GSM Overview

TIES422 Wireless systems
Ari Viinikainen
Department of Mathematical Information Technology
University of Jyvskyl
October 17, 2007
Contents
1 Radio wave propagation models
1.1
1.2
1.3
The use of Desibels . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Free Space Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Propagation models . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1 The 2-Ray model . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.2 Okumura-Hata model . . . . . . .
1.3.3 COST231-Hata model . . . . . . .
1.3.4 COST231 Walsh-Ikegami -model
1.3.5 Comparison of attenuation models
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GSM Network Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

GSM Channel types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GSM Trac channels (TCH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GSM Control Channels (CCH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Broadcast Channels (BCH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.1 Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH) . . . . . .
2.5.2 Synchronization Channel (SCH) . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.3 Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH) . . . . . . . .
2.5.4 Cell Broadcast Channel (CBCH) . . . . . . . . . .
Common Control Channels (CCCH) . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.1 Paging Channel (PCH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.2 Random Access Channel (RACH) . . . . . . . . .
2.6.3 Access Grant Channel (AGCH) . . . . . . . . . . .
Dedicated Control Channels (DCCH) . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7.1 Stand-alone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH)
2.7.2 Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH) . . . .
2.7.3 Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH) . . . .
GSM numbering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8.1 Mobile Station ISDN Number (MSISDN) . . . . .
2.8.2 International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) . .
2.8.3 Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI) . .
2.8.4 International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) .
2.8.5 Location Area Identity (LAI) . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8.6 Cell Global Identity (CGI) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8.7 Base Station Identity Code (BSIC) . . . . . . . . .
2.8.8 Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN) . . . . .
2.8.9 Handover Number (HON) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Authentication Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Power Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Timing Advance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cell selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Discontinuous transmission and voice activity detection .
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2 GSM network functionalities

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
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2.14 Paging and discontinuous reception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.15 Frequency Hopping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.16 Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3 Enhancements of GSM network

3.1
3.2
3.3
HSCSD - High Speed Circuit Switched Data . . . .

3.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.2 HSCSD - system architecture . . . . . . . .
3.1.3 HSCSD channel coding . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.4 Changes to existing GSM network . . . . .
GPRS General Packet Radio Service . . . . . . .
3.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2 GPRS architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.3 GPRS Logical architecture . . . . . . . . .
3.2.4 GPRS network elements . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.5 SGSN role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.6 GGSN role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.7 GPRS Backbone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.8 Backbone networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.9 New functions in HLR . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.10 GPRS mobile types . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.11 GTP (GPRS Tunneling Protocol) . . . . .
3.2.12 GPRS mobility management (GMM) . . . .
3.2.13 Mobility management states . . . . . . . . .
3.2.14 Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.15 GPRS Attach procedure . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.16 Cell Update . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.17 Routing Area Update . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.18 GPRS Activate PDP Context . . . . . . . .
3.2.19 MS initiated PDP Context Activation . . .
3.2.20 PDP Context Activation . . . . . . . . . . .
EDGE - Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution .
3.3.1 What is EDGE? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.2 EDGE Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.3 EDGE Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.4 EDGE time slots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.5 EDGE Mobile Classes . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.6 Enhanced Circuit Switched Data . . . . . .
3.3.7 Link adaptation scheme . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.8 EGPRS principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.9 Modulation and Coding Schemes (MCS's) .
4 Design of cellular networks

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Frequency Reuse . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Channel Assignment Strategies . . . . .
Hando Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . .
Interference and System Capacity . . . .
Trunking and Grade of Service . . . . .
Improving Capacity in Cellular Systems
4.7.1 Cell Splitting . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.2 Sectoring . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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5 UMTS - Universal Mobile Telecommunications System

5.1
UMTS - Universal Mobile Telecommunications System . . . . .

5.1.1 3G IMT2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.2 IMT 2000 recommodations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.3 Universal Mobile Telecommunication Systems UMTS
5.1.4 Deployment of mobile networks (6.9.2006) . . . . . . . .
5.1.5 UMTS IC card . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.6 Radio access network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.7 UMTS frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.8 UTRA channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.9 Logical Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.10 Transport Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.11 Physical Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.12 UMTS servises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.13 UMTS - Power Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.14 UMTS - Cell breathing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.15 UMTS - soft and softer handover . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.16 Inter-system / Inter-frequency handover . . . . . . . . .
5.1.17 UMTS - Admission Control (AC) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.18 UMTS - Congestion Control (CC) . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.19 Uplink spreading factors and data rates . . . . . . . . .
5.1.20 UMTS codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.21 Uplink spreading factors and data rates . . . . . . . . .
5.1.22 Downlink spreading factors and data rates . . . . . . . .
5.1.23 3.5G High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) . .
5.1.24 3.75G High-Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA) . . .
5.1.25 3.9G Long Term Evolution (LTE)) . . . . . . . . . . .
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Chapter 1
Radio wave propagation models

1.1 The use of Desibels
Decibels (dB) are used for example to express powers in a logarithmic scale.
Usually, decibels are used to express the behavior of the same power, when it travels e.g. from transmitter
to receiver.
Equation (1.1) gives the relation of to powers in decibels.
LdB = 10 log
P1
P2
(1.1)
Example. P1 [W] = 2 P2 [W] P1 [dBW] = P2 [dBW] + 3dB

Usually, dBW and dBm units, which describe power related to 1 W and 1 mW in decibels, respectively
(which therefore are decibel units) are used in radio technology
Example. 300 W = 25 dBW = 55 dBm.
Example. 3 dBW = 2 W 2 times bigger than 1 W .
Example. 3 dBm = 2 mW 2 times bigger than 1 mW .
Example. 3 dB = 2 2 times bigger than ... .
1.2 Free Space Loss

Isotropic radiator - A point like source, which radiates radially (in all directions) in a vacuum (free space).
Let the radiated power of a source (an isotropic radiator) be PT watts (W), then the power ux density
at any point on a spherical surface at point P at a distance d is
PP [W/m2 ] =
PT
4d2
(1.2)
If a receiving antenna is placed on a spherical wave front, then the received power is
PR =
PT AR
4d2
where AR is the eective aperture of the (receiving) antenna.
(1.3)
CHAPTER 1. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION MODELS
The gain of the transmitter antenna, related to a isotropic radiator is

4AT
(1.4)
2
where is the wavelength of the radiation and AT is the eective aperture of the (transmitting) antenna.
GT =
Then the received power is

PR = PT
4AT AR
,
2 4d2
(1.5)
so
PR = PT
4AT 4AR
2
2
= PT GT GR
In decibels, the
PT
PR
4d
4d
(1.6)
-ratio (i.e. attenuation) is
10 log
PT
PR
= 20 log
4d
10 log GT 10 log GR
[dB]
(1.7)
The term in (1.6), which depends on distance and frequency, is called the Free Space Loss between two
isotropic radiators. In decibels, the Free Space Loss can be expressed as
Free Space Loss
(FSL)dB = 20 log
4d
(1.8)
or
If is changed to frequency and expressed in MHz and distance is expressed in km, then
FSLdB = 21.98 + 20 log
FSLdB = 32.45 + 20 log Dkm + 20 log FM Hz
(1.9)
(1.10)
Example
A WLAN base station transmits (frequency 2.4 GHz) at 100 mW power. Assuming Free Space Loss, what
is the strength of the received signal at a distance of (a) 1 km (b) 2 km (c) 10 km?
1.3 Propagation models

In planning of cellular networks, one needs information about the attenuation of the radio signal.
The attenuation of a signal can be predicted by theoretical and empirical models.
The theoretical models are too complex in e.g. urban environments.
The developing of empirical models bases on practical measurements in real environments.
1.3.1 The 2-Ray model

The 2-Ray model gives an approximation for the strength of the received signal
Pr Pt
h1 h2
d2
(1.11)
where Pt is the transmitter power, h1 and h2 are heights of the transmitter and receiver and d is the
distance between them.
Does not take into consideration the frequency.
Example
The signal strength can be increased by raising the base station antenna height. If the received signal
strength is -110 dBm and the base station antenna height is 30 m, how much should the base station
antenna height be increased in order to increase the received signal strength by 10 dB (i.e. eli -110 dBm
-100 dBm)?
2
h1 h2
P
2
t
d
Pr
= 10 dB = 10 log
10 log
h1 h2 2
Pr
Pt d2
h1 = 94.87 m
Increase = 64.87 m.
1.3.2 Okumura-Hata model

Often the empirical model proposed by hata, or its modication, is used when planning cellular networks.
The Hata model is based on the extensive measurements which Okumura published as several curves.
LH [dB] = 69.55 + 26.16 log10 fM Hz 13.82 log10 hb a(hm )
+ (44.9 6.55 log10 hb ) log10 Rkm K,
(1.12)
where the frequency f = 150 1500 MHz, base station height hb = 20 200 m receiver height hm = 1
10 m and distance R = 1 20 km.
Parameter a(hm ) is a correction term for the mobile antenna height and depends on the environment, i.e.
the size of the city (Hata classies as a large city one which has buildings higher then 15 m)
(1.1 log10 fM Hz ) hm
small/medium
(1.56 log10 fM Hz 0.8)

a(hm ) =
8.29 (log10 (1.54 hm ))2 1.10 large , fM Hz 400MHz
3.2 (log10 (11.75 hm ))2 4.97 large , fM Hz > 400MHz

The parameter K corrects the small city formula on open areas
K = 4.78 (log10 fM Hz )2 18.33 log10 fM Hz + 40.94
(1.13)
and in suburban areas
K = 2 log10
fM Hz
28
+ 5.4
(1.14)
Example
Calculate the loss with (a) the Free Space (b) the Okumura-Hata model (large city), when the GSM base
station (frequency 900 MHz) height is 47 m and the distance to the mobile (which is at height 1.8 m) is
17 km.
(a) 116.1 dB
(b) 164.8 dB
1.3.3 COST231-Hata model

It was found that the Hata model underestimates path loss at 1.5 - 2 GHz.
Extended Hata (COST231-Hata) model was developed to correct the situation.
The COST231-Hata model is usable within the range of the parameters in table 1.1.
Frequency
Base station height
Mobile height
Distance
Environment
f = 1500 - 2000 MHz

hb = 30 - 200 m
hm = 1 - 10 m
d = 1 - 20 km
Urban areas
Table 1.1: Parameters for the COST231-Hata model
Large and small cells (i.e. base station antenna heights above roof-top levels of buildings adjacent to the
base station).
Lu [dB] = 46.3 + 33.9 log(f ) 13.82 log(hb ) a(hm )
+ [44.9 6.55 log(hb )] log(d) + Cm ,
where
a(hm ) = [1.1 log(f ) 0.7]hm [1.56 log(f ) 0.8]

Cm = 0 dB for medium sized city and suburban centres
Cm = 3 dB for metropolitan centres
1.3.4 COST231 Walsh-Ikegami -model

The model considers only the buildings in the vertical plane between the transmitter and the receiver.
The accuracy of this empirical model is quite high because in urban environments especially the propagation over the rooftops (multiple diractions) is the most dominant part
The model is usable within the range of the parameters in table 1.2.
Frequency
Base station height
Mobile height
Distance
Height of buildings
Width of road
Building separation
Road orientation with respect to the direct radio path
Environment
f = 800 - 2000 MHz

hb = 4 - 50 m
hm = 1 - 3 m
d = 0.02 - 5 km
hroof [m]
w [m]
b [m]
[ degrees ]
Urban areas
Table 1.2: Parameters for the COST231 Walsh-Ikegami -model
Without free line-of-sight between base and mobile (small cells)

Lb = Lo + Lrts + Lmsd
( or Lb = Lo
for Lrts + Lmsd 0)
where Lo is the Free Space Loss:
Lo = 32.4 + 20 log(d) + 20 log(f )

Lrts is the roof-top-to-street diraction and scatter loss:
Lrts = 16.9 10 log(w) + 10 log(f ) + 20 log(hroof hm ) + Lcri
where
Lcri
10 + 0.354
2.5 + 0.075( 35 )
=
4.0 0.114( 55 )
for 0 < 35
for 35 < 55
for 55 < 90
Lmsd is the multiscreen diraction loss :

Lmsd = Lbsh + ka + kd log(d) + kf log(f ) 9 log(b)
where
Lbsh =
18 log(1 + hb hroof )
0
54
54 0.8 (hb hroof )
ka =
54 0.8 (hb hroof ) (d/0.5)

kd =
kf =
4 + 0.7 (f /925 1)
4 + 1.5 (f /925 1)
for hb > hroof

for hb hroof
for hb > hroof

for d >= 0.5 and hb hroof
for d < 0.5 and hb hroof
18
18 15 (hb hroof )/hroof
for hb > hroof

for hb hroof
for medium sized cities and suburban centres with moderate tree density
for metropolitan centres
With a free line-of-sight between base and mobile (Street Canyon).
Microcells (Base station antennas below roof top level).

Lb = 42.6 + 26 log(d) + 20 log(f )
for d >= 0.020 km
1.3.5 Comparison of attenuation models

In Fig. 1.1 the loss predicted by the Okumura-Hata model in a large city is compared to the loss given by
the free space and 2-ray models as a function of distance.
In Fig. 1.2 the loss predicted by the Okumura-Hata model in a small city and open area is compared to the
loss given by the free space and 2-ray models as a function of distance. Now the environment assumptions
are closer to each other and so the curves are closer, than in Fig. 1.1.
In Fig. 1.3 the situation is the same as in Fig. 1.2, except that now the frequency is doubled. The loss of
the Okumura-Hata and free space models is increase, but the loss by the 2-ray model stays the same.
Propagation loss by several models

180
160
Loss [dB]
140
120
100
80
FSL
2Ray
Okumura
60
40
10
Distance [km]
15
Figure 1.1: Frequency 900 MHz, Large city
20

180
160
Loss [dB]
140
120
100
80
FSL
2Ray
Okumura
60
40
10
Distance [km]
15
20
Figure 1.2: Frequency 900 MHz, small city, open area

180
160
Loss [dB]
140
120
100
80
FSL
2Ray
Okumura
60
40
10
Distance [km]
15
Figure 1.3: Frequency 1800 MHz, small city, open area
20
Chapter 2
GSM network functionalities

2.1 GSM Network Architecture
GSM network elements
Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)
Mobile Switching Centre (MSC)

Home Location Register (HLR)
Visitor Location Register (VLR)
Authentication Centre (AUC)
Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
Base Station Controller (BSC)
Transcoder and Rate Adaptation Unit (TRAU)
2.2 GSM Channel types

GSM logical channels
Two channel types

trac channels (TCH)
control channels (CCH)
2.3 GSM Trac channels (TCH)

Several types of TCHs exists
Full-Rate TCH
Full-Rate TCH (TCH/F) channel can be used for transmission of voice or dierent speeds of
data.
One user is using one physical channel (one time slot at some frequency (which might be
hopped)).
Half-rate TCH
Half-Rate TCH (TCH/H) channel can also be used for transmission of voice or dierent speeds
of data.
Now, tow users are using one physical channel alternating on the same time slot.
9
CHAPTER 2. GSM NETWORK FUNCTIONALITIES
10
In theory, the capacity of the system can be doubled, is all TCH/F channels are changed to
TCH/H channels.
Enhanced Full-Rate TCH TCH/E

Improved speech coding.
2.4 GSM Control Channels (CCH)

Three types of main control channels
broadcast channel (BCH)

common control channel (CCCH)
dedicated control channel (DCCH)
Figure 2.1: GSM logical channels
2.5 Broadcast Channels (BCH)

Four types of Broadcast channels

Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH)

Synchronization Channel
(SCH)
Broadcast Control Channel

Cell Broadcast Channel
(BCCH)
(CBCH)
2.5.1 Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH)

The burst consists of all 0, which after GMSK modulation is a pure sine wave
MS listens to all frequencies to nd the base stations by this channel.
2.5.2 Synchronization Channel (SCH)

Used for frame synchronization (TDMA frame number).
Information about the correct base station (BSIC), when measuring neighboring base stations
2.5.3 Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH)

Contains detailed network information and cell specic information

Frequencies used in current and neighboring cells.

Frequency Hopping sequence.
Channel Combination
Paging Groups
Information about the surrounding cells
2.5.4 Cell Broadcast Channel (CBCH)

Used for broadcasting short messages within a cell
2.6 Common Control Channels (CCCH)

Three types of Common Control channels
Paging Channel (PCH)

Random Access Channel (RACH)
Access Grant Channel (AGCH)
2.6.1 Paging Channel (PCH)

Used for informing MS about an incoming call.
2.6.2 Random Access Channel (RACH)

Used for as a response for PCH or for initiating a Mobile Originated Call (MOC).
2.6.3 Access Grant Channel (AGCH)

Used for response to RACH to assign a SDCCH for the MS.
2.7 Dedicated Control Channels (DCCH)

Three types of Common Control channels
Stand-alone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH)

Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH)
Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH)
11
12
2.7.1 Stand-alone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH)

SDCCH is used for system signaling such as call setup, authentication, location update, assignment of
TCH and SMS transfer
2.7.2 Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH)

SACCH is associated with each SDCCH and TCH
SACCH delivers measurement reports, power control information, timing adjustment and sometimes SMS
messages
2.7.3 Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH)

FACCH is used for signaling when there is no SDCCH in use (i.e. TCH has been assigned).
Mainly used in handover situations
When used, FACCH steals information blocks from a TCH for signaling purposes
Figure 2.2: GSM logical channels mapped to physical channels
Figure 2.3: GSM logical channels mapped to physical channels - continued
Figure 2.4: GSM frame formats
13
Figure 2.5: TDMA frame
14
2.8 GSM numbering

Mobile Station ISDN Number
(MSISDN)
International Mobile Subscriber Identity

Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity
(IMSI)
(TMSI)
International Mobile Equipment Identity

Location Area Identity
Cell Global Identity
(LAI)
(CGI)
Base Station Identity Code
(BSIC)
Mobile Station Roaming Number

Handover Number
(IMEI)
(MSRN)
(HON)
2.8.1 Mobile Station ISDN Number (MSISDN)

The number dialed when calling a mobile subscriber
The number depends on the service used, so a mobile subscriber can have several MSISDNs.
CC + NDC + SN (max. 15 digits)
Country Code (1-3 digits)

National Destination Code (2 or 3 digits)
Subscriber Number
2.8.2 International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)

A unique identication number for the mobile subscriber
Used also for security purposes
MCC + MNC + MSIN
Mobile Country Code (3 digits)

Mobile Network Code (2 digits)
Mobile Subscriber Identication Number (max. 10 digits)
2.8.3 Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI)

Improves security
Used instead of IMSI, if possible
Random content, maximum length is 32 binary digits = 4 octets = 8 hexadecimal characters
Changed at least after every location update
2.8.4 International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI)

A unique identication number for the mobile equipment
TAC + FAC + SN + SP

Type Approval Code (TAC) (6 digits)

Final Assembly Code (FAC) (2 digits)
Serial Number (SN) (6 digits)
Spare (SP) (1 digit)
15
2.8.5 Location Area Identity (LAI)

Identication of the are where no location updating is done
MCC + MNC + LAC

Location Area Code (max. 2 octets)
2.8.6 Cell Global Identity (CGI)

Global unique identity for a cell
MCC + MNC + LAC + CI


Location Area Code (max. 2 octets)
Cell Identity (max. 2 octets)
2.8.7 Base Station Identity Code (BSIC)

Cells with same frequency have a dierent BSIC
NCC + BCC
National Colour Code (3 bits)

Base Station Colour Code (3 bits)
2.8.8 Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN)

Used for routing the call in a Mobile Terminated Call (MTC)
CC + NDC + SN (max. 15 digits)
Country Code (1-3 digits)

National Destination Code (2 digits)
Subscriber Number
2.8.9 Handover Number (HON)

Used in MSC - MSC handover
Looks exactly like the MSRN
Acts line the MSRN
but is allocated from dierent number range
2.9 Authentication Procedure

Authentication triplet (RAND,SRES,Kc) generated by the AuC and delivered to MSC
MS(actually the SIM card) calculates response (SRES) to RAND and sends it to MSC
If SRES:s equal then user is OK
Kc is used for ciphering of the transmission
16
Figure 2.6: GSM authentication
Figure 2.7: GSM authentication continued
17
18
2.10 Power Control

BSC runs the power control algorithm continuously for all calls independently.
For interference minimization and for saving the MS battery.
The base station and MS report eld strength and transmission quality measurements, which are used as
a base for the power control.
The smallest possible power is used by both the base station and the MS, so that the quality still stays
acceptable. Improvement in spectral eciency (frequency reuse factor).
2.11 Timing Advance

Propagation delay must be considered when MS is far from the base station.
Timing advance is a parameter used for advancing the transmission of the MS.
Timing advance parameter is calculated by the base station and delivered to MS by SACCH.
2.12 Cell selection

Cell selection is mainly based on transmission quality which is measured as the signal level received by
the MS.
The criterion that is (or might be) used in cell selection is
C1 = A max(B, 0) (all values in dB)
(2.1)
A = (average received level) p1
(2.2)
B = p2 (MS maximum RF power)
(2.3)
where
and
The parameter p1 = 110 . . . 48 dBm is the minimum of the received level with which the cell can be
accessed.
The parameter p2 is the maximum transmit power allowed for an MS in the cell.
In cell selection, only cells with positive C1 are considered and the one with the highest C1 is selected, if
possible.
C1 determines two things
the coverage limit of each individual cell (note: this may be dierent for dierent MS's)
the boundary between two adjacent cells
These borders are not xed but change over time depending on weather, trac conditions etc.
2.13 Discontinuous transmission and voice activity detection

Voice Activity Detection (VAD) is used to turn of the transmitter; comfort noise is generated to the
receiving end.
Discontinuous transmission has as its main advantages decrease of interference and reduction of power
consumption.
19
2.14 Paging and discontinuous reception

The receiver of the phone only listens to part of the PCH channels, which leades to a small saving in
energy consumption.
2.15 Frequency Hopping

Advantages: Frequency diversity and Interference diversity
2.16 Modulation
GMSK
Phase modulation
1
Reference
Transmitted
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
100
200
300
400
500
Figure 2.8: Phase modulation
600
700
20
Frequency modulation
1
Reference
Transmitted
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
100
200
300
400
500
Figure 2.9: Frequency modulation
600
700
Chapter 3
Enhancements of GSM network

3.1 HSCSD - High Speed Circuit Switched Data
3.1.1 Introduction
New channel coding scheme makes possible 14.4 kbit/s compared to conventional GSM 9.6 kbit/s
Combination of several channels is accomplished with multislot capability
From 9,6 kbit/s up to 57,6 kbit/s uncompressed data rates
3.1.2 HSCSD - system architecture

A multislot conguration
symmetric or asymmetric
symmetric: same number of Uplink and Downlink TCHs
consecutive or non-consecutive time slots can be allocated
one main channel - FACCH signaling
3.1.3 HSCSD channel coding

Possibility to use lighter channel coding to achieve 14.4 kbit/s for single time slot transmission
accomplished with more severe puncturing of the convolutional coded data than in conventional GSM
too much errors on the link -> HSCSD changes to 9.6 kbit/s
Burst format and the number of bits stays the same as in conventional GSM
Maximum theoretical speed 64 kbit/s, because only one circuit can be allocated on the A interface
3.1.4 Changes to existing GSM network

Cell coverage a bit smaller with 14.4 kbit/s
Radio Link Protocol (RLP) and Transcoders must be updated to support parallel channels
21
CHAPTER 3. ENHANCEMENTS OF GSM NETWORK
Figure 3.1: Symmetric air interface
Figure 3.2: Asymmetric air interface
22
Figure 3.3: HSCSD network architecture - only one circuit can be allocated on the A interface
3.2 GPRS General Packet Radio Service

3.2.1 Introduction
Two GSN (GPRS Support Node)s
SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Node)

Mobility
GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node)

External connections and services
3.2.2 GPRS architecture

3.2.3 GPRS Logical architecture
3.2.4 GPRS network elements
Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)
Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)
Border Gateways (BG)
Backbone network
Intra-PLMN
Inter-PLMN
HLR
23
Figure 3.4: GPRS architecture
Figure 3.5: GPRS logical architecture
24
MSC/VLR
SMS-GMSC/SMS-IWMSC
3.2.5 SGSN role

Authentication, Authorization
GTP tunnelling to GGSN
Ciphering and compression
Mobility Management
Session Management
Interaction with HLR and MSC/VLR
Charging and statistics
NMS interfaces
3.2.6 GGSN role

Interface to external networks
Resembles to a data network router
Encapsulates user data in GTP and forwards to the right SGSN
Routes mobile originated packets to right destination
Filters end user trac
Collects information for data network usage
3.2.7 GPRS Backbone

Connects core elements together
Private IP network which is isolated and invisible to external networks or GPRS subscribers
Carries subscriber IP trac in GPRS specic tunnel (GTP)
Carries GPRS specic signaling between GSNs
Carries charging data from GSNs to Charging Gateway
Carries GPRS Core management information
GPRS backbone and GPRS subscribers use dierent IP address spaces
GPRS backbone alternatives - any IP network
Ethernet 10/100 Mbps, 1 Gbps

Frame relay
ATM
25
Figure 3.6:
3.2.8 Backbone networks

3.2.9 New functions in HLR
GPRS subscription storage
Mobile identication: IMSI
One or several PDP (Packet Data Protocol) contexts per user
Each subscriber PDP context contains
PDP type (IP, X.25,...)

PDP address
Subscribed QoS prole
APN (Access Point Name)
VPLMN addresses allowed
3.2.10 GPRS mobile types

Class A operation mode
Simultaneous GPRS and conventional GSM operation

Simultaneous circuit switched and GPRS data transfer
Dual Transfer Mode (DTM)
Class B operation mode
Can be attached to both GPRS and conventional GSM services simultaneously

Can listen circuit switched and GPRS pages
26
27
Supports either circuit switched calls or GPRS data transfer but not simultaneous communication
Class C operation mode
Only attached to GPRS or conventional GSM services

Manual switching between GPRS and GSM operation
3.2.11 GTP (GPRS Tunneling Protocol)

GTP carries both user data and signaling
An IP tunneling protocol answering cellular needs
The use of GTP in UMTS allows reuse of the GPRS GGSNs
3.2.12 GPRS mobility management (GMM)

Mobility management basic concepts
GPRS Attach
GPRS Detach
Security functions
Location Management
Routing area update

Combined Routing and Location area updates
GPRS Paging
GMM: Basic concept
Mobility management is needed in GPRS to
Attach
Know who is the MS and what it can or is allowed to do
Detach
Leave the system
Location updates (Routing Area and Cell updates)

Know the location of the MS
How to save the battery in MS?
How to minimize radio usage (pagings in downlink and location updates and paging responses
in uplink)
Solutions and constrains in real world
Attach and detach typically happen so seldom that these procedures do not need to be optimized
Attach in the morning and detach in the evening
Normally this is not a big issue
Mobility management after attachment is a problem
Typical user may change the cell in very short intervals

Sending data in uplink consumes much battery
There will be large number of MSs attached to the GPRS service
Typical Erlang law does not apply to GPRS
28
Two extremes
1. MS updates its location when it changes a big area
Like in GSM, update network when changing a Location Area
Good for MSs case
Saves battery, less MS originated updates
Mobile may move around the area without telling the network
Uplink radio capacity is not wasted so much for mobility management messages
Uplink radio capacity is wasted on paging responses
MS's location is not known exactly, every downlink packet requires paging of the mobile
Data transfer is delayed signicantly
Paging load increases (data trac is totally dierent than voice calls in GSM)
2. MS updates its location to network in every cell change
like in GSM, when a call is established, update location in every cell change
good for MSs that get lot of data downlink and move seldom
MS's location is always known in accuracy of a cell
No paging is needed
Paging channel practically unused
Data delivery is very fast, no need to wait paging response
MS's battery is draining due to continuous cell updates
Uplink radio capacity is wasted with continuous cell updates
GPRS mobility management is something between the two extremes

When MS is not active, GPRS uses approach 1 (informs the network only when changing the
big area)
MS is said to be in Standby state
The area in GPRS is called Routing Area (RA)
RA is a subset of GSM Location Area (LA)
1 cell RA LA
When MS is active GPRS uses approach 2 (informs the network in every cell change)
MS is said to be in Ready state
How to move between Ready and Standby states?
Standby Ready: When MS sends a packet, start also a timer
Ready Standby: When timer expires
3.2.13 Mobility management states

Idle: MS not known by the network
Ready: Cell Update and Data transfer are possible
Standby: Routing area update
3.2.14 Procedures
Attach
Routing Area Update
PDP Context Activation
Figure 3.7:
3.2.15 GPRS Attach procedure

GPRS Attach function is similar to IMSI Attach

Authentication of the mobile

Generation of the ciphering key
Enabling of the ciphering
Allocation of temporary identity (PTMSI)
Copying subscriber prole from HLR to SGSN
Checking subscriber rights
After GPRS Attach:

The location of the mobile is tracked

Communication between MS and SGSN is secured
Charging information is collected
SGSN knows what the subscriber is allowed to do
HLR knows the location of the MS in accuracy of SGSN
3.2.16 Cell Update

Change of cell within a routing area in Ready mode
MS sends the MS identity to the SGSN
BSS adds the Cell Identity
29
30
Figure 3.8:
3.2.17 Routing Area Update

Change of Routing Area in Stand by mode
MS sends old Routing Area Identity and old PTMSI to SGSN
SGSN may allocate new PTMSI
Two dierent Routing Area Updates:
Inter SGSN
Intra-SGSN
3.2.18 GPRS Activate PDP Context

User can activate each of the subscribed PDP addresses separately
User may have several PDP contexts
No data transmission is possible before the PDP address is activated (MT packets don't force PDP context
to be activated)
HLR is not involved with PDP context activation
Option: Network requested PDP context activation
31
Figure 3.9: Routing Area Update
3.2.19 MS initiated PDP Context Activation

MS informs the network of its will to activate a PDP context

PDP type
PDP address (optional)
QoS parameters (optional)
Access point name (optional)
SGSN checks if MS is allowed to activate the requested context and denes the missing optional parameters
SGSN selects GGSN to be used
QoS negotiation
MS request some QoS level (or default)

SGSN may downgrade the QoS
GGSN may downgrade even further
3.2.20 PDP Context Activation

To enable subscriber data transfer (MS-SGSN-GGSN)
To allocate one address; static or dynamic
PDP context contains mapping and routing information in MS, SGSN and GGSN
Enables data transfer between MS and GGSN

PDP Context Activation initiated by the MS
Figure 3.10: Inter-SGSN Routing Area Update
Request from application/TE via PPP protocol or AT command

GPRS Attach procedure maybe performed if not yet GPRS attached
32
Figure 3.11: PDP context activation
33
34
3.3 EDGE - Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution

3.3.1 What is EDGE?
EDGE = Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution
EGPRS = Enhanced GPRS or EDGE GPRS
ECSD = Enhanced Circuit Switched Data (Enhanced HSCSD)
Specied in ETSI SMG as GSM Phase 2+ work item
New modulation in radio interface, 8PSK
Gross data rates up to 69 kbps/ timeslot in limited coverage
Full coverage provided by Link Adaptation
a number of coding schemes for dierent C/ I conditions

number of timeslots
adjustment of modulation 8 PSK <-> GMSK
For GSM900, GSM 1800 and GSM 1900
EGPRS to be used as a 3G air- interface solution (1900 MHz) in the U. S
3.3.2 EDGE Features
Figure 3.15: Interface implications
Due to high C/ I requirements, EDGE will be (initially) restricted to `micro' cell environments
35
36
Handovers between EDGE and non- EDGE cells supported

Also roaming to 3G networks envisaged
Link adaptation for optimizing connection performance
Adaptation criteria: network load, link quality, user's wish

Adaptation supported between dierent multislot congurations between 8PSK channel coding schemes
and between 8PSK and GMSK schemes.
3.3.3 EDGE Modulation

8-PSK modulation
3 bits per symbol
Symbol rate and burst length identical to those of GMSK
200 kHz carrier spacing
Figure 3.16: 8PSK modulation
3.3.4 EDGE time slots

EDGE and conventional GSM trac can use adjacent time slots on the sam carrier frequency.
37
Figure 3.17: EDGE time slot aspects
3.3.5 EDGE Mobile Classes

EDGE mobiles are divided into two classes
Class A:
8PSK in the DOWNLINK
GMSK in the UPLINK
Class B: 8PSK in both directions

Asymmetric modulation used for EGPRS and ECSD
Asymmetric mobiles simpler and less expensive
3.3.6 Enhanced Circuit Switched Data

ECSD support both Transparent and Non-transparent (ARQ) services up to 64 kbps and 57.6 kbps
respectively.
The user data rates are limited in Phase 1 ECSD specications to 64 kbps.
Maximum data rates are not increased from the rates supported in current GSM.
The same services as in GSM are achievable with smaller number of time slots and relatively simple
MS implementation making them more attractive to various data applications
ECSD will support interworking with audio modems and ISDN services on various data rates.
Support for realtime applications like videotelephony
38
Figure 3.18: Link adaptation scheme
3.3.7 Link adaptation scheme

3.3.8 EGPRS principles
Major impact on RF and physical layer
Major impact on RLC/MAC protocol
Only minor impact on upper layers, LLC and SNDCP
EGPRS re-uses most of the GPRS signaling
Main modications from GPRS to EGPRS:
8-PSK modulation and new coding schemes (MCS)

LQC (Link Quality Control)
Incremental Redundancy (Type II Hybrid ARQ)
Combined LA and IR
Header protection (rate 1/ 2. . . 1/ 3) needed for Incremental Redundancy

Extended RLC acknowledgement mechanism required because amount of transmitted RLC blocks is
doubled with some coding schemes
Peak throughput:
59.2 kbps/ timeslot

473.6 kbps/ carrier
EGPRS logical channels
GPRS logical channels re- used
8PSK used only in PDTCH

GMSK in other logical channels (e. g. PBCCH)
3.3.9 Modulation and Coding Schemes (MCS's)

Two modulations:
GMSK: Robustness, Lowest throughputs

8PSK: Weakness, Highest throughputs
9 MCS's: MCS-1 to MCS-9 dened for the EGPRS Radio Blocks carrying RLC Data Block(s)
same Radio Block format as in GPRS i. e. 4 bursts (20ms)

Division into 3 families: A, B and C (3 basic payload units)
Family A: 37 (34) octets

Family B: 28 octets
Family C: 22 octets
Three Header types
MCS- 7/ 8/9 : 8- PSK 2 RLC data blocks

MCS- 5/6 : 8- PSK 1 RLC data block
MCS- 1/ 2/ 3/4 : GMSK 1 RLC data block
39
Chapter 4
Design of cellular networks

4.1 Introduction
A cellular system
From single big transmitter to several smaller ones

Reuse of the spectrum
Increase of user capacity
Further capacity increase possible by adding base stations and decreasing cell size
A xed number of channels serves a large number of subscribers
4.2 Frequency Reuse

Cell shape is hexagonal
Easy and manageable analysis of the system

Circle would have gaps or overlaps
Actual radio coverage footprint
No regular shape
Consider the following
the cellular system has S duplex channels.

each cell is allocated a group of k channels
the S channels are divided among N cells.
(k < S).
Now the total number of available radio channels is

S = kN
(4.1)
If the N cells are replicated M times, then the total number of duplex channels i.e capacity is
C = M kN = M S
(4.2)
The capacity of a cellular system is directly proportional to the number of times a cluster is replicated.
Typical cluster sizes N are 4,7 or 12.
What happens if we increase the cluster size N (i.e. the channels are divided among a greater number of
cells)?
40
CHAPTER 4. DESIGN OF CELLULAR NETWORKS
41
Figure 4.1: Illustration of cellular frequency reuse concept
What about decreasing the cluster size?

N is a function of how much interference a mobile or base station can tolerate to keep up good communication.
Because of hexagonal geometry only certain cluster sizes and cell layouts are possible i.e.
N = (i + j)2 ij = i2 + ij + j 2
i, j = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
(4.3)
(4.4)
where i and j are non-negative integers.
Figure 4.2 illustrates locating of the nearest co-channel cells.
Example
If a total of 33 MHz of bandwidth is allocated to a particular FDD cellular telephone system which uses
two 25 kHz simplex channels to provide full duplex voice and control channels, compute the number of
channels available per cell if a system uses (a) 4-cell reuse, (b) 7-cell reuse, (c) 12-cell reuse.
Solution to Example
Total bandwidth = 33 MHz
Channel bandwidth = 25 kHz 2 simplex channels = 50 kHz / duplex channel
Total available channels = 33000/50 = 660 channels
The total number of channels available per cell is
(a) 660/4 165
42
Figure 4.2: Method of locating co-channel cells in a cellular system (N = 19 i.e. i = 3, j = 2)
(b) 660/7 95
(c) 660/12 55
4.3 Channel Assignment Strategies

Fixed
If no channels are free the call is blocked.

Borrowing strategy or other variations might be used to improve system performance.
Dynamic
Base station requests a channel from e.g. MSC.

The channels are not allocated permanently.
MSC collects real-time data from all channels on continuous basis.
Reduces the likelihood of blocking increase in trunking capacity of the system.

Increases storage and computational load of MSC.
Provides increased channel utilization and decreased probability of a blocked call.
4.4 Hando Strategies

System designers must specify an optimum signal level at which to initiate hando (Figure 4.3).
The dwell time is a measure of how long a call can be maintained within a cell, without a hando.
The dwell time of a user is inuenced for example by propagation, interference, distance and other time
varying eects.
43
Figure 4.3: Illustration of a hando scenario at cell boundary.
In practical design of hando algorithms the statistics of dwell time have shown to be important.
In the rst generation analog cellular systems
The base stations measure signal strengths.

MSC makes handover decisions.
In the second generation systems which use TDMA technology

the hando decisions are mobile assisted.

The mobile stations measure signal strengths.
MSC:s not usually involved.
The handover is usually made faster.
Mobile assisted hando suitable in situations where handos happen more frequently.
Prioritizing handos

Dierent systems have dierent policies for handover request management.

Main task is when the cell is getting full.
How is the allocation of channels prioritized between handos and originating calls.
Various methods have been proposed, including for example the use of guard channels reserved solely
to handos or queuing the hando requests.
Practical hando considerations
The wide range of mobile velocities arises problems on practical cellular systems.
Several schemes have been investigated to handle the simultaneous trac of high and low speed users,
while minimizing the load to the system.
44
Figure 4.4: The umbrella cell approach.
i, j
i = 1, j
i = 0, j
i = 1, j
i = 0, j
i = 2, j
i = 1, j
=1
=2
=2
=3
=2
=3
Cluster size
3
4
7
9
12
13
(N )
Co-channel Reuse Ratio (Q)

3
3.46
4.58
5.19
6
6.24
Table 4.1: Co-channel Reuse Ratio for Some Values of N .
The umbrella cell approach means that we have dierent sizes of cells in the same location (Figure
4.4) to provide service to mobile users with dierent velocities.
4.5 Interference and System Capacity

Co-channel interference
Co-channel interference cannot be decreased by increasing transmitter powers.

When the sizes of the cells are approximately the same, the co-channel interference is not dependent
on transmitter power.
Co-channel reuse ratio for a hexagonal geometry

Q=
D
= 3N
R
(4.5)
where D is the distance to the center of the nearest co-channel cell and R is the radius of the cell.
Let i0 be the number of co-channel interfering cells.
45
Then the signal-to-interference ratio ( SI or SIR) can be expressed as

S
S
=
I
(4.6)
i0
i=1 Ii
where S is the signal power from the base station and Ii is the interference power caused by the ith
co-channel base station.
The average received power Pr at a distance d from the transmitting antenna can be approximated
by
Pr = P0
d
d0
(4.7)
or
Pr [dBm] = P0 [dBm] 10n log
d
d0
(4.8)
where P0 is the power received at a close-in reference point in the far eld region of the antenna at
a small distance d0 from the transmitting antenna and n is the path loss exponent.
If Di is the distance to the ith interferer, then the received power will be proportional to (Di )n .
If the transmit powers and the path loss exponents of the base stations are equal, then we can use
the approximation
S
=
I
Rn
(4.9)
i0
n
i=1 (Di )
which can be simplied to
n
(D/R)n
( 3N )
S
=
=
I
i0
i0
(4.10)
where S/I is related to the cluster size N , which determines the overall capacity of the system.
From Figure 4.5 you can see the distances to the nearest co-channel interfering cells, when the mobile
is at the cell boundary.
In the situation of Figure 4.5 the S/I can be closely approximated by

S
=
I
2 (D R)n + (D
R n
2)
(R)n
+ (D +
R n
2)
+ (D + R)n + Dn
(4.11)
and the same in terms of the co-channel reuse ratio Q
S
=
I
1
2(Q+1)n +(Q1)n
(Q2 1)n
(Q+0.5)n +(Q0.5)n
(Q2 0.25)n
1
Qn
(4.12)
Example
If a signal to interference ratio of 15 dB is required for satisfactory downlink channel performance of a
cellular system, what is the frequency reuse factor and cluster size that should be used for maximum
capacity if the path loss exponent is (a) n = 4, (b) n = 3 ? Assume that there are 6 co-channel cells in
the rst tier and all of them are at the same distance from the mobile. Use suitable approximations.
46
Figure 4.5: Illustration of the rst tier of co-channel cells (N = 7)
Solution to Example
(a) First, let us consider a 7-cell reuse pattern. We get D/R = 4.583 and S/I = (1/6) (4.583)4 =
75.3 = 18.66dB. OK!
(b) Let's consider again a 7-cell reuse pattern. Now S/I = (1/6) (4.583)3 = 16.04 = 12.05dB.
Is this OK??? No, we must have S/I 15dB .
Ok, then try
N = 9. S/I = (1/6) (5.19)3 = 23.30 = 13.67dB.
!#%&&%!!
Aah, well N = 12 then... S/I = (1/6) (6)3 = 36 = 15.56dB.
Finally, a bit over the required!
Adjacent Channel Interference
Interference, which results from imperfect transceivers which allow the neighboring frequencies to
leak into the pass band.
Adjacent Channel Interference can be diminished with good ltering and careful channel assignments
a cell should not use adjacent frequencies.
The channels in a cell can be separated by N channel bandwidths with certain allocation schemes.
In some schemes the use of adjacent channels in neighboring cells is also prevented.
In practice, the receiver lters are designed to reject most of the adjacent channel interference.
Power Control for Reducing Interference
Power control on the mobile user reduces the uplink S/I .

Set-up
Time
Blocked
Call
Holding Time
Trac Intensity
The time required to allocate a trunked radio channel to a requesting user.
Load
Grade of Service (GOS)
Requested Rate
47
Call which cannot be completed at time of request, due to congestion.

Also referred to as a lost call
Average duration of a typical call. Denoted by H (in seconds).
Measure of channel time utilization, which is the average channel occupancy
measured in Erlangs. This is a dimensionless quantity and may be used to
measure the time utilization of single or multiple channels. Denoted by A.
Trac intensity across the entire trunked radio system, measured in Erlangs.
A measure of congestion which is specied as the probability of a call being
blocked (for Erlang B), or the probability of a call being delayed beyond
a certain amount of time (for Erlang C).
The average number of call requests per unit time. Denoted by seconds1 .
Table 4.2: Denitions of common terms used in trunking theory.
The system controls the mobiles to use the smallest possible power level necessary to maintain good
quality.
Power control is especially important in CDMA direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) systems.
4.6 Trunking and Grade of Service

Trunking is used in cellular systems to provide access to a large number of users in a limited channel
resources channels allocated on demand.
Trunking theory is used to determine the amount of resources (i.e the number of trac channels) to
allocate for a large number of users.
The understanding of trunking theory and queuing theory is essential in designing trunked radio systems
to handle a certain capacity at a specic grade of service.
The trac is measured in Erlangs. For example a radio channel which is occupied for 30 minutes during
one hour carries 0.5 Erlangs of trac.
The grade of service (GOS) is a measure of the ability of a user to access a trunked system during its
busiest hour.
To achieve the required GOS is a challenge for the designer to get maximum capacity with minimal
channel allocation to a cell.
GOS is typically given as the likelihood that a call is blocked, or the likelihood of a call experiencing a
delay greater than a certain queuing time.
In Table 4.2, references used in trunking theory to make capacity estimates, are presented.
The trac intensity generated by a user is Au Erlangs given by
Au = H
(4.13)
where H is the average duration of a call and is the average number of call requests per unit time.
For a system with an unspecied number of channels and containing U users, the total oered trac
intensity A, is given as
A = U Au
(4.14)
If the trac density is equally divided among the channels in a C channel trunked system, then the trac
intensity per channel, Ac , is given by
Ac =
U Au
C
(4.15)
48
The maximum possible trac carried by the system is the total number of channels, C , in Erlangs.
There are two types of trunked systems which are commonly used: one without queuing and the other
with queuing.
Blocked calls cleared is a type of trunking system in which it is assumed that the call arrival is determined
by a Poisson distribution and the number of users is innite.
Other assumptions are
(a) All users, including blocked users, may request a channel at any time.
(b) Longer calls are less likely to appear than shorter calls (i.e. occupation of channel is exponentially
distributed).
(c) There is a nite number of channels in the trunking pool.
This is known as a M/M/m queue and leads to derivation of the Erlang B formula or Blocked calls cleared
formula.
The Erlang B formula determines the probability that a call is blocked, when queueing is not used, and
is given by
P r[blocking] =
AC
C!
C
Ak
k=0 k!
(4.16)
= GOS
where C is the number of trunked channels oered by a trunked radio system and A is the total oered
trac.
Blocked calls delayed is a type of trunking system where the blocked calls are queued and delayed until a
channel becomes available.
Blocked calls delayed is a measure of GOS dened as the probability that a call is blocked after waiting a
specic time in the queue.
For nding this GOS the likelihood, that a call is initially denied access to the system, must rst be
obtained which is given by the Erlang C formula
P r[delay > 0] =
AC
AC + C! 1
A
C
C1 Ak
k=0 k!
(4.17)
The probability that the delayed call is forced to wait more than t seconds is given by the probability that
a call is delayed, multiplied by the conditional probability that the delay is greater than t seconds.
P r[delay > t] = P r[delay > 0]P r[delay > t|delay > 0]
= P r[delay > 0]exp
(C A)t
H
(4.18)
(4.19)
The average delay D for all calls in a queued system is given by

D = P r[delay > 0]
H
C A
where the average delay for those calls which are queued is given by
(4.20)
H
CA .
Example
How many users can be supported for 0.5 % blocking probability for the following number of trunked
channels in a blocked calls cleared system? (a) 5,(b) 10,(c) 20,(d) 100. Assume that each user generates
0.1 Erlangs of trac.
49
Figure 4.6: The Erlang B chart showing the probability of blocking as functions of the number of channels and
trac intensity in Erlangs.
Figure 4.7: The Erlang C chart showing the probability of a call being delayed as a function of the number of
channels and trac intensity in Erlangs.
50
Solution to Example
(a) Given C = 5, Au = 0.1, GOS = 0.005.
From Figure 4.6 we obtain A = 1.13.
Therefore the total number of users , U =
A
Au
1.13
0.1
11 users .
(b) Given C = 10, Au = 0.1, GOS = 0.005.

A
Au
3.96
0.1
39 users .
(c) Given C = 20, Au = 0.1, GOS = 0.005.

A
Au
11.10
0.1
(d) Given C = 100, Au = 0.1, GOS = 0.005.

A
Au
80.9
0.1
110 users .
809 users .
Example
An urban area has a population of 2 million residents. Three competing trunked mobile networks (systems
A, B and C) provide cellular service in this area. System A has 394 cells with 19 channels each, system B
has 98 cells with 57 channels each and system C has 49 cells, each with 100 channels. Find the number of
users that can be supported at 2% blocking if each user averages 2 calls per hour at an average call duration
of 3 minutes. Assuming that all three trunked systems are operated at maximum capacity, compute the
percentage market penetrations of each cellular provider.
Solution to Example
System
A Given
Probability of blocking = 2% = 0.02.
Number of channels per cell , C = 19.
Trac intensity per user , Au = H = 2
3
60
= 0.1 Erlangs .
For GOS = 0.02 and C = 19, from the Erlang B chart, the total carried trac , A, is obtained
as 12 Erlangs .
12
Therefore, the number of users that can be supported per cell is U = AAu = 0.1
= 120.
Since there are 394 cells, the total number of subscribers that can be supported by system A is equal
to 120 394 = 47280.
System B Given
3
60
= 0.1 Erlangs .
as 45 Erlangs .
45
= 450.
to 450 98 = 44100.
System C Given
3
60
= 0.1 Erlangs .
51
as 88 Erlangs .
88
= 880.
to 880 49 = 43120.
Therefore, total number of cellular subscribers that can be supported by these three systems are
47280 + 44100 + 43120 = 134500 users .
For System A, the percentage market penetration is equal to
2.36 %
For System B, the percentage market penetration is equal to
2.205 %
For System C, the percentage market penetration is equal to
2.156 %
And for all the three systems , 6.725 %.
Example
A certain city has an area of 1300 square kilometers and is covered by a cellular system using a 7-cell
reuse pattern. Each cell has a radius of 4 kilometers and the city is allocated 40 MHz of spectrum with a
full duplex channel bandwidth of 60 kHz. Assume a GOS of 2 % for an Erlang B system is specied. If the
oered trac per user is 0.03 Erlangs, compute (a) the number of cells in the service area, (b) the number
of channels per cell, (c) trac intensity of each cell, (d) the maximum carried trac, (e) the total number
of users that can be served for 2 % GOS, (f) the number of mobiles per channel and (g) the theoretical
maximum number of users that could be served at one time in the system.
Solution to Example
(a) Given :
The coverage area = 1300 km2
Cell radius = 4 km
The area of a cell (hexagon) can be shown to be 2.5981R2 , thus each cell covers 2.5981 (4)2 =
41.57km2 .
Hence, the total number of cells is Nc = 1300/41.57 = 31 cells .
(b) The total number of channels per cell (C )
= allocated spectrum / (channel width frequency reuse factor )
= 40000000/(60000 7) = 95 channels/cell .
(c) Given : C = 95 and GOS = 0.02
From the Erlang B chart, we obtain trac intensity per cell, i.e. A = 84 Erlangs/cell .
(d) Maximum carried trac = number of cells trac intensity per cell = 31 84 = 2604 Erlangs.
(e) Given trac per user = 0.03 Erlangs .

Total number of users = Total trac / trac per user
(f) Number of mobiles per channel
mobiles/channel .
= number of users
= 2604/0.03 = 86800 users .
/ number of channels
= 86800/666 = 130
52
(g) The theoretical maximum number of served mobiles is the number of available channels in the system
(i.e. all channels occupied) = C Nc = 9531 = 2945 users , which is 3.4 % of the customer base .
Example
A hexagonal cell within a 4-cell system has a radius of 1.387 km. A total of 60 channels are used within
the entire system. If the load per user is 0.029 Erlangs, and = 1 call/hour, compute the following for an
Erlang C system with a GOS of 5 % :
(a) How many users per square kilometer will this system support?
(b) What is the probability that a delayed call will have to wait more than 10 seconds?
(c) What is the probability that any call will be delayed for more than 10 seconds?
Solution to Example
Cell radius , R = 1.387 km
Area covered per cell is 2.5981 (1.387)2 = 5km2
Number of cells per cluster = 4
Total number of channels = 60
Therefore, number of channels per cell = 60/4 = 15 channels .
(a) From the Erlang C chart, for 5 % probability of delay with C = 15, trac intensity = 8.8 Erlangs
.
Therefore, number of users = total trac intensity / trac per user
= 8.8 / 0.029 = 303 users and 303 users / 5 km2 = 60 users /km2 .
(b) Given = 1, holding time H = Au / = 0.029 hours = 104.4 seconds .
Probability that a delayed call will have to wait for more than 10 seconds is
= exp (158.8)10
= 0.5522 = 55.22 %.
P r[delay > t|delay] = exp (CA)t
H
104.4
(c) Given GOS = 5 % = 0.05
Probability that any call is delayed more than 10 seconds ,
P r[delay > 10] = P r[delay > 0] P r[delay > t|delay] = 0.05 0.5522 = 0.0276 = 2.76%
Trunking eciency is a measure of the number of users which can be oered a particular GOS with a
particular conguration of xed channels.
The grouping of the channels in a trunked system can substantially alter the number of users that can be
handled.
For example, if GOS = 0.01, then 10 trunked channels can support 4.46 Erlangs of trac, whereas 2
groups of 5 channels can support 2 1.36 = 2.72 Erlangs of trac.
4.7 Improving Capacity in Cellular Systems

Cell Splitting
Sectoring
4.7.1 Cell Splitting

Divide cells to smaller ones each with its own base station.
Increases channel reuse (i.e capacity).
53
Figure 4.8: (a) 120 sectoring, (b) 60 sectoring.
The transmitter powers have to be adjusted. For new cells with radius half that of the original cell the
transmitter powers can be obtained by examining the received power at the new and old cell boundaries
Pr [at old cell boundary ] Pt1 Rn
Pr [at new cell boundary ] Pt2 (R/2)
(4.21)
n
(4.22)
and setting them equal
Pt2 =
Pt1
2n
(4.23)
i.e. the transmit power must be reduced by 12 dB to maintain the S/I requirement.
In practice, dierent cell sizes exist, so special care is to be taken to keep the interference levels in the
system below the required value.
Radio coverage is often limited by antenna downtilting
4.7.2 Sectoring
In cell splitting the radius R is decreased and the co-channel reuse ratio D/R is kept constant.
Another approach is sectoring, where the radius of the cell is not changed, but the D/R ratio is decreased
by some method.
Capacity improvement is achieved by reducing the number of cells in a cluster without decreasing the
transmit power reduce the relative interference use of directional antennas instead of omni-directional
ones.
Increase in S/I which
54
Figure 4.9: Illustration of how 120 sectoring reduces interference from co-channel cells.
Leads to better frequency reuse (i.e. N can be decreased).

Disadvantages
Increased number of antennas

Decrease in trunking eciency due to channel sectoring (i.e. loss of trac because channels of the
cell are subdivided to the antennas)
Increase in handos (not so bad if MSC is not bothered).
Chapter 5
UMTS - Universal Mobile

Telecommunications System
55
CHAPTER 5. UMTS - UNIVERSAL MOBILE TELECOMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM
56
5.1 UMTS - Universal Mobile Telecommunications System

5.1.1 3G IMT2000
IMT-2000: Vision

Many radio environments (cellular, cordless, satellite, LANs)

Broad scale of telecommunication services (speech, data, multimedia, internet)
Maximum utilization of IN capacities (for service provision and data transfer)
Global seamless roaming and service provision
Enhanced security and performance
Integration of satellite and terrestrial systems
5.1.2 IMT 2000 recommodations

QoS that is comparable to xed voice networks
Phased development, with the rst phase supporting 2Mbps bit rates
Possibility to build many dierent sizes of terminals
Flexible architecture where addition of new applications is easy
5.1.3 Universal Mobile Telecommunication Systems UMTS

The European name for 3G
Broadband and multimedia services with quality comparable to xed networks
Interconnection with dierent wireless systems
New radio techniques
5.1.4 Deployment of mobile networks (6.9.2006)

122 commercial WCDMA networks in 55 countries and over 70 million subscriptions, which conrm
WCDMA as the leading 3G standard, by a huge margin
119 operators are deploying HSDPA (the rst evolution of WCDMA) in 55 countries, of which 57 HSDPA
networks - an increase of 72entered commercial service in 36 countries.
407 WCDMA models of user devices launched in the market, including 51 supporting HSDPA. 18 devices
also support WCDMA in the 850 MHz band .
70 WCDMA operators, i.e. the majority, are also deploying EDGE for service continuity and the best
user experience outside WCDMA coverage areas. The latest GSA survey conrms 45 combined WCDMAEDGE networks have launched commercial services
213 GSM/EDGE network deployments in 118 countries, of which 156 networks are delivering commercial
service in 92 countries. Europe has the highest number of countries with EDGE in service today (67).
307 EDGE models of user devices launched in the market, with at least 77 also supporting WCDMA.
EDGE is standard in most new data-capable GSM phones.
28 CDMA operators migrating to GSM either as an overlay or as its replacement
Reference: GSA - The Global mobile Suppliers Association, http://www.gsacom.com/.
5.1.5 UMTS IC card

Same physical sizes than in GSM (small and credit card size)
Properties:

Supports one User Service Identity Module (USIM) application (possibly several)
Supports one or more user proles on a USIM card
Updating of USIM information over the radio interface
Security functions
User authentication
Charging methods (optional)
Secure downloading of new applications (optional)
5.1.6 Radio access network

In 3GPP R99 major changes are in Access part of the network
The air interface is WCDMA

Radio Access is called UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN)
3GPP Release 4
Distributed network architecture

3GPP Release 5
All IP network architecture

HSDPA
3GPP Release 6
HSUPA
WLAN Interworking
MIMO
3GPP Release 7 and beyond
Long Term Evolution (LTE)

High Speed OFDM Packet Access (HSOPA)
5.1.7 UMTS frequencies

Time Division Duplex (TDD, TD/CDMA)
1900-1920 and 2010-2025 MHz

Tx and Rx are divided in time not frequency
Frequency Division Duplex (FDD, W-CDMA)
1920-1980 and 2110-2170 MHz

Operator needs 3 to 4 channels of 5 MHz to build a network for high speed and capacity
Satelliitti uplink and downlink
1980-2010 and 2170-2200 MHz
57
58
Figure 5.1: 3GPP Release 1999 Network Architecture
5.1.8 UTRA channels

UTRA FDD radio interface
Logical Channels,
which are mapped to Transport Channels
which for one are mapped to Physical Channels
Logical channels are mapped to Transport Channels in Medium Access Control (MAC) layer which is part
of Link Control layer (L2)
5.1.9 Logical Channels

Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH), Downlink (DL)
Paging Control Channel (PCCH), DL
Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH), UL/DL
Common Control Channel (CCCH), UL/DL
Dedicated Trac Channel (DTCH), UL/DL
Common Trac Channel (CTCH), Unidirectional (one to many)
5.1.10 Transport Channels

Dedicated Transport Channel (DCH), UL/DL, mapped to DCCH and DTCH
Broadcast Channel (BCH), DL, mapped to BCCH
Figure 5.2: 3GPP Release 4 Distributed Network Architecture
Forward Access Channel (FACH), DL, mapped to BCCH, CCCH, CTCH, DCCH and DTCH
Paging Channel (PCH), DL, mapped to PCCH
Random Access Channel (RACH), UL, mapped to CCCH, DCCH and DTCH
Uplink Common Packet Channel (CPCH), UL, mapped to DCCH and DTCH
Downlink Shared Channel (DSCH), DL, mapped to DCCH and DTCH
5.1.11 Physical Channels

Primary Common Control Physical Channel (PCCPCH), mapped to BCH
Secondary Common Control Physical Channel (SCCPCH), mapped to FACH, PCH
Physical Random Access Channel (PRACH), mapped to RACH
Dedicated Physical Data Channel (DPDCH), mapped to DCH
Dedicated Physical Control Channel (DPCCH), mapped to DCH
Physical Downlink Shared Channel (PDSCH), mapped to DSCH
Physical Common Packet Channel (PCPCH), mapped to CPCH
Synchronisation Channel (SCH)
Common Pilot Channel (CPICH)
Acquisition Indicator Channel (AICH)
Paging Indication Channel (PICH)
59
Figure 5.3: 3GPP IP Multimedia Network Architecture
CPCH Status Indication Channel (CSICH)

Collision Detection/Channel Assignment Indication Channel (CD/CA-ICH)
60
61
Figure 5.4: Iur interface
5.1.12 UMTS servises

Tele services
e.g. speech or SMS messages

Bearer services
Provides the capability for information transfer between access points

Possible to (re)negotiate the characteristics of a bearer service
Both connection oriented and connectionless services are oered for Point-to-Point and Point-toMultipoint communication
Dierent QoS parameters for maximum transfer delay, delay variation and bit error rate
Oered data rate targets are
144 kbits/s (satellite and rural outdoor)
384 kbits/s (urban outdoor)
2048 kbits/s (indoor and low range outdoor)
UMTS network services
Four dierent QoS classes for dierent types trac:
Conversational class (voice, video telephony, video gaming)

Streaming class (multimedia, video on demand, webcast)
Interactive class (web browsing, network gaming, database access)
Background class (email, SMS, downloading)
62
Figure 5.5: UTRA channels
5.1.13 UMTS - Power Control

With a frequency re-use of 1, it is very important to have ecient power control in order to keep interference
at minimum
Purpose: The base station receives all signals at same level
The power levels are checked/adjusted 1500 times every second
5.1.14 UMTS - Cell breathing

The size of the cell varies depending on the trac load
Much trac -> more interference -> signal degrades -> smaller cell radius
5.1.15 UMTS - soft and softer handover

To achieve good performance
soft handover
mobile is connected to multiple cells at dierent base stations

softer handover
mobile is connected to multiple cells at the same base station
5.1.16 Inter-system / Inter-frequency handover

Inter-system HO
Utilization of existing networks
63
e.g. handover between GSM and WCDMA networks

Inter-frequency HO
If the operator has several 5 MHz channels

When the need for capacity is great
5.1.17 UMTS - Admission Control (AC)

To avoid system overload and to provide planned coverage
New subscriber is blocked if AC estimates overloading of network
Operator can maximize the network usage within a set of network quality levels (i.e. levels depending on
what kind of service/information the subscriber wants to use)
5.1.18 UMTS - Congestion Control (CC)

Common reason for overloading of the network are users moving from other cells
Then

CC limits the transfer speed of non-realtime applications

move users to dierent frequencies
move users to GSM network
Discontinue connections
5.1.19 Uplink spreading factors and data rates

Wide 3.84Mcps bandwidth ==> good frequency and interference diversity
Coherent in both up- and downlink ==> low Eb/No
Fast power control (PC) ==> minimises interference
Robust RAKE diversity receiver ==> low complexity
Dynamic variable rate multiplexing ==> exibility, Bandwidth on Demand
5.1.20 UMTS codes

Scrambling codes UL/DL
Channelisation codes
Synchronisation codes
http://www.umtsworld.com/technology/codes.htm
Figure 5.6: WCDMA
Figure 5.7: Uplink spreading factors and data rates
64
65
Figure 5.8: Downlink spreading factors and data rates
5.1.21 Uplink spreading factors and data rates

5.1.22 Downlink spreading factors and data rates
5.1.23 3.5G High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA)
A packet based data transfer service for physical downlink of WCDMA technique
Data transfer speed up to 14.4 Mbps on downlink and 2 Mbps on uplink
New modulation 16-QAM
Same 5 MHz frequency channel
A new channel: high-speed downlink shared channel (HS-DSCH)
Does not use variable length spreading factors or fast power control, but
1. Adaptive Modulation and Coding (AMC),
2. Fast packet scheduling at the Node B (Base Station) and
3. Fast retransmissions from Node B (known as HARQ-Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request)
5.1.24 3.75G High-Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA)

A data access protocol for mobile phone networks with extremely high upload speeds up to 5.76 Mbit/s.
New uplink channel: enhanced dedicated channel (E-DCH)
shorter Transmission Time Interval (10ms -> 2ms) enabling faster link adaptation;,
HARQ (hybrid ARQ) with incremental redundancy making retransmissions more eective.
66
5.1.25 3.9G Long Term Evolution (LTE))

A data access protocol for mobile phone networks with extremely high upload speeds up to 5.76 Mbit/s.
Spectrum exibility (1.25 - 20 MHz (WCDMA: 5 MHz))
DL speed 100 Mbit/s, UL speed 50 Mbit/s in 20 MHz channel.
E-UTRA Air Interface
OFDMA for the downlink, Single Carrier FDMA (SC-FDMA) for the uplink and employs MIMO
with up to four antennas per station,
Downlink: QPSK, 16QAM and 64QAM modulation

Uplink: QPSK or 16QAM (64QAM optional) modulation

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TIES422 Wireless systems

The use of Desibels . . . . . . . . . . . . .

GSM Network Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 GSM network functionalities

2.14 Paging and discontinuous reception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3 Enhancements of GSM network

HSCSD - High Speed Circuit Switched Data . . . .

4 Design of cellular networks

5 UMTS - Universal Mobile Telecommunications System

UMTS - Universal Mobile Telecommunications System . . . . .

Radio wave propagation models

Example. P1 [W] = 2 P2 [W] P1 [dBW] = P2 [dBW] + 3dB

1.2 Free Space Loss

where AR is the eective aperture of the (receiving) antenna.

CHAPTER 1. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION MODELS

The gain of the transmitter antenna, related to a isotropic radiator is

Then the received power is

-ratio (i.e. attenuation) is

FSLdB = 32.45 + 20 log Dkm + 20 log FM Hz

1.3 Propagation models

1.3.1 The 2-Ray model

CHAPTER 1. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION MODELS

1.3.2 Okumura-Hata model

(1.56 log10 fM Hz 0.8)

3.2 (log10 (11.75 hm ))2 4.97 large , fM Hz > 400MHz

and in suburban areas

CHAPTER 1. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION MODELS

1.3.3 COST231-Hata model

f = 1500 - 2000 MHz

Table 1.1: Parameters for the COST231-Hata model

a(hm ) = [1.1 log(f ) 0.7]hm [1.56 log(f ) 0.8]

CHAPTER 1. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION MODELS

1.3.4 COST231 Walsh-Ikegami -model

f = 800 - 2000 MHz

Table 1.2: Parameters for the COST231 Walsh-Ikegami -model

Without free line-of-sight between base and mobile (small cells)

for Lrts + Lmsd 0)

where Lo is the Free Space Loss:

Lo = 32.4 + 20 log(d) + 20 log(f )

Lmsd is the multiscreen diraction loss :

54 0.8 (hb hroof ) (d/0.5)

for hb > hroof

for hb > hroof

for hb > hroof

With a free line-of-sight between base and mobile (Street Canyon).

 Microcells (Base station antennas below roof top level).

for d >= 0.020 km

CHAPTER 1. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION MODELS

1.3.5 Comparison of attenuation models

Propagation loss by several models

Figure 1.1: Frequency 900 MHz, Large city

CHAPTER 1. RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION MODELS

Propagation loss by several models

Figure 1.2: Frequency 900 MHz, small city, open area

Propagation loss by several models

Figure 1.3: Frequency 1800 MHz, small city, open area

GSM network functionalities

 Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)

Mobile Switching Centre (MSC)

 Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

2.2 GSM Channel types

 Two channel types

2.3 GSM Trac channels (TCH)

CHAPTER 2. GSM NETWORK FUNCTIONALITIES

where AR is the eective aperture of the (receiving) antenna.

1.3.4 COST231 Walsh-Ikegami -model

Table 1.2: Parameters for the COST231 Walsh-Ikegami -model

Lmsd is the multiscreen diraction loss :

Microcells (Base station antennas below roof top level).

Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)

Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

Two channel types

2.3 GSM Trac channels (TCH)

Enhanced Full-Rate TCH TCH/E

broadcast channel (BCH)

Paging Channel (PCH)

Stand-alone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH)

Country Code (1-3 digits)

Mobile Country Code (3 digits)

Mobile Country Code (3 digits)

National Colour Code (3 bits)

Country Code (1-3 digits)