SOCRATES (469-399 B.C.

)
Socrates was born in 469 or 470 B.C. in Aloe!e" a #illa$e (%e&e) 'n%er t(e
)'ris%iction o* At(ens. +e was t(e son o* So(ronisc's an% ,(ainarete.
So(ronisc's was a stone&ason an% Socrates &a- (a#e also traine% as a
stone&ason. +is circ'&stances" it see&s" were reasonabl- rosero's -- (e
was a (olite" or (ea#- in*antr-&an" in t(e ar&- an% (a% to s'l- (is own
weaons an% ar&or. Socrates &arrie% .ant(ie later in (is li*e" an% (a%
t(ree sons. T(e ol%est o* t(e&" /a&rocles" was ei$(teen -ears ol% at t(e
ti&e o* Socrates0s %eat(.
+abits an% Aearance
Socrates (a% no re$'lar occ'ation an% was b- oor b- c(oice" alwa-s
wearin$ t(e sa&e t(in cloa! an% wal!in$ bare*oot in all weat(ers. +e was
consi%ere% to be e1tre&el- '$l-" wit( b'l$in$ e-es an% a sn'b nose. +e was
nor&all- to be *o'n% in t(e a$ora" t(e s2'are or &ar!etlace t(at *or&e% t(e
ci#ic center o* At(ens.
3ilitar- E1erience
Socrates *o'$(t bra#el- in at least t(ree ca&ai$ns in t(e ,eloonnesian 4ar
-- at ,oti%aea (435 B.C. -- a$e% 37)" at 6eli'& (454 B.C. -- a$e% 47) an% at
A&(iolis (455 B.C. -- a$e% 47)
Clo'%s
B- 453 B.C. (a$e% 46) Socrates was s'8cientl- *a&o's to be t(e tar$et o*
Aristo(anes0s satirical la- Clo'%s" ro%'ce% *or t(e 9reater 6ion-sia in 453
B.C. (:ote (owe#er t(at t(is la- was not s'ccess*'l an% t(at (e re#ise% it
se#eral ti&es a*terwar%s.) T(e la- %eicts Socrates as a nat'ral (iloso(er
(li!e t(e ,re-Socratics) an% a So(ist (t(e So(ists" s'c( as 9or$ias" were
(iloso(ers w(o c(ar$e% *or t(eir ser#ices). At t(e sa&e co&etition"
A&eisias0s Conn's also &a%e re*erence to Socrates.
;n Clo'%s Socrates resi%es o#er (is (rontisterion -- 0T(in!er-0 or 0t(in!in$
s(o0. A *ar&er na&e% Stesia%es enrolls in t(e 0t(in!in$ s(o0 to learn (ow
to ar$'e (is wa- o't o* a-in$ %ebts inc'rre% b- (is son" ,(ei%ii%es. T(e
la- incl'%es a contest in w(ic( <n)'st Reasonin$ (t(e 4ea!er Ar$'&ent)
%e*eats ='st Reasonin$ (t(e Stron$er Ar$'&ent). /ater" ,(ei%ii%es" wit( t(e
ai% o* <n)'st Ar$'&ent (or 4ea!er Ar$'&ent)" )'sti>es beatin$ (is *at(er. At
t(e en% o* t(e la- Stesia%es b'rns %own t(e 0t(in!in$ s(o0. Socrates
clai&e% in (is trial t(at t(is la- (a% a%#ersel- in?'ence% t(e 'blic0s oinion
o* (i&.
Trial o* t(e Si1 A%&irals (406 B.C.)
;n 406 B.C. (a$e% 63)" w(ile (e was a &e&ber o* t(e s'b-co'ncil (r-taneis)
@see At(ensA *or t(e Co'ncil o* Bi#e +'n%re% w(ic( resi%e% o#er t(e
Asse&bl- an% bro'$(t roosals be*ore t(e& *or a #ote" (e resiste% t(e
ille$al roosal to tr-" as a $ro'" an% b- a #ote o* t(e 'blic Asse&bl-
instea% o* b- a sworn )'r-" t(e re&ainin$ si1 a%&irals o* t(e action o*
Ar$in'sae (406 B.C.) in t(e ,eloonnesian 4ar.
Ei$(t a%&irals (a% saile% awa- *ro& a #ictorio's na#al battle wit(o't
resc'in$ t(eir &en *ro& %a&a$e% s(is" or reco#erin$ t(eir %ea% an%
wo'n%e%" beca'se o* a $reat stor&. T(e cit- ba-e% *or t(eir bloo%" an% two o*
t(e a%&irals ?e% rat(er t(an ret'rn to At(ens.
;t was a$ainst At(enian law to tr- citiCens as a $ro'" as oose% to $i#in$
t(e& an in%i#i%'al trial. ;n t(e *ace o* 'blic ress're" all 49 ot(er s'b-co'ncil
&e&bers allowe% t(e ille$al roosal to be resente% to t(e Asse&bl- *or a
#ote. Socrates" w(o li!e e#er- ot(er &e&ber o* t(e r-taneis (a% ta!en an
oat( not to resent ille$al &otions to t(e Asse&bl-" re*'se% to allow t(e
ille$al roosal to be resente% to t(e Asse&bl-.
T(e T(irt- T-rants (403 B.C.)
;n 403 (a$e% 66)" w(ile At(ens was 'n%er t(e r'le o* t(e T(irt- T-rants"
Socrates %i% not obe- t(e T-rants0 or%er -- $i#en to (i& an% *o'r ot(ers -- to
arrest t(e wealt(- /eon o* Sala&is" re'te%l- a )'st %e&ocrat" *or e1ec'tion"
in or%er to con>scate (is lar$e estate. Socrates re*'se% an% went (o&e. T(e
ot(er *o'r cat're% /eon" w(o was e1ec'te% as a traitor to At(ens.
Socrates (a% been *rien%s wit(" an% teac(er to" so&e o* t(e T(irt- T-rants --
incl'%in$ Critias" lea%er o* t(e e1tre&ists" an% C(ar&i%es. (;nci%entall-" bot(
were relate% to ,lato -- C(ar&i%es was ,lato0s 'ncle" an% Critias was (is
co'sin). Socrates was also a *rien% o*" an% teac(er to" Alcibia%es" anot(er
in*a&o's traitor" w(o betra-e% At(ens to Sarta.
Socrates &a- (a#e been ercei#e% to be a critic o* %e&ocrac-" an% er(as"
a s'orter o* a (iloso(ical aristocrac- @*or &ore on Socrates as anti-
%e&ocrat" see ;r#in$ Stone0s T(e Trial o* Socrates (D9EE)" belowA. T(is &a-
(a#e been w(- t(e T-rants t(o'$(t t(at t(e- co'l% co'nt on Socrates0s (el
to cat're /eon o* Sala&is.
Trial o* Socrates (399 B.C.)
Acc'sers
T(e c(ar$e was bro'$(t a$ainst Socrates b- 3elet's" a oet" abo't w(o&
little is !nown. ;n At(ens at t(is ti&e t(ere were no 'blic rosec'torsF
ri#ate in%i#i%'al citiCens bro'$(t cri&inal c(ar$es to t(e $o#ern&ent o8cial
(t(e Gin$ Arc(on in t(is case).
T(e two assistants (s'ne$oroi) to 3elet's were An-t's" one o* t(e &ost
ower*'l states&en o* t(e ti&e ((e (a% been resonsible *or t(e a&nest- *or
t(ose i&licate% in t(e atrocities o* t(e T(irt- T-rants se#eral -ears be*ore)"
an% /-con" an orator.
;n%ict&ent
T(e in%ict&ent was oste% in t(e 3etroon" t(e te&le t(at (o'se% t(e cit-
arc(i#es. Since t(e law a$ainst i&iet- was $eneral" t(e c(ar$e o* i&iet-
(a% to be seci>e%. ;t can still be rea% to%a-H
ISocrates is $'ilt- o* re*'sin$ to reco$niCe t(e $o%s reco$niCe% b- t(e state
an% intro%'cin$ ot(er" new %i#inities. +e is also $'ilt- o* corr'tin$ t(e -o't(.
T(e enalt- %e&an%e% is %eat(.I
:ote t(at t(e one c(ar$e is i&iet-" an% t(at t(ese t(ree clai&s e1lain t(e
wa-s in w(ic( Socrates was i&io's. B'rt(er&ore" t(e law %i% not sti'late
t(e enalt- *or i&iet-. +ence" t(e enalt- was roose% b- t(e erson w(o
was rosec'tin$ t(e case. (;* a %e*en%ant was *o'n% $'ilt-" it was ' to (i&
to oJer a co'nterenalt-. T(e )'r- was t(en le*t to %eci%e between t(e two
'nis(&ents).
,reli&inar- +earin$
Socrates >rst went to t(e Gin$ Arc(on" in t(e Ro-al Stoa (Stoa Basileios)" w(o
(an%le% cases in#ol#in$ alle$e% oJences a$ainst reli$ion" *or (is reli&inar-
(earin$ (ana!risis)" to %eter&ine i* t(e c(ar$es were in accor%ance wit( law.
E't(-(ro
;n ,lato0s %ialo$'e E't(-(ro Socrates &eets t(e soot(sa-er E't(-(ro" w(o
(as also co&e to t(e Gin$ Arc(on to rosec'te (is *at(er *or i&iet-" on t(e
stes t(e Ro-al Stoa locate% in a corner o* t(e a$ora. Socrates 'ses
E't(-(ro as a *oil to en$a$e in a %isc'ssion o* t(e nat're o* iet- ((osion).
:ote t(at t(ere is no e#i%ence t(at t(is e#ent e#er occ'rre%" an% &ore t(an
li!el- it %i% not -- at least" i* t(ere was e#er a %isc'ssion between Socrates
an% so&eone else on t(e nat're o* iet-" t(ere is no e#i%ence t(at it occ'rre%
on t(e wa- to (is reli&inar- (earin$.
Trial
T(e Gin$ Arc(on %eci%e% t(at t(e c(ar$es a$ainst Socrates were le$al an%
(a% eno'$( &erit to warrant a )'r- trial" an% a %ate was set. Since t(e
alle$e% oJences o* i&iet- were cri&es a$ainst t(e olis" t(e trial was an
a$on ti&etos" in w(ic( t(e con#iction was to be establis(e% b- a sworn )'r-"
%rawn b- lot. T(e n'&ber o* )'rors" w(o were ran%o&l- assi$ne% to %iJerent
co'rts on %iJerent %a-s" was" it is belie#e%" 700. /ar$e n'&bers re#ente%
)'r- ta&erin$ or bribin$. (/ater" At(enian )'ries were o%%-n'&bere%F at t(is
sta$e" (owe#er" a tie wo'l% (a#e co'nte% in Socrates0 *a#or). T(ere were no
rosec'tion or %e*ense law-ers. T(e acc'sers an% t(e acc'se% so!e
t(e&sel#es.
T(e trial was resi%e% o#er b- t(e Gin$ Arc(on. ;t be$an in t(e &ornin$ an%
(a% to be co&lete% b- t(e en% o* t(e %a-. T(e seec(es were &eas're% b-
a water cloc!. 3ore t(an li!el- t(e acc'sers (a% t(e &ornin$ to $i#e t(eir
seec(es" an% Socrates (a% t(e a*ternoon to $i#e (is seec(.
Aolo$-
,lato0s Aolo$ia Socrato's or Aolo$- o* Socrates (transliteration o* aolo$ia"
&eanin$ I%e*enseI) is belie#e% to be a *ait(*'l acco'nt o* t(e seec(es $i#en
b- Socrates at (is trial. ;t o&its t(e seec(es o* (is acc'sers. ;t incl'%es t(ree
seec(es. Birst t(ere is Socrates0 seec( rotestin$ (is innocence. A*ter t(is
t(e )'r- #otes an% >n%s (i& $'ilt- b- a &ar$in o* 30 #otes.
T(en t(ere is (is secon% seec(" in w(ic( (e >rst rooses" as (is sentence"
*ree &eals *or t(e re&ain%er o* (is li*e at t(e ,r-tane'&" t(e (all w(ere t(e
&e&bers o* t(e r-taneis %ine%" an% w(ere *orei$n a&bassa%ors" #ictorio's
$enerals an% Ol-&ic at(letes were also *e%. T(en" wit( t(e oJer o* &one-
*ort(co&in$ *ro& (is *rien%s ,lato" Crito" Critobo'l's an% Aollo%or's" (e
rooses a >ne o* t(irt- &inae" 2'ite a lar$e s'& o* &one- (abo't ei$(t an%
a (al* -ears o* wa$es). A*ter t(is t(e )'r- #otes an% sentences (i& to %eat("
b- a $reater &ar$in o* #otes t(an (a% #ote% (i& $'ilt-.
Binall- t(ere is Socrates0s *arewell seec( to t(e )'r-. ;t re&ains a &atter o*
sc(olarl- %ebate )'st (ow *ait(*'l an acco'nt o* t(e (istorical trial ,lato0s
Aolo$- o* Socrates is. Anot(er #ersion o* t(e trial is *o'n% in .eno(on0s
Socrates0 6e*ense.
Crito
Socrates0s e1ec'tion was %ela-e% b- a &ont( to obser#e t(e ann'al reli$io's
&ission o* sen%in$ a s(i to 6elos. Socrates0s *rien%s an% *ollowers #isite%
(i& w(ile (e was in )ail. ,lato0s Crito ro#i%es an acco'nt o* an e1c(an$e
between Socrates an% Crito as to w(et(er Socrates s(o'l% ?ee be*ore (is
e1ec'tion.
:ote t(at &'c( o* t(e ar$'&ent ro#i%e% b- Socrates as to w(- (e s(o'l%
not %isre$ar% t(e law o* At(ens an% ?ee is 't in t(e &o't( o* t(e laws o*
At(ens itsel*.
A$ain" it is not !nown i* an e1c(an$e between Socrates an% an-one else on
t(e s'b)ect o* a citiCen0s obe%ience to t(e laws o* At(ens e#er occ'rre%.
(Conte&orar- arc(aeolo$ists" inci%entall-" %o clai& to (a#e locate% t(e cell
w(ere Socrates was (el%).
E1ec'tion
At t(e en% o* t(e &ont( Socrates was e1ec'te%. +is %eat( was sel*-
a%&inistere%H (e %ie% b- %rin!in$ (e&loc! at s'n%own. ,lato0s ,(ae%o is a
%ialo$'e abo't t(e so'l an% i&&ortalit- w(ic( ta!es lace at Socrates0
be%si%e. Once a$ain" it is it is not !nown i* an e1c(an$e between Socrates
an% an-one else on t(e s'b)ect o* t(e so'l an% i&&ortalit- e#er occ'rre%.
,lato was not resent at t(e %eat( o* Socrates" %'e to illness.
Socrates (i&sel* %i% not write a sin$le wor% o* (iloso(-. +is i%eas are
reser#e% in t(e writin$s o* *o'r in%i#i%'alsH ,lato" (is *ollower" w(o was
resent at (is trial b't not at (is %eat(be%F .eno(on" a conte&orar- w(o
was an a%&irer o* Socrates" b't w(o was not resent at (is trial or (is
%eat(be%F Aristo(anes" a conte&orar- la-wri$(tF an% Aristotle" w(o ne#er
!new Socrates.
Co-ri$(t =a&es E. 3a(on" 5005
,ri&ar- So'rcesH
,lato" T(e 6ialo$'es o* ,lato" Kol. ;H E't(-(ro" Aolo$-" Crito" 3eno" 9or$ias
an% 3ene1en's" trans. wit( anal-sis R. E. Allen (:ew +a#enH Lale 'ni#ersit-
,ress" D9E4)
,lato" Bi#e 6ialo$'es" trans. 9. 3. A. 9r'be" e%. 6. =. Me-l (;n%ianaolisH
+ac!ett" D9ED)
.eno(on" Con#ersations o* SocratesH Socrates0 6e*enseF 3e&oirs o*
SocratesF T(e 6inner-,art-F T(e Estate 3ana$er" trans. +'$( Tre%ennic! an%
Robin 4ater>el%" e%. Robin 4ater>el% (+ar&on%swort(H ,en$'in" D990).
Aristo(anes" Clo'%s" trans. T(o&as 9. 4est an% 9race Starr- 4est" in ,lato
an% Aristo(anes" Bo'r Te1ts on Socrates" trans. an% e%. T(o&as 9. 4est an%
9race Starr- 4est (;t(aca" :ew Lor!H Cornell <ni#ersit- ,ress" D9E4)
Secon%ar- So'rcesH
T(o&as C. Bric!(o'se an% :ic(olas 6. S&it(" e%s. T(e Trial an% E1ec'tion o*
SocratesH So'rces an% Contro#ersies (O1*or%H O1*or% <ni#ersit- ,ress" 5005.
=a&es A. Colaiaco" Socrates A$ainst At(ens (:ew Lor!H Ro'tle%$e" 500D)
T(o&as C. Bric!(o'se an% :ic(olas 6. S&it(" T(e ,(iloso(- o* Socrates
(Bo'l%er" Colora%oH 4est#iew ,ress" 5000).
Ant(on- 9ottlieb" Socrates (:ew Lor!H Ro'tle%$e" D999)
Rosl-n 4eiss" Socrates 6issatis>e%H An Anal-sis o* ,lato0s Crito (;t(aca" :ew
Lor!H Cornell <ni#ersit- ,ress" D99E)
3ar! /. 3c,(erran" e%." T(e Reli$ion o* Socrates (<ni#ersit- ,ar!"
,enns-l#aniaH ,enns-l#ania State <ni#ersit- ,ress" D996)
T(o&as C. Bric!(o'se an% :ic(olas 6. S&it(" ,lato0s Socrates (O1*or%H O1*or%
<ni#ersit- ,ress" D994)
9re$or- Klastos" Socratic St'%ies" e%. 3-les B'rn-eat (Ca&bri%$eH
Ca&bri%$e <ni#ersit- ,ress" D994)
+'$( Benson" Essa-s on t(e ,(iloso(- o* Socrates (:ew Lor!H O1*or%
<ni#ersit- ,ress" D995)
9re$or- Klastos" SocratesH ;ronist an% 3oral ,(iloso(er (;t(aca" :ew Lor!H
Cornell <ni#ersit- ,ress" D99D)
T(o&as C. Bric!(o'se an% :ic(olas 6. S&it(" Socrates on Trial (,rinceton"
:ew =erse-H ,rinceton <ni#ersit- ,ress" D9E9)
;. B. Stone" T(e Trial o* Socrates (:ew Lor!H 6o'ble%a-" D9EE)
Ric(ar% Gra't" Socrates an% t(e State (,rinceton" :ew =erse-H ,rinceton
<ni#ersit- ,ress" D9E4)
R. E. Allen" Socrates an% /e$al Obli$ation (3inneaolisH <ni#ersit- o*
3innesota ,ress" D9E0)
9erasi&os .eno(on Santas" Socrates (/on%onH Ro'tle%$e an% Ge$an ,a'l"
D979)
A. 6. 4ooCle-" /aw an% Obe%ienceH T(e Ar$'&ent o* ,lato0s Crito (C(ael +illH
<ni#ersit- o* :ort( Carolina ,ress" D979)
T(o&as 9. 4est" ,lato0s Aolo$- o* Socrates (;t(aca" :ew Lor!H Cornell
<ni#ersit- ,ress" D979)
9re$or- Klastos" e%." T(e ,(iloso(- o* SocratesH A Collection o* Critical
Essa-s (9ar%en Cit-" :ew Lor!H 6o'ble%a-" D97D)
4. G. C. 9't(rie" Socrates (Ca&bri%$eH Ca&bri%$e <ni#ersit- ,ress" D97D)
A. E. Ta-lor" SocratesH T(e 3an an% +is T(o'$(t (9ar%en Cit-" :ew Lor!H
6o'ble%a-" D933)