WEAR

E L S E V I E R wear 20t (1996) 64-79

Erosion rate prediction and correlation technique for ceramic surfaces
exposed to high speed flows of abrasive suspensions
Yehia F. Khalil, Daniel E. Rosner *
High T..mperature Chemical Reaction Engineering Laboratory, Yale University, Department of Chemical Engineering, New Haven, CT 06520-8286, USA
Received 14 August 1995; accepted 3 April 1996
Ab st r a c t
We describe a simple method t o predict (based on available erosion yield data) erosion rates for cylindrical ceramic targets (e.g. circular
tube coatings, leading edges of turbine blades, or the ceramic-lined target zone inside CFBC-cyclones) exposed to high-speed abrasive
particle-laden streams. Use is made of a convenient parameterization/extrapolation of published laboratory results giving, in effect, average
erosion yields per particle impact (~p) for partic:ular planar ceramic target and projectile materials over a range of impact velocities, V~,,
incidence angles, O=,and particle sizes, vp. For a given target/flow geometry we reduce the engineering problem of predicting absolute target
erosion rates t o that of multiplying a readily calculated characteristic erosion rate by the universal dimensionless erosion rate functions
explicitly approximated here in the limit of impa,:ts by particles large enough to be undeflected or slowed down by the local target gas flow.
Our characteristic erosion rate is that which would be associated with the mainstream abrasive particle volume f lux if all particles struck at
normal incidence with the mainstream velncity, U. Dimensionless erosion rate results are cast in terms of the following four dimensionless
parameters characterizing the erodent/celamic ~arget system of interest: sensitivity (exponent n) of erosion yield to projectil e incident
velocity; sensitivity (exponent m appearing in (cos"10t)) of erosion yield to angle of incidence 01; sensitivity (exponent l) of erosion yield
to projectile particle size (volume, v ~) ; and the reference erosion yield, ep.ra (here, ep is evaluated at Vp= t 00 m s- ~, 0~=0, and Vp
corresponding t o d r , , 100 p.m). Based on our I~reliminary survey of available erosion yield experimental data, we provide a table giving
" b e sb f it " values of the four parameters:/, m, ~, and ep.,,r required t o complete a prediction of local and spatially-averaged erosion rates
according to ou r present formalism. For the iatt~;r, useful closed.form approximations are provided for convex or concave cylindrical target
geometries in the high Stokes number limit. Moreover, convenient correction factors are developed to account for a ( Rosin- Rammler ) particle
size distribution in the erodent mainstream, and mainstreams not perpendicular to the cylinder axis. The more general case of arbitrary (finite)
Stokes numbers is outlir~d. Using t wo numericzd examples (convex leading edge coating on a turbine staler blade, and concave sector target
zone in a CFBC- cyclone) , we demonstrate theft casting required erosion yield data in this suggested format greatly facilitates erosion design
calculations for ceramic targets ( or coatings) exposed to high-speed abrasive particle suspensions. Organizing empirical data in this manner
will also facilitate the longer range goal of correlating each of the above-mentioned parameters with independently measurable physical
properties of the participating materials.
Keywords: Erosion rates; Ceramic targets; Abrasive suspensions; Inertial impaction; Tube coatings; CFBC-cyclone erosion; Turbine blade erosion
1. I nt r od u c t i on
I . L Background
S olid ma t e r ia l e r osion b y t he imp ing e me nt of fine pa r t ic le s
e nt r a ine d in a high v e loc it y st r e a m r e su lt s in mat er ial wa st a g e
a nd f or c e d ou t a g e s in ma ny c he mic a l a nd p ow e r pla nt s [ 1 ,2 ] .
For xa niple , se v e r e e r osion p r ob le ms ha v e b e e n e nc ou nt e r e d
in e q u ip me nt u se d in t he f luidized b e d r eact or s, ga s a nd st e a m
t u r b ine s, c y c lone se p a r a t or s, a nd c oa l hy d r og e na t ion equip..
me nt [ 3 - 5 ] . T he r e f or e , a wid e v a r ie t y of c e r a mic ma t e r ia ls
= Corresponding author.
0043-1648196/$15.00 1996 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights t~served
Pi!S0043-1648(96)07214-6
has b e e n p r op ose d a s e r osion- r e sist a nt p r ot e c t iv e c oa t ing s,
of t e n a p p lie d only locally. T o d e si g n/ op t i m i z e refraetory~
lined par t s ( su c h a s t he c e r a mic c oa t ing on t u r b ine b la d e s,
t he liner of a c ir c ula t ing f luidizod b e d c om b u st or ( C FB C )
hot c y c lone [ 6 ] , or t he r e f r a c t or y - line d solid s r et ur n loop
b e t we e n c y c lone a nd c om b u st or ) , it is c le a r ly ne c e ssa r y t o
ant icipat e t he loc a l a nd t ot al e r osion r a t e s in t he p r e v a iling
e nvir onme nt . T he me t hod s int r od u c e d a nd d e monst r a t e d he r e
will not only p e r mit t his f or sy st e ms whic h ha v e b e e n st u d ie d
in la b or a t or y e r osion t est - r igs, t he y will a lso f a c ilit a t e t he
impor t a nt t a sk of c or r e la t ing t he e x p e r ime nt a l e r osion y ie ld
p a r a me t e r s we int r od u c e a nd t a bula t e ( T a b l e 1) wit h inde-
K F. i~alg, D.F.. Rosner / Wear 201 ~1996) 64-79 65
pendently measurable physical properties of t he participating
materials.
Of course, t her e ar e many useful applications of erosion
by fine particles impinging on ceramic target surfaces [ 7 -
17]. For example, sand-blasting techniques are often used to
mechanically clean solid surfaces [ 3 ] . Additional applica-
tions include t he er osive cutting and drilling of hard materials
[ 1 8 ] . Indeed, we believe that our present approach, with
extensions as indicat ed in Section 4,4, will be able to pr edict /
correlate attainable cutting and drilling rates.
1.2, O b j e c t i v e s
The principal objective of this work is to ext end our novel
reformulation of t he metal erosion problem [19,29] and
develop a rat her simple met hod for predicting erosion rates
for cer amic target surfaces exposed to high.speed abrasive
particle-laden streams. Regarding cer amic targets, two geo-
metrical configurations of special industrial interest ( Fig. 1 )
are explicitly consider ed in this work: ( 1 ) cylindrical
ceramic-coated targets in external cross-flow and ( 2 ) refrac-
tory lined target surfaces, such as those installed on t he inner
walls of CFBC cyclones.
To achieve our present objective, available ceramic target
erosion yield data ar e re-examined and cast into a useful
format which provides ( Table I for each t ar gel/ er odent sys-
t em f our best fit erosion parameters that can be used t o predict
ceramic cylinder erosion rates ( se e Section 4.1) . However ,
as noted in Section 5, organizing available experimental data
in this particular way will also facilitate t he longer-range goal
~ 1 i . . . . .
~ -
" 1 " l i l t I * A r l a
" X
e , , i k " o . ~ / R , ~ I
)
i.
L T ~ - . . . . i I r ( f ' p , , i ~ i , o c a t i t ~ ~ M i i s i m i ~
I
(hi
Rg. I. (a) Circular cylinder target in external cn)ss-flow; configuration and
nomenclature. (b) Impingement (target) sector of cyclone inner walls;
configuration and nomenclature.
of correlating each of t he above-mentioned parameters with
independently measurable physical properties of t he partici-
pating materials.
1.3. A p p r o a c h
This paper is structured as follows. In Section 2, our prin-
cipal underlying assumptions ar e presented. We include a
discussion of t he proposed erosion yield law and d e r iv e /
present quadrature expressions for the above-mentioned
dimensionless erosion rate functions of greatest practical
interest. For simplicity, our emphasis her e is on t he " wor st -
c a se " situation, i.e. the limit of infinite St okes number
(rectilinear particle t raj ect ories),
I n Section 3, we present ou r met hods to est imat e erosion
yield parameters from available er osion yield data and report
these parameters for a set of 38 c ommon cer amic t a r ge t /
erodent systems at near 300 K. I n Section 4, we provide
results for local, maximum, and average erosion rates and
provide two numerical examples f or calculating erosion of a
cer amic target surface; t he first example pertains t o turbine
blade ( st at or ) leading edges, and the second deals with t he
refractory lining of a CFBC cyclone. Section 5 provides a
summary of our principal findings and recommendations for
future work.
2. Mathematical model and outline o f formulation
2. I . B a s i c a s s u m p t i o n s
The following simplifying Assumptions ar e exploit ed her e
to capture the essential phenomena encount er ed in cer amic
material erosion:
I. Erosion yield data obtained on planar cer amic targets in
test rigs can be self-consistently invoked locally at t he
surface of large cur ved cer amic targets ( e.g. cylinder s)
since the target radius of curvat ure ( d , / 2 ) f ar exceeds t he
scale of the cr odent particle radii ( a nd target grain sizes)
of interest here.
:2. Rebounding particles d o not appreciably influence incom-
ing particles, nor cause significant downstream erosion
upon re-impaction on t he same target.
3. On t he scale of the target radius of curvat ure, ( d , / 2 f or a
circular cylinder ) the mainstream suspended particles ar e
uniformly distributed in space and are individually neg-
ligible in size ( cf . ( 1 ) ) .
4. While t he particle mass toadings, % , in the mainstream
may not be very small, the volume fraction, ~p, corre-
sponding to the total particle number densit y Np and mean
particle volume tTp ( i.e . ~b~, = Npo-) is negligible compared
with unity.
5. Target surface recession d u e to erosion is small on the
scale of t he initial target radius of curvature.
66 Y F. K l m l i l , D.E Rosner / Wear 201 (1996) 64-79
T a b l e 1
C e r a mi c t a r g e t a n d abrasive ma t e r i a l combinmions: Best-fit values o f t h e erosion y i e l d panuneters * I , m, n, and e~,,~r
T a r g e t Target m a t e r i a l
mat er ial/
rodent
system no,
Erodent type, particle size, and velocity Erosion parameters
Type dp Vp / m n cp,,a
( p . m ) ( m s - ' )
Data source
Castable A: Dead-burned dolomite 4 5 0 - .6 8 0 10. I 1.3 1.3 3.0 9 . 6 E - 4 Keaims et at.
96% High-purity alumina Density: 3,0 g c m - 3 4 5 0 . - 9 5 0 12,2 !,3 1.3 3,0 9 , 6 E - 4 [ i ]
t a s t a b l e
Density', 2.70 g c m - ~ 450-950 14,3 1.3 1,3 3.0 9 . 6 E - 4
Castable C: Dead-burned dolomite 680 I0. I 1.2 I. I 2,5 7 . 2 E - 5 Keaims e! al.
Chrome tastable. Cr2Oj/ Density: 3,0 g c m - 3 950 12.2 1,2 I . I 2,5 7 . 2 E - 5 [ I ]
AI2Oj203
Density: 2 .9 0 g cm - ~ 500 14.3 1.2 1.2 2.5 7 . 2 E - 5
Co,~[able F: Dead.burned dolomite 500-950 10, I 1.0 1.0 2.9 7 , 8 E - 5 Keairns et ai.
Light weight castable Density: 3.0 g c m - ~ 450- 950 12,2 I.O 1.O 2,9 7 . 8 E - 5 [ l ]
Density: 1,28 g c m- ~ 500-680 14.3 1,0 1.0 2.9 7 . 8 E - 5
Glass:
Density: 2.47 g c m - :~
Silica flour; $iOz 25 149 1,2 2,5 2.3 7 , 2 E - I Head and Hart
Density: 2,65 g c m - 3 [ 2 0 ]
Glass:
D e n s i t y : 2,47 g c m - 3
Crystolon; SiC 39 140 1.2 1.8 2.3 2 . 3 E - i Head and Hart
Density: 3.17 g c m - ~ [ 20]
G l a s s :
D e n s i t y : 2 . 4 7 g c m - ~
Alundum; AI2Oj 39 140 i,2 1,8 2.3 2 , 4 E - ! Head and Hart
Density: 4.00 g c m - J [20]
Glass:
Density: 2,47 g c m -
Glass beads 38 136 1.2 6,3 2.3 5 , 6 E - 2 Head and Hair
Density: 2.47 g c m - ~ [20]
High purity reflc, ClOry: Silicon carbide 150 55 1.2 0,6 2.8 7 , 5 E - 7 Wiedcrhom and
95% AI2Oj ca.stable Density: 3,17 g c m - ~ Roberts [21 ]
r e f r a c t o r y bonded w i t h
c a l c i u m a l u mi n a t e cement
Insulating refractory Sand
coflcrete: Density: 2,4 g c m - ~
Aluminous cemenl A and
petlite
Density: 0,80 g c m - ~
Insulating r e f r a c t o r y Blasting grit
concrete: Density: 2.65 g c m -
Atuminous cement A and
perlile
Density'. 0.80 g c m " ~
4 0 0 1 1 . 6 1 . 2 0 3 2 . 3 I , S E - 3 C r o w l e y [ 2 2 ]
1760 11.6 1,2 1.4 2.3 1 . 4 E - 5 Crowley [22]
A b r a s i o n resistant r e f r a c t o r y B l a s t i n g grit
c o n c r e t e C : D e n s i t y : 2 . 6 5 g c m - -~
A h m i n o u s c e m e n t B a n d
chrome o r e aggregate
Density: 2.31 g c m - ~
1 7 6 0 I I , 6 1 . 2 1 . 6 2 , 3 1 . 6 E - 7 C m w l e y [ 2 2 ]
Abrasion resistant refractory Sand
concrete C: Density: 2,4 g c m - 3
Aluminons cement B a n d
chrome ore aggregate
Density: 2,31 g c m - 3
H i g h s t r e n g l h r e f r a c t o r y B l a s l i n g grit
c o n c r e t e : D e n s i t y : 2 . 6 5 g o r e - 3
A l u m i n o u s c e m e n t A a n d
celcinated fireclay
Density: 2.05 g c m - ~
4 0 0 i [ . 6 1 , 2 4 . 4 2 . 3 8 . 9 E - 6 C m w l e y [ 2 2 ]
1760 I I . 6 1 . 2 3 , 6 2 , 3 2 . 0 E - 6 C r o w l e y [ 2 2 ]
( c o n ~ n u e d )
E F. KhalU, D.E. Rosner / Wear 201 (1996) 64-79 67
T a b l e I ( c o n t i n u e d )
Target Target material
material/
erodent
system no.
Etedent type, pattict size, and v e l o c i t y
TyI~ 6 V~
(p.m) ( ms -L )
Erosion parameters Data source
m i l d~p~ t
1 4 H i g h s t r e n g t h refractory Sand
c o n c r e t e : D e n s i t y : 2.4 g c m - 3
A l u m i n o u s c e m e n t A and
c a l c i n a t e d fireclay
i k n s i t y : 2 . 0 5 g c m - 3
1 5 U n a n n e a l e d g l a s s : Cast iron
Density: 2,47 gcm - 3 Density: 7,8 gcm -3
16 Unannealed glass: Cast iron
Density: 2.47 g c m - ~ Density', 7,8 g c m -
17 Annealed glass: Cast iron
Density: 2.47 g c m - ~ Density: 7,8 g c m-
18 Annealed glass: Cast iron
Density: 2,47 g c m "J Density: 7.g g Cm "3
1 9 8 0 % A l u m i n a p h o s . b o n d e d S i l i c o n c a r b i d e
c a s t a b l e : D e n s i t y : 3 . 2 2 g c m -
Density: 2,56 g c m - ~
20 Silicon nitrid bonded SiC Silicon carbide
b r i c k : D e n s i t y : 3 . 2 2 g c m - 3
D e n s i t y : 2 . 6 1 g c m - 3
21 Ultra low cement caslable: Silicon carbide
Density: 2.23 g c m "~ Density: 3.22 g c m - 3
22 60% Alumina brick: Silicon carbide
Density: 2.52 g c m - s Density: 3.22 g c m- ~
23 Pbos, bonded plastic, fine Silicon carbide
grain: Density: 3.22 g cm"~
Density: 2.43 g c m -~
24 Phos. bonded plastic, r e g u l a r S i l i c on carbide
grain: D e n s i t y : 3 . 2 2 g c m -
Density: 2.44 g c m - 3
25 Low cement castable: Silicon carbide
Density: 2.32 g c m - ~ Density: 322 g c m-
26 60% Alumina brick (mullite S i l i c on carbide
b a s e d ) : D e n s i t y : 3,22 g c m - '
D e n s i t y : 2 . 5 4 g c m - ~
27 Fused silica costable: Silicon carbide
Density: 2.02 g c m- 3 Density: 3.22 g cm-
28 Abrasion resistant fireclay Silicon carbide
brick: Density: 3,22 g c m - 3
Density: 2.21 g cm - 3
2:~ Regular cement cxstable: Silicon carbide
Density: 2.07 g cm - 3 Density: 3.22 g c m "~
30 Super-duty fireclay brick: Silicon carbide
Density: 2.26 g c m - ~ Density: 3.22 g c m - ~
31 Thcrm~ shock resistant Silicon carbide
ca,stable: Density: 3 , 2 2 g c m - 3
Density: 1.81 g c m - 3
4 0 0 1 1 . 6 1 . 2 3 . 0 2 . 3 l . I E - 3 C r o w l e y [ 2 2 ]
580 13.0 1.2 2.5 2,3 1 ,4 B- 4 Finnie [3]
580 30.5 1.2 2.5 2.3 1 . 4 E - 4 Finnie [31
580 30.5 1.2 217 2.3 I l l E - 5 Finnie [3]
3 0 0 9 , 9 1 . 2 3 . 5 2 . 3 2 , 5 E - 4 B i t t e r [ 2 3 ]
500 60.0 1.2 N/ A 2.3 9 . 8 E - 5 Lie b ha r d [ 2 4 1
5 0 0 6 0 , 0 1 . 2 N / A 2 . 3 1 . 2 E - 4 L i e b h ~ ' d [ 2 4 1
5 0 0 6 0 . 0 1 . 2 N / A 2 , 3 1 , 8 E - 4 L i e b h a r d [ 2 4 ]
5 0 0 6 0 . 0 1 . 2 N I A 2 . 3 2 . 0 E - 4 L i e b h a r d [ 2 4 ]
500 60,0 1,2 N/ A 2.3 2 . 2 E - 4 L ie b ha t d [24]
500 60.0 1.2 N/ A 2.3 2 . 4 E - 4 Lie b ha r d [24]
5 0 0 6 0 , 0 1 , 2 N / A 2 , 3 2 . 5 E - 4 L i e b h a r d [ 2 4 ]
5 0 0 6 0 , 0 1 . 2 N / A 2 , 3 2 . 8 E - 4 L i e b h a r d [ 2 4 ]
5 0 0 6 0 , 0 1 , 2 N / A 2 , 3 2 . 8 E - 4 L i e b h a r d [ 2 4 ]
5 0 0 6 0 , 0 1 2 N I A 2 . 3 4 , 0 E - 4 L i e b h a r d [ 2 4 ]
5 0 0 6 0 . 0 1 , 2 N / A 2 , 3 4 . 0 E - 4 L i e b h a r d [ 2 4 ]
5 0 0 6 0 0 1 , 2 N / A 2 . 3 4 . I E - 4 L i e b h e ~ i [ 2 4 1
5 0 0 6 0 . 0 1 . 2 N / A 2 . 3 4 , 0 E - 4 L i e b h u d [ 2 4 ]
(continued)
6g Y.F. Khalil, D.E. Rosner / Wear 201 (1996) 64-79
Table I (continued)
Ta r ge t Ta r ge t mat er ial Erodent type., p~,' t ich sir.c, and v-qucity
ma t e r ia l/
erodent Type d~ Vp
system no. (~m) ( ms - t )
Erosion parameters Data source
l m /~ ~'p,rcf
32 Abrasion resistant eastable: Silicon carbide 500 60~0 1.2 N/A 2.3 5 . 0 E - 4 Liebhard [241
Density: 2.08 gcm -3 Density: 3.22 g cm-
33 Pressureless SiC ceramic: Silicon carbide 274 35-90 1.3 0.8 2.8 8,3E- 5 Wa ng et at.
Density: 2.98 gcm -~ Density: 3.22 g era- ~ [251
34 Hot-pressed SiC cermnic: Silicon carbide 274 35-90 1.3 1.5 2.8 4~0E- 5 Wa ng el al.
Density: 3.16 gcm -~ Density: 3.22 g c m- ~ [251
35 Hot isostatically pressed Silicon carbide 274 35-90 1.3 0.9 2.8 1.4E- 5 Wa ng et al.
ceramic: Density: 3.22 g c m - ~ [ 251
Density: 3~14 gcm -~
36 Hot-pressed Si3N, ceramic: Silicon carbide 305 117 1.3 N/A 4,0 4 ,6 E- 6 Gu ld e n [261
Density: 322 g c m- 3
37 Re a c t ion- b ond e d SizN4 Quartz 273 130 1.3 N/A 0 3 . 3 E - 6 Gu ld e n [261
ceramic: Density: 2.65 g cm~
38 Hot - pr e sse d SigN4 ceramic: Quartz 304 285 1.0 N/A 1.0 4 .3 E- 7 Gu ld e n [26]
Density: 2.65 g c m-
' All erosion yield data reported here cot'respond to room temperature.
For systems # 19 to #32 and #36 to #38, the erosion yield data were provided only at normal incidence (0~- 0). Therefore, values of the erosion parameter
n : (Eq. ( 2 ) ) cannot be p r o v i d e d here,
T h e v a l u e s o f i a n d n s h o w n h e r e for s y s t e m s # 1 9 t o # 3 2 w e r e provisionally tak,~n f r o m t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u h s f o r s y s t e m s # i t o # 18.
6. T he c e r a mic t a r g e t ma t e r ia l is e it he r int r insic a lly isot r op ic ,
or if a nisot r op ic ( a s f or p y r oly t ic B N ( s ) ) c onf or ma l t o
t he sm oot h c y lind r ic a l su b st r a t e .
S u b j e c t t o t he se A ssu mp t ions, som e of whic h a r e c r it ic a lly
d isc u sse d in S e c t i ons 4 .3 a nd 4.4, w e show t ha t a c t u a l loc a l
e r osion r a t e s ( sa y , in t he unit s of m m r e c e ssion p e r y e a r of
c ont i nu ou s e x p osu r e ) a t p osit ion 0 ( Fig , 1) c a n b e e x p r e sse d
a s t he p r od u c t of a n e a sily c a lc u la t e d c ha r a c t e r ist ic e r osion
r at e ( ER) ~ a nd a u niv e r sa l d ime nsionle ss f u nc t ion E ( 0 , . . . )
c a lc u la t e d a nd p lot t e d he r e h) r t w o imp or t a nt g e ome t r ie s: t he
e x t e r na l u p w i nd - f a c i ng su r f a c e of a c ir c u la r c y lind e r in c r oss-
f low ( Fi g . ! Ca) ) , a nd t he int er nal ( c onc a v e ) t a r g e t a r e a ( se c -
t or ) in a c y c l one p a r t ic le se p a r a t or ( Fig . I ( b ) ) . T he
c ha r a c t e r ist ic e r osi on r a t e is t hat whic h w ou l d b e e x p e c t e d in
t he p r e v a iling e nv i r onm e nt i f all ma inst r e a m p a r t ic le s ha d t he
me a n siz e a nd st r u c k a u nit a r e a of t a r g e t wit h u nd iminishe d
sp e e d a nd a t nor ma l inc id e nc e , i,e. in t he unit s of line a r
r e c e ssion rate'.
( ER) , =- - ~'p (U,0,1~p.,~) ' ( f f : p U ) . ( 1 )
whe r e 6~, is t he sp e c if ic e r osion y ie ld ( a v e r a g e v ol u m e of
t a r g e t ~ r e m ov e d p e r u nit v ol u m e of p r oj e c t ile p a r t ic le imp a c t -
ing ) e v a l u a t e d a t t he p a r t ic le ma inst r e a m v e loc it y U a nd at
nor ma l inc id e nc e a ng le a nd a t e r od e nt p a r t ic le v olu me tTp~
( se e S e c t ion 2 , 2 ) , w he r e (~TvN p) ~ is t he ma inst r e a m p a r t ic le
v ol u m e f r a c t ion, ~t ,,~. Thu s, all loc a l e r osion r a t e s will b e
t For porous (not theoretically dense) ceramic targets, this necessarily
includes pore volume originally "in" the undisturbed target!
wr it t e n as E( 0,., , ) . ( E R L , t he p e a k loc a l e r osion r a t e will
b e E , ~ . (ER)~, a nd t he a v e r a g e e r osion r a t e ( ov e r t he
u p wind - f a c ing su r f a c e ) will be E( , . . ) . ( ER)~.
An a t t r a c t iv e f e a t u r e of t his f or mu la t ion is t ha t t he a b ov e -
me nt ione d non. d ime nsiona l f u nc t ions E ( E q . ( 7 ) ) , a nd / ~
( E q . ( 9 ) c a n b e c a lc u la t e d " onc e - a nd - f or - a l l " f or e a c h t ar -
g e t g e ome t r y v ia nu me r ic a l q u a d r a t u r e s. Mor e ov e r , t he se
q u a d r a t u r e s b e c om e p a r t ic u la r ly st r a ig ht f or wa r d in t he
imp or t a nt limit of high S t ok e s nu m b e r ( or (ff/o,~t)l13 ~ 1)
( S e c t i on 2 . 4 ) , t o whic h w e c onf ine ou r se l v e s la t e r in t his
p a p e r [ 2 7 - 2 9 ] . T he a v a ila b ilit y of t he se r e su lt s will b e se e n
t o simp lif y d r a ma t ic a lly t he e ng ine e r ing t a sk of p r e d ic t ing
loc a l a nd t ot al e r osion r a t e s f or , sa y , c e r a mic - c oa t e d he a t
e x c ha ng e r t u b e s in t he c r oss- f low of a sh- la d e n c om b u st i on
p r od u c t s, le a d ing e d g e r e g ions of t u r b ine b la d e s, or t a r g e t
r e g ions of c y c l one se p a r a t or s, I llu st r a t iv e nu me r ic a l c a lc u -
lat ions in t he hig h S t ok e s nu m b e r limit a r e g iv e n in
S e c t ion 4 .1 .
2.2. Erosion yi el d law: Parameterization
It is not ou r p u r p ose he r e t o d e v e l op f u r t he r t he st ill inc om-
p le t e mic r ome c ha nic a l t he or y of e r osion y ie ld c p whe n p a r -
t ic u la r p r oj e c t ile ma t e r ia ls ( e r od e nt s) of a p a r t ic u la r v olu me ,
vp, a r e d ir e c t e d at p a r t ic u la r p la na r c e r a mic t a r g e t ma t e r ia ls
a t a k nown v e loc it y Vp a nd a ng le of inc id e nc e Ot ( c f . t he
ou t wa r d nor ma l) . I nst e a d , w e simp ly m a k e u se of t he ma in
f e a t u r e s of su c h e x p e r ime nt a l r e su lt s [ 1 ,3 ,2 2 ,3 0 ] , viz. t he
ob se r v e d f u nc t iona l d e p e nd e nc e of sp e c if ic e r osion y ie ld ep
Y.F Khalil, D.E. Rosner l Wear 201 {1996) 64-79 69
on par t icle inc ide nt velocit y V~, a ngle of inc ide nc e 0 , and
pr oj ect ile par t icle size, up, or dp ( se e , f or e xa mple , Keair ns e t
al. I ! ~ and Se c t ion 4 .4 ) . An especially onv e nie nt r e p r e se n.
i t hese e x p e r ime nt a l dat a f or ou r p u r p ose s is t he sep-
,~e, p owe r .la w f or m:
ep = ~p.,~. (Vp/vp.,~f)". c os ' ( 0 3 " ( u # v p . J ( 2 )
whe r e ~p.~t ( i.e . t he va lue of ep at Vp= Vp.,~f= 100 m s - ~,
0 , = 0 , a nd Vp=Vp,,~f= ( r r / 6 ) d ~ m r = ( r / 6 ) ( 1 0 0 ) 3 t.tm 3 is
specif ic t o t he p r oj e c t ile / c e r a mic t ar get syst em, a nd t he expo-
ne nt n on t he par t icle velocit y ( n=- d( l nep) l d( i nVp) ) , a
va lue f r equent ly ne a r 2.3) is c hose n t o fit e xpe r ime nt a l
r esult s, e spe c ia lly in t he vic init y of nor ma l incidence, 0, = 0.
Similar ly, t he e x p one nt I on pa r t ic le v olu me (i---
d ( I nq , ) / d ( I nv p ) ) , a va lue f r equent ly ne a r 1.2) is c hose n t o
be st de sc r ibe available e xpe r ime nt a l r e sult s as a f unc t ion of
e r od e nt par t icle size ne a r up,,~. Not e t ha t t he indicat ed
d e p e nd e nc e on a ng le of incidence, c os" ( 0 t ) , is already nor -
ma liz e d since c os" ( 0 ) = 1 f or any m ( t ypic a l values of t he
e x p one nt m, not necessar ily an int eger , will be se e n t o r a nge
b e t we e n 0.5 a nd 3.5; see, f or e x a mp le , Fig. 2 a nd Ta b le I ) .
Re g a r d ing t he 0 r d e p e nd e nc e of e r osion yields, t he behav-
ior a nd success of t he simp le b u t realist ic f unc t ion cosm( 0t )
is shown in Fig. 2. T his f unct ional f or m is seen t o fit r oom
t e mpe r a t ur e e r osion rate d a t a ob t a ine d f r om laborat ory exper -
ime nt s f or a wid e var iet y of c omb ina t ions of c e r a mic t ar get
ma t e r ia l a nd pr oj e c t ile mat er ials [23,22,3,11 a nd will b e
shown t o f acilit at e t he c a lc ula t ion of t ot al e r osion r at es ( Se c -
t ion 2.3, Figs. 3 a nd 4 ) , especially in t he hig h St okes nu mb e r
limit , Not e t ha t in all cases c onsid e r e d her e we a ssu me t ha t
no e r osion oc c u r s f or pr oj e c t ile par t icles whic h st r ike t he
t ar get sur f a c e a t gr azing inc ide nc e ( 0 t = ~ ' / 2 r a d ) . Con-
ver sely, t he most vulner able a ng le of incidence ( wr it t e n as
0 , in Rosne r e t a l . [291 a nd ledao e t a l . [ 19] ) is zer o r adians
( i.e. nor ma l inc id e nc e ) . S ome best-fit values of t he f ou r par -
amet er s l, m, n, a nd ep,ra whic h we ext r act ed f r om available
e r osion y ie ld me a su r e me nt s f or a variet y of c e r a mic t ar get s
a nd e r od e nt s ( se e Se c t ion 3 ) , ar e give n in Ta ble I .
~
. =, 2 . 0 , 5 m/ ,,
v ~ ~.o m/ , ' ~
~ ' , t ' W . A . I ~
b " l " W t A " i ~ " 4 1 " I,~ l ~ o IlL . ~ , , . _
o : o 4 0 ~o a-o'
AnRle o f Ineldetlce, 0 1 ( I ) e B r e e ~ )
Fig. 2. Dependence of the normalized erosion yield/'(O~) on angle of inci-
dence (relative t o target normal) f or unannealed glass/ east iron erodent
( d~: 580 p.m and V~= 30.5 m s- ~) at 300 K (after Finnie 13]).
I ! i ~ ! i t i " = 1 " ~
4. I * '* '4* * i
: t , . , , , , . . ,
f ' ' 1
,ll,. ".
r ' . . . . . . . . " ' ~ ' , : 1
0 3 0 4 0 I l O S O '
AnKle of Incidence. O i { D e s r e e s )
Fig. 3, Erosion yield dependence on particle velocity and angle of incidence
(relative t o target normal) f or unannealed glass t ar get / cast iron erodent
(dr= 580 ~m) at 300 K (after Finnie 13] ).
(O l ) c o ~ t s (
o . a
o , a
e. 2
0 , 0 I I I I I I i
0 2 0 4 0 I 0 I O '
A n K l e o f l n e l d a n e e , g t
Fig. 4. Erosion yield dependence on particle velocity and angle of incidence
(relative to target nor mal) f or 96% high-purity a l u m na cestableldead-
burned dolomite erodent (alp'= 680 p.m ) at 300 K (after Keatrns el al, [ I ] ).
I n wha t f ollows, c ylindr ic a l c e r a mic t ar get r esult s will be
shown f or t he f ollowing r epr esent at ive r a ng e of t he above-
me nt ione d e r osion y ie ld p a r a me t e r m: 0.5 < m < 3.0. The se
gr aphs t oge t he r wit h ou r t able giving t he f ou r pa r a me t e r s I,
m, n a nd ep.,~r, su mma r iz ing available c e r a mic pla na r t ar get
e r osion rate da t a ( T a b le 1) , will p e r mit r a pid e ng ine e r ing
est imat es of c onv e x or c onc a v e c y lind e r t ar get e r osion r at es
f or pr eliminar y d e sig n/ op t imiz a t ion p u r p ose s f or ma ny c om-
binat ions of pr act ical int er est ( S e c t ion 4 ,1 ) . Howe ve r , as
disc usse d in Se c t ion 4.2, some of t he se r esult s, whe n c om-
b ine d wit h act ual e r osion r at e ob se r v a t ions on t e st c ylinde r s
in a r easonably well- char act er ized cr oss- f low, c ou ld be u se d
t o ext r act rat ional e st ima t e s of c e r t a in unavailable e r osion
yie ld par amet er s f or u se in subse que nt d e sig n/ op t imiz a t ion
calculat ions.
2.3. Local and total erosion rate quadrature expressions
Consid e r first t he t ask of pr e dic t ing t he local e r osion r at e
at some arbitrary a ngula r posit ion O on, say, a c onv e x cylin-
drical c e r a mic t ar get ( me a su r e d f r om t he f or war d st agnat ion
line, see Fig, 1 ( a ) ) . T he ma inst r e a m, of ve loc it y U, c ont a ins
t he nu mb e r de nsit y Np of abr asive par t icles dist r ibut e d in size
( par t icle v olu me ) wit h t he nor ma liz e d size dist r ibut ion r une-
7 0 EF, Khalil, D.E. Resner / l~,~ar 201 (i996) 64-7~
tion C~( v ) . We wr it e t he local impingement flux of particles
of volume v + ( d r / 2 ) as ~o~l(v,O) .UNpC~,(v)dv, whic h
cor r esponds t o a volume flux v ~ , l ( v , 0 ) . UNpC(u5 do.
Accor ding t o t he er osion y ie ld law ( Sect ion 2.2) , the cor-
r esponding cont r ibut ion t o t he local er osion rate will be:
~ p ( V p ( v , o ) , e / , v , o ) , v ) v n ~ o , A v , O ) . U N p C = ( v ) d v (3)
and t he t ot al lc,cal er osion rate will t her ef or e be given by the
integral of Eq. ( 3 ) ove r t he ent ir e particle volume range
0--~ ~ . Ke e ping in mind that, for inertial impaction, t he into-
gr a nd ( b e c a u se of ~ , l ( v , O) ) is essentially zero be low some
t hr eshold v olu me v,,~t cor r esponding t o a critical St okes num-
ber, Stk~nt,cff= 1 / 8 [ 3 1 ,3 2 ] , we c a n writ e:
E R ffi ~ ep( Vp( V,O),O,( v , O l , v ) v t b ~ A v,O) " UlV~C~( v ) d o (4)
O
A suit able system-specific charact erist ic er osion rate will
c le a r ly be:
(ER)~ =- ~ p ( U ,O ,ffp . J .( tT ~ V p U ) = ( 5 )
whe r e t he pr oduc t (ff;,Np) will be r ecognized as t he main-
st r eam par t icle volume fraction ~z,.. This implies that it will
always be possible t o calculat e actual target er osion rates from
t he pr oduct relation:
E R = ( ER) ~. E( O, . . . ) ( 6 )
wher e, in v ie w of Eqs. ( 3 ) - ( 5 ) , t he dimensionless local ero-
sion r at e funct ion E( 0 ,I ,m) is explicit ly given by:
-=- jo L e.~', u,o,E.) j
( ~ 1 . ~ , o ~ ( v , O ) . C = ( v ) d v (75
This is an import ant gener al result, simplified below for par-
t i d e s large e nough t o foUow straight line trajectories in the
vicinit y of t he c e r a mic ( c oa t e d ) target.
We now int r oduce t he separable er osion yie ld law Eq. (25
and not e t hat t he first ( br a c ke t e d) t er m in t he int egrand can
t hen be simplified t o t he pr oduct of t hree dimensionless
functions:
ep(u,O,E=) j
V ( v 0 ) " .~
= ( ~ 1 "cos ( O, ( v , O) ) ' ( ~_J ( 8 )
I t will be r e c a lle d t hat t he shape function c os" ( 0 ,) descr ibing
t he d e p e nd e nc e of er osion yield on angle- of - incidence is
alr eady nor malized. Gener ally, t o complet e t he calculat ion of
the dimensionless local er osion rate E ( 0 , . . . ) , it r emains to
specify ( be side s t he er osion yie ld paramet ers of Table I )
t he t hr ee iner t ial impact ion t hnct ions: Vo(v,O)/U,
0i(o,0) / ( 7 r / 2 ) and ~o~a( o,0) for t he flow geomet r y at hand.
In any case, of par t icular interest t o us will be t he maximum
local value Em~ of E, occur r ing at angular posit ion 0 = 0 ( or
0m for the c y c lone t ar get sector, Fig. ! ( b ) , Sect ion 2 .5 ) , as
welt as the mean value, L of E ov e r t he upwind- f acing sur f ace
of the cir cular cylinder , i.e.:
I , , 0 I0>
o
These funct ions ar e included her e ( Figs. 6 - 8 ) only for t he
limit ( ( I v y , i t ) t / ~ 1, i.e. infinite St okes number.
We note that ( ER) c ( Eq. ( I ) ) scales as U " +1. dJi, . Since
our dim~nsioniess F.-tunctions ar e explicit ly independent of
ffp. this indicates that all absolute er osion rat es ar e simply
linearly proportional to the volume fraction of abrasive par-
t id e s in t he mainst ream. The pr ocedur es explicit ly illustrated
her e for a convex cir cular c ylinde r t arget ( Fig. 1 ( a ) ) could,
of cour se, be implement ed f or any ot her convex a e r odyna mic
shape of part icular interest. Albeit mor e appr oximat ely ( d u e
to mult iple er odent part icle impacts on t he same target;
Assumption ( 1 ) and Sect ion 4 .3 ) , t hey will also be useful
for many c onc a ve cer amic t arget shapes, as illustrated be low
f or a cyclone t arget ar ea ( Fig. 1 ( b ) and Sect ion 2.5) .
2.4. Inertial impaction f o r a cylindrical target in cross-
flow: Limiting case o f very large Stokes numbers ( S t k v ~ 1)
For the general case [ 28,29] , we need to invoke inertial
impact ion correlat ions of individual part icle t raj ect ory cal-
culat ions to est imat e impinging par t icle f r equencies, impact
velocit ies and angles [ 33,32,34]. But, in t he limit whe r e most
particles in the mainst r eam populat ion ar e so large that t hey
f ollow nearly straight line paths ( f or St okes number based
on a particle of volume v, satisfying t he inequality: S t k ~ > 1,
t he special case to whic h we restrict our selves he r e ) all par-
ticles will impact the cir cular c ylinde r at t he velocit y Vp= U
wit h local incidence angle 0, = 0. I n this limit, t he general
relations for local impingement ef f iciency, r/t,,~a ~, and maxi-
mu m angle, 0m,~, exper iencing impact ion on a cir cular
c ylinde r r educe to:
r l,,,~( v,0) -.-)cos(0) ( 1 0 )
Om~,~ ~r/2 ( l l )
Inspection of t he general quadrat ure expression g ( 0 , , , . )
( Eq, ( 6 ) ) reveals that when (81v.~) ~I3 ~ 1 then:
Lim E( O, rn,l) -- Etim( O,m,l) = #t+ l 'cosm+ l ( O) ( 1 2 )
Her e
0
is the ( l + 1 ) t h moment of the nor malized mainst r eam size
distribution function C(v) ( se e Sect ion 2 .7 ) . Not e that, in
general, # t + t differs f r om unit y since 1 ~: 0 ( Table 1 ) and not
)'.F. ghalil, D.E. Rosner / Wear 201 (1996)64-79 71
[ ~,,=(o,m) oo,'*(o) [ t/'
: I r u,
# r = 6 4 g ~fL
)a&
/~Ja
1
Fig . 5. Pola r p lot of nor m a l i z e d loc a l e r osi on r a t e s, Eum( O,m 1, on u p wind
su r f a c e of c e r a m i c ( c oa t e d ) c ir c u la r c y lind e r in e r ossf low.
0,7 - ' - - : , i i i i i
] e q. ( ~ . 4 - s )
0 . 8 . . . . . .
I~,f"
0.4 ~
0 . 3 l ~ ~ ~ t
0 . 0 1 . 0 2 , 0 3 . 0
_
Fig . 6 . De p e nd e nc e of t he f u nc t ion E,,mirn) on t he e r osi on p a r a me t e r m:
w i nd w a r d su r f a c e of a c ir c u la r c y l i nd e r in c r ossf low.
all p a r t ic le s in t he m a i nst r e a m e r od e nt d ist r ib u t ion ha v e siz e
v.~. T his r e su lt , Eq . ( 1 2 ) , w hic h is i nd e p e nd e nt of t he e r osion
y ie ld p a r a me t e r s et,,,~f or n, r e v e a ls t ha t in t he p r e se nt c a se t he
st a g na t ion p oi nt v a lu e of E~m( 0 . . . . ) f or a m onod i sp e r sc d
st r e a m w ou l d b e u ni t y ( f or a ny m ) , a nd c a n b e id e nt if ie d
w it h Elim,nm. These si m p l e limit ing r e la t ions we r e u se d t o
g e ne r a t e t he ( p ol a r - p l ot ) r e su lt s show n in Fig. 5. i f w e now
u se Eq . ( 1 2 ) t o c a lc u la t e t he t a r g e t u p w i nd su r f a c e - a v e r a g e d
e r osi on r a t e f u nc t i on ~1i,~ ( e l . Eq. ( 9 ) ) we f ind:
w/ 2
, , , ,
o
w he r e t he f a c t or { ) will b e r e c og ni z e d a s Et ~m(m) f or t he
sp e c ia l c a se w he n all p a r t ic le s in t he m a i nst r e a m ha v e t he
sa m e siz e ~ , . T hi s f u nc t i on c a n b e ob t a ine d b y c a r r y ing ou t
t he ind ic a t e d nu m e r i c a l int e g r a t ion, wit h r e su lt s ( f or 0 <
m < 3 . 0 ) g i v e n in Fig . 6. A s a u se f u l a p p r ox i m a t e f or m u l a
f or m a k i ng f u t u r e c a lc u la t ions we su g g e st t he p ow e r se r ie s:
/i~m = ( 2 / ' n' ) + [ ( 1 1 / 1 6 ) - ( 8 / ( 3 r ) ) 1 . m
+ [ ( 2 / ( 3 ~ ) ) - ( 3 / 1 6 ) ] . m 2 ( 1 5 )
ob t a i ne d b y u sing t he k now n e x a c t r e su lt s of t his int e g r a l f or
m = 0 , I , 3 a s a nc hor p oi nt s in a q u a d r a t ic int e r p ola t ion
f or m u l a ( of . Fig. 6 ) .
2.5. Concave target sector o f cyclone particle separator
De sp it e p ossib le c om p l i c a t i ons of r e - i m p i ng e m e nt or
" b l a nk e t i ng " ( loc a l shi e l d i ng ) ( S e c t i on 4 .3 a nd A ssu m p -
t ion ( I ) ) , it is int e r e st ing t ha t ou r p r e se nt f or mu la t ion, wit h
onl y m i nor mod if ic a t ions, c a n b e u se d t o e st i m a t e loc a l a nd
t ot a l c e r a m i c e r osi on r a t e s f or t he c onc ~ ; ' e t a r g e t a r e a of a
c y c l one p a r t ic le se p a r a t or ( Fig . I ( b ) ) . A p a r t f r om t he f a c t
t ha t d ir e c t i m p i ng e m e nt now only oc c u r s b e t w e e n t he a ng l e s
0m a nd r r / 2 ( w he r e (~,, = sit s- i[ 1 - ( B J R ) ] ) in t he ( w or st
c a se ) limit of r e c t iline a r p a r t ic le p a t hs ou r p r e v i ou s r e su lt s
f or E( O; m ) st ill a p p ly , b u t now t he a v e r a g e e r osi on r a t e will
b e ( ER) c. p l + l ' Fl i m ( m ; 0,,,), whe r e :
f t i m ( O . , ; m ) - - ( ( T r / 2 ) - O m ) - t " f c o s m + t ( O ) . d O ( I 6 )
o
a nd it will b e not e d t ha t Flim(O; m ) ~ E u m ( m ) ( E q . ( 1 5 ) ) .
V a l u e s of/~l,m(Ore,m) v ia nu m e r i c a l int e g r a t ion a r e show n in
Fig . 8 f or t w o r e le v a nt v a lu e s of t he c y c l one g e om e t r y p a r a m -
e t e r Om. Ag a in, u si ng e x a c t v a l u e s f or t he p a r t ic u la r c a se s
m = 0 , ! , a nd 3 a s a nc hor p oint s in a q u a d r a t ic int e r p ola t ion
f or mu la , w e d e r iv e t he a p p r ox i m a t e f or m u l a :
f ~m( O . , , m) = Co+ c,m + Ca'm 2 ( 1 7 )
whe r e :
C o = ( 1 - sin( 0 ,,,) ) / ( ( r / 2 ) - On,)
C~ = ( 1 1 / 1 6 ) - ( 3 / 4 ) si n( 0 , , , ) c os( 0 , , , ) / ( ( ' n' / 2 ) - O,,,)
- ( 3 / 4 ) ( 1 - sin( 0 ,,,) ) / ( ( ~r r / 2) - 0,,,)
+ sin ( 2 0 , , ) / ( 2 4 ( ( r r / 2 ) - 0,,) )
+ sin (40~,) / ( 192( ( ~ ' / 2 ) - 0,,) )
Ca = ( 1 / 3 ) ( 1 - sin( 0 ,,,) ) / ( ( r r / 2 ) - 0,,,) + ( 1 / 4 )
. sin( 0 . , ) c os( 0 , , ) / ( ( r / 2 ) - Ore)
- - si n( 2 0 , , ) / ( 2.4( ( r / 2 ) - 0 m) )
- s i n( 4 0 , , , ) / ( 192( ( r / 2 ) - 0,,,)) - ( 3 / 1 6 ) ( 1 8 )
Eq . ( 1 7 ) is p lot t e d in Fig s. 7 a nd 8 ( f or 0m e q u a l t o 0 .2 5 2 7
a nd 0 . 5 2 3 6 t a d , r e sp e c t iv e ly ) a nd c om p a r e d wit h t he c or r e -
sp ond i ng nu me r ic a l int e g r a t ions of E q . ( 1 6 ) . How e v e r ,
sinc e , of t e n, 0 , , . ~ 1, w e c a n a lso u se t he c onv e ni e nt
a lt e r na t iv e :
from( 0m; m ) = gLm( r n) - ( 2 / w ) ' [ 1 - / ~t ~m( m) ] " 0,,
- 2 ( 2 / n' ) 2 , [ 1 - Eu m( m) ] , 02m ( 1 9 )
w he r e El~m(m) is t he c or r e sp ond i ng c om p l e t e u p w i nd c y lin-
d e r su r f a c e e r osion r a t e f u nc t ion.
72 Y.F. ghalil, D.E. Rosner / Wear 20I (I996) 64-79
O . |
0.4
0.2
! ! t !
\ f' -" "'*,',> > l
, - - ~ Num~"ie.d I n t q ~ U c m
" - - q ~ l , v i U e T om a l ,
o.n t i ) i t
o. n 1 . 0 2 . 0 3 . 0
m
Fig. 7. Dependence of the cyclone target erosion function on the erosion
parameter m for a cyclone geometry with BclR~ = 0.75; impingement sector
of cyclone inner walls (Figs, 7 and I (b)).
0 . ] I I I I i I
0.4 I
t'~ 0 . 2
0 , I I ~ N u m* ~ c * l h , t q r i t t o n
I * . , - , ~ i d ~ r , m ~ i
O.O I i J i i q
0. 0 1 , 0 2 . 0 3 , 0
m
Fig. 8. Dependence of th~ cyclone target erosion function on the erosion
parameter m for a cyclone geometry with B~IRc ~ 0.50; impingement sector
o f cyclone i n n e r w a l l s ( F i g . I ( b ) ) ,
Fig, 7 also shows a c ompa r ison bet ween the series approx-
imat ion give n by Eq. ( 1 9 ) a nd t he numer ical int egrat ion
using Eq. ( 1 6 ) f or t he case/9,,, = 0 .2 5 2 7 rad. Since Eq. { 19)
b e c ome s less accur at e when 0,., doe s not sat isfy t he inequalit y
O,,, ~ 1, Eq. ( 1 7 ) wou ld be mor e appropriat e t o use.
This c onc lude s our der ivat ion of the f or mulae ne e d e d t o
pr edict all cer amic c ylinde r t arget er osion rat es of int erest in
this paper . Use of t hese dimensionless f unct ions t o est imat e
local a nd t ot al c y c lone t ar get sect ion absolut e er osion rates
( e.g. m m p e r year r ecession) is illustrated in Soct ion 4.1.
2, 6. Correction f act or f o r departures f rom pure crossflow
I t is possible t o include c ommonly encount er ed cases in
whic h t he conf igur at ion depar t s f r om " p u r e c r ossf low" , i.e.
t he er odent - cont aining st r eam dir ect ion a nd t arget cylinder
axis ar e not per pendicular . The n, in t he wor st .case limit of
r ect ilinear par t icle trajectories:
cos(Oi) =c o s ( A) c o s ( O) ( 2 0 )
wher e A is t he c omp le me nt of t he angle be t we e n t he flow
dir ect ion and t he c ylinde r axis, Ther ef or e, all pr evious cal-
culat ions apply if we mer ely int r oduce t he addit ional
spanwise-flow cor r ect ion factor: c os" + t ( A t .
2. 7. Correction f act or f o r mainstreara erodent particles
distributed in size according t o the Rosin-Ramraler
function
For suspended parttcIes in the size r ange capable of imp a c -
t ion and er osion damage, a c ommon f or m of size dist r ibut ion
f unct ion C~(o) has t he pr oper t y:
w,
( I V " C = ( v ) d v ) / ( 6 = ) = e x p - ( t '/ [ '= [ ) "
v
( 2 1 )
wher e t he ( Rosin- Ra mmle r ) e xpone nt v is an impor t ant
" monod isp e r sit y " ( inver se- spr ead) par amet er f or t he pop-
ulat ion and o=t is any c onve nie nt r ef er ence par t icle v olu me
( inc luding v~) . For t his impor t ant case we find, f or t he ( i s
l ) t h mome nt of the nor malized size dist r ibut ion f unct ion
C , ( v ) , t he useful r esult [ 2 9 ] :
#t o L = (O=r/O=)t'P( 1 + ( l / ~') ) ( 2 2 )
wher e F( I + ( l l v ) ) is t he g a mma f unct ion of t he indicat ed
a r gume nt I S ( l / v ) , whic h can also be wr it t en ( l / v ) ! , in
t e r ms of t he factorial f unct ion. However , whe n t he spr ead
par amet er v is less t han unit y, as has been r e por t e d f or t he
impact ing por t ion of ma ny abrasive p owd e r populat ions, t his
r esult must be incr eased because of t he r equir ed int r oduct ion
of a small.size ( v olu me ) " c u t - of f ' ' . As an e xa mple , f or pul-
verized coal a t ypical u .v a lu e is 0.4 ( i,e. 1 . 2 / 3 ) . Thus, if
l = 1,2 ( Ta ble 1) ( I / v ) = 3 4 6 . Wit h t he a bove - me nt ione d
" c u t - of f c or r e c t ion" t his leads t o #t+~ = 9.6, cor r esponding
to almost a one- decade er osion r at e incr ease d u e t o main-
st r eam polydisper sit y ( f or t he par t icular case: I = 1,2, v =
0 .4 ) .
3. Procedure to determine best-fit values o f the erosion
parameters l, m, n, and Ep,.~ from available erosion
yield data
3. 1, Use o f erosion test rig data f o r plalzar targets with
known impingement conditions
T o utilize t his simplif ied f or mulat ion ( se e Sect ion 2) and
convenient ly summar ize exper iment al er osion yie ld dat a pr o.
vided in t he literature, a practical pr oc e dur e is r equir ed t o
det er mine best-fit values of t he er osion yie ld par amet er s: l,
rn, n, and ~p,=f, associat ed wit h any give n set of cer amic
er osion yield dat a ( e .g. iso- v d oc it y ~p vs. angle- of - incidence
dat a) , In this wor k, t he dimensionless absolut e er osion yield,
%, is def ined as t he aver age volume of cer amic t arget
r e move d per unit volume of impact ing e r od e nt particle, T he
EF, ghalit. D.E Rosner / Wear 201 (1996) 64-79 73
nor ma liz e d e r osion yield, f ( 0 3 , is c a lc ula t e d by dividing t he
e r osion yield, ep, b y t he e r osion y ie ld at nor mal inc ide nc e
( i.e . a t 0 = 0 ) , all necessar y qua nt it ie s b e ing he ld const ant .
Whe n e r osion y ie ld d a t a at nor mal inc id e nc e we r e not avail-
able ( a s in Keair ns e t al. [ 1 ] ) , da t a ext r apolat ion was ut ilized
t o e st ima t e ~p a t 0~ = 0 .
Ta ble I su mma r iz e s t he r esult s of ou r analysis of available
e r osion y ie ld da t a f or a var iet y of c e r a mic t ar get ma t e r ia l/
e r od e nt sy st e ms near 3 0 0 K; best -fit va!ues of t he fou~ e r osion
par amet er s: l, m, n, a nd ep.,~t ar e pr ovide d. Not e t ha t ou r
r e por t e d values of ep.,~r ( of . Eq. ( 2 ) ) per t ain t o par t icle ref-
e r e nc e ve loc it y, Vp.,,f= 100 m s - t a r ef er ence par t icle size,
dp.,~r-- 100 I~m, a nd nor ma l incidence.
Fig. 2 shows t he d e p e nd e nc e of e r osion y ie ld ep on par t icle
ve loc it y Vp a nd a ng le of inc id e nc e 0i ( r e la t iv e t o t ar get nor -
ma l) f or t he sy st e m: una nne a le d glass t a r g e t / c a st ir on ero-
d e nt ( d p = 5 8 0 Ixm) a t 300 K. I t is c le a r f r om t his figure t hat
ou r r esult s ( u sing Eq. ( 2 ) a nd Ta b le 1) ar e in e xc e lle nt
a g r e e me nt wit h t he c or r e sp ond ing e x p e r ime nt 3 r esult s gen-
e r a t e d by Finnie [ 3 ] . Similar ly, Fig. 3 shows t he e xpe r ime n-
tal e r osion y ie ld d a t a f or " d e a d - b u r ne d " d olomit e par t icles
imp a c t ing on a 96% high- pur it y a lu mina t a st a b le t ar get a t
var ious angles of inc id e nc e a nd ma inst r e a m velocit ies [ 1 ] .
Also shown ar e t he e r osion y ie ld s calculat ed using t he c hose n
e r osion y ie ld law ( Eq . ( 2 ) ) a nd t he f ou r par amet er s r e por t e d
in Ta b le I , Not e t ha t t he e r osion yield incr eases not iceably
as t he pa r t ic le ve loc it y incr eases f r om 1 0 . I r e s -~ t o
14.3 m s - t. Fu r t he r mor e , t he e x p e r ime nt a l da t a a nd ou r sim-
p le f ou r - p a r a me t e r mod e l r epr esent at ion ar e in accept able
a gr e e me nt . For e xa mple , t he a bsolut e de via t ion b e t we e n t he
e x p e r ime nt a l a nd p r e d ic t e d e r osion y ie ld f or incidence angles
b ou nd e d b e t we e n 0~=0 a nd 0 , = 4 5 is < 10% ( a t 0~ = 7 5 ,
whe r e mu c h less e r osion is expect ed, t he absolut e de via t ion
is a b ou t 4 0 %) , Ad d it iona l sat isf act or y r esult s wer e obt a ine d
f or t he ot he r t y p e s of t a st a b le t a r g e t / e r od e nt syst e ms t est ed
by Ke a ir ns e t al. [ I ] .
Ou r analysis of t he se c a se s a nd simila r er osion dat a ( pr e -
se nt e d in Ta b le 1 ) d e monst r a t e s t he e ng ine e r ing ut ilit y of our
p r op ose d e r osion da t a r epr esent at ion t echnique. Comb ine d
wit h local imp a c t ion f r e que nc y calculat ions ( Se c t ion 2 .3 ) ,
t hese e r osion y ie ld pa r a me t e r s wiII be seen t o simplif y dr a-
mat ically t he e ng ine e r ing pr e dic t ion of local and t ot al e r osion
rates.
3.2. Enlargement of Table I based on available relative
erosion rate data
( a c ob a lt - c hr omiu m a lloy ) a s his r e f e r e nc e t ar get a nd
r e por t e d ca. 80 r e la t ive e r osion f act or s ( REF- v a lu e s) on t his
basis. Sinc e Hansen ~ p or t e d no absolut e e r osion rates, nor
e nou g h imp ing e me nt c ond it ion inf or ma t ion t o calculat e cor -
r e sp ond ing e r osion yields, a nd sinc e St ellit e 6B is not pr e se nt
in our Ta b le I ( or in Ta b le I of Kho e t a | . [ 19] ) , it wou ld
appear t ha t Ha nse n' s dat abase ( w hic h inc lu d e s some 18
c e r a mic t ar get s) c a nnot be u se d t o a u g me nt ou r pt'esent
f a b l e 1, or t o ma k e e ng ine e r ing c a lc ula t ions f or t he se c e r a m-
ics e x p ose d t o a lu mina dust s, Howe v e r , u p on r ef lect ion, we
c a n p r oc e e d a s f ollows: at 298 K, Ha nse n r e p or t e d t ha t # 3 0 4
st ainless st eel e r od e d a t t he sa me r at e a s St ellit e 6 B, a nd, f r om
t he da t a r e por t e d by T a b a k of f e t al. [ 3 6 ] f or t he A I 2 O J # 3 0 4
SS syst e m at 298 K we ha ve est imat ed: c v ,r a - - 3 .6 10 - 4 ,
~p( nor mal inc id e nc e ) / e p ( most vulner able inc id e nc e a ng le )
= 0.48, and n = 2.0, l = 0. The se par t icular a bsolut e va lue s
" op e n the d oor " t o p la c ing Ha nse n' s REF- da t a on an abso-
lut e basis, not only f or ma ny c e r a mic t ar get s ( of int er est
he r e ) , but also f or some 22 me t a l a lloys, 13 c e me nt e d
car bides, a nd 15 coat ings.
Cor r e c t ing f or t he d e p e nd e nc e of ~p.n~r on e r od e nt velocit y,
inc ide nc e angle, a nd ( f or c e r a mic s) e r od e m par t icle size, we
ar e t hu s led t o t he f ollowing ~p,~r e st ima t e f or any 298 K
c e r a mic REF- value t a bula t e d by Ha nse n [ 351:
er,,~r'- ( 3.6 1 0 - 4 / 0 . 4 8 ) ' ( 1 7 0 / 1 0 0 ) - ~" - t o)
. ( 1 0 0 / 2 7 ) 3t- ( R E F) ( 2 3 )
As t wo specific e x a mp le s, c onsid e r Ha nse n' s REF- ,,alues
of 0 .4 0 and O.l 2, f or t ar get s of hot - p r e sse d ( Nor t on) SigN4
a nd SiC, r espect ively. Assu ming t hat f or t he se c e r a mic tar-
ge t s, n = 2.3 a nd 1 = 1.2 we t hen e st ima t e t ha t t he se 2 9 g K
REF- vat ues c or r e sp ond t o 8 p . , ~ r (A1203 er odent / Si~Na
t ar get ) = 3 10 - 2 a nd e~,,,~ ( AI 203 e r od e nt / S i C t a r ge t ) =
0.9 1 0 - 2. 2 This st r at egy c ou ld t he r e f or e be u se d t o ge ne r a t e
an e nla r ge d dat abase t o allow a bsolut e e r osion p r e d ic t ions
f or ma ny e r od e nt / c e r a mic t ar get sy st e ms of e ng ine e r ing
interest. Su c h an e nla r g e d c omp e nd iu m of d ime nsionle sse r o-
sion y ie ld par amet er s ( c f . Table I ) will also f acilit at e t he
d e v e lop me nt of rat ional c or r e la t ions wit h c omb ina t ions of
mor e f unda me nt a l me c ha nic a l pr ope r t ie s of t he se e r od e nt /
t ar get syst ems, f ur t her br oa de ning t he d oma in of applicabilit y
a nd p r e d ic t iv e / d e sig n va lue of t his a ppr oa c h ( se e
Sect ion 5 ) .
4 , I m p l i c a t i o n s , a p p l i c a t i o n s , a n d g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s
T he p r e se nt r e f or mu la t ion of t he c a nonic a l e r osion pr ob-
le m, t og e t he r wit h ou r t abulat ions of par amet er s based on
available e x p e r ime nt a l da t a ( S e c t ion 3 .1 ) , le nds it se lf t o
a u g me nt a t ion based on th~ e x ist e nc e of r elat ive er osion r at e
dat a also in t he lit erat ure. As an int er est ing example, Hansen
[ 35] r e por t e d t he r elat ive e r osion r at es of some 80 t ar get
mat er ials e x p ose d a t nor ma l incidence, a nd a t t wo t emper a-
t ur e levels: 298 K a nd 973 K, t o 27 p,m d ia me t e r a lu mina
par t icles at a v e loc it y of 170 m s - z. Hansen c hose St ellit e 6B
4. l. Direct use to predict erosion rate behavior
T he f ollowing t wo nume r ic a l e x a mp le s illust r at e t he ut ilit y
of ou r r ef or mulat ion of t he p r ob le m of p r e d ic t ing e r osion
z I n l i ght o f the more direct ~p~r estimates included i n our Table I , these
tentative estimates f o r hot-pressed SigN4 and SiC must be viewed wi t h
caution because of a possible (onconecled) erodent particle size effect for
the 27 ixm diam. Al20,~ erodent/#304 SS planar target in Hansen's (incom-
pletely documented/characterized) test rig.
"/4 EF. Khalil, D.E. Rosner /Wear 201 (1996) 64-79
rat es f or t he canonical ge ome t r y of a cir cular cylinder
( se c t or ) .
4.1.1, E x a mp l e 1: Leading edge e r a gas.turbine stator blade
We calculat e ber e t he er osion r at e ( unit s: nu n per year ) of
an init ially 0.25 nu n t hic k pr ot ect ive c e r a mic coat ing on t he
!e~.ding e d g e of a gas- t ur bine st at or blade in a pressurized
fluidized b e d c omb u st or ( PFB C ) c omb ine d c yc le unit . Sup-
p ose t ha t t he gas t ur bine blades ar e subj ect ed t o a hot gas
st r eam c ont a ining su sp e nd e d ash at oper at ing t emper at ur e
and pr e ssur e of a b ou t 1 0 0 0 K and 11 arm, respect ively.
Assu me , f ur t her , t ha t t he ash part icles have a mean part icle
d ia me t e r ~ of , say, 4 0 p,m, t he mainst r eam gas velocit y is
a b ou t 300 m s - ~, a nd t he par t icle loading is 35 p p m ( ma ss
of e r od e nt / ma ss of g a s) . Le t t he f ou r er osion yield param-
et er s descr ibing t he b la d e ' s pr ot ect ive cer amic coat ing be:
1 = !.2, m = 0,6, n = 2.8, a nd e~,rer = 7.5 1 0 - ~. I f t he intrinsic
densit y of e a c h e r od e nt par t icle is 3 . 1 7 x 103 k g m - s, and
t hat of t he hot gas st r eam is 3.44 k g m - 3 Cat 1000 K a nd
11 a r m) , t he n t he ma insu c a m volume fraction, ckp., of e r e -
d e nt par t icles will b ( 3 . 4 4 ) ( 3 5 x 1 0 - 6 ) / ( 3 . 1 7 x 1 0 3 ) =
3.8 1 0 - s ( i.e. a b ou t 0.04 p p m ) . Also, t he value of t he ero-
sion par amet er c or r e c t e d t o act ual gas t ur bine oper at ing
c ondit ions, e~( U,0,dp) , will be ( 7.5 X 1 0 - 7) ( 3 0 0 / 1 0 0 ) z s.
( 4 0 / 1 0 0 ) a LZ = 6.0 X 10 - 7.
T he char act er ist ic e r osion rat e, (ER), can t he n b
calculat ed f r om the p r od u c t ep( U,0,dp) .( mainst r eam volume
f r a c t ion) .( ma inst r c a m velocit y) = ( 6 . 0 x 10 - 7 ) ( 3 . 8 x
1 0 - s ) ( ( 3 0 0 ) ( 1 0 3 ) ( g 7 6 0 ) ( 3 6 0 0 ) ) = 0 . 2 2 m m y -m. T he
local er osion rate c a n b calculat ed b y mult iplying ( E R ) by
E,m(0;, m ) , i.e. by c os" +1 ( 0 ) , and t he ma x imu m local er o-
sion r at e ( he r e at 0 = 0 ) wou ld be 0.22 m m y - i. Finally, t he
me a n e r osion r at e c a n be calculat ed by mu lt ip ly ing ( ER) ~ by
t he value of E , , ( m ) est imat ed at m = 0 . 6 using Fig. 6 or
F.,q. ( 1 5 ) . The r e f or e , t he me a n er osion r at e of the t ur bine
b la d e ' sle a d ing e d g e wou ld b ( 0.22) ( 0.55) = 0.12 m m y - i .
Ba se d on t he se e st ima t e d er osion rates, one can, f or example,
d e c id e on t he necessar y r eplacement f r equency of t he cer amic
pr ot e c t ive c oa t ing syst e m ( e.g. in t his example a bout ever y
2 year s of c ont inu ou s op e r a t ion) .
4.1.2. E x a m p l e 2 : Refractory-lined cyclone
Conside r a r ef r act or y- lined c y c lone separ at or such as t ha t
used wit h a CFBC u nit oper at ing at a pr essur e near I at m.
Assu me t ha t t he c ylinde r c onc a ve t ar get liner is a luminous
c e me nt a nd pcr lit e insulat ing r ef r act or y concr et e ( de nsit y
0.80 g c m - 3 ) . Consid e r a CFBC c y c lone oper at ed at an inlet
gas ve loc it y of appr oximat ely 30 m s - i and a gas t emper at ur e
of 1270 K. The r e f or e , f or t his numer ical example, we a ssume
t ha t t he c y c lone line r is e xpose d t o a 30 m s - I solid / g a s
st r eam of densit y 1.18 k g m - 3 cont aining sand particles
( S i d e ) wit h a n aver age dia me t e r of 150 I~m and intrinsic
densit y 2.4 g c m - s. ( S a nd is c hose n t o r epr esent t he ma in
e r ode nt since it is t he har dest mat er ial f ou nd a mong t he min-
er als in a CFBC c y c lone .) Fur t he r mor e , assume t hat t he sol-
ids- cont aining gas st r eam has a part icle ( S i d e ) mass loading
of 200 ppm. Our obj ect ive ( in this e x a mp le ) is t o pr e dic t t he
ma x imu m local c e r a mic liner er osion r at e ( r a m y - ~), as well
as the me a n er osion r at e ove r t he t ar get ar ea b ou nd e d be t we e n
0 = 30 and 0 = 9 0 ( Fig. l ( b ) and Fig, 8 ) ,
T he first st ep is t o calculat e t he char act er ist ic e r osion rate
(ER), For t his pur pose, t he value of t he er osion yield
ep(U,O,dp) at V p = U = 3 O m s - I a nd d p = 150 p,m can be
calculat ed as follows. T he er osion par amet er s ( l, m, n, and
ep.,~r) f or t he insulat ing r ef r act or y c onc r e t e / sa nd par t iclesys-
tern can be est imat ed u sing t he 300 K er osion yield da t a
summa r iz e d in Table 1. Per t inent values of t he er osion
par amet er s are seen t o be I = 1 . 2 , re=O.5, n = 2 . 3 , a nd
ep.,~f= 1.45 X 10 - 3 ( evaluat ed at dp,,~r = 100 I~m and Vp.,~r
= 1 0 0 m s - l ) . The n, ep(U,0,dp) f or t his applicat ion
( 1.45 10 - 3 ) ( 150/100)3(t:~ ( 3 0 / 1 0 0 ) :.3 = 3.91 10 - 4,
T he mainst r eam v olu me f r act ion of t he sand par t i-
cleswill b ( 1 . 1 8 ) ( 2 10-4)/(2400) = 0 . 9 8 10 -~ ( i.e.
= 0.1 p p m) and ( E R ) , - - - %(U,O,dp) ( mains~' eam v olu me
f r a c t ion) ( ma insVe a m ve loc it y) = (3.91 10 - 4 ) ( 0 .9 8
10 - 7 ) ( 3 0 ) ( 103) ( ( 8 7 6 0 ) ( 3 6 0 0 ) ) -- 36 m m y - i. T he ma x-
imu m local er osion r at e c a n b e calculat ed u sing the d ime n-
sionless local er osion r at e f unct ion E ,m( 0 ) evaluat ed at 0 =
On, and, t herefore, E , ~ ( O m ) = - c o s " + ~ ( O , , ) = c o s " 5 ( 3 0 )
= 0 .8 0 6 . Thus, t he ma x imu m local er osion rate is
( 3 6 ) ( 0 . 8 0 6 ) - - 2 9 m m y - ' . Fur t her mor e, t he me a n e r osion
r at e can t hen be calculat ed f r om ( E R ) and t he f unc-
t ion F,,~(Om,m) evaluat ed at 0 m= 3 0 a nd s = 0 . 5 0 u sing
Fig. 8 or Eq. ( 1 7 ) . T he value of b'Llm(O,,om) can be f ound
f r om Fig. 8 t o be equal t o 0.368 and, t her ef or e, t he me a n
er osion r at e u nd e r t hese c ondit ions wou ld be ( 3 6 ) ( 0 . 3 6 8 )
-- 13 m m y - ' ( evaluat ed ov e r t he t ar get ar ea b ou nd e d
bet ween 0 = 3 0 and 0 - - 9 0 ) .
Not e t hat in t hese numer ical e xa mple s we e va lua t e d t ar get
er osion rat es at r oom t emper at ur e ( f or whic h t he necessar y
dat a wer e available) r at her t han at act ual oper at ing t emper -
atures. Of t en, this assumpt ion is c onse r va t ive since, f or ma ny
refractories, material loss decr eases as t emper at ur e incr eases
( Lie bha r d [ 2 4 ] ; se e also Sect ion 4 .4 ) . This was t r ue f or
near ly 2 / 3 of t he c e r a mic t a r g e t / e r od e nt syst ems e xa mine d
a t 298 K and 973 K b y Hansen [ 3 5 ] . However , a not able
except ion was hot - pr essed ( Nor t on) SiC e x p ose d t o alumina
d u st ( whic h at 973 K e r ode d 3.7 t imes as fast as at 298 K) .
4.2. Indirect use t o infer parameters i n the erosion y i e l d
l a w
I nspect ion of ou r universal result s ( Se c t ion 2 ,Fig s. 4 a nd
5 ) reveals t hat ( E R )~ a nd / or t he calculat ed quant it ies E, E,,~,
a nd / or / ~ are somet imes sensit ive t o t he par amet er s 1, m, n
a nd / or ~p,~r appearing in t he er osion yie ld law. I n t hese
r egimes an obser vat ion of t hese quant it ies f or a c ylinde r in a
k nown t est e nv ir onme nt c ould clearly be use d t o ext r act
rational est imat es of t hose par amet er s least well k now n- -
per haps ra f or a cer amic ne ve r pr eviously st udied in a wcU-
characterized er osion t est rig. This mig ht b e a r easonable
.F. ghalil, D.E. Rasher~ Wear 201 (1996) 64-79 75
provisional me t hod f or making extrapolations to r e la t e de nvi-
r onmenlai condit ions, including ult imat ely pr edict ing er osion
da ma ge on y e t mor e c omple x c e r a mic shapes ( e .g . a cer amic
coat ed t ur bine slat or bla de ) v ia part icle t raj ect ory analysis.
4.3. Examination o f approximations
Conf idence in t he validit y of most , if not all, of ou r under-
ly ing assumpt ions c a n be gener at ed based on t he observations
collect ed in Rosne r e t al. [ 28,29] . I n some cases we ar e led
t o int erest ing quest ions whic h appear t o r emain open, and
war r ant f ur t her examinat ion. For t he present, we briefly high-
light t he f ollowing unde r lying assumptions:
4.3.1, Locally pl anar target erosion behavior
The essent ial validit y of Assumpt ion ( 1 ) was exper imen-
t ally demonst r at ed by car ef ully measur ing t he shape change
of init ially cir cular c y lind e r met al targets [ 3 7 ] . Because of
t he indicat ed r adius of cur vat ur e disparit y, t his assumption
can only be invalidat ed by large ef f ect s of stress, or anisotropy
( se e Assumpt ion ( 6 ) and Sect ion 4 .4 ) , both of whic h ar e
not c onside r e d her e.
4.3.2, Engineering applicability o f available erosion yi el d
data
Most e r osion rate predict ions for, say, combust ion t ur bine
or boiler applicat ions ha ve been based on t he pr emise that
er osion y ie ld dat a c a n be invoked in situations whe r e particles
act ually ar r ive simult aneously ove r a wid e band of velocit ies
and angles of incidence. I ndeed, t his pr emise under lies t he
d e v e lop me nt / u se of such er osion t est rigs, Howe ve r , if t he
er osion mass loss pr ocess is not simply a single impact phe-
nomenon t his ( usua lly implicit ) addit ivit y or uncoupling
assumpt ion should pr obably be e xa mine d mor e cr it ically,
perhaps based on t he er osion r at e exper iment s involving, .g.
pairs of inc id e nc e angles. We at e present ly unawar e of such
exper iment al tests of addit ivit y in er osion situations.
Anot her impor t ant c oupling phenomenon, which appar-
ent ly has not b e e n syst emat ically st udied, is the possible
pr ot ect ive ef f ect of t he simult aneous acquisition of muc h
sma lle r par t icles ( or e ve n c onde nse d vapor ) on t he compo-
nent whose er osion is of concer n ( se e , for example, Rosner
t al. [ 2 7 - 3 0 ] ) .
4.3.3. Neglect o f particle-particle interactions and rebound
phenomena
I n most of t he applications of concer n here, t he volume
fraction of suspended particles, ~p., is small enough ( of t en
of or de r 10 - ~ ) t o r e nd e r par t icle- par t icle interaction ef f ect s
in the vicinit y of a convex t arget negligible. I ndeed, if one
views t he par t icle f low field as i f there wer e no car r ier gas
( e .g. c onside r t he limit S t k ~ ~o, wit h elast ic r ebound from
t he t ar get sur f ace) this particle gas flow would correspond to
a Knudsen numbe r ( r a t io of mean-free-path to t arget t rans.
verse dime nsion L) of t he or der of ( 2 / 3 ) ( c k v ) - ' . ( dp/ L) ,
which, if L = 1 c m, is about 1.4 l 0 s f or ou r present numer-
ical example ( Se c t ion 4 .1 ) . For c o n v e x targets, this value is
cert ainly lar ge e nough t o j ust if y t he assumpt ion of free-par-
t it le flow, e ve n if e v e r y e r od e m par t icle rebounds, We ar e
also neglect ing er osion c a use d by p ~ i c l e s t hat r e- impinge
on the same t ar get aft er a t least one pr evious impact event .
The situation is less c le a r f or c onc a ve targets, including ou r
example of the t ar get zone of a c yc lone :;eparator ( Fig. l ( b ) ) .
I n such cases, p a r t i c l e - p ~ i c l e int er act ion ef f ect s near t he
t arget would be expect ed t o set in a t muc h lowe r ~,, values.
4.3.4. Roughness and target shape evolution
We have explicit ly c onside r e d cases in whic h t he asymp-
totic r oughness associat ed wit h ( q u a si) st eady slate er osion
is small on t he scale of t he over all body dimension ( f or a
cir cular cylinder , say, d t l 2 ) , as must b e t he c umula t ive sur-
f ace recession (of, t he numer ical example in Sect ion 4 .1 ) .
I ndeed, t his is fully compat ible wit h t he er osion yie ld dat a
being used, whic h is it se lf aver aged cwer long t ime s ( ma ny
impacts dur ing t he const ant er osion r at e p e r iod ) , Howe ve r ,
it is also possible t o ext ract f r om t he polar plots of E(O,m)
( Fig. 5 ) what might be called t he " ~ha pe evolut ion ten-
d e nc y " of the target. I n cont r ast t o t he c a se of me t a l t ar get
er osion, whic h r e ve a le d an int erest ing te~,dency t o ma k e an
initially cir cular cylindr ical leading e d g e ( nose - r e g ion)
wedge- shaped ( sha r p e n) a s t ime pr oceeds, Fig. 4 r eveals t hat
c e r a mic ( c oa t e d) cylinder s will t end t o b e c ome blunt er wit h
t ime, Examples of shape evolut ion ( in whic h Assumpt ion
( 5 ) is r elaxed) ar e cont ained in Rosner e t al. [ 3 9 ] .
4. 4. Generalizations
I t is useful to c omme nt upon some valuable gener alizat ions
of ou r results in or der t o find wa y s t o de a l wit h mor e c omple x
situations than those descr ibed in Sect ion 2,1,
4.4. i. Arbitrary Stokes numbers
I f t he mean par t icle size, Op,,~, of t he mainst r eam e r ode nt
particte population is not muc h gr eat er t hat t he crit ical size,
%.,~t for t he onset of inertial impact ion in t he pr evailing
aer odynamic envir onment then t he r ect ilinear t r aj ect or y sim-
plification breaks down. However , t hese cases ar e st ill t r a c .
t able by making use of t he cor r elat ed result s of particle
trajectory calculat ions for t he ge ome t r y in quest ion
[ 2 8 , 2 9 , 3 2 , 3 8 , 4 0 ] .
4 . 4 . 2 . A b r a s i v e p a r t i c l e b l e n d s
It is t e m p t i n g t o c o n j e c t u r e t h a t if, a s is c o m m o n , t h e
s u s p e n d e d p a r t i c l e p o p u l a t i o n is a c t u a l l y a b l e n d o f s e v e r a l
p o p u l a t i o n s o f r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t e r o s i o n p r o p e n s i t y , t h e t o t a l
e r o s i o n r a t e c a n b e s i m p l y e s t i m a t e d a s t h e s u m o f c o n t r i b u -
t i o n s f r o m e a c h s u b - p o p u l a t i o n , W e a r e u n a w a r e i f t h i s p l a u -
s i b l e a p p r o a c h t o e s t i m a t e t h e e r o s i o n o f c e r a m i c t a r g e t s
i n m i x e d e r o d e n t s t r e a m s h a s y e t b e e n p u t t o a n a d e q u a t e
experimental t e s t .
76 E F, Khalil, D.E. Rosner / Wear 201 (1996) 64-79
4.4,3. Quasi-steady application o f steady-state results
In applicat ions whe r e t he d u st loading and gas st ream con-
dit ions ar e not c onst a nt but , yet, c ha nge sufficiently slowly
on t he t ime scale ( d r / 2 ) / U one can j ust if iably t r eat t he total
sunder; r ecession as t he r esult of t arget e xposur e t o a sequence
of st eady e nv ir onme nt s a nd su mming t heir effect s. In suc h
cases (ER)_ will be slowly varying, but t he f unct ions
Eli.~(O,:n), E l i , , ( m ) , and Flim(O.,,m) pr ovided her e will be
t ime - inde pe nde nt , and, hence, retain t heir applicability.
numbe r of dimensionless par amet er s appear ing in our final
results, and he nc e increases t he gener alit y and at t ract iveness
of ou r " shor t - c u t " procedure. However , t her e appear t o he
syst ems ( c ombina t ions of p r oj e c t ile / c e r a mic t arget mat er; -
als) f or which, say, t he velocit y e xpone nt n changes not ice-
ably with angle-of-incidence, For such syst ems t he shape
f unct ion c os" ( 03 wou ld not quit e be t he same at all impact
velocities, anot her c omple xit y that c ould be straightforwardly
int r oduced int o ou r general quadr at ur e pr ocedur e.
4. 4.4, Application to o t h e r important shapes~flow conditions
T he pr e se nt appr oach can clear ly be applied t o ot he r simple
t arget shapes, including spheres 3, cones, nozzle ent r ances,
pipe elbows, et c. As shown above ( Se c t ion 2 .6 ) , it is also
possible t o cor r ect f or 4epar t ur es f r om t he pur e c r ossbow
conf igur at ion, ir r espect ive of Stk.
4.4,5. Quasi-steady s h a p e evolution
.The pr esent analysis was deliberat ely conf ined t o t he lim-
it ing case of mod e st t arget shape change ( cf . Assumpt ion
( 4 ) ) . However , by r epet it ive recalculation of .~',e e r od ing
t arget sha pe ( a nd associat ed local angles of inc id e nc e ) , it is
possible t e t rack mor e ext ensive int erface move me nt s. Exam-
ples of su c h shape e volut ion f or e r od ing cer amic targets in
the hig h St oke s nu mb e r limit are cont ained in Khalil and
Rosner [ 391,
4.4.6. Implicit effects (temperature, reducing environments,
stress, etc.)
T he f r a me wor k pr ovide d by the pr esent analysis ma y allow
several e nv ir onme nt a l ef f ect s ( e.g. ef f ect s of t emperat ure
level t o be implicit ly included in t he appropriat e values of
t he f our er osion y ie ld par amet er s l, m, n, and E~,.,~:
~.p(Vp.tef, O , = O , d p , t j wher e, say, Vj ,.,~r=lOOms - l a nd
dp,,~f = 100 p,m) f or par t icular c ombina t ions of p r oj e c t ile /
cer amic t ar get mat er ials ( ir r espect ive of whe t he r an adequat e
t heor y is y e t available t o ant icipat e or extrapolate such
e f f e c t s) . Anot he r pot ent ially impor t ant variable ( e vide nt ly
not adequat ely c onside r e d in pr evious er osion rate measure-
me nt s) is t he st at e of st r ess in t he t arget mat erial surface. For
example, one wou ld e x p e c t pr e- exist ing t ensile st resses to
influence me a su r e d e r osion yields, and hence t he above- men-
t ione d f our par amet er s. However , we ant icipat e e r osion/ c or -
r osion sit uat ions whic h will require mor e f undament al
gener alizat ions of t he pr esent appr oach, e.g. whe n the
c os ' ( 0 0 law b e c ome s qualit at ively incor r ect at sufficiently
high t ar get t emper at ur es.
4.4. 7. Velocity exponent insensitivity t o angle-of-incidence
a n d erodent p a r t i c l e s i z e
T he separabilit y of V~,, 0i, and dp,off ef f ect s in the er osion
yie ld la w ep(Vp, O,,dp,cff) ( Eq. ( 2 ) ) significantly r educes t he
For the upwind portion of a stationary ceramic (coated) sphere, it is
easy to show that (when / t t .t = I) Enra(O,m) =cosml(O) anti hence
E , , = = ( m + 2 ) - I ,
4.4.8. Cylindrical targets machh~ed f r o m anisotropic
monoliths
In such cases, t he f our a bove - me nt ione d er osion yield par-
amet er s l, m, n, and %.~t will gener ally exhibit a non- negli-
gible dependence on t he angle bet ween t he pr incipal axes
intrinsic to the material anisot r opy and t he local t arget sur f ace
out war d normal.
4.4.9. Threshold velocity f o r erosion damage
It is usually not possible t o formally ext r apolat e the power -
law velocit y de pe nde nc e of % very f ar below t he r ange of
actual er osion rate me a sur e me nt s because of the likely exis-
t ence of a t hr eshold velocit y he low whic h no per cept ible
er osion ( subst r at e loss) occurs. In ef f ect , ou r pr evious pr o-
cedur es ( Sect ion 2.2 ar e based on the se que nc e of necessary
inequalities: sound speed in t a r g e t ~ V j , ( < O ( U ) ) ~
Vf,(critical ( f or c a p t u r e ) ) a nd will inevit ably over - est imat e
er osion rates when t hese rat es are very small. Again, this
syst emat ic ef f ect c ou ld be incor por at ed via a mor e general
ep(Vp, O, d p x , ) law use d in ou r quadr at ur es Eq. ( 7 ) f or t he
c a st of arbitrary Stk,
$. Conclusions and recommendations
By capt ur ing with simple f or mulae the essent ial feat ures
of available er osion yie ld e xpe r ime nt s on cer amic targets of
usuaIly planar ge ome t r y, we have d e v e lop e d a nd illustrated
her e an efficient appr oximat e me t hod t o pr edict local and
total sur f ace er osion rat es f or cer amic t arget s of cylindrical
( se c t or ) shape e xpose d t o abrasive part icles suspe nde d in a
high- speed mainst r eam. For a cir cular c ylinde r t arget in the
high St okes number , pur e c r ossbow limit ( A = 0 ) , universal
gr aphs are pr ovided her e c ove r ing t he ant icipat ed par amet er
ranges of great est interest. Based on a su mma r y of available
exper iment al dat a, we also pr ovide r epr esent at ive sets ( f or
38 c ommonly e nc ount e r e d c ombina t ions of cer amic t arget s
and er odent s, including SiC, SiO2, AI203, cast iron, and dol-
omit e ( Ca CO3/ MgCO3) , of numer ical values of t he f our key
phenomenological par amet er s t hat e me r g e f r om our f or mu-
lation ( viz., 1, m, n, and ~,,ra; el, Eq. ( 2 ) ) , albeit at Tw=
300 K. I f the mainst r eam er odent particles are dist r ibut ed in
size accor ding t o t he Rosin- Ra mmle r f unct ion we der ive
( Se c t ion 2.7 the appropriat e cor r ect ion f act or ( t o be applied
t o the er osion rate calculat ed if all e r od e nt par t icles ha d the
mean particle volume , 0p.). Similar ly, our pr esent r esult s
Y.F. ghalil, D.E. Rosner / Wear 201 (1996) 64-79 77
also apply t o cases wit h depart ures from pur e cr oss- ~ow ( i.e. Ap p e nd ix A,
A O, whe r e A is t he c omple me nt of t he angle bet ween t he
flow dir ect ion and t he c y lind e r axis) by simply int roducing Bc
t he addit ional spanwise flow cor r ect ion factor: c os" + J ( A ) to C=( v)
t he results for E=i m, g'lim, a nd Pl,~ given above. To deal wit h
mor e gener al, or singular cases t hat may be of particular dp
interest to t he reader, t he required cor r elat ion f or mulae and d,
associat ed quadr at ur e expr essions arc provided. This includes ( E R L
t he ( f init e St okes numbe r ) case of polydispersed er odent
particles whic h ar e not all large enough t o follow r ect ilinear
trajectories in t he local, target-modified flowfield.
I n addit ion, t he present mat hemat ical model and t hese
results ( Figs. ?- - 8 f or t he lar ge St okes number limit ) reveal E ( 0 , . . . )
that cer amic t ar get er osion r at es will be dir ect ly proportional
t o t he abr asive part icle mass loaoing ( or particle volume Em~
f r act ion) in t he mainst r eam, and quit e sensitive to mainst ream
velocit y; viz. proport ional to U ~+t ( whe r e , oft en n- " 2.3; cf .
Table I ) . Elim
Several pot ent ially usef ul extensions of this phenomeno-
logical approach have been indicat ed in Sect ion 4. This f ( 0 , )
includes applicat ions t o ot her , possibly interacting, convex-
shaped c e r a mic targets, such as t urbine st at or blade cascades f l i ~( O", m)
exposed t o a polydisper sed er odent suspension. We ar e also
investigating t he er osion of yet ot her classes of c ommonly L
e nc ount e r e d shapes, including axisymmet r ic nozzles and cir -
c ula r 8so e lbows and bends. We believe ou r met hods can be l
developed in such a way as to also pr edict maximum attain-
able dr illing and cut t ing rat es f or var ious t a r ge t / e r ode nt
combinat ions, m
Finally, our pr esent r ef or mulat ion of t he canonical er osion
yie ld pr oblem has mu c h to r e c omme nd it as a convenient ne w
standard f or the a sse mbly of exper iment al er osion- yield par-
amet er s for e a c h e r od e nt / t a r g e t syst em ( se e Table 1, giving n
dimensionless er.ra, l, m, n values in a n or ganized f or mat ) .
This it self will gr eat ly facilitate the import ant next step, viz.
showing, wit h t he indispensible guidance of rational micro- Np
mechanical t heories, how e a c h of t hese dimensionless para- R~
met er s cor r elat es wit h cer t ain dimensionless groupings of
fundament al me c ha nic a l properties of t he participating mate-
rials. Only whe n t his is accomplished will it be possible to
design er osion- r esist ant e ngine e r ing equipment , i.e. propose
opt imal mat er ials of const ruct ion for each er osive
envir onment .
A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s
Stk
t~
U
Vp
l;p.rcf
V~
Vp.~(
This r esear ch was supported, in part, by AFOSR ep
( Gr a nt 94- 1- 0143) and DOE-PETC ( Gr ant DE-FG-
2290PC90099) , as well as t he Ya le HTCRE Laboratory
Industrial Affiliates ( ALCOA, Dupont, Shell and Union Car-
b id e / Pr a x a ir Cor por at ions) . I t is also a pleasur e to acknowl- ep,rc r
e dge helpf ul discussions a nd / or cor r espondence wit h
J. Fer nandez d e la Morn, M.J. Labowsky, P. Tandon, wp
R.C, Tuc ke r , Jr,, and A.G, Konstandopoulos.
N o m e n c l a t u r e
widt h of c y c lone inlet ( Fig . 1 ( b ) )
nor malized mainst r eam part icle size
distribution function
part icle dia me t e r
t arget dia me t e r ( Fig. 1) ( a )
charact erist ic er osion r at e associat ed wit h
mainst r eam abr asive par t icle volume flux if
all particles st ruck t he c e r a mic solid target at
nor mal incidence wit h ( ma inst r e a m)
velocit y U
dimensionless local er osion r at e funct ion
( Eq. ( 7 ) )
ma x imu m ( p e a k ) local er osion rate;
occur r ing at angular posit ion 0 = 0
( Fig, l ( a ) ) or 0m ( Fig . l ( b ) )
aver age dimensionless er osion r at e function;
Eq. ( 9 ) whereSt k- ~oo
nol~ a liz e d er osion yield; ~ 8p/ ( 6p
evaluat ed at 0i-- 0 ) ( F i g , 4 )
c yc lone target dimensionless er osion
function; Eq. ( 1 6 )
transverse r ef er ence lengt h for t ar get ( d , f or
cir cular cylinder , Fig. ! ( a ) )
dimensionless e xpone nt whic h descr ibes t he
sensitivity of er osion yie ld t o pr oj ect ile
particle size ( v olu me , Vp)
dimensionless exponent appear ing in
c os ' ( 0 ) r epr esent ing sensit ivit y of er osion
yie ld t o angle of incidence 0~ ( me a su r e d
wit h r espect t o t he local t arget nor ma l)
dimensionless exponent r epr esent ing
sensitivity of er osion y ie ld to pr oj ect ile
incident velocit y Vp
number densit y of abr asive part icles
c yc lone separ at or inne r wall r adius
( Fig. l ( b ) )
particle St okes number ; t p / ( d J 2 / U' ) [ 3 ! ,32]
part icle stopping t ime
mainst r eam velocit y
particle volume -- ( ~ ' / 6 ) .d~
r ef er ence particle volume = ( r / 6) . d3; wit h
6 = 100 ~ m
me a n particle size ( v olu me ) in mainst r eam
particle impact velocit y
r ef er ence particle impact velocit y
( =- 100 m s - ' he r e )
dimensionless er osion yie ld per par t icle
impact ( def ined as aver age volume of
cer amic t arget r e move d per unit volume of
impact ing e r ode nt par t icle)
ep evaluat ed at Vp= 100 m s - i , Ot = 0 , and
vp cor r esponding t o d p = 100 t~m
part icle mass loading in mainst r eam ( ~ kg
c r od e nt / k g gas when cop ~ 1)
78 Y.F. Khalil, D.E. Rasher~ Wear 201 (1996)64-79
Oi
~ l o c
A
~ I + l
CFBC
lira
PFB C
R E F
o()
( ) t
9 . 6 E - 4
m a i ns t r e a m p a r t i c l e v ol u m e f r a c t i on; (v"Np)
p a r t i c l e i nc i d e nc e a ng l e ; 0, = 0 r e f e r s t o
nor m a l i nc i d e nc e , a nd 0~ = 900 r e f e r s t o
g r a z i ng i nc i d e nc e ( s e e Fi g . 1 ( a ) )
a ng u l a r p osi t i on on t a r g e t m e a s u r e d f r om t he
st a g na t i on l i ne ( Fi g . 1 )
m i n i m u m a ng l e ( Fi g . l ( b ) ) e x p e r i e nc i ng
c y c l one i nl e t p a r t i c l e e r osi on ( i n t he l a r g e
S t ok e s nu m b e r l i m i t )
l oc a l i m p i ng e m e nt e f f i c i e nc y ( S e c t i on 2 . 3 )
c o m p l e m e n t o f t he a ng l e b e t w e e n t he f l ow
d i r e c t i on a nd t he c y l i nd e r a x i s
g a m m a f u nc t i on o f t he i nd i c a t e d a r g u m e nt
( 1 + ( l / u ) ) ( s e e E q , ( 2 2 ) )
R o s i n - R a m m l e r e x p one nt s how n in
F.q. ( 21)
moment function defined by Eq. (13)
c i r c u l a t i ng f l u i d i z e d b e d c om b u s t or
l i m i t
p r e s s u r i z e d f l u i d i z e d b e d c om b u s t or
r e l a t i v e e r os i on f a c t or ( S e c t i on 3 . 2 a nd
H a ns on [ 3 5 ] )
or d e r o f m a g ni t u d e op e r a t or
f a c t or i a l f u nc t i on
9 . 6 X 1 0 - 4 , e t c . ( s e e T a b l e 1 )
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Biographies
Dr. Ye hia F. Khalil is a Le c t ur e r in t he Che mic a l Eng ine e r ing
De p a r t me nt , Ya le Unive r sit y, Ne w Ha v e n, CT. Dr. Khalii is
a lso a Reseagch Af f iliat e of t he Hig h Te mp e r a t u r e Che mic a l
Re a c t ion E ng ine e r ing ( I - r r c R E ) Labor at or y, Yale Univer -
sit y. Dr. Khalil hold s a PhD in c he mic a l e ng ine e r ing f r om t he
Unive r sit y of Conne c t ic u t a t St or r s. I n addit ion, he has e a r ne d
NuoI E a nd Ma st e r of Sc ie nc e d e g r e e s in nu c le a r e ng ine e r ing
f r om t he Ma ssa c huse t t s I nst it ut e of T e c hnolog y ( MI T ) a nd
a t t e nde d t he MI T Sc hool of Che mic a l Eng ine e r ing Pr act ice
whe r e he e a r ne d a n MS C E P d e g r e e in c he mic a l e ngine e r ing,
a nd has be e n a f e llow of t he MI T Ce nt e r of Ad v a nc e d Engi-
ne e r ing St udies. His p u b lishe d wor k ha s a p p e a r e d in t he
Tr a nsa c t ions of t he Ame r ic a n Che mic a l Soc ie t y, Tr a nsa c .
t ions of t he Ame r ic a n Nu c le a r Soc ie t y, M r r Jour na l of I nf or -
ma t ion Syst e ms, a nd t he Fue l Jour nal. Dr . Khalil t a u g ht
gr a dua t e a nd unde r gr a dua t e c ou r se s in e nv ir onme nt a l c ont r ol
t e c hnologie s, nu c le a r e ng ine e r ing , q u e u ing t he or y , d e c ision
analysis, sy st e m d y na mic s, a nd pr obabilist ic r isk a sse ssme m.
Dr. Daniel E. Rosne r is Pr of e ssor a nd f or me r ly Cha ir ma n
( 1984- 1987, 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 6 ) of t he De p a r t me nt of Che mic a l
Eng ine e r ing a t Ya le Unive r sit y, whe r e he a lso hold s a j oint
a p p oint me nt in Me c ha nic a l Eng ine e r ing . He is f ou nd e r a nd
Dir ect or of t he Ya le Hig h T e mp e r a t u r e Che mic a l Re a c t ion
Labor at or y and is an e ng ine e r ing c onsu lt a nt t o ma ny c or p o-
r a t ions a nd consor t ia. His r e se a r c h act ivit ies inc lu d e c onv e c -
t ive e ne r g y a nd ma ss t r anspor t , int er r acial c he mic a lr e a c t ions,
p ha se t r ansf or mat ions, gas d y na mic s, f ine pa r t ic le t e c hnol-
og y , a nd c omb u st ion - - subj ect s on whic h h= has p u b lishe d
ov e r 2 0 0 pa pe r s a nd one b ook . He j ol t e d t he Yale Univer sit y
e ng ine e r ing f acult y a f t e r 11 year s ,: f r esear ch e xpe r ie nc e ,
ha v ing c omp le t e d his unde r gr a dua t e a nd PhD e ng ine e r ing
d e g r e e s a t Cit y Colle g e of Ne w Yor k a nd Pr inc e t on Univ e r .
sit y, r epect ively.