The Analysis of the Diference between the Language of Male and

Female
Abstract : Gender diference is a popular research topic for many disciplines
and linguistics is no exception. Within the feld of linguistics, the main focus
is on the language diference between men and women. My paper aims to
explore the language diference between men and women. The frst part is
some evidence about the diference and list many diferences. The second
part illustrates the causes of diferences. The third part is the inuence on
communication.
Key words! gender diference language use man woman
Men and women are the main bodies in social activities. "anguage is an
important tool for people to be involved in the society. #ecause of the gender
diference, there exist many diferences when people use language. Thus
there is a close relationship between diferent genders and language use.
$lthough the study of how gender is reected in language is a recent branch
of linguistics, it has developed into a wide feld with a considerable number
of studies since the frst publications of research fndings in the early%&'(s.
The research on the relationship between language and gender develops on
) levels! % the gender diference in language form and structure* + gender
discrimination in language* , the gender diference in utterance style* ) the
reasons for gender diference in language. While the frst studies in the feld
focused on diferences between the ways men and women tal- on a
.phonological, morphological, syntactic or lexical level. /0oates %&&1! 23,
later studies concentrated on fndings based on conversational analysis.
These were the two methodologies employed in the feld of language and
gender. $ number of diferences between the ways women and men tal-
were formally discovered and recorded.
1. ender diferences in language use
/%3The diference in !ocabulary use
4ocabulary is the most active element in language. 5bviously, the
vocabulary diference manifests the relationship between gender diference
and language application.
The woman6s language7both languages used to describe women and
language typically used by women had the overall efect of submerging a
woman6s personal identity. 8ix categories of language are sharply
diferentiated by the sex of the spea-er! lexical distinctions such as color
terms, strong versus wea- expletives, 9women6s: versus 9neutral:
ad;ectives, tag <uestions, <uestion intonation with statement syntax, and
strength of directive speech acts.
Women li-e to use speciali=ed words. >t is widely believed that women
have larger color vocabularies than do men. ?or example, @obin "a-of
/%&2A3 states this as a fact and suggests as an explanation that in this
society woman spend much more of their time on colorBrelated activities
such as choosing clothes than men do. They prefer to use color terms
borrowed from ?rench, such as 9a=ure:, 9lavender:, 9mauve: etc. These
words are not only familiar to them, but they can show their elegance.
Women imitate the prestigious and more standardi=ed language of the social
classes immediately above their own in order to become more prestigious
and powerful themselves. Women li-e to use words that are closely related to
their life.
>n the communication process, women fre<uently use some
complimentary words to express approval and admiration such as
9adorable:, 9charming:, and 9divine:, etc. These words are expected in
women6s speech, but not generally in men6s. Women also use some intimate
words, such as 9darling:, 9baby: or use the nic-name to call others.
When they want to express exaggeration, Ceperson and "a-of found that
female use more intensifers than male, such as 9so:, 9awfully:, 9pretty:,
9terribly:, 9<uite:, etc.
Male spea-ers are often found to use socially disfavored variants of
sociolinguistic variables while women tend to avoid these and use standard,
prestige linguistic form.. This shows male spea-ers6 tendency to use forms
that are generally considered 9correct: less fre<uently than women spea-ers.
Men widely use imprecatory words or exclamations to show their inner
feelings, especially 9fourBletter words:, such as 9shit:, 9damn:, etc. $s for
exclamations, men usually 9"ord:, 9Good lord:, 9Good heaven:, 9#less my
soul:. Women often use 95h dear:, 9Goodness:, 9Gracious:, 9Dear me:.
Women are not expected to use strong expletives, such as 9damn: or 9shit:,
but are encouraged to use wea-er ones li-e 9oh dear: or 9my god:. There is
an example given by "a-of shows the diference when men and women use
exclamations.
Oh dear, youve put the peanut butter in the refrigerator again.
Shit, youve put the peanut butter in the refrigerator again.
This diference in linguistic acculturation between men and women gives
men the opportunity to express strong emotions with impunity, while the
woman can not.
8ome of these, li-e 9great: and 9terrifc:, are neutral in the sense that either
men or women readily and appropriately use them.
The gender diference reects sex discrimination. >n $merican Eeritage
Dictionary which was published in %&'&, the vocabularies related to men are
commendatory, such as 9manliness:, 9masculine charm:. #ut it6s unfair to
women, for example, 9womanish tears:, 9feminine wiles:. The interpretations
of words, including some neutral words, are often inuenced by nonBlinguistic
element. Fow, when we hear somebody say 9My cousin is a professor, or
doctor, or steel wor-er:, we will presuppose somebody6s cousin is male. This
situation has changed a lot as more and more women are doing these -inds
of ;obs. When we hear somebody say 9My cousin is a nurse, or typist, or
primary school teacher: we will presuppose somebody6s cousin is female.
Women writers, actors, poets, heroes, heirs are also called authors, actors,
poets, heroes and heirs. When we refer to hero, in 0hinese, we usually call
women heroes 9 in order to emphasi=e her gender. >t seems that 9
is only used for men. >n Gnglish, 9governor: means the leader of a state
while 9governess: means tutor* 9mistress: not only means hostess, mostly
refers to lover. >n 0hinese, we tal- about 9,but not 9we
say 9 not 9 .>n Gurope and $merica, most women will use
her husband6s surname after marriage, Eong Hong, Macao and Taiwan are
the same case. We call a lady Cac- ?rom-in /her husband6s name3 but we
never call a man 4ic-i ?rom-in/his wife6s name3. >n 0hina, we call a couple Mr
I and Mrs I, although the lady has his own surname. 8ome words refer to
men and women, such as 9brotherhood of man: refers to men and women,
while sisterhood refers to women, not including men. >n 0hinese, 9 refers
to 9 refers to 9.
/+3 The diference in con!ersational style
Men almost efortlessly raise topics which women most often support.
Women6s topics were not only less actively supported, but were fre<uently
and actively discouraged. 5ther studies have shown that $merican men tend
to be more li-ely to give direct commands, while $merican women are more
li-ely to as- <uestions to further a conversation. Women tend to give verbal
responses to their interlocutor6s statements and give compliments. These
combinations of these behaviors appear to place men in the position of
controlling conversation, while women do the 9interactional housewor-: to
-eep the conversation going./ 0oates %&&,!%%)B+&3 ?or example, when a
woman tal-ed with a man, the woman usually would use the favorable
languages in order to gain better impressions from the man, while the man
would not avoid using the disfavored languages.
When spea-ing, men often emphasi=e their masculinity and other forms
women use to symboli=e femininity, and that this is more basic than social
class. Women as- more <uestions than men. >t is a reection of general
insecurity resulting from longBterm oppression. They li-e to use tag <uestion.
?or example, she may say!
Thats an interesting idea, isnt it?
Its really cold here, isnt it?
The food tastes terrible, doesnt?
William 56#arr and #owman $t-ins6s /%&1(3 study of speech in a Forth
0arolina courtroom gives further support to the view that soBcalled women6s
language is e<uated with relative powerlessness.Women often use hedges
and modifers to avoid expressing their attitudes directly, such as 9sort of:,
9-ind of:, 9> thin-:, 9> have:. They may say 9> sort ofJ -ind of li-e the movie:.
9> guess things are pretty hard for you now:. Keople have to understand it
comprehensively in order to correctly grasp the information and in order to
ma-e a good decision. $nd they feel context is essential for understanding.
Most women, before telling you the headlines, will want to set up the
situation and say what the context is. Women li-e to use the expressions of
ultraBpolite language form, such as 9Would you mindLLM:, 9>6d appreciate it
ifLL:, 9LL if you don6t mind:. They express imperative in the form of
<uestion. ?or example, if the room is cold, husband may say 98hut the
window: while wife may say 9Would you mind shutting the windowM:
Men believe the best way to absorb information and ma-e decisions is to
strip away all the details and focus only on the bare bones elements. When
men communicate they6re concerned with conveying information and
establishing status. When women communicate they6re concerned with
conveying information and building connections. There6s a study that shows
that when men have a success, they attribute it to their own abilities. When
they6re not successful, they tend to attribute it to external factors. The
opposite is true for women. When women have a failure, they tend to
attribute it to their own shortcomings. $nd when they succeed, they tend to
lin- it to external factors, such as teamwor- and luc-.
Through comparing the language form used by men and women with the
terms referring to men and women, we came to -now that there are ways of
spea-ing which men use to emphasi=e their masculinity and other forms
women use to symboli=e femininity. Through analy=ing the crossBsex
conversations between men and women, we came to -now that men
efortlessly raise topics, whereas, women tend to support others6 topics. $nd
men have the opportunity to express strong emotion ;ust because women
are forbidden to use strong expletives.
" #easons for such diferences
"a-of thought the diferences of language between men and women is
caused by social factors, not the language itself. These social factors are!
/%3 Men and women6s social role is diferent. The society is made up of men
and women. #ecause of the sex diference, men and women carry out
diferent social responsibilities in social activities. $ccording to TEG FGW
N5@HG@6s investigation, among social activities, men pay more attention to
politics, business, law, tax and sports. They control everything and occupy a
more powerful position. Women are in a subordinate position. Women pay
more attention to what is related to everyday life. Women are only a rib
removed away from men. $t the beginning of #ible, one thing is certain that
women6s social status is governed and dominated by men. >n all, women
spea- without confdence because they have low social status and have no
power. /"a-of, %&2,3 8o women6s conversational style is called 9powerless
style:.
/+3 8ocial discrimination exists. The society is menBcentered. Women are
derived from men. Men6s will represent the whole society6s will. Keople reach
an agreement that men are superior to women. Men have more privileges
than women because they have much more power and strength. The women
are considered in a lower status.
/,3. 4alue is another element. 4alue is the core of culture. Diferent values
will also inuence men and women6s vocabulary selection. 4alue can directly
inuence language and culture. >n many aspects, values decide the
diference of gender language.
/)3. Ksychological elements. Keter Trudgill thin-s why women6s utterance has
characteristics is that compared with men, the society has diferent
expectations and demands prevail in women6s ideas in the form of
stereotypes and become social strong pressure. $s a result, women follow
these models to conduct consciousnessly. The behaviors which do not meet
these expectations and re<uirements will be considered divergent from social
conventions and will be sub;ect to negation. Thus, women are clear about
their status and always pay special attention to their language, especially
use hyperBcorrect grammar and elegant language./Dai Weidong, %&&A3
$. %n&uence on cross'cultural communication
Kaying attention to diference of language between men and women can
reduce communication failure. The diference of vocabulary leads to
diference in communication. When men and women communicate, it is easy
to misunderstand each other. Men use curse words in order to show their
intimacy or to ma-e communication go on very well, but women consider
curse words vulgar, impolite and lac- of selfBrestraint. 8o under this
condition, communication failure may come about. When some phrases refer
to men or women, the meaning is totally diferent. Men should avoid using
this -ind of phrase to refer to women. ?or example, 9have great legs:, when
referring to men, means strong body* when referring to women, it means
ightiness.
(onclusion
$lthough there is much language diference between men and women, we
never deny that there is also a similarity as the society develops. The
research on language and gender has ;ust begun and there is much room left
for us to complete. The research involves many disciplines and many related
aspects need to explore and research further.
Male and female language: growing together?
Irene van Baalen
Published: 19 April 2001 (HSL/SHL 1)
(print instructins)
1. Introduction
Althu!h the di""erence in lan!ua!e bet#een $en and #$en has been #idel% discussed&
$st " the literature n the sub'ect cncentrates n t# $ain theries( )he "irst is the
Od$inance apprachO (supprted b% La*"" 19+,- .ish$an 19/0)& #hich clai$s that the
di""erence in lan!ua!e bet#een $en and #$en is a cnse1uence " $ale d$inance and
"e$ale subrdinatin( In this vie#& #$en are a suppressed $inrit% !rup( Supprters "
the Odi""erence apprachO (2ates 19/3- )annen 1990) n the ther hand& believe that
$en and #$en beln! t di""erent subcultures and that an% lin!uistic di""erences can be
attributed t cultural di""erences(
4urin! the last "e# decades& ri!id rle patterns have chan!ed and as a result !ender ntins
have chan!ed as #ell( 5en and #$en are increasin!l% bec$in! each therOs e1uals in
areas " educatin and pr"essin( )his i$plies that& in 6estern sciet% an%#a%& the cncept
" $asculinit% n ln!er e7clusivel% brin!s t $ind the i$a!e " tu!h !u%s #h #r* all
da% and leave the upbrin!in! " their children t their #ives- it can n# als be assciated
#ith $en #h ta*e care " children and d d$estic chres( 5en are encura!ed t pen up
and share their "eelin!s& #hereas this #as 1uite unusual in the ti$es " ri!id rle patterns(
6$en can n# #r* in al$st ever% pr"essin the% aspire t& and the% can cntinue t
#r* a"ter havin! children #ithut bein! re!arded as bad $thers( As lan!ua!e helps
peple t create their identit% and their !ender& it $a*es sense t assu$e that #hen
pepleOs ideas " $asculinit% and "e$ininit% chan!e& their lan!ua!e chan!es as #ell( 5%
h%pthesis is that the lan!ua!e " $en and #$en is bec$in! $re si$ilar as a result "
chan!in! !ender ntins(
8ntil recentl%& the lan!ua!e " $en and that " #$en #ere perceived as bein! ver%
di""erent "r$ each ther( Speci"icall%& $ale use " lan!ua!e #as cnsidered the nr$ and
#$enOs lan!ua!e #as deviant "r$ that nr$& thus bein! re!arded as in"erir t that "
$en( .ll#in! this belie"& it has been clai$ed that there is a t%pical "e$ale lan!ua!e(
Accrdin! t La*"" (19+,) this st%le is $ar*ed b% the use " certain lin!uistic "eatures such
as hed!in! devices& ta! 1uestins& intensi"iers and 1uali"iers& s9called Otrivial le7isO&
Oe$pt%O ad'ectives and risin! intnatin n declaratives( )he lin* bet#een these $ar*ers
is their alle!ed c$$n "unctin in c$$unicatin: the% #ea*en r $iti!ate the "rce " an
utterance( La*""Os characterisatin " lan!ua!e suits the ri!id rle patterns that e7isted
decades a!( 5re recent research has sh#n& h#ever& that #$enOs lan!ua!e is nt as
#ea* and tentative as La*"" su!!ested( :OBarr and At*ins (in 2ates 199/) have sh#n in
their stud% " lan!ua!e used in A$erican curts that the $ainl% "e$ale characteristics "
lan!ua!e as described b% La*"" #ere in "act nt characteristic " "e$ale lan!ua!e( )he%
su!!est that this use " lan!ua!e shuld nt be called O"e$ale lan!ua!eO but Op#erless
lan!ua!eO as it is characteristic " peple in p#erless psitins (either because " their
relativel% l# scial status r because " lac* in e7perience in the curtr$)( )he% su!!est
that this use " lan!ua!e b% "e$ale spea*ers is a re"lectin " A$erican sciet%& in #hich
#$en "ten have subrdinate psitins( Li*e#ise& Harris (19/;) ar!ues that pepleOs use
" ta! 1uestins des nt e7press uncertaint% r a re1uest "r cn"ir$atin as #as
c$$nl% assu$ed& but that it actuall% re"lects a ver% p#er"ul act in that 1uestins
de$and ans#ers( .r$ this pint " vie#& #$en are nt tentative and insecure but
authritative and p#er"ul(
Althu!h in $% pinin $en and #$en are e1ual and shuld nt be l*ed upn as c$in!
"r$ di""erent subcultures as is clai$ed b% supprters " the Odi""erence apprachO& I d
thin* that there is a di""erence in the #a% lan!ua!e is used b% $en and #$en( In $%
pinin this is due t the #a% b%s and !irls are raised lin!uisticall%( H#ever& as !ender
ntins chan!e& the traditinal upbrin!in! " children $a% als chan!e( In rder t test this
h%pthesis& I have ta*en the use " hed!in! devices b% $en and #$en as a case stud%(
Hed!in! devices are se$anticall% e$pt% phrases li*e I think r you know. Hl$es (1993)
clai$s that the% $a% e7press that the spea*er is nt c$$itted t #hat s/he is sa%in! and
that the% can be used t s"ten r $iti!ate utterances in rder nt t hurt the addresseeOs
"eelin!s( As hed!in! devices have "ten been cnsidered a characteristic " "e$ale lan!ua!e
$ainl%& e(!( b% La*"" (19+,) and .ish$an (19/0)& it is $% ai$ t "ind ut #hether even
tda% hed!es are still $ainl% a characteristic " "e$ale lan!ua!e and #hether $en use
"e#er r di""erent hed!es( I" the lan!ua!e " $en and #$en is bec$in! $re si$ilar& as
the chan!in! !ender ntins $i!ht lead us t e7pect& it culd be pssible that $en and
#$en are bec$in! $re ali*e in their use " hed!in! devices( )his #uld $ean that the
di""erence bet#een Op#er"ulO and Op#erlessO lan!ua!e as described b% :OBarr and
At*ins is di$inishin!(
In rder t test this h%pthesis& I recrded si7 " the BB2 .ive O<usce n .iveO
pr!ra$$es #hich #ere bradcast n #ee*da%s bet#een 2 and ; p($( in the perid "
4ece$ber 199+ t April 199/( O<usce n .iveO #as a pr!ra$$e in #hich S%bil <usce&
the pr!ra$$eOs hst& discussed ne#s ite$s and scial issues #ith peple #h #ere
invited t the studi and listeners #h called in t !ive their pinin n a sub'ect( In $%
anal%sis " these pr!ra$$es I l*ed in particular at the use " hed!es b% $en and
#$en( In additin& I t* a nu$ber " 1utatins "r$ the pr!ra$$es and as*ed native
spea*ers " British =n!lish& $en and #$en ali*e "r$ di""erent !eneratins& brn in the
,0s r 30s and in the +0s r earl% /0s& t l* at the 1utatins and indicate #hether the%
thu!ht a $an r a #$an #as bein! 1uted( )he purpse " this surve% #as t "ind ut
#hether these t# !eneratins have di""erent perceptins " t%picall% $ale and t%picall%
"e$ale lan!ua!e(

2. Linguistic forms of hedging devices
Hed!es have $ultiple "unctins( )he% can add a de!ree " uncertaint% and nn9c$$it$ent
t an utterance and indicate that a spea*er des nt #ant t !ive up his/her spea*in! turn
%et( )his leads us t cnsider #hich phrases r #rds can act as hed!in! devices( 2ates
(1993: 1,21+0) na$es several #rds and phrases& such as maybe, sort of& you know, may
and might and I mean. Hl$es includes pauses and hesitatins li*e eehm and O eeh
in the cate!r% " hed!es since Othe% can be used t e7press a spea*erOs reluctance t
i$pseO (1993: +,)( She lists "all9rise intnatin& ta! 1uestins and $dal verbs& le7ical
ite$s such as sort of and I think (1993: +;+,)( In her stud% " pliteness devices& Hl$es
"und that #$en see$ t use ta! 1uestins $re as psitive pliteness devices #hile $en
use the$ $re t as* "r in"r$atin r cn"ir$atin " assu$ptins( :ther di""erences in
the use " hed!in! devices bet#een $en and #$en "und b% Hl$es invlved the use "
the le7ical ite$s you know, I think and sort of( 6$en tend t use the slidarit% $ar*er
you know (used $st "ten bet#een peple #h *n# each ther #ell as it e$phasises
shared *n#led!e) as an addressee riented psitive pliteness device #hen it prtects the
spea*erOs psitive "ace needs( 5en& n the ther hand& use you know $re in its
re"erential $eanin! #hen it re"ers t presuppsed shared *n#led!e r acts as a hed!e n
the validit% " a suppsitin( In Hl$esOs data& I think #as "ten used as a bster b%
#$en and the% als used it as a psitive pliteness device (e7pressin! a!ree$ent #ith the
addressee) $re "ten than $en did( Sort of ccurs $st "ten in in"r$al cnte7ts and can
als "unctin as a slidarit% $ar*er( Accrdin! t Hl$esOs data #$en tend t use sort of
$re "ten than $en(
In cntrast #ith 2ates and Hl$es& Hirsch$an (199;) des nt $a*e use " the ter$
hed!in! devices in her paper #hich she ri!inall% presented in 19+0( Her research cvered
$ale9"e$ale di""erences in cnversatinal st%le and she studied crss9se7 cnversatins as
#ell as sin!le9se7 cnversatins( She uses the ter$s O"illersO and O1uali"iersO( O.illersO
are de"ined as phrases that culd appear an%#here in the sentence and that culd be
deleted "r$ the sentence #ithut a chan!e in cntent( Hirsch$an divides O"illersO int
t# !rups& the "irst cnsistin! " um and its variants uh and ah, like (#hen nt used as
verb r prepsitin) and well& nt in initial psitin( )he secnd !rup includes the phrases
you know and I mean #hich are "ten used O#hen the spea*er is !rpin! "r #rds but
desnOt #ant t !ive up the clai$ t the "lrO (Hirsch$an 199;: ;02)( )he secnd
cate!r% " O1uali"iersO is characterised b% the "act that their deletin nl% a""ects the
de!ree " assertiveness " a sentence and des nt chan!e the cntent " the utterance(
)he !rup de"ined as O1uali"iersO b% Hirsch$an cnsists " several subdivisins( Phrases "
the t%pe I think, I assume and I mean are 1uali"iers as #ell as the adverbials maybe,
relatively, generally and the adverbials used #ith a ne!ative (not) really, (not) very(
>eneralised ad'uncts& "r e7a$ple& (or) something, (or) whatever, sort of and kind of als
"unctin as 1uali"iers( :ther 1uali"%in! e7pressins& e(!( $dals& 1uanti"iers li*e many and
some and sentence peratrs li*e it seems that "unctin in a si$ilar #a% and can als be
deleted #ith $ini$al s%ntactic ad'ust$ent(
)a*in! accunt " the discussin " hed!es b% 2ates& Hl$es and Hirsch$an& I have listed
si7 cate!ries " lin!uistic "r$s " hed!in! devices(
1. "all9rise intnatin patterns-
2. phrases li*e I mean, I think, I assume, I guess, sort of& kind of& you know-
3. adverbials such as maybe, probably, relatively, generally, really-
. the $dal verbs may, might, would and !ould-
". le7ical ite$s such as perhaps, !on!eivably, or whatever, or something-
#. ta! 1uestins such as isnt it, are you, !ant she.
In the anal%sis " the radi pr!ra$$es& the "irst cate!r% has nt been ta*en int accunt(
As the spea*ers ca$e "r$ all ver Britain I "und it di""icult t establish #hich intnatin
patterns #ere part " a particular accent and #hich #ere reall% $eant as hed!es( )hese
lin!uistic "r$s are rather e1uivcal since there are $an% phrases that can act as hed!in!
devices in pepleOs lan!ua!e( H#ever& the phrases d nt "ten b% de"initin "unctin as
hed!es as can be seen in the "ll#in! e7a$ple(
=7a$ple 1: O and thats the sort of harassment I mean, rather than physi!al tou!hing
In the anal%sis& I have distin!uished bet#een phrases that #ere $eant as hed!in! devices
and phrases that #ere nt $eant t hed!e an utterance( Hed!es are phrases that can be
le"t ut #ithut chan!in! the cntents " the sentence(

3. Hedging devices in male and female conversations
)he basic "unctin " hed!in! devices is t indicate that spea*ers are nt c$$itted t #hat
the% sa%( In ther #rds& the% avid $a*in! e7plicit state$ents( )he interpersnal "unctin
" hed!es is t ta*e accunt " the "eelin!s " the addressee( 2nversatins are nt 'ust
abut peple and events& the% als reveal the spea*ersO attitudes t their addressees(
Hed!in! devices are use"ul t e7press pinins but t s"ten the$ in the prcess( Accrdin!
t 2ates (1993: 1,3)& prtectin! "ace needs is an i$prtant "unctin " hed!es( .ace needs
are the need t "eel ac*n#led!ed and li*ed (psitive "ace needs) and the need t have
neOs persnal space respected (ne!ative "ace needs)( Hed!in! devices help the spea*er t
avid i$psin! n peple( )annen (1990) and 2ates (1993) "und that the use " hed!es
b% #$en is clsel% related t the spea*in! st%les and *inds " cnversatins #$en have(
)annen (1990: ++) ar!ues that O"r $st #$en& the lan!ua!e " cnversatin is pri$aril%
a lan!ua!e " rapprt a #a% " establishin! cnnectins and ne!tiatin! relatinshipsO(
6$en place e$phasis n Odispla%in! si$ilarities and $atchin! e7periencesO ()annen
1990: ++)( 2ates (1993: 132) clai$s that the use " hed!es b% #$en is clsel% related t
three aspects " their cnversatins( 6$en "ten discuss sensitive tpics #hich $a%
aruse strn! e$tins in the spea*ers and their addressees( In rder t avid creatin!
ar!u$ents& the% tend t hed!e their assertins( )he secnd aspect " all9"e$ale tal* is
$utual sel"9disclsure( )ellin! thers abut persnal e7periences (necessar% "r establishin!
"riendship) is easier #hen it is dne in a $iti!atin! #a% and hed!es are use"ul "r din! s(
)he third aspect " #$enOs tal* is that a cllabrative "lr is $aintained( A cllabrative
"lr invlves scial clseness& and the !rupOs vice is cnsidered t be $re i$prtant
than an individual pinin( In this respect it is i$prtant "r #$en nt t $a*e hard and
"ast state$ents abut tpics that culd be sensitive t thers( ?n#led!e " tpics "
cnversatin als pla%s a rle in the use " hed!es( 6$en are $re inclined t d#npla%
their authrit%& as pla%in! the e7pert in a cnversatin creates scial distance( In ther
#rds& #$en s$eti$es deliberatel% use hed!in! devices t avid a hierarchical
structurin! " relatinships(
All9$ale tal* is di""erent( It is characterised b% a ne9at9a9ti$e structure( )here is little
verlap in $enOs cnversatins and cnse1uentl% Othe ideas e7pressed b% individuals in
thse turns are seen as individuall% #nedO (2ates 199+: 12;)( 5ale "riendships d nt
see$ t place a !reat value n tal*- $en cncentrate $re n din! thin!s t!ether& such
as sprts( :n the ther hand $en !enerall% place !reater value n #hat is bein! said& n
e7chan!e " in"r$atin( )annen (1990: ++) calls this phen$enn Oreprt tal*O: "r $en
Otal* is pri$aril% a $eans t preserve independence and ne!tiate and $aintain status in a
hierarchical scial rderO( She clai$s that $en establish their status b% Oe7hibitin!
*n#led!e and s*ill and b% hldin! centre sta!e thru!h verbal per"r$ance such as str%9
tellin!& '*in! r i$partin! in"r$atinO (1990: ++)( 5en d nt "ten discuss persnal
thin!s but their cnversatins see$ t invlve sprts and plitics 1uite "re1uentl%( Since n
cllabrative "lr is $aintained in their cnversatins& $en d nt "eel as strn! a need t
a!ree #ith each ther as #$en d( 6hen plitics r ther rather i$persnal thin!s are
discussed and #hen there is n need t a!ree n a sub'ect& $en culd be e7pected t use
"e#er hed!in! devices than #$en d( )his is nt t sa% that $en d nt use an% hed!es at
all( )he% use hed!in! devices in di""erent #a%s& "r e7a$ple t indicate that althu!h the%
$a% nt have the ri!ht #rds at hand& the% are nt !ivin! up their spea*in! turn(
6ith respect t crss9se7 cnversatins& the supprters " the Od$inance apprachO see
#$en as #ea* and tentative participants in cnversatins #hereas $en deter$ine #hich
sub'ect is discussed "r h# ln!( Accrdin! t the Odi""erence apprachO $en and #$en
$ust $a*e ad'ust$ents in rder t $a*e cnversatins pssible( :ne " the supprters "
the Odi""erence apprachO is )annen& and she ar!ues that c$$unicatin bet#een $en
and #$en is crss9cultural c$$unicatin( In her pinin& a "unda$ental di""erence
bet#een the t# se7es is that $en see the$selves as Oan individual in a hierarchical scial
rderO ()annen 1990: /) #hile #$en cnsider the$selves Oindividuals in a net#r* "
scial cnnectinsO ()annen 1990: 9)( 5einh" and @hnsn& n the ther hand& e$phasise
that $en and #$en still dra# n the sa$e lin!uistic resurces( )he% hld the vie# that
Othere $ust be s$e de!ree " si$ilarit% r verlap in the speech " $en and #$en&
ther#ise it #uld be i$pssible t envisa!e a situatin #here the% culd ever
c$$unicateO (5einh" and @hnsn 199+: 11)( In in"r$al crss9se7 cnversatins
#$en are said t $a*e $re e""rts t *eep the cnversatin !in! b% as*in! 1uestins(
.ish$an (19/0) bserves that #hile #$en invest cnsiderable e""rt in thus supprtin! the
cnversatinal needs " $en& the% d s at their #n e7pense( 5en usuall% deter$ine the
sub'ect " the cnversatin and the pint at #hich ne# tpics are bru!ht up( Hl$es
(1992b) clai$s that $en are $re li*el% than #$en t d$inate the spea*in! ti$e n
"r$al and public ccasins& #hich #uld be in a!ree$ent #ith )annenOs vie# that $en
are $uch $re practised in reprt9tal* r public spea*in! since the% e$pl% that spea*in!
st%le in all9$ale cnversatins #ith "riends as #ell( In vie# " all this& $en #uld nt be
e7pected t use $an% hed!in! devices in crss9se7 cnversatins as the% are usuall% in
cntrl " the$(

4. The )uscoe on !ive) "rogrammes
In O<usce n .iveO S%bil <usce& the pr!ra$$eOs hst& discussed ne#s ite$s and
scial issues #ith peple she invited t 'in her in the studi( S$eti$es listeners als
called in t !ive their pinin n a sub'ect( In $st " these pr!ra$$es bth $en and
#$en 'ined the discussin& #hich is #h% this particular pr!ra$$e #as hi!hl%
apprpriate "r $% stud%( In anal%sin! si7 " these bradcasts& I distin!uished bet#een
hed!es and nn9hed!es based n the criteria e7plained abve( )hus& a particular phrase r
#rd 1uali"ies as a hed!in! device #hen it can be le"t ut #ithut chan!in! the cntents "
the utterance(
5st " the tpics in the pr!ra$$es #ere intrduced b% a BB2 reprter( )hese parts have
nt been ta*en int cnsideratin& as the speech is nt spntaneus but care"ull% planned
and prepared( )his *ind " speech #ill have t sund i$partial and cn"ident and #ill as a
cnse1uence nt cntain $an% hesitatins& $ini$al respnses r hed!in! devices( Anther
characteristic " these parts in the pr!ra$$es is that the reprters are nt in"luenced b%
#hat thers sa%( Participants in a discussin have t ad'ust #hat the% sa%& h# the% sa% it
and #hen the% sa% it t the ther participants( )he reprters #ere nt interrupted and did
nt have t prvide reactins n the spt( )his is nt t sa% that the ther spea*ers culd
nt in s$e #a% plan #hat the% #ere !in! t sa%& but the% had t ta*e accunt " #hat the
ther spea*ers said and the directin in #hich the hst " the pr!ra$$e led the
discussin( Since I believe that the nu$ber " hed!es used b% the spea*ers culd #ell be
in"luenced b% their *n#led!e " a particular sub'ect& I have tried t characterise each " the
participants in the discussin as either an e7pert& i(e( a persn #ith a lt " *n#led!e "
the sub'ect in 1uestin& r as a nn9e7pert& i(e( a persn #ith little r nl% basic *n#led!e
" the tpic( In all " the anal%ses the hst S%bil <usce #as classi"ied as a nn9e7pert since
she #uld nl% have basic *n#led!e n the tpics " discussin in c$parisn #ith the
peple invited t the studi& #h are "ten specialists in a particular area(
Alt!ether I recrded and anal%sed si7 pr!ra$$es( )he tpics " the pr!ra$$es #ere
OPrAacO& abut the e""ects " usin! the dru! PrAac& O4rin* and 4riveO& #hich #as a
!eneral discussin abut punish$ent "r drin*in! and drivin!& and O2hild 2areO& abut
standards that childcare centres have t $eet( )he pr!ra$$e abut O6$en in the <%al
Bav%O dealt #ith the chan!es that the Bav% has !ne thru!h since #$en #ere all#ed
t 'in it& O2hild =7plitatinO dealt #ith the abuse " children abrad and in the 8?& and&
"inall%& O6$en in the An!lican 2hurchO dealt #ith the psitin " #$en in the church(
)he tpics #ere varius and ran!ed "r$ rather !eneral& as "r e7a$ple the pr!ra$$e
abut #$en in the Bav%& t 1uite e$tinal& such as child abuse( Anther "act that
cntributes t the !eneral character " the stud% is that the participants in the discussins
prbabl% c$e "r$ di""erent scial bac*!runds& in ther #rds& this stud% did nt "cus n
$e$bers " ne particular scial class(
In anal%sin! the si7 pr!ra$$es& the nu$bers " hed!es used b% the participants in the
pr!ra$$es #ere nr$alised t t# hundred #rds per spea*er( In calculatin! these
"i!ures I cunted utterances as units rather than the #rds " each utterance(
=7a$ple 2: O it means that i the trial
I included eehm ... and ...eeh ... as #ell as units si$ilar t i in e7a$ple (2)( )he reasn
"r this is that eehm ... and ... eeh ... have a c$$unicative "unctin in that the% e7press
the spea*erOs #ish t hld the "lr in a cnversatin even thu!h at that particular
$$ent s/he $a% have di""icult% in "indin! the ri!ht #rds t e7press #hat s/he #ants t
sa%( As "r the "e# instances " peple be!innin! t sa% a #rd such as in I mean i it,
these units are " curse nt c$pleted #rds but the% indicate that the spea*er des nt
#ant t !ive up his/her spea*in! turn %et and is tr%in! t avid interruptins "r$ ther
participants b% i$$ediatel% crrectin! hi$/hersel"(
)he traditinal rle patterns and earlier perceptins " #$enOs lan!ua!e $i!ht lead us t
e7pect a bi! di""erence in use " hed!es bet#een the "i"teen $en and seventeen #$en
#h participated in the si7 O<usce n .iveO pr!ra$$es( It culd be e7pected that the
nu$ber " hed!es is !reatest in the cate!r% " nine "e$ale e7perts since this cate!r%
crrespnds bth t the e7pectatin that #$en use $st hed!es and t the assu$ptin
that "e$ale e7perts hed!e their utterances t avid sundin! authritative( )he ei!ht
"e$ale nn9e7perts shuld then use $re hed!es than the "ur $ale nn9e7perts( )he
eleven $ale e7perts in the pr!ra$$es& #h #uld need t bast their *n#led!e t !et a
respected place in the hierarch%& #uld use "e#est hed!es( H#ever& i" $en and #$en
have indeed bec$e clser in their lan!ua!e& their use " hed!in! devices #uld be si$ilar&
and $ale and "e$ale nn9e7perts #uld be clse t $ale and "e$ale e7perts(
:verall& this stud% sh#ed that there is n si!ni"icant di""erence bet#een the t# se7es #ith
respect t their use " hed!in! devices( )able 1 sh#s the results "r the cate!ries $en
and #$en(
$able 1: .i!ures "r all $en and #$en
$otal number
of hedges
total number of
units
average hedges per
2%% units
women(1+) 1/, 11&100 1/,/1+C10(9 0(0
men (1,) 103 3&0/, 103/1,C+(1 0(0
As can be seen in )able 1 abve& there is a si!ni"icant di""erence in the nu$ber " units
prduced b% $en and #$en( )he cntributin " the seventeen #$en t the pr!ra$$es
is al$st t#ice as bi! as that " the "i"teen $en& #hile n avera!e the #$en use $re
hed!es( )he nr$alised "i!ures& h#ever& are identical "r $en and #$en( Bth !rups
use appr7i$atel% three hed!in! devices in ever% t# hundred units( H#ever& #hen the
spea*ers are subdivided int e7perts and nn9e7perts& a di""erent picture e$er!es( )able 2
sh#s the "i!ures "r the cate!ries e7pert and nn9e7pert(
$able 2& .i!ures "r $en and #$en and e7perts vs( nn9e7perts
total
number of
units
total
number of
hedges
average hedges per 2%%
units
female e7pert (9) ,&30; 10/ 10//9C12 0(/
nn9
e7pert(/)
,&;93 ++ ++//C9(3 2(/
male e7pert (11) ,&;1; // ///11 C / 0(2
nn9
e7pert(;)
9+1 1/ 1//;C;(, 0(+
)he ra# "i!ures in )able 2 sh# that& n avera!e& #$en use $re hed!es than $en( )he
nr$alised nu$ber " hed!in! devices "r $ale e7perts and nn9e7perts& h#ever& is hi!her
than "r "e$ale nn9e7perts( )he data sh# that $ale e7perts and "e$ale nn9e7perts are
ver% clse in their use " hed!es& #hile "e$ale e7perts and $ale nn9e7perts are even
clser( )he "i!ures have been tested "r si!ni"icance in a )#9Sa$ple ?l$!rv9S$irnv
)est as this test is apprpriate "r the s$all nu$ber " participants( Bne " the di""erences
prved t be si!ni"icant( )he results sh# that in the cate!r% #$en& e7perts use $re
hed!es than nn9e7perts& #hereas in the cate!r% $en the ppsite is the case: $ale nn9
e7perts use $re hed!es than $ale e7perts( )his cincides #ith the "indin!s that $en tend
t bast " their e7pertise #hile #$en tend t d#npla% their authrit%( Alt!ether these
data sh# that hed!in! devices are nt t%picall% "e$ale lin!uistic devices& and althu!h n
earlier research data n this sub'ect are available& $% h%pthesis that the lan!ua!e " $en
and #$en has bec$e $re si$ilar appears t be cn"ir$ed(
6ith respect t the *ind " hed!in! devices that #ere used& the phrases I think and I mean
#ere used b% $en and #$en ali*e( 'ou know and sort of ( kind of "ten "unctined as
hed!es as #ell( )he nl% lin!uistic "r$ " hed!in! devices that #as al$st e7clusivel% used
b% #$en #ere ta! 1uestins( In ther #rds& there is nl% a sli!ht di""erence in the *inds
" hed!es that #ere used(
Si7 pr!ra$$es are prbabl% insu""icient t serve as a basis "r valid state$ents abut the
lan!ua!e " $en and #$en as ne has t cnsider individual di""erences in spea*in! st%les
as #ell( It is hard t cate!rise peple and in rder t $a*e a valid anal%sis " lan!ua!e use
ne needs t l* at individuals rather than at !rups( )he results " this stud% $a%&
h#ever& still !ive s$e indicatin as t h# the spea*in! st%les " the t# se7es di""er& r
"ll#in! $% h%pthesis& #hether $en and #$en are appr7i$atin! each ther in their
use " lan!ua!e( )he data sh# that "e$ale e7perts use $st hed!es& #hich cn"ir$s the
clai$ $ade b% )annen (199;) and 2ates (1993) that #$en d#npla% their authrit% and
hed!e their utterances in rder nt t sund authritative and thereb% disturbin! the
cllabrative "lr( H#ever& $% anal%sis als sh#s that $ale e7perts and nn9e7perts
hed!e their utterances al$st t the sa$e e7tent as "e$ale e7perts and nn9e7perts d(
)his !es a!ainst the c$$n vie# in the literature n the sa$e sub'ect(
)he di""erence bet#een "e$ale e7perts and $ale e7perts is nt statisticall% si!ni"icant&
#hich indicates that hed!es are nt pri$aril% "e$ale lin!uistic devices( It even see$s t
de$nstrate that $en and #$en appr7i$ate each ther( 5% "indin!s sh# that& t a
cnsiderable de!ree& $en als $aintain a cllabrative "lr in crss9se7 cnversatins( In
ther #rds& in this da% and a!e at an% rate& the lan!ua!e " $en and #$en see$s t be
$re si$ilar than has been described in the (earlier) literature(

#. $erce"tions of male and female language
As I #as als interested in #hat peple perceive t be t%picall% $ale r t%picall% "e$ale
lan!ua!e& I selected s$e 1utatins "r$ the pr!ra$$es anal%sed and as*ed peple t
indicate #hether the% thu!ht a $an r #$an #as 1uted and #h% the% thu!ht s( .r
bvius reasns& the na$es " the persns 1uted had been $itted "r$ the
1uestinnaire( I sent the 1utatins t a secndar% schl in 2heltenha$ #here three !irls
(a!ed 1, and 1;)& t# b%s (a!ed 1; and 1,) and t# $ale teachers (a!ed ;/ and 03)
l*ed at the 1utatins( Later& I als sent 1utatins t "ur adults& t# $arried cuples
(a!ed ;, and ;3& ,+ and 31) in Hudders"ield and Bristl( I sli!htl% chan!ed these 1utatins
as I "eared that the 1utatins sent t 2heltenha$ $i!ht be predictable #ith respect t the
cntents& "r e7a$ple that in the 1utatin startin! #ith I was shopping ... eehm ... in a
supermarket a #$an #uld be rec!nised since #$en $i!ht be cnsidered t d $st "
the shppin!& as ne %un! in"r$ant actuall% replied( Anther reasn "r $a*in!
ad'ust$ents #as that this ti$e n children #uld be readin! the 1utatins and there"re I
"elt "ree t use 1utatins "r$ the pr!ra$$e abut child abuse #hich prvided s$e
clear e7a$ples " hed!es(
Bne " the in"r$ants *ne# that $% stud% cncerned the use " hed!in! devices( )he%
#ere tld nl% that it #uld deal #ith lan!ua!e( As "r the scial class " the in"r$ants& the
schl in 2heltenha$ is s$all and is supprted b% the 2uncil =state( 5st " the pupils
c$e "r$ the l#er scial classes( )he t# $arried cuples in Hudders"ield and Bristl can
be cnsidered $iddle class(
)he respnses t the 1utatins #ere surprisin!& nt nl% #ith respect t the ans#ers but
als #ith respect t the criteria the in"r$ants used t assess #hether a 1utatin #as "r$
a $an r #$an( )he b%s "r$ the schl in 2heltenha$ std ut "r$ the ther
in"r$ants in 2heltenha$ in that the% #ere the nl% nes #h actuall% l*ed at lan!ua!e
itsel"( 5st " the ans#ers "r$ the !irls and the teachers #ere based n the cntents " a
1utatin( As "r the actual respnses& the !irls reacted in accrdance #ith #hat $i!ht be
cnsidered the !eneral vie# n $ale and "e$ale lan!ua!e( )he% said that #$en tal* $re&
!ive $re in"r$atin and are $re cncerned #ith s$eneOs "eelin!s( 5ale lan!ua!e
#as reprted t sh# OcntrlO& "r e7a$ple b% the use " shrt sentences( )he t#
teachers did nt pa% $uch attentin t the lan!ua!e used in the 1utatins( )he ans#ers "
bth had s$e si$ilarities #ith the Od$inance vie#O in that the% see$ed t have a vie#
" #$en as din! lts " discussin! and ac*n#led!in! " unhappiness #hereas $en #ere
assciated #ith re"erences t #ires and usin! "rce"ul lan!ua!e( )he ans#ers " the b%s
surprised $e( )he% $ainl% paid attentin t the lan!ua!e that #as bein! used and
apparentl% the% held a vie# " $en as Orepeatin! the$selvesO and usin! $an% instances
" eehm ... and eeh ... #hereas #$en #ere said t spea* Ocn"identl%& #ithut stutterin!
and hesitatinsO( )he% prbabl% had traditinal vie#s n rle patterns because the tpic "
childcare #as assciated #ith #$en rather than $en( Still& their vie# n lan!ua!e #as nt
traditinal at all( :" curse& the persnal situatins " all in"r$ants $ust be ta*en int
accunt be"re dra#in! an% "urther cnclusins& but the ans#ers " the b%s $i!ht indicate
that the i$a!e " steret%pical "e$ale lan!ua!e is chan!in!(
)he in"r$ants "r$ Bristl and Hudders"ield paid $re attentin t lan!ua!e in the
1utatins than the adults in 2heltenha$( )he% did& h#ever& e7press traditinal vie#s n
lan!ua!e( 6$en sa# the$selves as usin! lan!ua!e that sunded less certain and
cntained $an% hed!es #hile $en in their pinin use anal%tical and une$tinal lan!ua!e(
)he $en "elt that #$en use lan!ua!e clearl%& #hile at the sa$e ti$e the% als sa#
the$selves as $a*in! anal%tical state$ents #hich deal #ith "acts and "i!ures(
Accrdin! t the Od$inance apprachO& $ale use " lan!ua!e #hich #$en in $% surve%
describe as OcldO& Ocu""O and Oanal%ticalO is the standard and #$enOs lan!ua!e
deviates "r$ it& thus bein! less appreciated( I"& h#ever& $en describe #$enOs speech
as O$re cn"identO and OclearO& the% d nt cnsider "e$ale lan!ua!e in"erir( In ther
#rds& $st " the $ale in"r$ants in this surve% value the lan!ua!e " #$en as $uch as
the% d their #n #a% " spea*in!( It is the "e$ale in"r$ants #h underesti$ate
the$selves( It $ust be ta*en int accunt h#ever that the in"r$ants $a% be Over9
reprtin!O r Ounder9reprtin!O( As I did nt actuall% tal* t the in"r$ants& it is di""icult
t establish t #hat e7tent this $a% be the case(
As has been stated earlier& $% h%pthesis #as that the lan!ua!e " $en and #$en is
bec$in! $re si$ilar( )he respnses " the in"r$ants indicate that this culd indeed be
the case( 6$en still see the$selves as usin! lan!ua!e in a tentative and elabrate #a%
#hile $en& in their pinin& use shrt and anal%tical sentences( 5en n the ther hand ta*e
a di""erent perspective( )he% rec!nise hesitant speech and the use " hed!es as $ale
lan!ua!e and attribute characteristics as clear and cn"ident speech t #$en( In ther
#rds& $ale vie#s n lan!ua!e " $en and #$en see$ t be chan!in! "r$ the
traditinal pint " vie# t a situatin #here $en as #ell as #$en use hed!in! devices
and $en as #ell as #$en use shrt and clear lan!ua!e(
%. &onclusion
)his paper has dealt #ith the use " hed!in! devices b% $en and #$en( I #as interested
in this aspect " the c$$unicatin bet#een the t# se7es since in the literature n the
sub'ect& especiall% in studies b% supprters " the Od$inance apprachO& the ntin "
hed!es is used t ar!ue that #$en use lan!ua!e in a tentative #a%( 5ale use " lan!ua!e
is said t e7press authrit% and p#er #hereas #$en& #h deviate "r$ the $ale nr$&
sh# their #ea*ness thru!h their chice " lin!uistic devices& such as hed!es(
)his stud% cannt be re!arded as revealin! !eneral attitudes t#ards the lan!ua!e " $en
and #$en because the nu$ber " pr!ra$$es anal%sed and the sa$ple !rup "
in"r$ants is bviusl% ver% s$all( =ven s& the data su!!est that $ale and "e$ale
lan!ua!e is bec$in! $re si$ilar and that perceptins " lan!ua!e are chan!in!( .urther
research is needed t cn"ir$ this develp$ent(
)he h%pthesis #as that !ender ntins chan!e as $en and #$en have increasin!l%
bec$e each therOs e1uals in a nu$ber " "ields& such as chice " pr"essin and
childcare( 5% assu$ptin #as that this prcess " chan!e culd be identi"ied i" I as*ed a
nu$ber " peple "r$ di""erent !eneratins t l* at a nu$ber " 1utatins in islatin
and indicate #hether the% thu!ht a $an r #$an #as bein! 1uted( A di""erence
bet#een adults and adlescents #uld prve that perceptins " $ale and "e$ale lan!ua!e
are chan!in!( )his stud% has sh#n that hed!in! devices are nt pri$aril% "e$ale lin!uistic
devices because $en use the$ as #ell and in #a%s si$ilar t #$en( In "act& the di""erence
in use " hed!es bet#een $ale and "e$ale e7perts in the BB2 pr!ra$$es #as nt
si!ni"icant and thus the clai$ that nl% #$en hed!e their utterances since the% use
lan!ua!e in an indecisive #a% des nt hld( )he respnses that #ere !iven t the
1utatins su!!ested that there is n clear di""erence in perceptin " t%picall% $ale r
t%picall% "e$ale lan!ua!e bet#een adults and adlescents r $iddle and l#er class peple(
H#ever& I did "ind an interestin! distinctin bet#een $en and #$en in this cnnectin( In
!eneral& the #$en and !irls #h t* part in the surve% have traditinal vie#s n
lan!ua!e #hile the $en& especiall% the b%s& have $re $dern vie#s( Althu!h #e have
n data n the lan!ua!e " $en and #$en in earlier perids t veri"% this assu$ptin& the
results " this stud% sh# that it is pssible that there is a prcess " chan!e !in! n&
initiated b% $en( :ne " the "e$ale in"r$ants "r$ Hudders"ield als e7pressed this
pinin in a nte attached t her respnses: OB(B( )his #uld have been easier t ans#er
10 r 20 %ears a! but $en are n# encura!ed t pen up and share their "eelin!s and
#$en are bec$in! $re assertive and $asculine in their #a% " spea*in!DO