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Computer Modeling of
Porosity and Lithology for
Complex Reservoirs Using
Well-Log Measurements
Hil mi S. Sal em
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Lit hol ogy f or Compl ex Reservoirs Using Wel l -Log Measurement s, Energy Sources,
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Computer Modeling of Porosity and Lithology
for Complex Reservoirs Using
Well-Log Measurements
HILMI S. SALEM
Atlantic Geo-Technology, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
The high degree of heterogeneity, saturation of multiphase fluids, and presence of
(
clays in complex reservoirs make each of the three porosity logs sonic, density, and
)
neutron , if used independently, generally record inaccurate porosity. For such
reservoirs, combining different logs gives accurate results of porosity. The reservoirs
( )
of Terra Nova and Hibernia Jeanne dArc Basin , offshore of the eastern coast of
Canada, are saturated with multiphase fluids, enriched with clays, and made of
compacted and heterogeneous rocks, in terms of the lithological and mineralogical
composition, and the size and shape of the grains and pores. In this study, the
porosity and the rock constituents were determined for both reservoirs using a
computer technique in which the iteration process was applied. That was done by
developing and using various computer programs and models, and utilizing numer-
ous data from several logs analyzed at 0.2-m sampling-depth intervals. The more the
number of logs and iterations used in computation, the higher the degree of accuracy
of results obtained. The reservoirs are made of shalestone, sandstone, siltstone,
limestone, marlstone, and conglomerate. The porosity varies widely, because of
variations in the rock composition and overburden pressure. The modeled porosity
( )
was compared to the porosity measured by the compensated neutron log CNL . The
results indicate that the CNL-measured porosity is generally higher than the modeled
porosity by about 50%. The CNL-measurements are greatly affected by the high
amount of hydrogen that is chemically bound in the shales, hydrocarbons, and
water. Therefore, CNL records higher values of porosity when porosity is actually
low, and lower values of porosity when it is actually high.
Keywords computer modeling, lithology, porosity, well logs
The Terra Nova and Hibernia reservoirs of the Jeanne dArc Basin, offshore of the
e astern coast of Canada, are complicated mosaics made of multilithological compo-
nents , with different mineralogy of grains. They are characterized by poor sorting
of grains and enriched with clays. They have complicated pore-channel networks ,
( )
and are saturated with multiphase fluids oil , gas , and brine . The rocks in both
reservoirs are anisotropic and ge nerally characterized by fine to medium size of
grains and high specific surface are a. The reservoirs are located at different depths
and, hence , affected by various degrees of overburden pressure. Further informa-
Received 9 March 1999; accepted 15 April 1999.
(
Sincere thanks are extended to Prof. G. V. Chilingari an School of Petroleum Engineer-
)
ing, University of Southern Californi a for his critical review of the manuscript.
Address correspondence to Dr. Hilmi S. Salem, Atlantic Geo-Technology, 26 Alton
Drive , Suite 307, Halifax, N.S. B3N 1L9, Canada. E-mail: hilmisalem@canada.com
515
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H. S. Salem 516
( )
tion and references about these reservoirs are given by Salem 1994, 2000 and
( )
Salem and Chilingarian 1999, 2000a, 2000b .
The high degree of heterogeneity and presence of clays and multiphase fluids
make the petrophysical evaluation for such reservoirs complicated. For heteroge-
( )
neous shaly clayey formations , these characteristics make e ach of the three
w ( ) ( )
porosity logs sonic log SON , density log DEN , and compensated neutron log
( ) x ( ) (
CNL , if used independently, ge nerally record inaccurate porosity f Asquith,
)
1991; Ti ab & Donaldson, 1996 . In this case , different logs are combined to
determine f and lithology.
The sonic log me asures the compressional-wave transit time , which is the
( )
shortest time required for the acoustic sonic wave to travel through a unit length
( )
meter or foot of a formation. The acoustic-wave velocity depends on many
factors , including lithology and mineralogy of rocks , density of minerals composing
the rocks , nature of pores and fluids saturating the pores , magnitude of porosity,
grain size , elastic properties of rocks , temperature , pressure , etc. Variations in
these factors affect the acoustic-wave velocity considerably. The presence of shales ,
fractures , and gas complicates the SON-me asurements. The sonic transit time is
( )
high for shaly clayey formations and low for sandstones and carbonates. For
formations bearing oil or gas , the calculated f from SON is higher than the actual
(
f , and therefore SON yields unreliable values of f Timur , 1982; Tiab &
)
Donaldson, 1996 .
The bulk density, me asured by DEN, reflects change s in rock composition,
mineralogy of grains , size and shape of grains and pores, and kind of fluid
saturating the pores. The density log reflects the electron density rather than the
(
true density. Therefore , f determined from DEN is generally inaccurate Savre ,
)
1963 . The influence of clays on DEN is solely a function of the clay density
( ) (
3
)
Hilchie , 1982 . For instance , montmorillonite , which has a density 2.33 g r cm
(
3
)
lower than that of sandstone 2.65 g r cm , causes f determined from DEN to be
(
higher than the actual f. On the other hand, illite , which has a density 2.76
3
)
g r cm gre ater than that of sandstone , causes f determined from DEN to be
(
3
)
lower than the actual f. Kaolinite , with a density 2.69 g r cm approximately
equal to that of sandstone , cannot be detected by DEN, especially when kaolinite is
intercal ated with sandstones. If chlorite , with density 2.77 g r cm
3
, exists in a
formation, its influence on f becomes significant, particularly when f is lower
than 10% .
The compensated neutron log, used to me asure porosity, is less effective in
( ) ( )
shaly clayey formations Me rkel , 1986 . For shaly formations , CNL records
inaccurate f , because of the high amount of hydroge n that is chemically bound in
( )
shales , hydrocarbons oil and gas , and water. If oil and water fill the pores , CNL
records higher f than the actual f , because of the high amount of hydrogen
chemically bound in these fluids. If gas fills the pores , CNL records lowe r f ,
because of the lower density of hydrogen chemically bound in gas.
( )
For two- and three-phase porous media, Katz et al. 1995 developed a
technique to estimate porosity and fluid saturation by using a predefined set of
models and a system of balance equations. Their proposed methodology is based
on experimental and theoretical analyses of relationships among f , pore satura-
tion, density, and velocities of compressional-and she ar-seismic waves. The veloci-
ties we re obtained from seismic reflection surveys , acoustic we ll-log measurements ,
and laboratory me asurements of ultrasonic waves.
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Modeling of Porosity and Lithology for Complex Reservoirs 517
Methodology
Iteration Process
Because the SON, DEN, and CNL logs give different values of f for the same
interval of depth, due to variations in rock and fluid properties and changes in
overburden pressure , measurements of various logs were integrated to achieve the
best solution of porosity and lithology for the Te rra Nova and Hibernia reservoirs.
This was done by using the iteration process , with the trial-and-error approach,
( )
applied for e ach sampling-depth interval D Z , independently, within the different
zones in both reservoirs. The iteration process solves a set of equations that define
( ) ( )
the input data of different logs. For example , Eqs. 1
]
3 were applied, respec-
( ) ( )
tively, for the sonic transit-time log SON , the density log DEN , and the
( )
gamma-ray log GR :
( )
328 SH q 181 SS q 156 LS q 620f s SON 1
( )
2.50 SH q 2.65 SS q 2.71 LS q 1.00f s DEN 2
( )
100 SH q 30 SS q 20 LS q 10f s GR 3
( ) ( )
The above equations , which involve , for example , shalestone SH , sandstone SS ,
( )
and limestone LS , as we ll as f , we re solved for each interval analyzed. These
equations require , in addition to the lithological components and porosity that
( )
need to be modeled, the observed sonic travel time SON , re ad from the sonic log
w ( ) x ( )
3
in ms r m Eq. 1 , the observed density DEN , read from the density log in g r cm
w ( ) x ( )
Eq. 2 , and the observed gamma ray GR , re ad from the gamma-ray log in API
w ( ) x Eq. 3 , which were used as input data. The coefficients of the equations
w ( ) x w ( ) x represent the sonic travel time Eq. 1 , the density Eq. 2 , and the gamma ray
w ( ) x ( )
Eq. 3 for e ach of the calculated lithological components SH, SS, and LS and
( )
porosity f . These coefficients vary with variations of the overall response of each
( )
log SON, DEN, and GR , depending on variations of the lithological components ,
mineralogy of the grains , size of the grains and pores , nature of the fluid saturating
the pores , etc. Accordingly, each log ge nerates an independent equation with its
own coefficients , which differs from interval to interval.
The mass balance equation was also used in the iteration process , which
implies that the sum of any number of the lithological components and porosity
involved in the computation must be unity. For example , the mass balance
equation for shalestone , sandstone , limestone , and porosity is
( )
SH q SS q LS q f s 1.00 4
Accuracy of Iteration Process
The iteration process , used for the porosity- and lithological-components determi-
nation for e ach D Z analyzed, was adjusted by the following factors that help to
obtain a higher degree of accuracy.
1. The number of the iterations and logs used in the computation was as many
as possible. The more iterations and logs we re used, the higher was the
quality of the porosity and lithology results obtained.
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H. S. Salem 518
( )
2. The thickness of the sampling-depth interval D Z considered in the analy-
( )
sis was as small as possible 0.2 m . The smaller the thickness of D Z chosen
for the analysis , the greater was the accuracy of the results. Considering a
smaller thickness of D Z helped to keep the number of the lithological
components and the coefficients to minimum. The fewer the components
and the coefficients we re used, the better we re the results obtained. Thus ,
ove restimation or underestimation of the re al situation was avoided.
3. The coefficients used in the computation we re carefully chosen, and the
lithological components we re appropriately identified from analog logs and
cut records. This , in turn, helped greatly to improve the porosity and
lithology results.
4. The input data of the logs we re carefully checked. This helped to avoid
many inconsistencies that may result from bad log registrations, bad hole
conditions , and log miscalibration.
5. The numerical diagnostic process was also applied, which helps to assess
whether the final results we re adequate or not. This process was controlled
and evaluated by the following.
The sum deviation which showed how far the analysis departed from
the mathematically ide al solution. A zero-sum deviation indicated a
high degree of accuracy.
The proportional variance and the error factor , which were applied to
improve the degrees of the solutions accuracy and the agreement
between the porosity-lithology model and the input data. The error
factor , if other than zero, indicated an overestimated case.
The proportional variance which indicated the degree of heteroge neity
of the various lithological components involved in the proposed
model for e ach interval analyzed, relative to the input log data.
Application of Iteration Process
Digital and analog data of sonic transit-time log, density log, gamma-ray log, and
various resistivity logs , along with data of cut me asurements , were analyzed for 14
we lls penetrating the Te rra Nova and Hibernia reservoirs. The total thickness of
( )
the investigated intervals range s from ; 140 to 600 m within a total depth Z
ranging from ; 3 to 5 km. Computer programs were used and others developed, in
which the iteration process was applied to determine the lithological components
and f of the Terra Nova and Hibernia reservoirs. Numerous models we re
generated in order to achieve the highest degree of accuracy of the lithological
components and f. The thickness of each of the reservoirs was divided into
different zones , depending on the lithological and physical properties. The analyses
( )
we re carried out at very descriptive approach D Z s 0.2 m within the different
zones.
w Examples of the input data and the results for two wells Te rra Nova K-07 ,
( )
with an interval thickness of 300 m 3,114
]
3,414 m , and Hibernia P-15, with an
( ) x interval thickness of 140 m 4,114
]
4,254 m are given in Table 1 at D Z of 10 m.
( )
Table 1 shows some of the logs SON, DEN, and GR used in calculation, as we ll
( )
as the me asured porosity f obtained from the compensated neutron log
CNL
( ) ( )
CNL . It also shows the modeled porosity f and the modeled lithological
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Table 1
3
w ( ) ( ) ( )
Me asured logs sonic SON , in ms r m; density DEN , in g r cm ; gamma ray GR , in API; and compensated neutron porosity
( ) x ( ) w ( ) ( ) ( )
f , in % ; calculated modeled lithological components , in % , shalestone SH , sandstone SS , siltstone SI , and
CNL
( )x ( ) ( ) ( )
limestone LS ; and calculated modeled porosity f , in % , obtained at 10-m sampling-depth intervals D Z for the Terra Nova K-07
m
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
well , with depth Z from 3,114 to 3,414 m 300 m , and the Hibernia P-15 well , with depth Z from 4,114 to 4,254 m 140 m
( ) ( ) Terra Nova K-07 well 3,114
]
3,414 m; 300 m Hibernia P-15 well 4,114
]
4,254 m; 140 m
f
Z SON DEN GR f SH SS SI LS f Z SON DEN GR f SH SS SI LS
m
CNL m CNL
3 3
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) m ms r m g r cm API % % % % % % m ms r m g r cm API % % % % % %
3,114 355.1 2.24 86.6 45.8 51.4 0.0 18.0 0.0 30.6 4,114 322.0 2.34 50.2 44.7 40.9 14.5 16.4 0.0 28.2
3,124 286.3 2.34 60.5 40.4 19.1 0.0 61.6 0.0 19.3 4,124 235.2 2.52 40.3 20.9 31.7 27.6 27.1 0.0 13.5
3,134 346.9 2.18 85.0 47.3 49.1 0.0 21.9 0.0 29.1 4,134 218.5 2.66 57.2 15.3 48.3 21.8 22.4 0.0 7.5
3,144 325.8 2.16 87.1 41.7 49.5 0.0 25.9 0.0 24.6 4,144 234.9 2.42 16.7 17.3 8.6 38.1 35.8 0.0 17.4
3,154 322.7 2.05 83.8 46.1 45.8 0.0 29.9 0.0 24.3 4,154 225.7 2.47 16.7 16.4 8.7 39.1 36.6 0.0 15.7
3,164 289.3 2.24 83.8 36.1 43.0 0.0 39.3 0.0 17.7 4,164 238.3 2.46 25.5 18.6 17.2 33.9 32.4 0.0 16.6
3,174 298.9 2.07 84.0 34.0 44.1 0.0 36.4 0.0 19.6 4,174 248.3 2.59 53.2 23.3 44.3 20.6 21.4 0.0 13.8
3,184 315.1 2.30 83.1 35.8 44.5 0.0 32.6 0.0 22.9 4,184 238.8 2.38 13.3 17.7 5.2 39.3 36.8 0.0 18.7
3,194 328.8 2.33 80.4 42.1 42.9 0.0 31.2 0.0 25.9 4,194 287.8 2.41 60.3 41.7 33.3 15.2 20.5 14.0 17.1
3,204 235.2 2.37 61.7 40.4 22.8 34.9 30.0 0.0 12.4 4,204 340.6 2.53 64.9 35.2 37.4 10.5 17.2 8.3 26.6
3,214 319.2 2.28 87.2 45.5 44.5 5.6 24.5 0.0 25.4 4,214 291.4 2.54 43.1 28.5 20.6 19.5 19.8 19.4 20.7
3,224 297.7 2.37 89.2 40.0 45.1 7.6 26.2 0.0 21.1 4,224 232.9 2.44 21.4 25.4 3.7 29.2 22.9 31.2 13.0
3,234 238.8 2.62 72.4 16.4 30.7 27.4 30.1 0.0 11.9 4,234 216.6 2.45 15.4 13.5 0.0 31.6 23.6 34.2 10.7
3,244 294.7 1.96 80.0 39.2 29.7 21.8 19.2 11.2 18.0 4,244 191.5 2.52 30.3 8.3 9.5 29.6 25.9 31.5 3.4
3,254 272.6 1.94 88.0 34.9 33.8 23.6 20.3 9.5 12.8 4,254 300.0 2.36 48.6 42.2 24.8 17.5 19.4 16.9 21.4
3,264 286.2 2.23 84.8 32.4 32.5 22.7 19.5 9.5 15.8
3,274 308.2 2.30 84.2 40.4 33.1 21.7 18.1 6.8 20.4
3,284 290.3 2.25 86.0 37.8 33.4 22.7 19.2 8.2 16.6
3,294 296.0 1.82 82.0 41.3 31.1 22.0 19.0 9.8 18.1
3,304 253.0 2.09 79.5 25.4 27.3 23.5 22.1 17.4 9.7
3,314 266.7 2.19 67.0 22.2 26.9 29.7 28.4 0.0 15.1
3,324 227.4 2.00 66.4 26.7 23.6 38.6 30.6 0.0 7.2
3,334 241.7 2.37 38.5 20.5 5.1 56.1 27.1 0.0 11.7
3,344 190.4 2.52 43.7 7.4 6.8 61.5 30.8 0.0 1.0
3,354 235.2 2.41 33.3 17.3 1.2 61.1 27.0 0.0 10.7
3,364 252.0 2.37 38.7 20.8 5.6 54.2 26.5 0.0 13.8
3,374 249.9 2.55 69.9 25.2 26.8 32.1 29.5 0.0 11.6
3,384 249.6 2.37 76.6 24.2 41.0 0.0 27.5 22.5 9.0
3,394 246.2 2.55 67.9 25.5 34.7 0.0 29.8 27.1 8.5
3,404 286.4 2.51 72.2 31.5 38.5 0.0 24.5 20.0 17.0
3,414 236.2 2.67 54.6 22.6 25.0 0.0 33.7 34.6 6.7
5
1
9
Downloaded by [Mr Prof. Hilmi S. Salem] at 23:53 30 December 2012
H. S. Salem 520
( )
components SH, SS, SI , and LS for both we lls. A comparison between f
m
andf is given in Figures 1 and 2, in the form of stack histograms. Each of these
CNL
(
histograms assembles a total number of re adings of 495 275 for 8 Te rra Nova we lls
)
and 220 for 6 Hibernia wells , obtained at D Z of 10 m. The re adings for the 16
( )
we lls , penetrating both reservoirs , represent a range of depth Z from 2,888 to
4,978 m. It is important to mention that porosity me asurements from cores are not
( )
available to be correlated to the modeled porosity f .
m
Results and Discussion
Modeled Porosity and Lithology
( )
The modeled porosity f and lithology indicate that the rocks of the Te rra Nova
m
and Hibernia reservoirs reflect highly heterogeneous systems with vertical and
lateral lithological and petrophysical complexities. The rocks in both reservoirs are
( )
composed mainly of SH, SS, SI , and LS. Minor amounts of marlstone MA and
( )
conglomerate CO exist only in the Te rra Nova reservoir , obtained from the
analyses of three Te rra Nova wells. Both reservoirs have the following ge neral
( )
ranges and ranges of averages given in parentheses of the modeled porosity and
lithological components, determined at D Z of 1 m for the 14 we lls investigated:
( ) ( ) ( )
modeled porosity f f 0.0
]
60% f 7
]
18% ; SH f 0
]
65% f 20
]
32% ; SS f
m
( ) ( ) ( )
0
]
80% f 20
]
35% ; SI f 2
]
98% f 20
]
30% ; LS f 0
]
55% f 14
]
27% ; MA f
( ) (
2
]
34% f 15% , for only one Te rra Nova well ; and CO f 5
]
43% f 24
]
30% , for
)
only two Te rra Nova wells .
( ) Figure 1. Histogram showing the range and count of the modeled-porosity f for the
m
( )
Terra Nova and Hibernia reservoirs; 495 re adings obtained at sampling-depth intervals D Z
of 10 m within 16 wells penetrating both reservoirs and ranging in depth from 2,888 to 4,978
m. The average value of f is 13.4%.
m
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Modeling of Porosity and Lithology for Complex Reservoirs 521
Modeled Porosity and Measured-Compensated Neutron-Log Porosity
( )
The modeled porosity f , obtained at D Z of 10 m and presented in Figure 1,
m
( )
ranges from ; 0 to 45% average ; 15% for the Te rra Nova reservoir , and from
( )
; 0.5 to 28% average ; 12% for the Hibernia reservoir , with an overall average
( )
value of 13.4% . The CNL-measured porosity f , obtained at D Z of 10 m for
CNL
the same sampling-depth intervals and presented in Figure 2, range s from ; 5 to
( )
55% ave rage ; 29% for the Te rra Nova reservoir , and from ; 7 to 55%
( )
ave rage ; 23% for the Hibernia reservoir , with an ove rall average value of
26.3% . Figure 1 shows that the majority of the re adings of f is generally lowe r
m
than 20% . Meanwhile , Figure 2 shows that the majority of the readings of f is
CNL
generally greater than 20% . This is also indicated by the overall average values of
( )
f and f 13.4% and 26.3% , respectively . It is obvious that f is ge nerally
m CNL CNL
greater than f by about 50% . For compacted, consolidated, and highly cemented
m
( )
shaly reservoirs as in the present case , porosity is most frequently lowe r than 20%
( )
Ti ab & Donaldson, 1996 . As mentioned earlier , the CNL-me asured porosity
( )
f is generally inaccurate , because of the influence of hydroge n of the
CNL
( )
hydrocarbons, water , and shales. The compensated neutron log CNL records
higher f than the actual f when the pores are saturated with oil and water , and
lower f when the pores are saturated with gas. Also, when the formations are
shaly, f is ge nerally higher than the actual f.
CNL
Modeling of Porosity and Lithology for Complex Reservoirs
Figure 2. Histogram showing the range and count of the measured-compensated neutron
( )
porosity f for the Terra Nova and Hiberni a reservoirs; 495 readings obtained at
CNL
( )
sampling-depth intervals D Z of 10 m within 16 wells penetrating both reservoirs and
ranging in depth from 2,888 to 4,978 m. The average value of f is 26.3%.
CNL
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H. S. Salem 522
Variations of Modeled Porosity with Lithology, Depth, and Overpressure
The results indicate that the Terra Nova reservoir contains gre ater amounts of
(
shalestone than the Hibernia reservoir see gamma-ray re adings in relation to the
)
shale content in both reservoirs; Table 1 . The Terra Nova reservoir also contains
some amounts of marlstone and conglomerate , which make it more heteroge neous
than the Hibernia reservoir. On the other hand, the Hibernia reservoir is affected
by a greater degree of overburden pressure than the Terra Nova reservoir due to
( )
its gre ater depth Table 1 . The wide variations of porosity in both reservoirs are
attributed to the wide variations in mineralogical composition and grain size of the
various lithological components. A decreasing relationship between porosity and
depth was obtained for both reservoirs , with low coefficients of correlation.
Therefore , the traditionally accepted smooth porosity
]
depth decre asing curve may
not strongly represent the actual relationship for the reservoirs inve stigated. The
porosity sometimes decre ases at interbedded perme able zones and incre ases at
imperme able beds or zones. A simple explanation for this phenomenon, within the
shalestone and r or sandstone zones , may be attributed to variations in the lithology
and r or mineralogical composition. On the other hand, significant variations of
porosity we re obtained for the same zone , even though it is made of one lithologi-
( )
cal component of the same mineralogical composition. Maghara 1986 explained
such phenomenon for different reservoirs as a result of the subsurface drainage
and pore pressure. The results also indicate the presence of porous zones , with
relatively high porosity values, at gre ater depths. This observation may be at-
tributed to the fact that the continuous deposition and burial cause the deep rocks
to be overpressured, which le ads to expansion and enlargement of the pore spaces.
( )
Mudford 1990 pointed out that the relatively rapid sedimentation rates in the
Atlantic reservoirs , in past geological times , lead to the generation of overpressure.
Variations of Modeled Porosity with Physical Characterization
An incre ase in the degrees of heteroge neity and compaction results in more
complicated passages for the hydraulic flow, electric current , and acoustic wave
propagati on in both reservoirs. Heterogeneity in the rock composition and var-
iations of the porosity are reflected in wide variations of the me asured logs.
( )
The ge neral range s and range s of averages given in parentheses of some of
the me asured logs , obtained at D Z of 1 m, are as follows: sonic transit time
( ) ( ) ( )
SON f 133
]
660 ms r m f 235
]
280 ms r m compressional-wave velocity v
p
( ) ( )
3
f 1,500
]
7,500 m r s f 3,650
]
4,270 m r s ; density DEN f 1.35
]
3.72 g r cm
(
3
) ( ) ( )
f 2.24
]
2.64 g r cm ; gamma ray GR f 8
]
160 API f 40
]
90 API ; and deep
( ) ( )
induction lateral resistivity ILD f 0.2
]
2,060 Vm f 2
]
67 Vm .
( )
The wide range s of the modeled porosity f and lithological components ,
m
which vary considerably from well to we ll in the same reservoir and from reservoir
to reservoir are cle arly reflected in the wide ranges of the me asured logs. The
( )
lower values of f Table 1 are ge nerally correlated to lower SON readings and
m
( )
vice ve rsa lower travel time; higher compressional-wave ve locity; lower porosity .
( )
Also, by reading the gamma-ray log GR and the deep-induction resistivity log
( ) ( )
ILD for different wells , a GR reading of 150 API for example , representing a
pure clayey zone , corresponds to an ILD re ading of about 4 Vm. On the other
hand, a GR re ading of about 12 API , representing a pure sandstone zone ,
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Modeling of Porosity and Lithology for Complex Reservoirs 523
corresponds to an ILD re ading of about 0.8 Vm. The relatively high resistivity of
( )
the clayey zone 4 Vm, indicating relatively low conductivity , in comparison to the
(
relatively low resistivity of the sandstones zone 0.8 V ? m, indicating relatively high
)
conductivity , suggests that by incre asing the ove rburden pressure , the reservoir
rocks become affected by a greater load through the grain-to-grain contact points.
This , in turn, causes re alignment of the grains to a closer spacing, resulting in more
compacted rocks with lower values of porosity. In this case , the low porosity zones
become fully saturated with saline water. The high content of water in highly
pressured, or sometimes abnormally pressured formations, tends to incre ase the
( ) ( )
he at capacity of rocks Bourgoyne et al. , 1986 . This causes shaly clayey forma-
(
tions to be we akly conductive or eve n nonconductive i.e., highly resistive to
)
electric current . This indicates that highly compacted clays in the shaly formations
saturated with salt water do not have a considerable influence on the electric
current conduction. Therefore , the electric current in the Te rra Nova and Hibernia
reservoirs is conducted vi a the saline water filling the pores.
Conclusions
The sonic log, density log, or neutron porosity log, if used independently, does not
give accurate results of porosity. The porosity and the lithological components we re
modeled for the Te rra Nova and Hibernia reservoirs , using multilog measurements
and a computer technique in which an iteration process was applied. As a result,
(
the porosity and the lithological components of the reservoirs made of heteroge-
)
neous rocks , with complicated lithology and pore-channel networks , we re deter-
mined with a high degree of accuracy. The Terra Nova and Hibernia reservoirs are
composed of a variety of lithological components , including shalestone , sandstone ,
siltstone , limestone , marlstone , and conglomerate. Each of these components
exe rcises an important influence on the magnitudes of the various physical proper-
ties that govern the hydraulic flow, electric current conduction, and seismic-wave
( )
acoustic signed propagation. Heterogeneity in the reservoirs lithology, and varia-
tions in the porosity and size and shape of the grains and pores , as we ll as the
influence of ove rburden pressure , are reflected in wide variations of the electric
resistivity, acoustic signal velocity, gamma ray, density, etc. Variations in these
lithological attributes and physical properties result in wide variations of water and
hydrocarbon saturations , perme ability, tortuosity, specific surface are a, formation
resistivity factor , Archies cementation factor , Kozeny-Carman coefficient , com-
pressibility, various elastic moduli , etc.
Nomenclature
CNL compensated neutron-porosity log, %
CO conglomerate component , % or fractional
DEN density log, g r cm
3
GR gamma-ray log, API
ILD induction deep lateral resistivity log, Vm
LS limestone component , % or fractional
MA marlstone component , % or fractional
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H. S. Salem 524
SH shalestone component , % or fractional
SI siltstone component, % or fractional
SON sonic transit-time log, ms r m
SS sandstone component , % or fractional
v compressional wave ve locity, m r s
p
Z depth, m
D Z sampling-depth interval , m
f porosity, % or fractional
f measured porosity from compensated porosity log, %
CNL
f modeled porosity, %
m
References
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