Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto

and
University of Maryland, Baltimore County
Master in Mechanical Engineering
Thermal Energy
Project
Computer Simulation of an
Internal Combustion Engine
Supervisor in UMBC: Dr. Christian von Kerce!
"#visor in $EUP: Pro%. E#uar#o &liveira $ernan#es
E'change "#visor: Dr. (.D. Timmie Topoles!i
"nt)nio Emanuel $igueire#o Costa
*
n#
Term+ *,,-
"c!no.le#gments
2
/ .oul# li!e to e'press my gratitu#e to Dr. Christian von Kerce!
%or his #e#ication an# #evotion %or this project.
/ also .oul# li!e to than! my parents %or this li%e time opportunity+
0&1riga#o23
Contents
Commonly use# sym1ols+ su1scripts+ an# a11reviations 4
"1stract -
&1jectives 5
/ntro#uction 6,
Chapter 67 /nternal Com1ustion Engine 6*
6.6.The Basic /CE Mechanism 6*
6.*.The E8uations o% State o% the 9or!ing :ases 6;
6.<.Thermo#ynamics an# Mathematical Mo#el o% the Engine 6=
Chapter * 7 Po.er Cycle 65
*.6./ntro#uction 65
*.*.Compression stage *,
*.*.6 Thermo#ynamic Mo#el o% the compression stage *,
*.*.* >eat trans%er *6
*.<.Com1ustion stage *?
*.<.6 Com1ustion mo#eling *?
*.<.* Tur1ulence characteristics <6
*.<.< >eat Trans%er <<
*.?.Completely 1urne# gas e'pansion <?
*.?.6 Thermo#ynamic mo#el o% the e'pansion stage <4
*.?.* >eat Trans%er <4
Chapter < @ :as e'change cycle <=
<.6.Aalve action <=
<.6.6 :eometry <=
<.6.* /sentropic %lo. thought an ori%ice <5
<.*. E'haust stage ?,
<.*.6 Thermo#ynamics Mo#el o% the E'haust stage ?6
<.*.* >eat trans%er ?6
*.<. /nta!e stage ?*
<.<.6 Thermo#ynamics Mo#el o% the /nta!e stage ?*
<.<.* >eat trans%er ?<
CycleComBC /nputs ??
CesultsDDiscussion ?=
3
Conclusive remar!s 45
Bi1liography ;,
"ppen#i'es ;6
" Mathematical an# thermo#ynamic manipulations ;6
B De%initions =*
C Computer simulations =<
4
Commonly use# sym1ols+ su1scripts+ an# a11reviations
6. Sym1ols
a Cran! ra#ius
"c Clearance volume
"% E%%ective %lo. area
"p Port area
"v Aalve cross sectional area
". E'pose# total cylin#er area
1o Cylin#er 1ore
co Soun# spee#
C% $lo. coe%%icient
Cp Speci%ic heat at constant pressure
Cv Speci%ic heat at constant volume
# Diameter
D Diameter
h Speci%ic enthalpy
h >eight
hg >eat trans%er coe%%icient
! Tur1ulent !inetic energy
l Connecting ro# length
Aalve li%t
m Mass
mr Cesi#ual mass
m Mass %lo. rate respective to time
m Mass %lo. rate respective to angle
E Cran!sha%t rotational spee#
P Pressure
Po.er

Q >eat trans%er rate respective to time

Q
>eat trans%er rate respective to angle
r Ca#ius
rc Compression ratio
Cc Connecting ro#Dstro!e length
5
s Stro!e
T Temperature
u Speci%ic internal energy
U /nternal energy
A Aelocity
Spee#
Cylin#er volume
Ac Clearance volume
A# Displacement volume
9 9or! trans%er
' Mass %raction
'r Cesi#ual mass %raction
F Cran! angle
G Density
Hs "ngular velocity
*. Su1scripts
1 Burne# gas
cr Crevice
e E'haust
% %uel
i /nta!e
( (aminar
u Un1urne#
v valve
. .all
o Ce%erence value
Stagnation value
<. Eotation
I Aalue per secon#
J Aalue per angle
..
Moment a%ter the spar!
6
?. "11reviations
BC Bottom7center cran! position
/CE /nternal Com1ustion Engine
TC Top7center cran! position
7
"1stract
My en# course project .as per%orme# in the e'change program 1et.een $acul#a#e #e Engenharia
#a Universi#a#e #o Porto K$EUPL an# the University o% Marylan#+ Baltimore County KUMBCL.
The project .as propose# 1y Dr. Christian von Kerce! KCAKL .ho #evelope# a thermo#ynamic
engine mo#el %or .hich a computer program ha# 1een .ritten %or its implementation.
The computer simulation .as #evelope# an# implemente# numerically 1y .ay o% a 0Scila13.
>o.ever+ heat trans%er+ B KBM,L+ .as le%t out .hich results some.hat arti%icially in an Na#ia1atic
engineN. "lso the com1ustion mo#el use# .as 1ase# on a some.hat simple %ormulation. /t .as
assume# that 1urne# an# un1urne# gases .ere homogeneously mi'e# an# 1urning rate .as a
constant. Base# on CAK .or!+ my .or! has a##e# heat trans%er an# a t.o one com1ustion mo#el
that separates the action o% the 1urne# an# un1urne# gases #uring the com1ustion. The 1oun#ary o%
these ones .as then #etermine# 1y a tur1ulence %lame spee# mo#el.
/n 1oth o% these cases+ there e'ist .ell #evelope# empirical mo#els+ an# the main o1jective o% my
.or! .as to un#erstan# an# a#just these mo#els an# implement them .ithin the theoretical mo#el
an# the computer program #evelope# 1y CAK.
This .or! contains a complete #escription o% the theoretical %rame.or! employe# 1y CAK as .ell
as the mo#i%ications an# implementation o% heat trans%er an# com1ustion mo#el 1y me.
The result o% my project is a computer simulation .hich may 1e use# to o1tain some %airly goo#
estimates o% engine per%ormance. These estimates are most use%ul %or un#erstan#ing 1asic engine
per%ormance as .ell as assessing mo#i%ications as regar#s valve siing+ spar! a#vance an# various
%uels. " particularly use%ul application is to #o a compressorDtur1ine engine matching %or tur1ocharging.
The report is 1ase# on an# e'ten#s a prior+ in%ormal+ report 1y CAK.
8
&1jectives
The main propose o% my .or!:
Complete the program .ith the heat trans%er mo#el an# insert the correct mo#i%ications to
per%orm a simulation o% a non a#ia1atic engineO
"## a ne. com1ustion mo#el+ replacing the e'isting one use# in the initial program. The
ne. com1ustion mo#el .oul# ta!e into account the tur1ulence in the cylin#er an# .oul# then
allo. the variation o% 1urn #uration K.hich is %i'e# in the simple mo#el use#L to vary .ith
engine spee#.
Despite this+ / also ha# to un#erstan# the e'isting computer simulation implemente# 1y CAK an#
the theoretical concepts 1ehin# it.
9
/ntro#uction
This report presents the Thermo#ynamics theory #escri1ing the main physical phenomena
occurring insi#e a spar! ignition %our stro!e K?SL internal com1ustion engine K/CEL .hile it is running at
stea#y spee# Kconstant revolutions per minute+ rpmL. The mathematical %orm o% the Thermo#ynamic
theory is #evelope# an# implemente# numerically 1y .ay o% a 0Scila13 computer program. The result
is an /CE computer simulation. This computer simulation may 1e use# to o1tain some %airly goo#
estimates o% engine per%ormance in .hich the main e%%ects o% compression ratio+ spar!s timing+ some
aspects o% valve timing+ valve siing+ an# %uel types+ over a range o% engine spee#s.
&% course not every #etail o% /CE per%ormance can 1e accounte# %or+ 1ut #epen#ing on the physical
#etails incorporate# an# their relative importance+ many o% the most important per%ormance
characteristics can 1e #etermine# to a reasona1le #egree o% accuracy. This report #oes not #eal .ith
any structural or mechanical aspects o% an /CE 1eyon# those o% the 1asic geometric %eatures relevant
to the containment an# e'ternal mani%estations o% the Thermo#ynamics processes occurring in the
engine. These thermo#ynamic processes are i#ealie# to a certain #egree in or#er to re#uce the
comple'ity at this stage o% #evelopment o% the engine simulation.
The simulation is 1ase# on the stan#ar# con%iguration o% a reciprocating piston in a cylin#er close#
at one en#+ the cylin#er Phea#P. The piston is connecte# to a cran! 1y .ay o% a connecting ro# that
protru#es out the opposite open en# o% the cylin#er an# connects to a cran!. $igure 6 is a schematic
#iagram o% one cylin#er o% an /CE. The resulting reciprocating motion o% the piston imparts a rotation to
the cran!. This 1asic sli#er7cran! mechanism Kthe piston 1eing the sli#erL transmits po.er generate#
1y a .or!ing %lui#+ or gas+ in the space enclose# 1y the piston+ cylin#er an# cylin#er hea#+ to .hatever
is connecte# to cran!. The cran! is also geare# to a camsha%t that operates the valves in the cylin#er
hea# that perio#ically open an# close to e'pel or inhale the .or!ing gases. Most /CEPs have multiple
cylin#ers operating in unison on a common cran!sha%t. The processes that occur are essentially
i#entical %or each cylin#er so that the analysis nee# 1e #one %or only one cylin#er. The /CE
per%ormance is then simply the num1er o% cylin#ers times the inputDoutput %or a single cylin#er.
10
$igure 6 @ $our stro!e internal com1ustion engine. Q4R
The /CE Thermo#ynamics analysis is 1ase# on the %ollo.ing primary assumptions. "ll
thermo#ynamics processes are assume# to 1e internally reversi1le. The .or!ing me#ium K%uel an# air
mi'turesL is assume# to 1e an i#eal gas .ith constant speci%ic heats. The e8uations o% state %or the
1urne# an# un1urne# me#ia are #erive# on the 1asis o% e8uili1rium chemistry. The gas e'change
process is 1ase# on 8uasi7stea#y compressi1le %lo. through an ori%ice.
$urther secon#ary assumptions an# i#ealiations are #iscusse# in the %ormulation o% the
thermo#ynamics mo#el in the ne't chapters.
11
Chapter 67 /nternal Com1ustion Engine
6.6.The Basic /CE Mechanism
The piston cylin#er7cran! mechanism Kthe sli#er7cran!L is sho.n schematically in $igure *. This
%igure in#icates ho. the up an# #o.n motion o% the piston turns the cran!. The space enclose# 1y the
piston an# the cylin#er is the main concern here. This is .here the latent energy o% the %uel7air mi'ture
is release# 1y com1ustion Ko'i#ie#L to pro#uce the sensi1le energy+ .hich #rives the piston. The top
o% the cylin#er enclosure contains an inta!e an# e'haust valve .hich open an# close at appropriate
moments o% the engine cycle to allo. escape o% 1urne# gases an# ingestion o% %resh %uel7air mi'ture.
$igure * 7 " %our7stro!e spar! ignition cycle. Q4R
The 1asic engine per%ormance cycles are controlle# 1y the cran! rotation. The cran! rotation in
turn moves the piston up an# #o.n+ thus varying the volume V o% the space enclose# 1y the piston
an# cylin#er. This varying volume is the primary controlling %actor o% the se8uence o% thermo#ynamic
events occurring in the piston7cylin#er space. >ence%orth this space .ill 1e re%erre# to simply as the
cylin#er.
The cran! rotation is measure# in terms o% the rotation angle F sho.n in $igure <.
12
$igure < 7 S!etch o% the sli#er cran! mo#el o% piston7cylin#er geometry
"t FM, K 2n L the piston is at the 1ottom7most point in its travel. This point is calle# 1ottom
center+ BC. The cylin#er volume AKFL can 1e sho.n+ 1y an analysis o% the sli#er7cran! mechanism to
1e+
v(0)=V
m
(
1
r
c
+
1
2
(1
1
r
c
)(1+cos(0)+R
c

.
( R
c
sin(0)
2
)))
K6.6L
/n %ormula K6.6L+ Am is the Kma'imumL volume in the cylin#er at BC+ R
c
is the ratio o% connecting
ro# length to s + .here s=stroke + an# r
c
is the compression ratio
V
m
V
c
+ .here Ac is the
KminimumL volume o% the cylin#er at top center KTCL or FMS (2( n1)n) . Ac is calle# the
clearance volume an# V
d
=V
m
V
c
is the 0#isplacement3 volume+ the usual measure o% engine
capacity or+ more commonly+ engine sie.
The calculation o% the instantaneous volume e8uation K6.6L is #iscusse# in 0"ppen#i' ".63.
Using Am as an input varia1le+ some other varia1les such as the Ac+ A# + 1ore K1oL an# stro!e KsL
have to 1e calculate# in or#er to procee#. /t .as assume# that the 1ore .as e8ual to the stro!e in
or#er to simpli%y some e8uations an# to use the minimum ones possi1le+
V
d
=
n
4
b
2
s
K6.*L
13
Vd
Vc
=rc1 K6.<L
Vc=
Vm
rc
K6.?L
h
c
=
4V
c
nbo
K6.4L
assuming that the shape o% the clearance volume is a cylin#er .ith #iameter bo an# height+
h
c
K$igure ?L.
$igure ? @ Basic geometry o% the internal com1ustion engine
The e'pose# total cylin#er area A
w
(0) is the sum o% the cylin#er clearance area an# the
#isplacement area+
A
w
=A
d
+A
c
K6.;L
14
A
w
=
vV
c
bo/8
+A
c
K6.=L
an#
A
c
=nboh
c
+
n
2
bo
2
K6.-L
The operation o% the valves is synchronie# to the motion o% the piston 1y .ay o% gear or chain
#rives %rom the cran!sha%t. This is not sho.n in $igure *. There .ill 1e no nee# %or a #escription o% this
mechanism here since it .ill not 1e ma#e use o%. $or the present it is only necessary to #escri1e the
valve con%iguration an# actual motion o% the valves as a %unction o% the cran! angle F. This .ill 1e
reserve# %or the chapter on the gas e'change process in or#er to !eep the e'position simple at this
stage. The %unction+ o% F+ #escri1ing the motion o% the valves is given as part o% the 1asic engine
speci%ications utilie# in this stu#y. The camsha%t an# valve actuation mechanism must then 1e
#esigne# to realie this valve motion %unction. $or this the rea#er is re%erre# to 1oo!s on engine an#
mechanism #esign given in the 1i1liography.
15
6.*.The E8uations o% State o% the 9or!ing :ases
This gaseous mi'ture is assume# to 1e an i#eal gas+ al1eit .ith #i%%erent e8uations o% state in the
un1urne# an# 1urne# states. The e8uations o% state o% the un1urne# Ksu1script uL an# 1urne#
Ksu1script 1L are #erive# on the 1asis o% com1ustion e8uili1rium chemistry an# the coe%%icients o% the
thermo#ynamic properties are given in Ce%erence 6. These t.o thermo#ynamic la.s apply to the
gaseous %uel7air mi'ture in the cylin#er. The linearie# versions o% the e8uations are use# here. $or
illustrative purpose the %uel use# here is C>? .ith an e8uivalence ratio o% 6 an# .hose properties are
very similar to gasoline. During the process o% com1ustion the cylin#er contains a mi'ture o% the
un1urne# an# 1urne# %uel7air. The mi'ture is 8uanti%ie# 1y the 1urne# to total mass ratio x=
m
b
m
+
.here m=m
b
+m
u
. The e8uations o% state %or %or each o% the gases is
PV
u
=m
u
R
u
T K6.5L
an#
u
u
=Cv
u
T+hf
u
K6.6,L
PV
b
=m
b
R
b
T K6.66L
an#
u
b
=Cv
b
T+hf
b
K6.6*L
then+ i% the gases are homogeneously mi'e#+
PV=m( xR
b
+(1x) R
u
)T =mRT
K6.6<L
an#
U=mu=m( xCv
b
+(1x)Cv
u
)T+xhf
b
+(1x)hf
u
K6.6?L
CAK utilie# the homogeneously mi'e# charge #escri1e# 1y e8uations K6.6<L an# K6.6?L+ .here
dx(t )
dt
is an empirically #etermine# 1urning rate.
&ne o% the main aims o% this stu#y is to implement a more realistic com1ustion mo#el in .hich
un1urne# an# 1urne# gases remain separate#+ ie.+ a 0t.o one3 mo#el.
16
6.<.Thermo#ynamics an# Mathematical Mo#el o% the Engine
The engine operates in a t.o7cycle K? stro!eL mo#e. Each cycle consists o% a complete rotation+
through an angle o% *S+ o% the cran!. The %irst cycle is calle# the po.er cycle in .hich 1oth valves are
close# an# the po.er o% the engine is pro#uce#. This cycle consists o% the compressions stro!e
roughly %rom FM, to FMS+ in .hich the %uel7air mi'ture in the cylin#er is compresse#+ %ollo.e# 1y the
e'pansion stro!e+ roughly %rom FMS to FM*S+ in .hich the main positive engine .or! is #one. The
secon# cycle is calle# the gas e'change cycle in .hich the 1urne# gases %rom the e'pansion stro!e
are e'pelle# Ke'haust stro!e+ FM*S to FM<SL an# %resh %uel7air is ingeste# Kinta!e stro!e+ FM<S to
FM?SL.
These t.o cycles are completely #escri1e# 1y the main t.o la.s o% thermo#ynamics governing the
un1urne# an# 1urne# %uel7air mi'ture in the cylin#er. The t.o la.s are the Conservation o% Mass+
dm
dt
= m
i
m
e
K6.64L
an# the Conservation o% Energy K6
st
(a. o% Thermo#ynamicsL+
dU
dt
=

Q

W+

H
i

H
e
K6.6;L
>ere m is the mass o% 1urne# plus un1urne# %uel7air mi'ture in the cylin#er at any instant o% time t+
m
i
an# m
e
are the mass %lo. rates into an# out the cylin#er+ respectively

Q ,

W ,

H
i
an#

H
e
is the heat rate into or out o% the cylin#er+ the .or! rate into or out o% the cylin#er+ the enthalpy
%lo. rate into the cylin#er+ an# the enthalpy %lo. rate out the cylin#er respectively.
/n the application o% these e8uations to the analysis o% the engine cycles at constant spee#
Kconstant cran! angular velocity+ HL+ it is the most convenient to trans%orm time t to angle F 1y the
e8uation dt =d 0 . Then the time #erivatives in e8uations K6.64L an# K6.6;L are replace# 1y
angle #erivatives an# the I over sym1ols is replace# 1y J over the sym1ols to signi%y that rates are
.ith respect to angle instea# o% time. Then+
17
dm
d 0
= m
i
m
e K6.6=L
dU
d 0
=

Q

W+

H
i

H
e K6.6-L
18
Chapter * 7 Po.er Cycle
This chapter presents the thermo#ynamics theory #escri1ing the main physical phenomena
occurring insi#e an /CE.
The thermo#ynamic mo#els o% the %our movements+ or stro!es+ o% the piston 1e%ore the entire
engine %iring se8uence is repeate#+ are #escri1e# in this chapter an# chapter <.
*.6./ntro#uction
/n this cycle+ the valves are close# so there is no mass e'change an# it is .here the main po.er o%
the engine is pro#uce#.
This cycle consists in a complete rotation .hich is characterie# 1y t.o stages:
KaL Compression stage 7 roughly %rom =0 to just 1e%ore the spar! plug goes o%%+
0
s
=0.88 + in .hich the %uel7air mi'ture in the cylin#er is compresse#. The value o%
0
s
given is typical. "ll engines start com1ustion 1e%ore TC (0=n) . This calle# spar!
a#vance.
K1L Com1ustion stage 7 roughly %rom
s
to just 1e%ore e'haust valve opens+
0
evo
=2n6
+ .here 6>0 #epen#ing on some %actors+ such as the %lame spee# an#
piston spee#. Com1ustion 1egins #uring compression an# most e'pansion.
/n the 1eginning o% this cycle+ the cylin#er an# the com1ustion cham1er are %ull o% the lo. pressure
%resh %uelDair mi'ture an# resi#ual Ke'haust gasL+ as the piston 1egins to move+ the inta!e valve closes.
9ith 1oth valves close#+ the com1ination o% the cylin#er an# com1ustion cham1er %orm a completely
close# vessel containing the %uelDair mi'ture. "s the piston is pushe# to the TC+ the volume is re#uce#
an# the %uelDair mi'ture is compresse# #uring the compression stro!e.
"s the volume is #ecrease# 1ecause o% the pistonPs motion+ the pressure in the gas is increase#+
as #escri1e# 1y the la.s o% thermo#ynamics.
Sometime 1e%ore the piston reaches TC o% the compression stro!e+ the electrical contact is
opene#. The su##en opening o% the contact pro#uces a spar! in the com1ustion cham1er .hich
ignites the %uelDair mi'ture. Capi# com1ustion o% the %uel releases heat+ an# pro#uces e'haust gases in
the com1ustion cham1er. Because the inta!e an# e'haust valves are close#+ the com1ustion o% the
19
%uel ta!es place in a totally enclose# Kan# nearly constant volumeL vessel. The com1ustion increases
the temperature o% the e'haust gases+ any resi#ual air in the com1ustion cham1er+ an# the
com1ustion cham1er itsel%. $rom the i#eal gas la.+ the increase# temperature o% the gases also
pro#uces an increase# pressure in the com1ustion cham1er. The high pressure o% the gases acting
on the %ace o% the piston cause the piston to move to the BC .hich pro#uces .or!.
Unli!e the compression stro!e+ the hot gas #oes .or! on the piston #uring the e'pansion stro!e.
The %orce on the piston is transmitte# 1y the piston ro# to the cran!sha%t+ .here the linear motion o%
the piston is converte# to angular motion o% the cran!sha%t. The .or! #one on the piston is then use#
to turn the sha%t+ an# to compress the gases in the neigh1oring cylin#erPs compression stro!e.
"s the volume increase #uring the e'pansion+ the pressure an# temperature o% the gas ten#s to
#ecrease once the com1ustion is complete#.
*.*.Compression stage
*.*.6 Thermo#ynamic Mo#el o% the compression stage
During this stage+ the energy 1alance on the in7cylin#er gas is+
dU
d 0
=

Q

W K*.6L
"s 1oth valves are close# there is no mass e'change so

dm
d 0
= m
i
= m
e
=0 K*.*L
"%ter the alge1raic manipulation sho.n in 0"ppen#i' ".*3 e8uation K*.6L 1ecomes+
dT
d 0
=

Q
mA
( xR
b
+(1x) R
u
)
T
AV
dV
d 0

ACvT+Ahf
A
dx
d 0
K*.<L
.here the 8uantity A=xACv+Cv
u
.
"t this stage+ the mass o% gases in the cylin#er is primarily un1urne#. >o.ever+ there is a small
amount o% 1urne# gas+ calle# resi#ual gases (m
r
) .hich remains a%ter the e'haust stro!e. These
20
gases are homogeneously mi'e#+ .here x=
m
r
m
. Thus e8uations K6.6<L an# K6.6?L #o apply %or this
part o% the cycle.
*.*.* >eat trans%er
>eat trans%er plays an important role insi#e an /CE 1ecause it a%%ects the engine per%ormance+
e%%iciency+ an# emissions.
0The pea! 1urne# gas temperature in the cylin#er o% an internal com1ustion engine is o% or#er
*4,,K. Ma'imum metal temperatures %or the insi#e o% the com1ustion cham1er space are limite# to
much lo.er values 1y a num1er o% consi#erations+ an# cooling %or the cylin#er hea#+ cylin#er+ an#
piston must there%ore 1e provi#e#. These con#itions lea# to heat %lu'es to the cham1er .alls that can
reach as high as 6, M9Dm
*
#uring the com1ustion perio#.3Q6R
/n regions o% high heat trans%er+ it is necessary to estimate it in or#er to avoi# thermal stresses that
.oul# cause %atigue crac!ing in the enginePs materials K0temperatures must 1e less than a1out ?,,TC
%or cast iron an# <,,TC %or aluminum alloys3Q6RL
The critical areas #ue to the heat trans%er insi#e an /CE are the enginePs piston .hich is e'pose# to
the gases at the com1ustion cham1er an# e'haust system that contains the e'haust valve .hich is
e'pose# to the e'haust gases that %lo. past it at high velocities Kma!ing %or goo# heat trans%erL.
$or a given mass o% %uel .ithin the cylin#er+ higher heat trans%er to the com1ustion cham1er .alls
.ill lo.er the average com1ustion gas temperature an# pressure+ an# re#uce the .or! per cycle
trans%erre# to the piston. Thus speci%ic po.er an# e%%iciency are a%%ecte# 1y the magnitu#e o% engine
heat trans%er.
The source o% the heat %lu' is not only the hot com1ustion gases+ 1ut also the engine %riction that
occurs 1et.een the piston rings an# the cylin#er .all .hich .ill not 1e containe# in this .or!. >eat
trans%er #ue to the %riction is negligi1le.
0The ma'imum heat %lu' through the engine components occurs at %ully open throttle an# at
ma'imum spee#. Pea! heat %lu'es are on the or#er o% 6 to 6, M9Dm
*
. The heat %lu' increases .ith
increasing engine loa# an# spee#. The heat %lu' is largest in the center o% the cylin#er hea#+ the
e'haust valve seat an# the center o% the piston. "1out 4,U o% the heat %lo. to the engine coolant is
through the engine hea# an# valve seats+ <,U through the cylin#er sleeve or .alls+ an# the remaining
*,U through the e'haust port area.3Q<R
21
There%ore+ heat trans%er is a very important parameter in an engine 1ecause it is re8uire# %or a
num1er o% important reasons+ inclu#ing enginePs per%ormance an# e%%iciency+ material temperature
limits+ lu1ri%icant per%ormance limits+ emissions+ an# !noc! Ksee appen#i' B.6L.
aL >eat trans%er mo#eling
/n the previe.s e8uations+ the #i%%erential heat trans%er is represente# 1y

Q .
The #i%%erential heat trans%er

Q to the cylin#er .alls can 1e calculate# i% the instantaneous

average cylin#er heat trans%er coe%%icient hgKFL an# engine spee# EKMrpmL are !no.n.
The average heat trans%er rate at any cran! angle F to the e'pose# cylin#er .all at an engine
spee# E is #etermine# .ith a Ee.tonian convection e8uation:

Q=h
!
(0) A
w
(0)(T (0)Tw)/ " K*.?L
The cylin#er .all temperature T. is the area7.eighte# mean o% the temperatures o% the e'pose#
cylin#er .all+ the hea#+ an# the piston cro.n. The heat trans%er coe%%icient hgKFL is the instantaneous
average# heat trans%er coe%%icient. "t this stage+ the e'pose# cylin#er area ".KFL is the sum o% the
cylin#er 1ore area+ the cylin#er hea# area an# the piston cro.n area+ assuming a %lat cylin#er hea#.
1L >eat trans%er coe%%icient
The instantaneous heat trans%er coe%%icient+ h
!
(0) #uring the po.er cycle #epen#s on the gas
spee# an# cylin#er pressure+ .hich change signi%icantly #uring the com1ustion process.
There are t.o correlations that are use# to get the heat trans%er coe%%icient+ the "nnan# an# the
9oschni correlation. >o.ever+ to compute the heat trans%er coe%%icient it .as use# an empirical
%ormula %or a spar! ignition engine given in >an et al.K655=L+
h
!
=687P
0.75
U
0.75
bo
0.25
T
0.465
K*.4L
22
.ith some slightly mo#i%ications.
The units o% hg+ P+ U+ 1 an# T are 9Dm
*
K+ !Pa+ mDs+ m an# K+ respectively.
The heat trans%er coe%%icient can also 1e o1taine# using the average# heat trans%er coe%%icient
correlation o% C. $. Taylor KNThe /nternal Com1ustion Engine in Theory an# PracticeN+ M/T Press+
65-4L+
hb
k
=10.4m
(3/4)
(
U b
V j
)
(3/ 4)
K*.;L
.here ! is gas thermal con#uctivity an# j the gas !inematic con#uctivity.
>o.ever+ this %ormula can 1e manipulate# into the %orm+
h
!
=C #P
0.75
U
0.75
bo
0.25
T
0.75
K*.=L
$ormula K*.4L #i%%ers %rom this only 1y the coe%%icient CP an# the po.er o% T. 9e have %oun# that the
value o% CPM<,, along .ith the po.er o% T in %ormula K*.;L seems to 1e more reasona1le.
h
!
=300P
0.75
U
0.75
bo
0.25
T
0.465
/ 1000 K*.-L
Eote that the unit use# %or energy in the 0Scila13 simulation .as !V+ so+ e8uation K*.-L .as #ivi#e#
1y 6,,, to get everything in the same units.
/n e8uation K*.-L+ U is an empirical piston spee# an# calculate# using the e8uation+
U=0.494U$+0.7310
6
( PdV +VdP) K*.5L
.here
U$=
( 2"%)
60
K*.6,L
is the actual piston spee#. /t is very unclear .hat the last term+ ( PdV+VdP) + in e8uation K*.5L
23
means. Since the coe%%icient o% this term is very small+ .e le%t it out.
*.<.Com1ustion stage
/n the po.er cycle chemical com1ustion commences .ith spar! ignition at the point Fs o% cran!
angle just 1e%ore BC on the compression stro!e+
0
s
=0.88n
.
The com1ustion processes that occur in an /CE are very comple' an# there are many types o%
mo#els .hich can #escri1e it. The com1ustion mo#el use# 1y CAK .as 1ase# on a single one
homogeneously mi'e# 1urning mass .ith a constant 1urning rate. This is a mo#el .ith empirical
1urning rates that #oes %airly .ell+ 1ut #oes not capture true com1ustion rates.
9e no. intro#uce a some.hat more sophisticate# com1ustion mo#el. /n the one one mo#el %irstly
use#+ the rate o% com1ustion is assume# to 1e proportional to cran! angle. This is the main
assumption .e .oul# li!e to remove. /t is .ell !no.n that the com1ustion rate has its o.n #ynamics
an# #oes not %ollo. cran! angle. The com1ustion rate #epen#s on the #ynamics o% the gas motion
insi#e the cylin#er+ especially the tur1ulence level. "s engine spee# increases+ the tur1ulence level
increases an# thus com1ustion rate increase+ 1ut it #oes not increase at the same rate as engine
spee#. /n or#er to capture this e%%ect an# assess its impact on engine per%ormance .e no. #evelop a
t.o one com1ustion mo#el. The mo#el use# consists in a t.o one analysis o% the com1ustion
cham1er .hich contains an un1urne# an# 1urne# gas region separate# 1y a tur1ulent %lame %ront. The
%lame %ront progresses at a tur1ulent %lame spee#. The tur1ulence mo#el use# that #etermines the
%lame spee# is given in Q*R.
*.<.6 Com1ustion mo#eling
/n an /CE the %uel an# air are mi'e# together in the inta!e system+ in#ucte# through the inta!e
valve into the cylin#er+ .here mi'ing .ith resi#ual gas ta!e place+ an# then compresse#. Un#er
normal operating con#itions+ com1ustion is initiate# to.ar#s the en# o% the compression stro!e at the
spar! plug 1y an electric #ischarge. $ollo.ing in%lammation+ a tur1ulent %lame #evelops+ propagates
through this premi'e# %uel+ air+ 1urne# gas mi'ture until it reaches the com1ustion cham1ers .alls+
an# then e'tinguishes.
$rom this #escription it is plausi1le to #ivi#e the com1ustion process into three #istinct phases:
K6L Spar! ignition
K*L Com1ustion #evelopment
24
K<L Com1ustion termination
The un#erstan#ing o% each o% these phases .ill 1e #evelope# ne't.
K6L Spar! /gnition
/gnition is treate# as an a1rupt #iscontinuity 1et.een the compression an# 1urn stages .ith the
instantaneous conversion o% a speci%ie# mass %raction f o% the reactants to pro#ucts. This pro#uces
the un1urne# an# 1urne# one+ each assume# to 1e homogeneous an# hence characterie# 1y its
o.n single state.
Using the 6
st
la. e8uation %or 1urne# gas #evelope# later in this section
&
b
Cv
b
dT
b
dt
=

Q
b
P
dV
b
dt
+

&
b
(C$
u
T
u
Cv
b
T
b
+hf
u
hf
b
) K*.66L
integrate it over a small time interval At Kor A0 L . Then 1y use o% the mean value theorem+ one
o1tains Ksee 0"ppen#i' ".<3L+

T
b
=
1
C
vb
(C
$u
T
u
+(Ah
f
)

P

V
b

&
b
) K*.6*L
.here the 0#ou1le #ots3 represent the moment right a%ter the spar! goes on+ 0
s
+c .

T
b
is the
initial value o% the temperature in the 1urne# one right a%ter spar!.
K*L Com1ustion #evelopment
"%ter the ignition+ use%ul com1ustion cham1er #esign in%ormation can 1e generate# .ith simple
geometric mo#els o% the %lame. Usually+ the sur%ace .hich #e%ines the lea#ing e#ge o% the %lame can
1e appro'imate# 1y a portion o% the sur%ace o% a sphere. Thus the mean 1urne# gas %ront can also 1e
appro'imate# 1y a sphere. >o.ever+ in this stu#y .e are mainly intereste# in overall per%ormance an#
not in #etaile# com1ustion cham1er #esign. >ence .e .ill use a simpli%ie# mo#el o% the com1ustion
cham1er an# %lame %ront.
aL Engine com1ustion Cham1er Design
25
There are a large num1er o% options %or the /CE cham1er #esign .hich inclu#es cylin#er hea# an#
piston cro.n shape+ spar! plug location+ sie an# num1er o% valves+ an# inta!e port #esign. The
#esign o% these important parts o% the /CE revolves aroun# issues such as cham1er compactness+
sur%aceDvolume ratio+ %lame travel length+ the %uel mi'ture motion an# more important the 1urning
velocity.
/t is !no.n+ that the com1ustion cham1er #esign .hich increases the 1urning velocity+ %avors the
engine per%ormance. 9hen the %uel 1urning process ta!es place %aster + occupies a shorter cran!
angle interval at a given engine spee#+ pro#uces less heat trans%er K#ue to lo.er 1urne# gas
temperaturesL an# increases e%%iciency.
/llustrations o% each o% the most commons e'amples /CE cham1er shapes .hich pro#uces a 0%ast
1urn3 .ill 1e given ne't K$igure 4L+

$igure 4 @ E'ample o% common internal com1ustion engine cham1ers: KaL hemispherical cham1erO K1L .e#ge
shape# cham1erO KcL 1athtu1 cham1erO K#L 1o.l W piston .ith %lathea# on the right. Q;R
26
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
/n the scila1Ps program it .as assume# that the com1ustion cham1er .as the simplest possi1le+ so
the piston is %lat on top+ the location o% the spar! plug is in the mi##le o% the cylin#er 1et.een the
valves an# the com1ustion cham1er has a cylin#rical geometry. Using this shape an# !no.ing that the
com1ustion reaction is so 8uic!+ it is possi1le to assume that the mean 1urne# gas %ront can also 1e
appro'imate# 1y a cylin#er instea# 1y a sphere .ithout committing signi%icant errors as regar#s
overall per%ormance
1L Com1ustion cham1er consi#erations
"ssuming that the 1urne# one is a cylin#er o% height+ h an# ra#ius+ r at any instant o% F an#
using the mo#el .hich consists in a t.o one analysis o% the com1ustion cham1er .hich contains an
un1urne# an# 1urne# gas region separate# 1y a tur1ulent %lame %ront K$igure ;L+

$igure ; @ S!etch o% the %ront shape o% the com1ustion cham1er
/t is possi1le to pre#ict ho. the ra#ius+ r is going to change #uring the %lame travel+ assuming a
linear #istri1ution as it .ill 1e e'plaine# ne't.
The variation o% the 1urne# ra#ius #ue to the change o% the cran! angle can 1e e'presse# 1y the
appro'imation K$igure =L+
27
Bore
Unburned zone
Burned zone
r(F)
$igure = 7 Schematic o% 1urne# ra#ius as a %unction o% the cran! angle
.here R=
bo
2
+ an# 0
d
is the angle 0 at .hich the 1urne# gas cylin#er reaches the engine
cylin#er .all. 0
d
is #etermine# 1y the %lame spee#

V
f
Kin terms o% angular ratesL+
Then+
r=
dr
d 0
=0 %or 00
s
r=

V
f
(00
s
) an#
dr
d 0
=

V
f
%or 0
s
00
d
r=R an#
dr
d 0
=0 %or 0>0
d
The %lame spee#

V
f
is given 1y the tur1ulence mo#el. See 0"ppen#i' ".?3 %or r mathematical
#evelopment.
Being h=h(0) the height %rom piston+ at any instant o% F+ to the top o% the cylin#er+ comes
h=
v
(nR
2
)
K*.6?L
.here v is the total volume o% the cylin#er.
The 1urne# an# un1urne# volume an# mass are easy to pre#ict+ no. that r an# h are
!no.n.
The 1urne# volume is+
V
b
=nhr
2
K*.64L
so
28
(2.13)
V
b
=
1
R
2
vr
2
K*.6;L
an# its #erivative
dV
b
d 0
=
1
R
2
r
2 dv
d 0
+
2vr
R
2
dv
d 0
K*.6=L
the un1urne# volume comes+
V
u
=vV
b
K*.6-L
$inally+ assuming that m
b
is proportional to V
b
+ it is possi1le to say+
m
b
m
=
V
b
v
K*.65L
then+ the 1urne# mass is
m
b
=
m
v
V
b
K*.*,L
its #erivative
dm
b
d 0
=m(
1
v
dV
b
d 0

V
b
v
2
dv
d 0
)
K*.*6L
an# the un1urne# mass is
m
u
=mm
b
K*.**L
an# its #erivative
dm
u
d 0
=
dm
b
d 0
K*.*<L
cL Thermo#ynamic mo#el
The energy 1alance on the un1urne# one is
dU
u
dt
=

Q
u
P'
dV
u
dt


&
b
h
u
K*.*?L
29
.here
dm
u
dt
=

&
u
=

&
b
+

&
u
is the mass trans%er rate to the un1urne# one an#

&
b
is the
mass trans%er rate to the 1urne# oneO

Q
u
is the heat trans%er rate %rom the un1urne# one to the
.allsO P is the pressure in the cylin#erO
V
u
the un1urne# volumeO an#
U
u
is the total internal
energy in the un1urne# one.
"%ter the alge1raic manipulation e'plaine# in 0"ppen#i' ".43 this e8uation 1ecomes+
&
u
Cv
u
dT
u
dt
=

Q
u
P
dV
u
dt
+

&
b
(Cv
u
C$
u
)T
u
K*.*4L
The energy 1alance %or the 1urne# one is
dU
b
dt
=

Q
b
P'
dV
b
dt
+

&
b
h
u
K*.*;L
.here
dm
b
dt
=

&
b
O .here

Q
b
is the heat trans%er rate %rom the 1urne# one to the .allsO V
b
an# U
b
are the volume an# internal energy o% the 1urne# one. The mass 1alances are

&
b
=
d&
b
dt
K*.*=L
an#

&
u
=
d&
b
dt
K*.*-L
.here &
b
an# &
u
are the one masses.
"%ter the alge1raic manipulation e'plaine# in 0"ppen#i' ".;3 e8uation K*.*;L 1ecomes++
&
b
Cv
b
dT
b
dt
=

Q
b
P
dV
b
dt
+

&
b
(C$
u
T
u
Cv
b
T
b
+hf
u
hf
b
) K*.*5L
K<L Com1ustion termination
The en# o% the com1ustion occurs .hen the %lame %ront reaches the .alls o% the cylin#er+
30
r=R
/% the en# o% the com1ustion process is progressively #elaye# 1y retar#ing the spar! timing+ or
#ecreasing the %lame spee# 1y #ecreasing the piston spee#+ the pea! cylin#er pressure occurs later in
the e'pansion stro!e an# is re#uce# in magnitu#e. These change re#uce the e'pansion stro!e .or!
trans%er %rom the cylin#er gases to the piston.
*.<.* Tur1ulence characteristics
The %lo. processes in the engine cylin#er are tur1ulent. /n tur1ulent %lo.s+ the rates o% trans%er an#
mi'ing are several times greater than the rates #ue to molecular #i%%usion. This tur1ulent %lo. is
pro#uce# 1y the high shear %lo. set up #uring the inta!e process an# mo#i%ie# #uring compression. /t
lea#s to increase# rates o% heat+ mass trans%er an# %lame propagation+ so+ is essential to the
satis%actory operation o% the /CE.
This section e'plains the structure o% the tur1ulent engine %lame in the com1ustion process+ as it
#evelops %rom the spar! #ischarge an# the spee# at .hich it propagates across the com1ustion
cham1er.
The tur1ulence mo#el is 1ase# on e8uations that #escri1e the evolution o% tur1ulence in a %lui#
.here the #ensity is a %unction only o% time. $or #etails see Q*R.
The tur1ulence !inetic energy per unit mass+ k is #escri1e# 1y+
dk
dt
=P(+
1
&
c
( ) *k
d&
c
dt
) K*.<,L
During the 1urn stage the tur1ulence energies o% the 1urne# an# un1urne# gases are trac!e#
together using the a1ove e8uation .ith just the P an# D terms+
dk
dt
=P( K*.<6L
1ecause #uring the com1ustion there is no mass trans%er+ so
d&
c
dt
=0 an# ) an# * are
31
%unctions o%
d&
c
dt
.
The term P is the tur1ulence energy pro#uction rate per unit mass an# is mo#ele# 1y+
P=+
$
A
w
v
(U )
3

2
3
k
1
v
dv
dt
K*.<*L
.here the %irst term accounts %or tur1ulence pro#uction #ue to the strain in the shear %lo. on the .alls
an# the secon# the e%%ects o% compression.
D is the tur1ulence energy #issipation rate per unit mass an# is mo#ele# 1y+
(=+
d
kV
t
v
(1/3)
K*.<<L
The coe%%icients +
$
an# +
d
are parameters that can 1e set 1y re%erence to e'periments. To
get the respective values %or each term+ the Engine Simulation Program KESPL .hich is availa1le in
the /nternet at the site 0http:DDesp.stan%or#.e#uD3 .as re%erence#.
Using the tur1ulence e8uation an# the ne't t.o e8uations+ it is possi1le to estimate V
f
.hich is
the velocity o% the %lame %ront relative to the un1urne# gases+
k=
V
t
2
2
K*.<?L
an#
V
f
=V
,
+C
f
V
t
K*.<4L
.here V
t
is the tur1ulence velocity in the un1urne# one+ V
,
is the speci%ie# laminar %lame spee#
an# C
f
is a speci%ie# coe%%icient+ appro'imately unity. The value %or V
,
.as o1taine# %rom the
ESP.
"%ter having the V
f
estimate#+ it is possi1le to ma!e a realistic appro'imation to the real
variation o% the 1urne# ra#ius. Kno.ing that+
dr
dt
=V
f
K*.<;L
32
an# dt =
1
w
d 0 comes+
dr
d 0
=
V
f
w
K*.<=L
$inally+ the real variation o% the 1urne# ra#ius #ue to the change o% the cran! angle .hen
0
s
00
d
can 1e e'presse# 1y the ne't e8uation+
r=
V
f
w
(00
s
) K*.<-L
an#
dr
d 0
=
V
f
w
%or 0
s
00
d
K*.<5L
*.<.< >eat Trans%er
The heat trans%er mo#el use# in this report is the same as 1e%ore.
>o.ever+ since .e are using the t.o one com1ustion mo#el+ #uring the #evelopment o% the
com1ustion+ #i%%erent 8uantities o% heat are release# %rom the 1urne# an# un1urne# one.
"pplying the Ee.tonian convection e8uation+

Q=h
!
(0) A
w
(0)(T (0)T
w
)/ " K*.?,L
The only thing that .ill change in this t.o one com1ustion mo#el are the e'pose# 1urne# an#
un1urne# areas as sho.n in %igure -.
$igure - @ "reas evolution #uring the com1ustion
33
The e'pose# 1urne# area varies in %unction o% the 1urne# ra#ius+
A
wb
=nr
2
K*.?6L
the e'pose# un1urne# area comes+
A
wu
=A
w
A
wb
K*.?*L
$inally+ the heat trans%er e8uation %or the the 1urne# one is+

Q
wb
=h!A
wb
(T
b
T
w
)/ " K*.?<L
.here+
h
!
=300P
0.75
U
0.75
bo
0.25
T
b
0.465
/ 1000 K*.??L
an# the heat trans%er e8uation %or the un1urne# one is+

Q
wu
=h!A
wu
(T
u
T
w
)/ " K*.?4L
.here+
h
!
=300P
0.75
U
0.75
bo
0.25
T
u
0.465
/ 1000 K*.?;L
.here the units o% hg+ P+ U+ 1 an# T are !9Dm
*
K+ !Pa+ mDs+ m an# K+ respectively. The piston spee#+ U
is given 1y e8uations K*.5L an# K*.6,L.
*.?. Completely 1urne# gas e'pansion
The 1urning stage lasts until the piston has progresse# 1eyon# TC+ 1ut en#s 1e%ore the piston has
#escen#e# to the point o% 0=0
evo
near BC. The e'pansion %rom the en# o% com1ustion to 0
evo
involves completely 1urne# gas.
34
*.?.6 Thermo#ynamic e8uation o% 1urne# gas e'pansion
During this stage+ the energy 1alance on the in7cylin#er gas is+
dU
d 0
=

Q

W K*.?=L
"s 1oth valves are close# there is no mass e'change so
dm
d 0
= m
i
= m
e
=0 K*.?-L
"%ter the alge1raic manipulation sho.n in 0"ppen#i' ".=3 comes+
dT
d 0
=

Q
mACv
R
b
T
ACvV
dV
d 0
K*.?5L
*.?.* >eat Trans%er
"t this stage+ the heat release rate at any cran! angle F to the e'pose# cylin#er .all at an engine
spee# E is #etermine# .ith a Ee.tonian convection e8uation+

Q=h
!
(0) A
w
(0)(T (0)T
w
)/ " K*.4,L
The heat trans%er coe%%icient hgKFL is the instantaneous average# heat trans%er coe%%icient an#
A
w
is the e'pose# cylin#er area.
The instantaneous heat trans%er coe%%icient #uring the e'pansion stage is estimate# in the same
.ay as the heat trans%er coe%%icient in the compression stage.
h
!
=300P
0.75
U
0.75
bo
0.25
T
b
0.465
/ 1000 K*.46L
35
.here the units o% hg+ P+ U+ 1 an# T are !9Dm
*
K+ !Pa+ mDs+ m an# K+ respectively. The piston spee#+ U
is given 1y e8uations K*.5L an# K*.6,L.
36
Chapter < @ :as e'change cycle
This cycle #eals .ith the %un#amentals o% the gas e'change process+ inta!e an# e'haust an# the
valves mechanism in a %our stro!e internal com1ustion engine+ calle# the gas e'change cycle . &nly a
1rie% e'planation a1out the thermo#ynamics state an# gas %lo. rate .ill 1e given.
This cycle is calle# the gas e'change cycle 1ecause it is .here the 1urne# gases %rom the
e'pansion stro!e are e'pelle# Ke'haust stro!e+ 0=0
evo
2n to FM<SL an# %resh %uel7air is ingeste#
Kingeste# stro!e+ 0
ivo
to 0=4n L.
This cycle is also #escri1e# 1y the main t.o la.s o% thermo#ynamics governing the un1urne# an#
1urne# %uel7air mi'ture in the cylin#er.
The gas e'change process is 1ase# on a 0per%ect valve timing3. /n per%ect valve timing the e'haust
valve closes e'actly .hen the cylin#er pressure #rops 1elo. e'haust system pressure+ 1ut a%ter TC at
0=3n . Then 1oth valves remain close# .hile the piston #escen#s Ke'pan#ing the cylin#er
volumeL until the cylin#er pressure reaches the inta!e system pressure+ .hich is less than the
e'haust pressure %or unsupercharge# engines.
<.6.Aalve action
Aalves allo. the gas e'change to occur. Aalve opening an# closing control is calle# valve timing.
The valves action occurs %or the %ollo.ing values o% F+
e'haust valve opens KevoL at 0=0
evo
=2nn/9 O
e'haust valve closes KevcL at
0=0
evc
=3n
O
inta!e valve opens KivoL at 0=0
ivo
#etermine# 1y inta!e pressureO
inta!e valve closes KivcL at
0=0
evo
=4n
.
<.6.6 :eometry
The valves are #riven 1y a cam that rotates at hal% the spee# o% the cran!sha%t.
The valve %lo. area #epen#s on valve li%t an# the geometric #etails o% the valve hea#+ seat an#
stem.
37
Curt-in-re-=n(. K<.6L
an#
Port -re-=
1
4
n( (
2
d
2
) K<.*L
.here . =. (0) is the valve li%t+ D the port #iameter an# # the stem #iameter.
/t can 1e .ritten mathematically as+
A
v
=min(n(. (0) ,
1
4
n( (
2
d
2
)) K<.<L
The valve li%t+ . (0) is usually a curve that loo!s li!e %igure 5+
$igure 5 7 Typical e'haust valve timing #iagram
"ppro'imating this curve 1y the %ormula+
. (0)=
.
m
2
(1cos(0)) K<.?L
.here .
m
is the ma'imum valve li%t an# usually
.
m
>
( (
2
d
2
)
4D
K<.4L
38
<.6.* /sentropic %lo. thought an ori%ice
$rom the gas #ynamics+ the isentropic %lo. through an ori%ice is given 1y+
m=j
o
C
f
A
v
c
o
(
2
k1
((
P
v
P
o
)
(
2
k
)
(
P
v
P
o
)
(
k+1
k
)
))
(
1
2
)
K<.;L
as long as+
P
o
P
v
(
P
o
P
v
)
cr
=(
k+1
2
)
(
k
k+1
)
K<.=L
i%
P
o
P
v
(
P
o
P
v
)
cr
K<.-L
then
m= m
cr
=j
o
C
f
A
v
c
o
(
2
k+1
)
(
k +1
2( k+1)
)
K<.5L
9hen
P
o
P
v
(
P
o
P
v
)
cr
the %lo. is 0cho!e#3. This means that the %lo. right at the ori%ice Kthe valve passageL is 0sonic3. "t this
con#ition only m
cr
KMconstantL can pass through the valve passage regar#less o% ho. small .e
ma!e
P
v
P
o
Ksee %igure 6,L. Eote that P
o
is the upstream pressure Kstagnation pressureL an#
P
v
is the #o.nstream Kstatic pressure @ just 01ehin#3 valveL.
39
$igure 6, @ /sentropic %lo. through an ori%ice
$or an i#eal gas+
j
o
=
P
o
RT
o
K<.6,L
an# c
o
is the spee# o% soun#+
c
o
=
.
kRT
o
K<.66L
Eote that the spee# o% soun# goes up .ith the upstream temperature. "n# note that the upstream
%or e'haust is the cylin#er temperature an# the upstream %or inta!e is the mani%ol# temperature .hich
is much less than cylin#er temperature. That is .hy e'haust valve is smaller than inta!e valve.
The non7i#eal e%%ects are accounte# 1y intro#ucing a %lo. coe%%icient C%+ .hich is here assume# to
1e
C
f
0.40
.
<.*. E'haust stage
The con%iguration o% the e'haust system plays an important role %or a goo# engine per%ormance.
The e'haust system typically consists o% an e'haust mani%ol#+ e'haust pipe+ o%ten a catalytic
converter %or emission control+ an# a mu%%ler or silencer. My stu#y concerns only .ith the e'haust
stro!e .hich procee#s the po.er stro!e cycle.
"t the en# o% the po.er stro!e+ the piston is locate# at the 1ottom center+ FM*S . >eat that is le%t
over %rom the po.er stro!e is no. trans%ere# to the .ater in the .ater jac!et until the pressure
approaches atmospheric pressure. The e'haust valve is then opene# 1y the cam on the roc!er arm to
1egin the e'haust stro!e.
The purpose o% the e'haust stro!e is to clear the cylin#er o% the spent e'haust in preparation %or
40
another ignition cycle. "s the e'haust stro!e 1egins+ the cylin#er an# com1ustion cham1er are %ull o%
e'haust pro#ucts at lo. pressure. Because the e'haust valve is open+ the e'haust gas is pushe# past
the valve an# e'its the engine.
<.*.6 Thermo#ynamics Mo#el o% the E'haust stage
"s it .as sai#+ this stro!e is also #escri1e# 1y the main t.o la.s o% thermo#ynamics. The energy
1alance %or the e'haust stro!e is+
dU
d 0
=

Q

W

H
e
K<.6*L
"s the inta!e valve is close# there is no mass e'change trough it so m
i
=

H
i
=0 an# as the
e'haust valve is opene# comes
dm
d 0
= m
e
.
"%ter the alge1raic manipulation sho.n in 0"ppen#i' ".-3 comes+
dT
(d 0)
=

Q
( mC
vb
)

R
b
T
(VC
vb
)
dV
( d 0)

m
b
m
R
b
T
C
vb
K<.6<L
<.*.* >eat trans%er
"t this stage+ the heat release rate at any cran! angle F to the e'pose# cylin#er .all at an engine
spee# E is #etermine# .ith a Ee.tonian convection e8uation+

Q=h
!
(0) A
w
(0)(T (0)T
w
)/ " K<.6?L
The heat trans%er coe%%icient hgKFL is the instantaneous average# heat trans%er coe%%icient an# is the
e'pose# cylin#er area.
The instantaneous heat trans%er coe%%icient #uring the e'pansion stage is estimate# in the same
.ay as the heat trans%er coe%%icient in the compression stage.
41
h
!
=300P
0.75
U
0.75
bo
0.25
T
b
0.465
/ 1000 K<.64L
.here the units o% hg+ P+ U+ 1 an# T are !9Dm
*
K+ !Pa+ mDs+ m an# K+ respectively. The piston
spee#+ U is given 1y e8uations K*.5L an# K*.6,L.
*.<. /nta!e stage
The e'change cycle en#s .ith the inta!e stro!e as the piston is pulle# to.ar#s the cran!sha%t Kto
the 1ottom center position+ BCL as the inta!e valves opens an# %uel Kun1urne# gasL an# air are #ra.n
past it an# into the com1ustion cham1er an# cylin#er %rom the inta!e mani%ol# locate# on top o% the
com1ustion cham1er. The e'haust valve is close# an# the electrical contact s.itch is open. The
%uelDair mi'ture is at a relatively lo. pressure Knear atmosphericL. "t the en# o% the inta!e stro!e+ the
piston is locate# at the 1ottom center position+ rea#y to 1egin the po.er cycle.
/nta!e mani%ol#s consisting o% plenums Kseparate# spaces containing air at a pressure greater than
atmospheric pressureL an# pipes are usually re8uire# to #eliver the inlet air charge %rom some
preparation #evice such as an air cleaner or compressor.
<.<.6 Thermo#ynamics Mo#el o% the /nta!e stage
Using the main t.o la.s o% thermo#ynamics+ the energy 1alance %or the inta!e stro!e is+
dU
d 0
=

Q

W +

H
i
K<.6-L
"s the e'haust valve is close# there is no mass e'change trough it so m
e
=

H
e
=0 an# as the
inta!e valve is opene# comes
dm
d 0
= m
i
.
"%ter the alge1raic manipulation sho.n in 0"ppen#i' ".53 comes+
dT
d 0
=

Q
mC
vu

R
u
T
VC
vu
dV
d 0
+
m
u
mC
vu
(C
$u
T
u
C
vu
T) K<.65L
42
<.<.* >eat trans%er
The heat trans%er mo#el %or the inta!e is the same as it .as e'plaine# %or the e'haust process.
Eote that in the inta!e process the heat trans%er can 1e neglecte#+ .hen comparing it to the heat
release# in the e'haust an# com1ustion stages.
43
"s it .as sai#+ the computer simulation .as implemente# 1y .ay o% 0Scila13 computer program.
0Scila13 is a scienti%ic so%t.are %or numerical computations+ an# it is currently use# in e#ucational
an# in#ustrial environments aroun# the .orl#. This program can 1e %oun# %reely in the %ollo.ing
.e1site: http:DD....scila1.orgD
The /CE computer simulation #evelope# is calle# CycleComBC Ksee appen#i' C.6L an# the
original one #evelope# 1y CAK is calle# CycleCom Ksee appen#i' C.*L.
CycleComBC /nputs
The values o% the input parameters use# in this simulation can 1e %oun# in the ta1les 1elo..
Engine #ata:
E'haust valve #ata:
44
Connecting ro#Dstro!e length ratio * D
Compression ratio 66 D
Ma'imum cylin#er volume ,.,,,44
/gnition onset ra#
Burn #uration ra#
Burning en# ra#
Engine rpm rpm ;,,, rpm
Cylin#er .all temperature ?,, K
Cc
rc
Am m
<
ths ,.--S
th1 ,.<<S
th# 6.*6S
T.
E'haust valve opens thevo ra#
E'haust valve closes thevc ra#
E'haust port #iameter eport# ,.,?, m
E'haust valve stem #iameter estem ,.,64 m
E'haust valve ma' li%t elm ,.,<4 m
*S7SD5
<S
/nta!e valve #ata:
/nta!e7e'haust state
Un1urne# %uel7air e8uation o% state+ C>?:
Burne# %uel7air e8uation o% state+ C>?:
45
/nta!e valve opens <S ra#
/nta!e valve closes ?S ra#
/nta!e port #iameter ,.,?, m
/nta!e valve stem #iameter ,.,64 m
/nta!e valve ma' li%t ,.,<4 m
thivo
thivc
iport#
istem
ilm
/nta!e pressure Pi 6,, K
E'haust pressure Pe 64, K
/nta!e temperature Ti <*, K
U%7air gas constant Cu ,.*5;- !VD!gK
Cp %or u%7air Cpu 6.,** !VD!gK
Speci%ic heat ration %or u%7air !u 6.?,5 D
Xero #egree enthalpy o% u%7air h%u 7;5*., !VD!g
Cv %or u%7air Cvu ,.=*4 !VD!gK
B%7air gas constant C1 ,.*545 !VD!gK
Cp %or 1%7air Cp1 6.,5; !VD!gK
Speci%ic heat ration %or 1%7air !1 6.<=, D
Xero #egree enthalpy o% 1%7air h%1 7<?=6., !VD!g
Cv %or 1%7air Cv1 ,.-,, !VD!gK
Tur1ulence coe%%icients:
46
Parameters set 1y re%erence to e'periments ,.,< D
Parameters set 1y re%erence to e'periments ,.,4 D
Coe%%icient set 1y re%erence to e'periments ,.? D
(aminar %lame spee# ,.,? mDs
$
#
$
p
C
%
A
(
CesultsDDiscussion
The single one .ith homogeneously mi'e# 1urne# an# un1urne# gases #evelope# 1y CAK is
calle# the single one a#ia1atic mo#el. / have a##e# heat trans%er to this mo#el an# it .ill 1e calle#
the single one heat trans%er mo#el so %irst the results o1taine# %rom the single one heat trans%er
mo#el simulation program Ksee appen#i' C.<.L are #iscusse#. "%ter that+ it is #iscusse# the main
simulation program an# ho. the po.er+ e%%iciency an# heat trans%er vary .ith the engine spee# an#
ho. this have in%luence on the engine per%ormance. "nother point e'plaine# is the tur1ulence mo#el
an# ho. it a%%ects the com1ustion stage.
"s illustration an engine .ith a compression ratio o% 66+ total volume o% 44 cm
<
+ using methane
KC>?L .hich properties are very similar to gasoline an# setting the engine to run at ;,,,rpm .as
o1taine# the %ollo.ing results %or the heat trans%er mo#el+
$igure 66 7 Temperature vs cran! angle #iagram %or a %our stro!e engine running at ;,,,rpm
47
$igure 6* 7 P7A #iagram %or a %our stro!e engine running at ;,,,rpm
$igure 6< 7 9or! vs Aolume #iagram %or a %our stro!e engine running at ;,,,rpm
48
/n or#er to compare the per%ormance o% an a#ia1atic engine .ith a non7a#ia1atic engine+ the %ollo.ing
results .ere o1taine#+
$igure 6? @ Aariation o% the po.er+ e%%iciency an# .or! .ith the engine spee# KrpmL %or an a#ia1atic engine
$igure 64 @ Aariation o% the po.er+ e%%iciency an# .or! .ith the engine spee# KrpmL %or a non7a#ia1atic engine
"s .e can see+ the heat loss a%%ects the engine per%ormance. "s .e .ere e'pecting+ the po.er+
e%%iciency an# the .or! #rops .hen .e have a non7a#ia1atic engine. /n a non7a#ia1atic engine the
temperature an# pressure is smaller than in an a#ia1atic engine #ue to the greater heat losses .hich
represents .or! that cannot 1e #one.
Eote that as the engine spee# increases+ the .or! #rops o%% 1ecause the amount o% gas 1urne#
goes #o.n. "t high engine spee# the 1urn gas e'change is restricte# 1y the %lo. through the valves.
/n particular the e'haust gases can not 1e completely e'pelle#. >ence the amount o% inta!e gases is
re#uce#. "lso the .or! re8uire# %or pumping o% the inta!e an# e'haust+ especially e'haust is greatly
increase#.
49
$or a non7a#ia1atic engine
CPM Po.er K!9L E%%iciency KUL 9or! K!VL
<,,, 6*.?, ,.?, ,.4,
?,,, 6<.=5 ,.<- ,.?6
4,,, 6?.,4 ,.<= ,.<?
;,,, 6<.;; ,.<4 ,.*=
=,,, 6<.,, ,.<* ,.**
-,,, 6<.4- ,.<? ,.*,
$or an a#ia1atic engine
CPM Po.er K!9L E%%iciency KUL 9or! K!VL
<,,, 6?.-6 ,.?5 ,.45
?,,, 6;.<* ,.?= ,.?5
4,,, 6;.;, ,.?; ,.?,
;,,, 6;.** ,.?< ,.<*
=,,, 64.4= ,.?6 ,.*=
-,,, 6?.-? ,.<5 ,.**
The results %rom the last version o% the CycleComBC are the %ollo.ings+
$igure 6; @ Aariation o% the po.er+ e%%iciency+.or! an# heat loss .ith the engine spee# KrpmL %or a non7a#ia1atic engine
Comparing this values %or the %inal program .ith the ones o1taine# in heat trans%er mo#el+ .e
conclu#e that the values %or the e%%iciency are to high. $or ;,,,rpm+ the e%%iciency result o1taine# %or
this %inal simulation #oing BM, is ==U. This cannot 1e correct 1ecause it e'cee#s Carnot e%%iciency
.hich is only appro'imately ;,U. This con%irms that something is .rong .ith the 1asic t.o one
mo#el .e have #evelope#. >o.ever+ .e .ill sho. the results o1taine# 1y this mo#el.
50
CPM Po.er K!9L E%%iciency KUL Bt K!9L 9or! K!VL B. K!9Dra#L
*,,, -.5, ?,.,U 76,.;, ,.4<? 7,.;<;
<,,, 6<.4* ?<.6U 76?.5- ,.4?6 7,.455
?,,, 6=.-5 ?=.*U 765.,< ,.4<= 7,.4=6
4,,, *6.-4 4*.6U 7**.=5 ,.4*? 7,.4?=
;,,, *4.*? 4=.?U 7*;.*6 ,.4,4 7,.4*?
=,,, *=.44 ;*.-U 7*-.56 ,.?=* 7,.?5;
-,,, *=.5< ;=.4U 7<,.,4 ,.?65 7,.?46
5,,, *;.=6 ;5.=U 7*5.=4 ,.<4; 7,.<5=
6,,,, *?.<- ;-.-U 7*-.?< ,.*5< 7,.<?6
66,,, *6.<- ;4.6U 7*;.4* ,.*<< 7,.*-5
6*,,, 6-.,? 45.6U 7*?.*5 ,.6-, 7,.*?<
$igure 6= @ Po.er as a %unction o% engine spee# KrpmL
"s e'pecte#+ the po.er rises an# %alls .ith rpm+ 1ut the pea! occurs %or -4,,rpm .hich is much
too high. "lso the pea! po.er is much too large.
9hen .e have heat loss in an engine+ occurs a re#uction in its temperature an# pressure .hich
represents .or! that cannot 1e #one lea#ing to lo.er values o% po.er.
$igure 6- @ E%%iciency as a %unction o% engine spee# KrpmL
51
<,,, ?,,, 4,,, ;,,, =,,, -,,, 5,,, 6,,,,66,,,6*,,,
,.,,
4.,,
6,.,,
64.,,
*,.,,
*4.,,
<,.,,
Po.er vs CPM
CPM
P
o
.
e
r

K
!
V
L
<,,,
?,,,
4,,,
;,,,
=,,,
-,,,
5,,,
6,,,,
66,,,
6*,,,
,.,U
6,.,U
*,.,U
<,.,U
?,.,U
4,.,U
;,.,U
=,.,U
-,.,U
E%%iciency vs CPM
CPM
E
%
%
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

K
U
L
"nalising the %igure 6- an# the e%%iciency values o1taine# %or an non7a#ia1atic engine K%igure 6;L+
.e see that the com1ustion mo#el is not correct in the simulation program. /n %act+ as e'pecte# the
e%%iciency #rops %or a non7a#ia1atic engine. >o.ever+ an# as it .as sai#+ %or an a#ia1atic engine
running at ;,,,rpm the e%%iciency is ==U .hich is impossi1le to occur 1ecause even the Carnot Cycle
#oes not have so high e%%iciency.
"%ter some e'periences .ith the program+ CAK an# / conclu#e that something is .rong .ith the
pressure calculation .hich is lea#ing to high values o% .or! an# e%%iciency.
$igure 65 @ Total heat trans%er as a %unction o% engine spee# KrpmL
$rom %igure 65 .e can say that the pea! o% total heat trans%er occur %or 5,,,rpm. "s the engine
spee# is increasing the heat trans%er also increase 1ecause the temperature an# pressure in the
cham1er are also increasing. >o.ever+ a%ter 5,,,rpm+ the heat trans%er start to #ecrease #ue to the
#ecrease o% the temperature in the cham1er 1ecause the amount o% %resh gas #ecreases #ue to
restricte# gas e'change process as e'plaine# 1e%ore.
Eote as the engine spee# increases+ the heat loss per cycle an# the .or! #rops o%% 1ecause the
amount o% gas 1urne# goes #o.n. "s it .as sai#+ at high engine spee# the gas e'change process is
more an# more restricte#.
52
<,,, ?,,, 4,,, ;,,, =,,, -,,, 5,,, 6,,,,66,,,6*,,,
7<4.,,
7<,.,,
7*4.,,
7*,.,,
764.,,
76,.,,
74.,,
,.,,
Total heat trans%er vs CPM
CPM
T
o
t
a
l

h
e
a
t

t
r
a
n
s
%
e
r

K
!
9
L
$igure *, 7 Temperature vs cran! angle #iagram %or a %our stro!e engine running at ;,,,rpm
$igure *6 @ "verage temperature vs cran! angle #iagram %or a %our stro!e engine running at ;,,,rpm
"s it .as e'pecte#+ the temperature pea! occurs %or the com1ustion stage+ .hen the spar! goes
o%%. (oo!ing to the average temperature curve+ the temperature pea! occurs %or ? ra#+ 1ut this is #ue
53
to the %act that in the un1urne# curve there is a small glitch .hen the un1urne# mass goes to ero Kthe
temperature increase .hich in a real engine is .rongL. This pro1lem is occurring #ue to some
restrictions that .ere implemente# %or the com1ustion stage.
$igure ** @ P7A #iagram %or a %our stro!e engine running at ;,,,rpm
The pressure increases .ith the movement o% the piston %rom the BC position to the TC position.
The pea! pressure occurs .hen the piston is in the TC position. /n this position+ the spar! alrea#y
.ent o%% an# .e are in the mi##le o% the com1ustion stage. The pressure starts to #rop .hen the
piston start the #escen#ing movement to the BC position+ .here the e'haust valve .ill open. Eote that
.ith the increase o% the piston spee#+ the pea! pressure gets smaller.
9e can see that the pressure pea! here is consi#era1ly higher K4*,,!PaL than the ?*,,!Pa o% the
single one mo#el .ith heat trans%er K%igure 6*L. The single one mo#el is much more realistic %or
typical engines. This sho.s that the appro'imation .e have ma#e %or the pressure calculation is not
accurate.
54
$igure *< 7 9or! vs cran! angle #iagram %or a %our stro!e engine running at ;,,,rpm
"s .e can see %rom %igure *<+ the main .or! pro#uce# in an engine occurs in the com1ustion an#
e'pansion stage. The high temperature o% the gases #uring the com1ustion also lea#s to high
pressure. This high pressure o% the gases .ill act on the %ace o% the piston causing it to move %rom TC
Kminimum volumeL to the BC Kma'imum volumeL in .hich pro#uces the main .or!. /n the inta!e stage+
the .or! is also positive+ ho.ever it can 1e neglecte#.
55
$igure *? 7 >eat trans%er coe%%icient vs cran! angle #iagram %or a %our stro!e engine running at ;,,,rpm
$igure *4 @ >eat trans%er vs cran! angle #iagram %or a %our stro!e engine running at ;,,,rpm
56
$igures *? an# *4 represent the results %rom the heat trans%er mo#el. "s .e .ere e'pecting in 1oth
curves the pea!s occur %or the com1ustion stage in .hich the temperature hits the higher values. Eote
that the values %or the heat trans%er are negative 1ecause this heat represents the heat losses in the
engine.
$igure *; @ Tur1ulence vs cran! angle #iagram %or a %our stro!e engine running at ;,,,rpm
$igure *= @ $lame spee# vs cran! angle #iagram %or a %our stro!e engine running at ;,,,rpm
$igures *; an# *= represent the results %rom the com1ustion mo#el in .hich is ta!en into account
the tur1ulence in the cylin#er.
The main o1jective o% this mo#el .as to .atch the variation o% 1urn #uration .ith the engine spee#.
/n real engines+ the mi'ture 1urning an# the %lame spee# are strongly in%luence# 1y engine spee#.
57
9hen the engine spee# increases+ the %lame spee# also increases. >o.ever+ the 1urning rate
throughout the com1ustion process increases+ thought not 8uite+ as rapi#ly as engine spee# lea#ing to
higher cran! angle intervals.
/n the CycleComBC+ the o1jective .as to implement one tur1ulence mo#el that represent this
variation+ ho.ever the results .ere not 8uite the ones e'pecte#. "s .e can see %rom the %igures *;
an# *= the variation o% the tur1ulence is proportional to the piston spee#. $rom this .e can conclu#e+
that the tur1ulence mo#el use# .ere not the most accurate. The increase in the engine spee# lea#s to
a proportional increase in the %lame spee# an# the com1ustion #uration stays constant. The net e%%ect
is not much #i%%erent %rom CvKPs essentially constant 1urning rate. The tur1ulence mo#el use# .as
appro'imate# %rom (umleyPs mo#el. This shoul# 1e correcte# in a %uture e%%ort.
58
Conclu#ing remar!s
The %un#amentals principles .hich govern internal com1ustion engine #esign an# operations .ere
.ell #evelope# an# implemente# using the 0Scila13 computer program. "ll the o1jectives propose#
.ere achieve#. $or the heat trans%er mo#el the results o1taine# .ere 8uite goo#. >o.ever+ the results
o1taine# %rom the last simulation .here it .as a##e# the heat trans%er mo#el plus the com1ustion
mo#el .ere not the ones e'pecte#. "s mentione# previously+ the mo#el use# .as oversimpli%ie#+ thus
lea#ing to 8uantitatively erroneous results although the results .ere 8ualitatively correct.
9e can conclu#e that treating the com1ustion mo#el CAK #evelope# is simpler than the one
#evelope# #uring this project an# lea#s to the goo# results. >o.ever+ the CycleComBC is more
realistic 1ecause it presents a non7a#ia1atic engine+ an# the t.o one mo#el insi#e the com1ustion
cham1er .hich ta!es into account the tur1ulence insi#e it. >o.ever+ some o% the #etails nee# to 1e
improve# in or#er to give 8uantitatively more accurate results.
9e have conclu#e# that the main #i%%iculty is the pressure appro'imation. /t is %elt that .ith a little
more time the pressure calculation can 1e improve# 1y a ne. mo#el that .e have #evelope#.
59
Bi1liography
Q6R V. B. >ey.oo#. /nternal Com1ustion Engine $un#amentals. Mc:ra.7>ill+ /nc.+ 65--.
Q*R V. (. (umley. Engines "n /ntro#uction. Cam1ri#ge University Press+ Cam1ri#ge+ UK+ 6555.
Q<R ". T. Kir!patric! an# C. C. $erguson. /nternal Com1ustion Engines "pplie# Thermosciences.
Vohn 9iley W Sons+ /nc.+*,,6.
Q?R Y. ". Zengel an# M. ". Boles. Thermo#ynamics "n Engineering "pproach. Mc:ra.7>ill+ /nc.+
Ee. Yor!+ EY+ *,,-.
Q4R http:DD....1ritannica.com
Q;R http:DD....secon#chancegarage.com
60
"ppen#i' "
Mathematical an# thermo#ynamic manipulations
".6. E8uation 6.6
$igure *< 7 S!etch o% the sli#er cran! mo#el o% piston7cylin#er geometry
9hen
0=0/ 0(0)=.
s
2
0=n/ 0(n)=. +
s
2
0(0)=. cos()
s
2
cos()
.sin()
s
2
sin() M sin()=
s
2.
sin()
an#
cos()=.(1sin
2
())
comes+
cos()=
.
(1(
s
2.
)
2
sin
2
())
so
0(0)=.
.
(1(
s
2.
)
2
sin
2
(0))
s
2
cos(0)
61
$inally+
V (0)=
n
4
bo
2
( 0(0). +
s
2
)
".*. E8uation *.<
Energy Balance %or the compression stage:
dU
0
=

Q

W
dm
0
=

H
i
=

H
e
=0
Total internal energy KUL:
U=m| x(Cv
b
T +hf
b
)+(1x)(Cv
u
T +hf
u
)
an# its #erivative
dU
d 0
=m|
dx
d 0
(Cv
b
T+hf
b
)+x(Cv
b
dT
d 0
)
dx
d 0
(Cv
u
T +hf
u
)+(1x)(Cv
u
dT
d 0
)
M
dU
d 0
=m|((Cv
b
Cv
u
)T +hf
b
hf
u
)
dx
d 0
+( x(Cv
b
Cv
u
)+Cv
u
)
dT
d 0

.here Ahf =hf

b
hf
u
an# ACv=Cv
b
Cv
u
Po.er output to the piston K9L:
6W=PdV
so
6

W=P
dV
d 0

assuming i#eal gas 1ehavior+
PV=mRT then+
62
P=
mRT
V
.here R=xR
b
+(1x) R
u
$inally+
6

W=m( xR
b
+(1x) R
u
)
T
V
dV
d 0
Energy 1alance e8uation:
dU
d 0
=

Q

W comes
m( xACv+Cv
u
)
dT
(d 0)
=

Qm( xR
b
+(1x) R
u
)
T
V
dV
( d 0)
m(ACvT+(hf
b
hf
u
)
dx
( d 0)
)
.here A=xACv+Cv
u
$inally+
dT
d 0
=

Q
mA
( xR
b
+(1x) R
u
)
T
AV
dV
d 0

ACvT+Ahf
A
dx
d 0
".<. E8uation *.6*
Calculation o% the spar! ignition e8uation using the 0Mean Aalue theorem o% Calculus3:
Using the %ollo.ing general e8uation .hich it .ill 1e e'plaine# in this appen#i'+
&
b
Cv
b
dT
b
dt
=

Q
b
P
dV
b
dt
+

&
b
(C$
u
T
u
Cv
b
T
b
+hf
u
hf
b
)
an# applying the 0Mean Aalue theorem o% calculus3 comes+

c
&
b
Cv
b
dT
b
d 0
d 0=

c

Q
b
d 0

c
P
dV
b
d 0
d 0+

c

&
b
(C$
u
T
u
Cv
b
T
b
+hf
u
hf
b
) d 0
.here [ represents |0 ,0+c an#
63

c

Q
b
d 0=0 O

c
P
dV
b
d 0
d 0=P(0
s
)(V
b
(0
s
+c)V
b
(0
s
))=P(0
s
)V
b
(0
s
+c)

c
d&
b
d 0
(C$
u
T
u
Cv
b
T
b
+hf
u
hf
b
) d 0 M
(C$
u
T
u
(0
s
)Cv
b
T
b
(0
s
))( &
b
(0
s
+c)&
b
(0
s
))+(hf
u
hf
b
)(&
b
(0
s
+c)&
b
(0
s
))
Kno.ing that
&
b
(0
s
)=0

&
b
=&
b
(0
s
+c)>0 +

c
&
b
Cv
b
dT
b
d 0
d 0=&
b
(c)Cv
b
(T
b
(0
s
+c)T
b
(0
s
))
Ceplacing the integrals in e8uation comes+
&
b
(c)Cv
b
(T
b
(0
s
+c)T
b
(0
s
))=P(0
s
) V
b
(0
s
+c) \
(C$
u
T
u
(0
s
)Cv
b
T
b
(0
s
))( &
b
(0
s
+c)&
b
(0
s
))+(hf
u
hf
b
)(&
b
(0
s
+c)&
b
(0
s
))
an# !no.ing that
T
b
(0
s
)=T
u
+ T
b
(0
s
+c)=

T
b
an# V
b
(0
s
+c)=

V
b
Cv
b
(

T
b
T
u
)=(C$
u
T
u
(0
s
)Cv
b
T
u
)+(hf
u
hf
b
)P(0
s
)

V
b

&
b
Cv
b

T
b
=Cv
b
T
u
+C$
u
T
u
Cv
b
T
u
+( hf
u
hf
b
)P(0
s
)

V
b

&
b
$inally+

T
b
=
1
C
vb
(C
$u
T
u
+(hf
u
hf
b
)

P

V
b

&
b
)
64
".?. E8uation *.6<
Calculation o% the 1urne# ra#ius+ r assuming a 0linear #istri1ution3+
r (0)=- 0+b
Boun#ary con#itions:
i. r (0
s
)=0
ii. r (0
d
)=R .here R=
bo
2
it comes+
i. r (0
s
)=00=-0
s
+bb=-0
s
ii.
r (0
d
)=RR=-0
d
+bR=- 0
b
- 0
s
-=
R
0
d
0
s
Ceplacing - an# b in e8uation comes+
r (0)=
R
0
d
0
s
0
R
0
d
0
s
0
s
+
r (0)=
R
0
d
0
s
(00
d
)
".4. E8uation *.*4
The energy 1alance on the un1urne# one is #escri1e# 1y
dU
u
dt
=

Q
u
P
dV
u
dt


&
b
h
u
applying to it some thermo#ynamic concepts an# alge1raic manipulation comes:
Un1urne# /nternal Energy an# its #erivative
65
U
u
=&
u
(Cv
u
T
u
+hf
u
)
an# its #erivative is
dU
u
dt
=
d&
u
dt
(Cv
u
T
u
+hf
u
)+&
u
Cv
u'
dT
u
dt
E'pressing the un1urne# enthalpy as
h
u
=C$
u
T
u
+hf
u
Ceplacing in the main energy 1alance e8uation comes
&
u
Cv
u
dT
u
dt
=

Q
u

P'dV
u
dt
+

&
b
(C$
u
T
u
+hf
u
)+

&
b
(Cv
u
T
u
+hf
u
)
an# %inally
&
u
Cv
u
dT
u
dt
=

Q
u
P
dV
u
dt
+

&
b
(Cv
u
C$
u
)T
u
".;. E8uation *.*5
The energy 1alance on the 1urne# one is #escri1e# 1y
dU
b
dt
=

Q
b
P
dV
b
dt
+

&
b
h
u
applying to it some thermo#ynamic concepts an# alge1raic manipulation comes:
Burne# internal energy an# its #erivative
U
b
=&
b
(Cv
b
T
b
+hf
b
)
an# its #erivative is
dU
b
dt
=
d&
b
dt
(Cv
b
T
b
+hf
b
)+&
b
Cv
b'
dT
b
dt
66
E'pressing the 1urne# enthalpy as
h
b
=h
u
Su1stituting in the main energy 1alance e8uation on the 1urne# one comes
&
b
Cv
b
dT
b
dt
=

Q
b

P'dV
b
dt
+

&
b
(C$
u
T
u
+hf
u
)

&
b
(Cv
b
T
b
+hf
b
)
an# %inally
&
b
Cv
b
dT
b
dt
=

Q
b
P
dV
b
dt
+

&
b
(C$
u
T
u
Cv
b
T
b
+hf
u
hf
b
)
".=. E8uation *.?5
Energy Balance %or completely 1urne# gas e'pansion:
dU
0
=

Q

W
dm
0
=

H
i
=

H
e
=0
Total internal energy KUL:
U= m| x(Cv
b
T +hf
b
)+(1x)(Cv
u
T +hf
u
)
an# its #erivative
dU
d 0
= m|
dx
d 0
(Cv
b
T+hf
b
)+x(Cv
b
dT
d 0
)
dx
d 0
(Cv
u
T +hf
u
)+(1x)(Cv
u
dT
d 0
)
M
dU
d 0
= m|((Cv
b
Cv
u
)T +hf
b
hf
u
)
dx
d 0
+( x(Cv
b
Cv
u
)+Cv
u
)
dT
d 0

.here
Ahf =hf
b
hf
u
an#
ACv=Cv
b
Cv
u
Po.er output to the piston K9L:
6W=PdV
67
so
6

W=P
dV
d 0

assuming i#eal gas 1ehavior+
PV=mRT then+
P=
mRT
V
.here R=xR
b
+(1x) R
u
$inally+
6

W= m( xR
b
+(1x) R
u
)
T
V
dV
d 0
Energy 1alance e8uation:
dU
d 0
=

Q

W comes
m( xACv+Cv
u
)
dT
d 0
=

Q m( xR
b
+(1x) R
u
)
T
V
dV
d 0
m(ACvT+(hf
b
hf
u
)
dx
d 0
)
.here A=xACv+Cv
u
$inally an# since x=1 +
dT
d 0
=

Q
mACv
R
1
T
ACvV
dV
d 0
".-. E8uation <.6<
Energy 1alance %or the e'haust stage:
dU
d 0
=

Q

W

H
e
m
i
=

H
i
=0 an#
dm
d 0
= m
e
68
Total internal energy KUL:
u=C
vb
T +h
fb
an#
dU
dt
=
dmu
dt
=m
du
dt
+u
dm
dt
Po.er output to the piston K9L:
6W=PdV so 6

W=P
dV
d 0

assuming i#eal gas 1ehavior+
PV=mRT then+
P=
mRT
V
.here R=xR
b
+(1x) R
u
"s long as .e only have 1urne# gas comes+
6

W=
mR
b
T
V
dV
d 0
Energy 1alance e8uation comes+
m
du
d 0
u m
b
=

Q

W m
b
(C$
b
T+hf
b
) M
m
du
d 0
(Cv
b
T+hf
b
) m
b
=

Q

W m
b
(C$
b
T +hf
b
) M
m
du
d 0
=

Q

W m
b
(C$
b
T+h
fb
Cv
b
T hf
b
)
M
m
du
d 0
=

Q

W m
b
(C$
b
Cv
b
)T
M
m
du
d 0
=

Q

W m
b
R
b
T
$inally+
m
du
d 0
=
md (Cv
b
T+hf
b
)
d 0
= mCv
b
dT
d 0
so
dT
d 0
=

Q
mCv
b

R
b
T
VCv
b
dV
d 0

m
b
m
R
b
T
Cv
b
69
".5. E8uation <.65
Energy 1alance %or the inta!e stage :
dU
d 0
=

Q

W +

H
i
m
e
=

H
e
=0 an#
dm
(d 0)
= m
i
Total internal energy KUL:
u=Cv
u
T +hf
u
an#
dU
dt
=
dmu
dt
=m
du
dt
+u
dm
dt
Po.er output to the piston K9L:
6W=PdV so 6

W=P
dV
d 0

assuming i#eal gas 1ehavior+
PV=mRT then+
P=
mRT
V
.here
R=xR
b
+(1x) R
u
"s long as .e only have un1urne# gas comes+
6

W=
mR
u
T
V
dV
d 0
Energy 1alance e8uation comes+
m
du
d 0
+u m
u
=

Q

W+ m
u
(C$
u
T
u
+hf
u
) M
m
du
d 0
(Cv
u
T+hf
u
) m
u
=

Q

W+ m
b
(C$
u
T
u
+hf
u
) M
70
m
du
d 0
=

Q

W+ m
u
(C$
u
T
u
+hf
u
Cv
u
Thf
u
) M m
du
d 0
=

Q

W+ m
u
(C$
u
T
u
Cv
u
T )

$inally+
m
du
d 0
=
md (Cv
u
T+hf
u
)
d 0
= mCv
u
dT
d 0
so
dT
d 0
=

Q
mCv
u

R
u
T
VCv
u
dV
d 0
+
m
u
mCv
u
(C$
u
T
u
Cv
u
T )
71
"ppen#i' B
De%initions
B.6. Knoc!
0"s the %lame %ront travels across the com1ustion cham1er the temperature an# pressure o% the
gases ahea# are rising+ #ue to the continual release o% heat. "1ove a minimum value o% temperature
an# pressure+ a mi'ture o% %uel vapor an# air .ith a particular concentration at a particular pressure
an# temperature has a #elay in time a%ter .hich it .ill spontaneously ignite+ !no. as autoignition. That
is+ .hen the mi'ture reaches the particular temperature an# pressure+ a reaction 1egins+ the en# point
o% .hich is ignition.
This reaction #oes not ta!e place all at once. /% the un1urne# mi'ture in %ront o% the a#vancing
%lame K!no.n as the en#7gasL in the com1ustion cham1er .ere to reach its autoignition point
simultaneously #ue to the temperature an# pressure rise+ then the entire remaining un1urne# mi'ture
.oul# ignite at once+ not .aiting %or the arrival o% the %lame %ront. The com1ustion .hich previously ha#
1een an or#erly progressive 1urning .oul# no. 1ecome an e'plosion.3 Q*R This phenomenon is calle#
!noc!.
72
"ppen#i' C
Computer simulations
C.6. CycleComBC
The 0CycleComBC3 can 1e #ivi#e# in si' parts:
K6L Engine #ata
K*L "u'iliary %unctions
K<L Main %unctions
KaL Po.er cycle process
i. Compression stage
ii. /gnition
iii. Com1ustionDE'pansion stage
K1L E'haust process
KcL /nta!e process
K?L &utputs
KaL Eumerical results
K1L Plots
73
K6L Engine #ata
74
75
K*L "u'iliary %unctions
76
77
K<L Main %unctions
KaL Po.er cycle process
i. Compression stage
78
ii. /gnition
79
iii. Com1ustionDE'pansion stage
80
81
K1L E'haust process
82
KcL /nta!e process
K?L &utputs
KaL Eumerical results
83
K1L Plots
84
C.*. CycleCom
The main program #evelope# 1y CAK can 1e #ivi#e# in si' parts:
K6L Engine #ata
K*L "u'iliary %unctions
K<L Main %unctions
aL Po.er cycle process
1L E'haust process
cL /nta!e process
K?L &utputs
aL Eumerical results
1L Plots
85
K6L Engine #ata
86
K*L "u'iliary %unctions
87
K<L Main %unctions
KaL Po.er cycle process
88
K1L E'haust process
KcL /nta!e process
89
K?L &utputs
KaL Eumerical results
K1L Plots
90
C.<. Single one heat trans%er mo#el
91
92
93
94
95
C.?. Computer simulation o% the tur1ulent mo#el
96