt
di
L i R v
c c
1
1 1
+ =
4 2
i
5
4
2
4
i
4
4
4
5+
5
5+
cage e3ui4alent
/inding
Au%iiar& winding
0i!d winding
1a,-ing "ag!s
C
i
dt
dv
2 2
=
( ) 1
3
0 3
=
t
V v
e I i

d
q
3
1

5
cage e3ui4alent
/inding
i
2
i
5
4
1
i
1
4
3
i
3
i
4
i
6
6
4
6
5+
v
k
=0 k=4, 5, 6
1a,-ing "ag!s
Soution o# t$!
,atri% !quation
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ] i L
i R v p
app
=
+ =
'on%linear set of e,uations (+

a--
dependent on and [i]) to sol(e
numericall+
/inding
4
6
5+
'
(u"erical (u"erical solution solution
dt
i d
L i R i R v i R
dt
d
L L
1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1
+ + = + =

L
L
R R R
i L
+ =
+ =
1 1
1 1 1

1 1
1
'
'
i R
dt
d
=

1
2 2 2
2
v i R
d
+ =

dt dv C i
2 2
=
2 2
2
1
i
i d
R
d
+ =

2
2 2 2
v i R
dt
+ =
dt dv C i
2 2
=
2
2
2
2
2
i
C dt
R
dt
+ =
3 3 3 3 3 3
3
i r i R v i R
dt
d
d
+ = + =

0 3
/
1
I i
f r
f d
e
R R
R r
+
+ =
3 3
3
' i R
dt
d
=

3
2
1 , 1 , 1
1
1 , 1 , 1
+
=
k k k k
i i
R
t

St!--b&-st!- int!gration 'st!- t ( t
2
- t
2-1
* ag!brai" !quations
;on-linear system of equations
deri"ed by applying the
( ) t
C
i i
i i R
t
k k
k k
k k k
+
+ =

2
2
1 , 2 , 2
1 , 2 , 2 2
2 , 2 1 , 2 , 2

2
1
=
R
t
( ) 6 ,..., 3
2
1 , , 1 , ,
=
+
=

j
i i
R
t
k j k j
j
k j k j

deri"ed by applying the
trape!oidal rule
!olution by an iterati4e
method adopting an adequate
rela#ation parameter to a"oid
numerical instability
1)
Se"plified Se"plified approach approach
Saturation ,od!
9efinition of two equi"alent mmf distributions ha"ing amplitudes ,
d
along
d axis and ,
3
along q axis6 dependant on the position6 on the winding
currents and on the geometric configurations by suitable shape "actors 3
i
( )
j i q j i j i d j i i ij
sin sin cos cos + =
currents and on the geometric configurations by suitable shape "actors 3
i
(harmonic analysis of the air-gap mmf wa"eform)
7alculation of the d and q permeances
d
and
q
6 using the characteristics

d
(,
d
) and
3
(,
3
) obtained by 6%, anal)ses
/utua -!r,!an"!
i4
b!tw!!n i-t$ and 4-t$ windings
( )
j i q j i j i d j i i ij
sin sin cos cos + =
( )
i i ii i ii
! L
0
2
) ( + =
S!#-indu"tan"!
) , (
j i ij j i ij
! ! L =
/utua indu"tan"!
11
Si"plified Si"plified approach approach
( ) ( )
d d "d d d d d d
# # # # = =
0
( ) ( )
q q "q q q q q q
# # # # = =
0
0u% aong d and q a%!s 'no "ross-"ou-ing*

2alues in linear condition
7
sd
6 7
s3
< reduction factors
because of the magnetic
saturation ("alues *)
,nterpolation of the F.M
"alues by analytical
functions
+)
$)
%)
&)
0)
1m=b>m3
functions
,n linear condition
d)
*$
q)
!aturation effect similar
for the two axes
)
*)
')
()
) $)) *))) *$)) '))) '$)) ())) ($)) +))) +$)) $)))
1A3
d
F.M
q
12
Si"plified Si"plified approach approach
)0
*
*'
*+
*%
i
(
1A3
)
$
*)
*$
i
*
1A3
)
)'
)+
)%
)
))' ))+ ))% ))0 )* )*' )*+
1s3
-*$
-*)
-$
)
'
+
%
i
'
1A3
!imulated
.xperimental
!imulated
.xperimental
')
'$
i
(
1A3
t
)
t
)
?*) t
)
?') t
)
?() t
)
?+)
-%
-+
-'
)
'
1ms3
))
)$
*)
*$
t
)
t
)
?*)
1ms3
t
)
?'
)
!imulated
.xperimental
13
Self Self and and "utual "utual inductance inductance
{ } ( ) { } ( ) { } ( ) ( )
6 ,.., 1 k , h
k , h
n
0 j
k , h , j
k , h
k , h , j k , h
T
2
j cos L , l
=
= i i i
R!-r!s!ntation b& ana&ti"a #un"tions
6 ,.., 1 k , h =
1!t!r,ination o# +
45$52
and
45$52
* @eproduction of the magnetic saturation by '9 F.M magnetostatic
analyses (air-gap current sheet total air-gap fmm)
' 7alculation of the indu"tan"! ,atri% [+
a--
6
]6 ind!-!nd!nt& #ro, 5
related to suitable elementary circuits deri"ed from the machine windings related to suitable elementary circuits deri"ed from the machine windings
( 9efinition of a connection matrix [7] for [+
a--
] "a"uation so that
89
app
: 5 80:
t
89
app
;
:

80:
+ ,nterpolation of the inductance "alues calculated for di""erent positions by
a Fourier series expansion
14
*ependance on *ependance on current current
-efinition of an e,ui(alent air%gap current distribution !() which
reproduces the resultant m.m.f. distribution
( ) ( ) ( )
$
j
#
% " = cos
Ampereturns
/%th m.m.f harmonic
( ) ( ) ( )
$
$
j $ j $
j
#
% " = cos
2
, ,
=inding coefficient
4osition of
magnetic axis
(h%th winding)
( ) ( ) ( )
$
$
j $ j $
j
R
#
j " ! = sin
2
, ,
Mean airgap radius
/%th current harmonic
(h%th winding)
&esultant d%,
( )

= =
+ =
q
d
n
&dd j
j
j q
n
&dd j
j
j d
j r j r
1
,
1
,
sin cos !
!
d
() !
q
()
&esultant d%,
current distribution
(b+ elaborating the
pre(ious e,uation)
r
d54
e r
q54
new state (ariables (n
d
031n
,
01 and h23 ensures
good accurac+ and acceptable computational time)
15
!le"entary circuits !le"entary circuits
d
1
d
2
d
3
d
4
4
E!,!ntar& rotor "ois
0u -it"$ "oi
E!,!ntar& stator "oi Equiva!nt "ag! "ois
5
6
E!,!ntar& rotor "ois
7onnection matrix 80: to transform the elementar) circuits (independent
on position #same model also for meshing) to the actual /indings
<lot pitch rotation simulated b) sliding the 80: coe""icients6 for a gi"en
saturation condition
7age bars connection reproduced by three e3ui4alent /indings
E!,!ntar& stator "oi Equiva!nt "ag! "ois
1
+o"plete circuit "odel +o"plete circuit "odel
$
$
%
&
'
'
(
)
$
$
%
&
'
'
(
)

=
$
$
%
&
'
'
(
)
6
5
4
6 3 b
3 b 5 2 b
2 b 4
6
5
4
i
i
i
' R 2 R 0
2 R ' R 2 R
0 2 R ' R
dt
d
7ag! windings "ir"uit
,
-12
* 2 ,
-23
* 2 ,
-34
* 2
i i i
,
-2
,
-3
,
-4
,
-1 % ( % (

% (
6 6 3 b 6
i ' R 2 R 0
[ ]
$
$
%
&
'
'
(
)
$
$
%
&
'
'
(
)
=
$
$
$
%
&
'
'
'
(
)
$
$
%
&
'
'
(
)
! =
$
$
%
&
'
'
(
)

6
5
4
6
5
4
6
5
4
1
6
5
4
i
i
i
' R 0 0
0 ' R 0
0 0 ' R
dt
d
dt
d
9iagonali8ation matrix
7onn!"tion ,atri%
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] C L C L
t
=
*
=
+ + 4 2
] 0 [ ] [
] [
"
C
C
"
n
"
n
$
&
'
)
=
+
] 0 [ 1
] [
1 3
C
i
4
i
5
i
6
,
-12
* 2 ,
-23
* 2 ,
-34
* 2
,
-2
2
,
-3
2
,
-4
2
,
-1
2
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] C L C L
app
t
app
=
*
=
+ +
+ +
4 5 2 5
4 2
] [ ] 0 [
] [
r
C
C
"
n
"
n
$
$
%
'
'
(
=
+
+
] [ ] 0 [
] [
4 1
1 3
d
r
C
C
$
$
%
&
'
'
(
)

=
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
] [
"
C
3osition 0 45
$
$
$
$
%
&
'
'
'
'
(
)
=
1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0
0 0 1 1
] [
t
d
C
Indepen%
dant
from
1#
.rocedure for the inductance calculation .rocedure for the inductance calculation
,atri# o" the
elementar)
=osition
0urrents 8i9
>atabase o" the
St!- 1
?irgap current sheet
parameters
elementar)
inductances
elementar)
inductances
(2> 6%, anal)ses)
St!- 2
:r!i,inar&
st!-
<et o" inductance
matri#es "or one slot
pitch rotations
0oe""icients o" the
St!- 3
0oe""icients o" the
6ourier series
e#pansion
?ctual sel" and mutual
inductances

i
{
i
{ { } (

} )
, i
( ) (

) } ) (
k , h
k , h
T
2
j cos L
j,h,k
l

+

=
j,h,k

j!0
n
h,k
h,k!1,..,6
1%
/erification on co""ercial "achines /erification on co""ercial "achines
.0212 2/3 /023) / f05) 45
n03))) rp" ,
6
0241)4 - +01315 "7
,
1
021)# - ,
2
0'124 - ,
3
0513 -
/ain ratings and !!"tri"a -ara,!t!rs
7urr!nt sour"! 'wit$out "ag!s*
,
4
0)1#% "- ,
5
01 "- ,
0)1#% "-
,
r
0 2- I
)
03133 "3 ,
f
01 "-
;uova Sa""ardo /otori sr
1'
Si"ulation at steady Si"ulation at steady- -state (rated load) state (rated load)
)
*))
'))
())
+))
"
*
123
.xperimental
!imulated
)
'$)
$))
&$)
*)))
"
'
123
.xperimental
!imulated
-+))
-())
-'))
-*))
2
*6rms
5 ''*% 2
A:9 5 ++ B
2
*6rms
5 '*&* 2
A:9 5 +% B
)$% )$%$ )$& )$&$ )$0
t 1s3
)$% )$%$ )$& )$&$ )$0
t 1s3
-*)))
-&$)
-$))
-'$)
2
'6rms
5 +%%0 2
2
'6fund
5 %'+$ 2
2
'6rms
5 +&-) 2
2
'6fund
5 %+(+ 2
&
0
i
(
1A3 .xperimental
!imulated
6er+ good
concordance as
)
*
'
(
+
$
%
)$% )$%$ )$& )$&$ )$0
t 1s3
Mean "alue
concordance as
regard load (oltage1
6
21rms
and .i
3
/
&educed 7H- for (
1
3roblems8 saturation
probabl+
underestimated1
au!iliar+ modeli9ation
2)
8est -ench 8est -ench
Alternator ratings
4
*
5$ k2A 2
)
5'() 2
f5$) :8 n5())) rpm
7apacitor 75() 0F
21
Output characteristic Output characteristic
'$)
&
0
1
1
:ompound effect due to the
main winding
*))
*$)
'))
(
+
$
%
2
*
1
2
3
4
*
1
k
=
3
=
1
Measured
d-q model
)
$)
) $ *) *$ ') '$ ()
)
*
'
,
*
1A3
F.M transient
-oubled calculation times than d%, model
22
$agnetic saturation reduction $agnetic saturation reduction
2.8
2.4
2.0
1.6
1.2
0.8
B [T]
0.8
0.4
0.0
Initial configuration Rotor modified configuration
+onf1
+
9"7:
/
1
9/:
;
<
9<:
84*
9<:
I
1
93:
I
2
93:
I
3
93:
1
3"
9"=-:
.
d
9=:
Initial 321% 1%14 '1' 415 231 #1'3 51 #1# 141' Initial 321% 1%14 '1' 415 231 #1'3 51 #1# 141'
$odified 2'12 13.6 %12 413 2311 7.13 51#2 #1% 1314
*iff1 9<: -111) -215 - - -213 -1)11 111 212 -#13
: ad/usted during the parametric anal+sis to
obtain the same rated no%load (oltage 6
4
23
$odification of the -ar connections $odification of the -ar connections
C
d
d
C
d
d
C
B
B
C
ob
4
4
4
4
"
"
2
2
f
4
3
3
3 2
1
1
2 + 2 +
2 +
2 =
3
:omparison of different connections
using an ob/ecti(e function to be
minimi9ed
3enalties introduced if constraints are
weighted a(erage of the performance inde!es
;ptimi9ed connection
3
4 5
6
7
8
2
1
*$)
'))
'$)
+
5
%
&
0
*
1
2
3
1
k
=
3
,nitial configuration
/ptimi8ed configuration
4
*
2
*
not fulfilled (7H-1 current densities1<)
Initial connection
3@
4@ 5@
6@
7@
8@
2@
1@
)
$)
*))
) $ *) *$ ') '$
)
*
'
(
+
2
*
4
*
1
k
=
3
,
*
1A3
4
*
1
Stepper Stepper motors motors
Electromechanical converters operated to obtain an incremental (not
continuous) motion a current pulse produces a fixed rotation depending
on the stator/rotor poles
Benefits
Drawbacks
Low efficiency
Fixed (discrete) angular step (problematic for fine rotations)
Oscillations around the standstill position with high inertial loads
Open control loop operation (no sensors are needed)
Suitable for digital control (no current modulation
Economic manufacturing (simple magnetic configurations)
Oscillations around the standstill position with high inertial loads
Positioning errors with high frictional loads
Motor types (based on rotor configuration)
ariable reluctance (!)
Permanent magnet (P") polarity#dependant tor$ue
%ybrid P"#reluctance
2
Applications Applications
3
Variable reluctance stepper motors (VR) Variable reluctance stepper motors (VR)
&
#
phase '
'
' '
S
( (
)
* )
*
'
*+
)+
Salient stator and rotor
magnetic circuits (low rotor
cost and inertia high
acceleration)
,or$ue related only to the
' '
'
S
( (
*
)
)
*
*
'+
)
( )
=
2
2
1 ,
F FF F
F FF F
ec
W
C
,or$ue related only to the
reluctance -ariation
) (12/8 motor 12/8 motor)
step angle
typical operation
Unipolar current simplification of supply
con-erter topology
12/8 (m=3 phases) /2 (m=3 phases)
linear condition
. /0 1. 20 3.
phase ' phase *
phase )
con-erter topology
Step angle = 2 /(m N
r
)
o m4 number of phase
o (
r
4 rotor teeth (high to reduce )
o n
p
5m (
r
4 n6steps7re-
o displacement between the single#phase
tor$ues
4
Configuration for very low step angles Configuration for very low step angles
/ /
8
8
2
2
High number of steps without increasing
too much the number of phases (m9:)
Each stator poles subdi-ided in multiple
teeth ha-ing the same pitch of the rotor
/ /
1
1
1
1
8
8
2
2
teeth ha-ing the same pitch of the rotor
ones (lower stator pole saturation )
)ondition to enable a regular motion4
2 /N 2 /N
stator poles
2 /N
r
2 /N
s
2 q/N
r

Example
Verification
maximum n!teeth for each stator pole
!ultiple !ultiple" "stac# stac# VR VR stepper stepper motor motor

phases
,eeth of each stator
module (;stac<=)
displaced by a step
angle with respect to the
ad>acent one (in the
figure? /71 of the single figure? /71 of the single
rotor step angle)
Same effect by
displacing the rotor
teeth instead of the
stator ones
flux lines paths
benefits4 high number of steps? simple winding structure
ra!bac"s4 high inertia (1 rotors)? use of uncon-entional
laminations (see flux lines placed in the trans-erse plane)
$
Stepper Stepper motors motors wit% wit% &! &! rotor rotor
'
&
*
&
,or$ue due to the interaction between the
supplie !ining fiel an #$s ((
r
coincident with the rotor poles)
%ipolar current operation complicating
con-erter topology or winding structure
'
@
*
&
*
@
con-erter topology or winding structure
o Aa-e dri-e (con-entional)
o Full step (higher tor$ue and current)
o %alf step dri-e (higher number of steps)
Presence of a etent torque with no
supply which holds the rotor in position
Benerally lo!er number of steps (higher
C
'
C
step angle) than V& motors because of
the more complicated manufacturing
VR PM
're(uency 12)) imp*s 4)) imp*s
Step angle 1+,- . 1- 1- . /)-
C
*
C
'
C
*
C
'
C
*
0
1or(ue 1or(ue pro2uction (single pro2uction (single p%ase p%ase supply supply) )
( )

= =

=
m
i
m i
i
m
m
m
i
i
i
m i ec
, ,F F W'
C
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
'
i
( )
i
4 m6m6f6 and permeance related to
the i#th phase self#inductance
(i5/?8?666?m)
'
m
( )
m
4 m6m6f6 and permeance related
to the P" flux
*
im
4 flux generated by the P" and
"otor reluctance #tator reluctance $ylindrical
Linear condition
im
lin<ed with i#th phase
)
i
independent on D (magnet isotropic beha-ior
and E
r
F/)+)i/+,-. (null rotor reluctance tor$ue)
*
im
fundamental -aries according the function
cos(N
r
(-2(i-)!N
s
))
)
m
fundamental -aries according to the function
cos("N
r
) at e-ery step the P" is always
"otor reluctance
tor%ue
#tator reluctance
tor%ue
$ylindrical
tor%ue
cylindrical tor%ue
resu#tant
full&step supply
cos("N
r
) at e-ery step the P" is always
positioned in the same way with respect to the
stator teeth (m'(
r
is the number of steps7re-)
'
m
costant and +)
m
/+, has null mean -alue
stator reluctance tor$ue with null mean /alue? but
generates a significant torque ripple worsening
the dynamic beha-ior
I
B
I
A
&
'
@
'
&
*
@
*
reluctance tor%ue
.G H.G /10G /:.G 880G 8I.G 1/0G 13.G 20G
,
3ipolar supply circuits 3ipolar supply circuits
S
/
S
8
S
1
S
2
phase
Bifi#ar windings
(2 switc$es!p$ase)
%nifi#ar windings (& switc$es !p$ase)
2
S
/
S
8
tightly coupled
coils
%alf unipolar switches cheap
Free#wheeling to a-oid o-er#
-oltage on the turning off switch
)urrent fall dependent on the
circuit time constant J
e
5L7!
'urrent suppression tecni(ues
%alf unipolar switches cheap
supply con-erter
Aound on the same pole to
decrease inductance during the
simultaneous conduction
*ul<y and expensi-e windings?
utiliKed only for a half of the
conducting period
1 2 3
1
2
3
circuit time constant J
e
5L7!
*ranches in parallel to the
winding4 see solutions 0?2?1
/
4ybri2 4ybri2 stepper stepper motor motor
&'
#'
&*
#*
)ront
rotor
*ac+
rotor
!otor di-ided in two
modules with both
saliencies (teeth) and
permanent magnets (axially
magnetiKed)
%alf slot pitch displacement
,otor
exploded vie-
&'
&*
#*
.alf pitch
displacement
(/01 electrical)
,agnet
&'
&*
%alf slot pitch displacement
between the rotor modules
to ouble the acti/e poles
(number of steps7re-
8'm'(
r
)
)
m
now inepenent on rotor position because of the teeth
displacement (impro-ement of dynamic performance)
Suppl2 sequence (example with m58)
&' &' &* &* #' #' #* #*
#'
S S S N N N N S S S S S S S N N N S S S S N N N N N N N
&'
&'
&
&* &* #'
#'
&
#* #*
2hase supply
se%uence (final
state indicated)
1)
Comparison Comparison between between stepper stepper motor motor configurations configurations
V& #$ H2bri
,or$ue7mass Low %igh %igh
Steps7re- %igh Low high Steps7re- %igh Low high
nG switch7phase / 2 (8 if bifilar) 2 (8 if bifilar)
Efficiency Low %igh %igh
Lynamic
performance
(tor$ue7inertia)
Low %igh %igh
(tor$ue7inertia)
"anufacturing
complexity7cost
Low "edium#high
(/)
%igh
(1)
3 depending on the 2, poles
11
1or(ue 1or(ue c%aracteristic c%aracteristic
)
m coppia di trattenuta
,or$ue which can be produced without losing the step as a function of fre$uency
o Performance ecrease !ith increasing frequenc2 (less time to dri-e the load)
o Lifferent cur-es according to the 2namic operation (pull#in and pull#out)
coppia di agganciamento
pull&in tor%ue
coppia di sganciamento
pull&out tor%ue
)
m coppia di trattenuta
holding tor%ue
campo di risposta
start&stop region
campo di
fun4ionamento continuo
sle- range
f (n6steps7s)
12
pu##-in tor(ue
upper bound of the start#stop region (dynamic operation)
tor$ue#fre$uency -alues that can be applied in 2namic conition without losing
the step (for instance? typical se$uence of starting? stopping and re-ersing rotation)
pu##-out tor(ue
coppia di agganciamento
pull&in tor%ue
C
m
coppia di trattenimento
holding tor%ue
f
pu##-out tor(ue
upper bound of the slew range (continuous operation)
"aximum tor$ue#fre$uency -alues that can be applied at constant frequenc2
operation (without accelerating)
campo di
fun4ionamento continuo
sle- range
pull&out tor%ue
campo di risposta
start&stop region
f (npassi/s)
f
t
t
13
)o#ding tor(ue
"aximum tor$ue with loc"e rotor which can be produced by supplying the phase
with constant current
Aith no supply etent torque4 maximum tor$ue due to the interaction between
the magnets and the salient stator poles (rotor loc<ed without current? presence of
detent tor%ue
&' @' &* @*
holding tor%ue
the magnets and the salient stator poles (rotor loc<ed without current? presence of
a tor$ue ripple at load)
#table standstill
points (-ithout
supply)
14
1or(ue profile in 2ynamic con2ition 1or(ue profile in 2ynamic con2ition
2
em m fr
2
d
J =C -C -C
dt
.yp!3 constant tor%ue as 5 varies (mean value)6 initial speed=0
*or(ue e(uation
electromagnetic tor$ue
frictional tor$ue
load tor$ue (effecti-e -alue)
em m fr
2
J =C -C -C
dt
32namic conition constant acceleration

2
em m 2 fr
2
em m fr
C -C -C
d 1 2 2J
= = t = t = =
J 2 C -C -C
dt
Mt is the minimum inter-al needed to co-er the step angle and then the
#tep angle
em m 2 fr
m em fr
C -C -C
1
f < = C < C -C -2Jf
t 2J
Mt is the minimum inter-al needed to co-er the step angle and then the
waiting time before supplying the next phase
,he supplying fre$uency f must be therefore lower than /7Mt4
start#stop region
1
1or(ue profile at stea2y 1or(ue profile at stea2y" "state state
Stea24state (pull4out torque) f5const6 5.
2
2
d
d t
em m m em fr fr
C -C -C =0 C =C -C
*or(ue e(uation
em m m em fr fr
C -C -C =0 C =C -C
)or a given $
em
(same fre%uency and supply current)6$
m
is higher than in dynamic
condition because of the lac+ of the inertial component
2
m em fr
C < C -C -2Jf
Ahen fre$uency increases4
increase of the frictional tor$ue )
fr
N
)
em
decreases because of the current is decreasing as stated by the -oltage
e$uation

d di
v - -
d di
d i dt
v =Ri + =Ri + + i =
dt i dt R
f6c6e6m6 increase with O (f) current decrease for a gi-en -oltage )
em
decrease
e$uation
1$
Switc%e2 Switc%e2 reluctance reluctance motors motors (SR!) (SR!)
&
3oubl2 salient motor with number of rotor
teeth (
r
different form the stator one (
s
,or$ue generated only by the rotor tendency
to assume a minimum reluctance positionS
Supply by unipolar s!itches with fre$uency
1 / 8
.
Supply by unipolar s!itches with fre$uency
in-ersely proportional to the step angle
Puite ifferent from the stepper V&$ (speed
control? presence of the position sensor ?
possibly continuous and smooth tor$ue?
efficiency)
m=3 m=7 m=7
s
r
372 :73 827/:
m=3 m=7 m=7
10
!ain !ain c%aracteristics c%aracteristics
Simple rotor configuration with low inertia
Stator windings ease to manufacture
Losses mainly located in the stator? easier to
cool than the rotor
Benefits
&
cool than the rotor
,or$ue independent on the current polarity
(simple con-erter topology)
Benerator operation -ery simple to obtain
%igher operating temperature than P" motors
ery high starting tor$ue and maximum speed
!otating direction re-ersed only modifying the
switching se$uence
1 / 8 .
switching se$uence
%igh tor$ue ripple and radial forces (source of the motor noise)
ery low air#gap length to maximiKe the tor$ue production
%igh current ripple (need of a capaciti-e filter)
%igh supply fre$uency for a gi-en winding utiliKation with respect to 1#phase motors
because of the pulsed supply (-ernier effect)
Drawbacks
1,
Applications Applications (1) (1)
http3//---!srdrives!co!u+/
1/
Electric motorbi+e (8ectra 27)
2)
21
5perating 5perating principle principle ( (linear linear con2ition con2ition) )
L
R2 R1 R2 R2 R3 R2 R3
1 1 1 1
,rapeKoidal inductance profile
Qseful Kone to produce tor$ue
restricted to
s
(dL7dR.4 motor @
dL7dR.4 generator)

9deal supply scheme to
s

r
#
s

s
87(
r
#
r
#
s
L
8
L
1
L
/
Fa-orable conditions4
r

s
and
low unaligned inductance
)urrent wa-eform affected by both
the inductance and the bac<#emf
-ariation (especially at high speed)
9deal supply scheme to
obtain a constant tor%ue
operation
C
8
C
1
C
/
22
Consi2eration Consi2eration on t%e on t%e tor(ue tor(ue pro2uction pro2uction
Sign determined by the inductance deri-ati-e (position sensor is neee)
"otor design must emphasiKe the ratio 5
max
/5
min
Significant tor$ue ripple because4
5/ const6 (magnetic saturation ? pole shapes) 5/ const6 (magnetic saturation ? pole shapes)
i const6 (chopping at low speed? presence of a bac<#emf at high speed)
Phase supply (
r
times per re-olution to ha-e continuous tor$ue s!itching
frequenc2 higher than a con/entional 67 machine (increased core losses? lower
flux per pulse)
n f = =
=
2 2
n
N
f
r
=
60 60
0
n
n
p
f = #ynchronous (p=1)3
#-itching fre%uency
Step angle4 rotation angle for each tor$ue pulse
n
N
f
t
r
s
= =
=
60
n
N
f
r
s
=
60
60 60
0
f N f
r s
= #", /73
r
N m
=
2
2hase number
m(
r
3 pulses/rev!
must be lo-er than
s
to have continuous tor%ue
23
Actual Actual apparent apparent in2uctance in2uctance (,6$) (,6$)
H.
/..
/.'
:'
2'
i
L
app
Sm%T
2.
0.
3.
I.
:.
/:'
/3'
/2'
/8'
/.'
/.
8.
1.
#1. #80 #8. #/0 #/. #0 .
[ ]
Qn#aligned position 'ligned position
24
Actual Actual e+m+ e+m+ tor(ue tor(ue ( (78const 78const+9 ,6$) +9 ,6$)
1.
10
)
em
S(mT
/:'
i
Steep decrease with
high saturation
(de-iation fron the
/.
/0
8.
80
:'
/.'
/8'
/2'
/3'
(de-iation fron the
rectangular profile)
.
0
/.
. #0 #/. #/0 #8. #80 #1.
2'
:'
[ ]
Qn#aligned position 'ligned position
2
':! ':! simulations simulations (,6$) (,6$)
3
1)
2)
11
"ated po-er/speed3 7 +:/1;00 rpm
8ength3 1;3!; mm
Flux lines
Flux density map
20.2
21.7
/$+,
1)
2)
0
2,
2$
Single Single p%ase p%ase supply supply
Low speed operation (current
modulation)
Supply of the next phase which
produces the maximum tor$ue
*
a+
resultant tor$ue *( )
single#phase tor$ue

.G
U
A
m

+
(step angle inter-al)
Energy balance examination on
the @ i characteristic
,
"
? ,-
"
4 con-erted mechanical
energy between (#1..) and
(=U) respecti-ely
,-
f
4 stored magnetic energy

/0 .
U5#
SGT
=5#( &)
#/0 #1.
A+
f

O
i
i
n

AU
m

U
=
1.G
=
+
(5U)
,
c
5,-
"
&,-
f
4 supplied energy by
the con-erter
./0 5,-
"
7,
c
4 con-ersion
efficiency
20
;esign ;esign consi2eration consi2eration
04 stator poles width lower than the
rotor slot width to a-oid a magnetic
short#circuit between two ad>acent
rotor poles in the unaligned position

s

s
+
r
=
2 ___

r

s
=

r
0
2
rotor poles in the unaligned position
24 stator poles narrower than the rotor
ones because the winding mounting
14 angle
s
higher than the step angle
to a-oid null tor$ue Kones
%
7 6

r
0
2

s
=

1
Vertex 64 higher room for the winding? but remar<able effect of the flux fringing at
the pole edges (increase of the minimum inductance)
Vertex %4 high minimum inductance -alue and smaller -olume a-ailable for the
winding
Vertex 74 higher efficiency and power density? but significant increase of the tor$ue
ripple
2,
C%oice C%oice of of t%e pole t%e pole number number
"ost common combinations 372? :73? /87/. (8 poles7phase) @ /87:?/37/8 (2
poles7phase)
High rotor poles
o %igh commutation fre$uency (core and switching losses)
o %igh importance of the current rise and fall inter-als (higher ohmic losses?
conduction o-erlap)
o Lower tor$ue ripple with high harmonic order
'doption of man2 poles/phase /s 2 poles/phase
o %igher cost and winding manufacturing
o Lower filling factor (insulation? spacers) lower power density
o Lower pole amperturns and then lower iron flux density for a gi-en air#gap
length (poor utiliKation of the magnetic material)
o !educed flux lines length and unidirectional stator flux (limited core losses?
higher efficiency)
'doption of slotted stator poles (see ! stepper motor) in case of high number of
phases
2/
7nfluence 7nfluence of of t%e t%e geometric geometric parameters parameters
t
o
r
%
u
e
<
(
m
=
"ost con-enient pole arc7pitch ratio 2.#
20V with
r
5
s
(higher -alues lead to
room and weight problems)
,
e
a
n
t
o
r
%
u
e
(
m
=
Stator pole arc7pole pitch more sensiti-e
as regards the mean tor$ue
2ole arc
>>>>>(
s
=
r
)
2ole pitch
2ole arc
i
n
d
u
c
t
a
n
c
e
<
.
=
2ole arc
,
e
a
n
t
o
r
%
u
e
<
(
m
s
/
r 2ole arc
>>>>>(stator)
2ole pitch
2ole arc
>>>>>(rotor)
2ole pitch
?
l
i
g
n
e
d
i
n
d
u
c
t
a
n
c
e2ole arc
>>>>>(rotor)
2ole pitch
3)
&erformances &erformances of of a ,6$ motor a ,6$ motor
22
23
2:
0.
'
*
P
8I60
1.6.
806.
8860
8.6.
s
SGT
SVT
Fa-orable Kone
'on+ersion
1ing#e p$ase supp#y
2ara"etric ana#ysis +arying t$e stator
po#e widt$
s
and t$e rotor one
r
8I60
1.6.
*
::
H8
2.
28
22
/0 8. 80 1. 10
r
SGT
L
)
/I60
/06.
8.
*
8I60
1.6.
Mean tor(ue
'on+ersion
efficiency
*or(ue ripp#e
Fa-orable Kone Fa-orable Kone
/0 8. 80 1. 10
r
SGT
s
SGT
L
'
)
806.
8860
8.6.
/I60
/06.
P
I3
:.
:2
S(m7mT
0
/.
/0
/0 8. 80 1. 10
L
'
)
P
s
SGT
806.
8860
8.6.
/I60
/06.
SVT
31
;ynamic ;ynamic analysis analysis
3o#tage e(uation
( ) ( )
!
!
+ = + + = =
= =
+ , ,
cost cost
i k
dt
di
i l
dt
di
i
i R
dt
d
i R v
inc
i
*or(ue e(uation
9ncremental *ac+&emf
*or(ue e(uation
( )
dt
d
C
dt
d
J C i C
f m em

,

=
= + +
( )
( ) ,
1
1 1 1 1

"
#
$
%
+

+

+
=
k k
k k
k k k k k k
i k
i i
R
V V i i
Nu"erica# integration
inductance coefficient
( )
( )
( ) [ ]
2
,
1
2
,
2 2 ,
1 1
1
1 1 1 1

+
=

"
&
$
'

k k k k
f m k k em
k k
k k
k k
k k k k
k k inc
k k
t
i
J t
i k R
i l t
C C C
4#gebraic non-#inear syste" of e(uations to be so#+ed
iterati+e#y for eac$ k-t$ step
32
'lu< 'lu< lin#age lin#age
#/.
.
SGT
#1.
#8.
.62
.63
.6:
.62
.63
.6:
SAbT !
.
0
/.
/0
.
.68
.62
.
.68
.62
i S'T
SAbT !
33
Static Static tor(ue tor(ue
.
/0
.
/.
8.
1.
.
.
/.
8.
1.
S(mT
)
em
#1.
#8.
#/.
.
0
/.
/0
#1.
#8.
#/.
i S'T
SGT
34
7ncremental 7ncremental in2uctance in2uctance
#/.
.
SGT
#1.
#8.
2.
3.
:.
2.
3.
:.
/..
Sm%T
l
inc
0
/.
/0
.
8.
.
8.
i S'T
3
3ac# 3ac#" "emf emf coefficient coefficient
/0
8
/0
8
i S'T
SAb7radT
<
0
/.
.
/
0
/.
.
/
i S'T
SAb7radT
<
#1.
#8.
#/.
.
#1.
#8.
#/.
.
SGT
3$
Current Current an2 an2 tor(ue tor(ue waveform waveform (1 (1 p%ase p%ase supply supply) )
S'T
S(mT
Qseful inter-al
as concerns
the tor$ue
Low speed
(a)
(a)
production
)ig$ speed
(b)
(b)
S(mT
S'T
'd-anced and
longer conduction
angle
30
1ypical 1ypical tor(ue tor(ue spee2 spee2 c%aracteristic c%aracteristic
)onduction
angle
"ean tor$ue
%ysteresis
control
8o-er conduction time
Operation with
increased -oltage
2rofile suitable for
transport application
(electric vehicles)
b
(8W1)
b

'ngular speed
Switching fre$uency
limitation
3,
Comments Comments
ery low bac<#emf current controlled by chopping the supply -oltage
Possibility to operate with increased -oltage current increase saturation
increase higher con-erted energy reduction of the conducting inter-al
Low speed
Fre$uency limitation for the switch current reduction to limit th switching losses
*ase speed
b
4 highest speed -alue for which i 9 i
max
only by -oltage commutation
(the conduction angle
L
and the maximum -oltage
"'X
are fixed)
)ig$ speed
Cncrease of
L
by ad-ancing the phase turn on to enable a faster current rising
)urrent increase limited by L
inc
and )
)urrent increase limited by L

inc
and )
'd-anced turn off to a-oid the operation in generator mode (dL7dY.)

"aximum limit on
L
to a-oid mean -oltage components on an inducti-e circuit
(unlimite flux increase causing high saturation)
,or$ue /7
8
with
L
5cost6? because the conduction time as well as the flux are
decreased
3/
Supply Supply circuits circuits (3 (3" "p%ase) p%ase)
4sy""etric bridge con+erter
Separate phase supply by two
transistors in series to the winding
(protection during faults)
Free#wheeling for the energy
' * )
rigeneration during the turn#off
)urrent control by modulating one
switch only to reduce commutation
losses and current ripple
,hree le-el -oltage possible
Switches rated according to the
maximum -oltage -alue
*?) iZ
*?)
.ysteresis control 2:, control
maximum -oltage -alue
%igh number of de-ices (high cost)
used mainly for high power and
number of phases
)urrent or -oltage reference -alue
generated by the speed loop
'
'
-Z
"onostable
4)
Voltage Voltage an2 an2 current current waveform waveform
40
4alf 4alf bri2ge bri2ge converter converter
"amo 1
)omponenti per fase dimeKKati
,ensione di fase met[ di $uella del bus L) ,ensione di fase met[ di $uella del bus L)
QtiliKKo solo con un numero pari di fasi
)omponenti dimensionati in base alla
massima tensione del bus L)
)ontrollo del bilanciamento del partitore
capaciti-o
Scuola di Dottorato in Ingegneria Industriale
Attivit didattica 2011 in Ingegneria Elettrotecnica
Dr. A. Dr. A. Tortella Tortella
Laboratory of Electric Machines Laboratory of Electric Machines

2
References References
William H. Yeadon, Alan W. Yeadon, Handbook of Small Electric Motors, McGraw-
Hill
H.. St!ltin", E. #allenbac$, W. Amr$ein, Handbook of %ractional-Horse&ower
ri'es, S&rin"er
Books Books
ri'es, S&rin"er
(. Ste&ina, Sin"le-&$ase ind)ction motors * constr)ction, t$eor+ and calc)lation,
,$io Ma"na -$+sics -)blis$in"
( Gieras, -ermanent ma"net motor tec$nolo"+ * desin" and a&&lications, .ew
York ekker
/. #en0o and S. .a"amori , -ermanent-ma"net and br)s$less dc motors,
,1ford 2larendon -ress
-. Acarnle+, Ste&&in" motors * a ")ide to t$eor+ and &ractice, 3EE Ste'ena"e -. Acarnle+, Ste&&in" motors * a ")ide to t$eor+ and &ractice, 3EE Ste'ena"e
/. (. E. Miller, 4r)s$less -ermanent-Ma"net and 5el)ctance Motor ri'es ,
,1ford 2larendon -ress
5. #ris$nan, Switc$ed 5el)ctance Motor ri'es 6 Modelin", Sim)lation, Anal+sis,
esi"n, and A&&lications, 252 -ress
3. 4oldea, S+ed A. .asar, 7inear Act)ators and Generators, 2ambrid"e 8ni'ersit+
-ress
3
References References
Papers Papers
S.#. Hon", H.#. #im, H.S. #im, and H.#. ()n", /or9)e 2alc)lation of H+steresis Motor 8sin" :ector
H+steresis Model, 3EEE /rans. on Ma"netics, :ol. ;<, .o. =, ()l+ >???, && @A;>-@A;B
S. 4ento)ati, C. D. C$), and . Howe, E-ermanent Ma"net 4r)s$less 2 Motors for 2ons)mer
-rod)ctsF, At$ 3nt. 2onf. on Electric Mac$ines and ri'es, &&. @@G-@>>, @-; Se&t. @AAA, 2anterb)r+,
8# 8#
C. D. C$), S. 4ento)ati, and . Howe, E2ontrol of Sin"le--$ase &ermanent Ma"net 4r)s$less 2
ri'es for Hi"$-S&eed A&&licationsF, Gt$ 3EE 3nt. 2onf. on -ower Electronics and :ariable S&eed
ri'es, &&. ;>H-;;>, @G-@A Se&t. >???, 7ondon, 8#
W. Wan", C. W), W. (in and (. Yin", EStartin" Met$ods for Hall-less Sin"le -$ase 472 MotorF,
3E2,. >??B, 5alei"$, .ort$ 2arolina, 8SA, <-@? .o'ember >??B
W. Wan", C. W), W. (in and (. Yin", ESensorless 2ontrol /ec$nolo"+ for Sin"le -$ase 472M
4ased on t$e Windin" /ime-s$arin" Met$odF, 3E2,. >??B, 5alei"$, .ort$ 2arolina, 8SA, <-@?
.o'ember >??B .o'ember >??B
S. .onaka and #. #esamar), Anal+sis of .ew 4r)s$less Self-E1cited Sin"le-&$ase S+nc$rono)s
Generator b+ %inite Element Met$od, 3nd)str+ A&&lications Societ+ Ann)al Meetin", @AA>
Andriollo, M., Martinelli G., Morini A., /ortella A., Cerbetto M., -erformance im&ro'ement of low-rate
sin"le-&$ase alternators, 3EM2 >??;
Andriollo M., e 4ortoli M., Martinelli G., Morini A., /ortella, A., esi"n 3m&ro'ement of a Sin"le-
-$ase 4r)s$less -ermanent Ma"net Motor for Small %an A&&liances , 3EEE /rans. on 3nd)strial
Electronics, :ol.BH, &&. GG-AB

2011 PhDCourse SpecialElectricalMachines

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2011 PhDCourse SpecialElectricalMachines

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Special electric machines Special electric machines

Scuola di Dottorato in Ingegneria Industriale

!!" "# characteristics # characteristics

Slot effect evaluation

Stator !oke reluctance

= "otor !oke reluctance:

Caratteristica elettromeccanica della coppia I K I k I

!ffects of the da"ping cages !ffects of the da"ping cages

'on%linear set of e,uations (+

0u% aong d and q a%!s 'no "ross-"ou-ing*

!ultiple !ultiple" "stac# stac# VR VR stepper stepper motor motor

)urrent increase limited by L

'd-anced turn off to a-oid the operation in generator mode (dL7dY.)

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