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18
O and
13
C isotopic signatures that have undergone recrystallization in meteoric
waters (Figure 46). The model indicates
18
O enrichment within a few feet of a subaerial
exposure surface due to evaporation, and overall depletion in
18
O for the vadose and
phreatic zone. Progressive enrichment to marine values occurs in the phreatic mixing
zone. The
13
C signature becomes progressively enriched with increasing depth through
the vadose zone. The vadose/phreatic boundary is marked by a sharp downward increase
in
13
C and
18
O, progressively converging on normal marine values with
recrystallization in successively more saline waters.
This study used the Allan and Matthews (1982) model to attempt to identify
sequence boundaries based on relative shifts in
18
O and
13
C signatures analyzed for
significant surfaces that were previously identified in core. Isotopic signatures for
DC9501 showed inconclusive evidence related to potential sequence boundaries
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84
identified in core (Appendix E). Isotopic signatures for RU8 showed evidence related to
two potential sequence boundaries logged at a depth of 3493 ft and 3270 ft.
The first sequence boundary (3493 ft) identified in core is a break between
karsted shallow-water carbonates and additional overlying shallow-water carbonates
(Figure 47). The karsted shallow-water carbonates are depleted in
18
O and
progressively (with depth) enriched in
13
C relative to the normal marine signatures in
the overlying shallow-water carbonates (Figure 48). The narrow enrichment in
18
O
found near the boundary is probably due to surface evaporation.
The second sequence boundary (3270 ft) identified in core is a break between a
relative deepening succession of carbonates and overlying shallow-water carbonates
(Figure 49). The deepening succession of carbonates are depleted in
13
C and
progressively (with depth) enriched in
13
C relative to the normal marine signatures in
the overlying shallow-water carbonates (Figure 50). The fluctuation in
13
C signature
may be due to variations in carbon content in the deeper-water carbonate muds found
near the sequence boundary.
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CARBONATE DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS
The interpretation of depositional environments in outcrops and cores is important
for developing a sequence stratigraphic framework. Depositional environments are
interpreted by observing and describing lithology, physical and biogenic sedimentary
structures, stratigraphic position, and position in a shelf-slope-basin setting. This section
includes a general summary of the major facies and depositional processes that occur in
carbonate platform margin, slope, and basin environments (Figure 51).
Carbonate Platform Margin
General
Carbonate platforms are dynamic depositional systems influenced by a variety of
natural processes, including fluctuations in relative sea level. Changes in climate,
circulation patterns, salinity, water temperature, and other processes affect carbonate
environments, resulting in changes in shallow-water facies (Tucker and Wright, 1990).
Fluctuations in relative sea level, in response to varying rates and styles of subsidence or
eustasy, cause changing environmental conditions. If relative sea level falls below the
shelf-edge, carbonate production terminates and the platform is subjected to meteoric
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diagenesis (Jones and Desrochers, 1992). If carbonate production maintains pace with
relative sea-level rise, thick accumulations of shallow-water carbonate facies are
deposited (Tucker and Wright, 1990). If relative sea-level rise outpaces the rate of
vertical sediment accumulation, the platform is drowned and characterized by a
deepening upward facies succession (Tucker and Wright, 1990; Schlager, 1991; Jones
and Desrochers, 1992).
Platform margins can assume two different morphologic profiles: rimmed and
unrimmed. Rimmed carbonate platforms are shallow-water shelves with pronounced
slope-breaks into deep water, and may be formed by rapid carbonate sediment
aggradation. They are high-energy zones characterized by the development of shallow-
water boundstone reefs and oolitic grainstone shoal facies acting as barriers (Wilson,
1975; Tucker and Wright, 1990). Unrimmed carbonate margins are shallow-water
shelves with no clear shelf-slope breaks. These shelves range from ramps, with relatively
uniform slopes (Read 1982; 1985), to open shelves, with distally increasing slopes
(Ginsburg and James, 1974). Unrimmed platforms are low-energy zones characterized
by mud-supported facies with no grain-supported facies acting as barriers.
Study Area
The high-energy Bootstrap Limestone reef and shoal facies located to the NNE is
interpreted as being deposited on a shallow-water, rimmed carbonate platform with a
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pronounced slope-break into deep-water. During the late Silurian to early Devonian, the
rimmed carbonate platform was influenced by series of fluctuations in relative sea level.
The platform was submerged during the Llandoverian to early-middle Lochkovian and
the carbonate factory maintained pace with relative sea level, resulting in thick
accumulations of shallow-water reef and shoal facies. During the early Lochkovian,
relative sea level fell below the shelf edge, terminating carbonate production and
subjecting the platform to meteoric conditions as indicated by karsting observed in RU8
(Figure 47). By mid-Lochkovian time, relative sea level was rapidly rising and
submerged the platform. The carbonate factory was rejuvenated, but the relative rise in
sea level eventually outpaced carbonate production resulting in the drowning of the
platform and deposition of the overlying Popovich UM deep-water facies.
This depositional pattern is most easily observed in cores taken to the NNE, in the
platform environment, that will show a vertical stacking-pattern consisting of Bootstrap
Limestone overlain by Popovich UM facies (Figure 52). The section will not contain
Roberts Mountains (LL and Apron) or lower Popovich (WS, PL, and SS) facies.
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Slope
General
The slope environment is located between the carbonate rimmed platform and the
slope-basin break (Figure 51). Most carbonate slopes are concave upward due to the
presence of framebuilding organisms and early cementation near the platform-slope break
(Kenter and Schlager, 1989). The sediment budget and/or locus of deposition can
influence the type of slope formed (Coniglio and Dix, 1992). Three types of slopes have
been recognized in modern carbonate depositional environments: accretionary, bypass,
and erosional slopes. Accretionary slopes are low-angle slopes constructed of
sedimentary gravity flow deposits. Bypass slopes are relatively steep slopes that allow
sediment to bypass the upper portion and deposit the majority of the sediment at the base-
of-slope. Erosional slopes are very steep, resulting in a net sediment loss on the slope
(Coniglio and Dix, 1992; Wright and Burchette, 1996).
Many physical processes act on these carbonate slopes (Figure 51). Processes
include pelagic settling, bottom currents, resedimentation, erosion, and bypass (Cook and
Mullins, 1983; Tucker and Wright, 1990; Coniglio and Dix, 1992). The sediments
deposited by these processes are highly variable. Suspended fine-grained carbonates
shed from the shallow platform and pelagic material are uniformly deposited as
periplatform oozes over the slope and into the basin (Mullins and Neumann, 1979).
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Bottom (contour) currents are responsible for winnowing, mobilizing, and redistributing
large volumes of carbonate sediment (Cook and Mullins, 1983). Resedimentation
processes from gravity flows transport large volumes of coarse, shallow-water carbonate
sediment onto the slope and into the basin. Sediment gravity-flows are further divided
into turbidity currents, fluidized flows, liquefied flows, grain flows, and debris flows
(Lowe, 1976). Erosional processes including rock falls, slides, and slumps, result in
platform- and slope-derived thick accumulations of base-of-slope talus, to distally
developed thin, basinal debris flows and turbidites (Varnes, 1978; Tucker and Wright,
1990). Bypass results in non-deposition up-slope and thick accumulation of sediments,
via gullies and canyons, down-slope and into the basin by gravity flows (Wright and
Burchette, 1996).
Study Area
Steep and shallow slopes have been interpreted along the northern Carlin trend
during late Wenlockian to early Lochkovian time that were responsible for deposition of
the Roberts Mountains Apron facies. Steep slopes developed adjacent to pronounced
slope-breaks along the platform margin associated with shallow-water reef facies.
Bypassing the upper portion of the slope, erosional processes and sediment gravity-flows
deposited relatively thick accumulations of sediment at the slope-basin break as a base-
of-slope apron. Shallow slopes developed adjacent to slope-breaks associated with
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shallow-water shoal facies. Sediment gravity-flow processes, including turbidity currents
and debris flows, emplaced uniformly thick accumulations of sediment that extended
from the slope-basin break up to the shelf-slope break as a slope apron.
During the late-late Lochkovian through Pragian time, the slope was subjected to
a rapid rise in relative sea level over the platform. The rapid rise caused major instability
along the slope, resulting in catastrophic slope failure and deposition of the Popovich
SSD facies.
A core taken on the slope environment will be highly variable. The section will
reflect the type of gradient (steep or shallow) and relative location along the slope. On a
steep slope (Figure 52a), the Roberts Mountains Apron facies is focused at the base-of-
slope with the overlying Popovich facies sequentially onlapping it and the Bootstrap
Limestone facies. On a shallow slope (Figure 52b), the Roberts Mountains Apron facies
extend up to the platform margin with the Popovich facies sequentially onlapping it.
Basin
General
The basinal environment is located beyond the slope-basin break (Figure 51).
Slope facies are easily distinguished from shallow platform facies; however, the same
statement is not true when talking about slope and basin facies. Slope facies gradually
97
merge with basin facies, and both slope and basin facies accumulate large volumes of
pelagic material (Cook et al., 1972; Wilson, 1975; McIlreath and James, 1978; Enos and
Moore, 1983), making the distinction between them difficult. Some major differences
between them do exist; for example, slope facies are usually associated with large-scale
deformation (Cook and Mullins, 1983) and coarser debris flows, in contrast with basinal
facies consisting of finer-grained, laminated gravity flows (Cook and Egbert, 1981).
Many physical processes acting on slopes act in basins as well. These include
pelagic settling, bottom currents, resedimentation, erosion, and bypass (Cook and
Mullins, 1983; Tucker and Wright, 1990; Coniglio and Dix, 1992). The sediments
deposited by these processes are variable. A discussion of these processes is included in
the slope portion of this section.
Study Area
The Roberts Mountains LL, Popovich WS, and Popovich PL basinal facies to the
SSW consist of thick accumulations of laminated distal turbidites and thin debris flows
derived from the platform and slope environments. Additional suspended fine-grained
and pelagic sediment was deposited into the basin as periplatform oozes.
A core taken to the SSW in the basin environment will have a distinct vertical
facies stacking-pattern, and will not be affected by the different slopes created by the
Bootstrap Limestone reef and shoal facies to the NNE. The vertical section will consist
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of the Roberts Mountains LL facies unconformably overlain by a complete section of the
Popovich facies (Figure 52). The section will not contain Roberts Mountains Apron or
Bootstrap Limestone facies.
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DEPOSTIONAL MODELS
Carbonate Apron Models
Model
Sediment gravity-flows, found depositionally along the deep-water flanks of
carbonate platforms, typically produce wedge-shaped carbonate aprons parallel to their
adjacent shelf/slope breaks, instead of submarine fans (Mullins and Cook, 1986).
Line sources produce slope deposits in broad aprons arrayed parallel to the shelf
margin (Cook, 1983; Cook and Mullins, 1983; Mullins, 1983; Mullins et al., 1984;
Mullins and Cook, 1986). The aprons commonly are composed of grain flows, debris
flows, turbidites, and periplatform ooze (Sheehan et al., 1993). In contrast, non-
carbonate slopes are characterized by point sources; fans of sediment radiate from
canyons that are fed clastic material by rivers and longshore currents (Mutti and Ricci
Lucchi, 1978; Normark, 1978). Point-source deposits, such as siliciclastics fans, are
uncommon in carbonate systems (Cook and Egbert, 1981; Cook, 1983; Ruiz-Ortiz, 1983;
Wright and Wilson, 1984). Thus, the submarine fan model (Nelson et al., 1970; Mutti
and Ricci Lucchi, 1978; Normark, 1978; Walker, 1978) cannot be unequivocally applied
to carbonate sediment gravity-flow deposits.
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In review and expansion of the carbonate apron model (Cook, 1983), Mullins and
Cook (1986) recognized two end-member types of carbonate aprons: slope apron and
base-of-slope apron. The major difference between the two models is that redeposited
carbonate sediments of the first model developed on a relatively shallow slope that
extended up to the shelf-edge, whereas the latter developed on relatively steep slopes that
involved an upper-slope bypass zone.
Slope Apron Model. Slope aprons (Figure 53a) develop immediately adjacent to shoal-
water sediments (Mullins and Cook, 1986) along carbonate platform margins that have a
relatively gentle gradient (< 4
o
) into the adjacent basin (Cook, 1983). Carbonate gravity
flow deposits extend up to the adjacent shelf-slope break without an upper slope bypass
zone (Mullins and Cook, 1986). A random vertical succession of turbidity current and
debris-flow deposits are abundant in slope-aprons (Cook, 1983). Rockfalls, slides and
slumps have minimal sedimentation contribution due to lower gradients.
Base-of-Slope Apron Model. Base-of-slope aprons (Figure 53b) develop along
relatively steep (> 4
o
), high-relief platform margin slopes and may exhibit thickening-
upward cycles (Mullins and Cook, 1986). Shoal-water derived sediment gravity-flow
deposits will be more likely to traverse down the slope (sediment bypass) and deposit
most of their debris at or near the base-of-slope (Cook, 1983). In addition, a multitude of
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small canyons and gullies and/or numerous submarine slides and slumps may form on the
slope (Cook, 1983), thus bypassing additional sediment to the base-of-slope.
Study Area
The previous sections described two Roberts Mountains Apron facies. The first
facies was associated with a shallow slope that developed adjacent to the Bootstrap
Limestone shoal facies and the second associated with a steep slope that developed
adjacent to the Bootstrap Limestone reef facies. The first facies resembles the Slope
Apron end member proposed by Cook (1983) and Mullins and Cook (1986). The facies
uniformally extended from the base-of-slope up to the platform-slope break. Laminated
turbidites and thin debris flows deposits dominated this facies. The second facies
resembles the Base-of-Slope Apron end member proposed by Mullins and Cook (1986).
The facies bypassed the upper slope, focusing deposition and a thick accumulation of
sediment at the base-of-slope. Rockfalls, slides, slumps, and thick sediment gravity-flow
deposits dominated this facies.
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The Armstrong and Others (1997) Model
Model
Armstrong et al. (1997) proposed a depositional model (Figure 54) for the
Bootstrap Limestone, Popovich and Rodeo Creek Formations based on a series of cores
drilled into the Bootstrap Limestone.
Armstrong et al. (1997) interpreted the Bootstrap Limestone, consisting of ooid
packstone, grainstone, wackestone, and lime mudstones, as being deposited on a wide,
shallow shelf margin adjacent to a basin in which the Popovich Formation was deposited.
They concluded that the base of the Popovich Formation was deposited in a progressively
deepening basin that developed above the drowned Bootstrap Limestone shelf due to
downwarping and/or faulting. The three upper members of the Popovich Formation were
interpreted as foreslope deposits in an oxygenated to anoxic environment located at the
edge of the Bootstrap Limestone ooid shoals. The deposits represented slide- and slump-
transported ooid-shelf sediments that were mixed and interbedded with basinal silty
dolostones and lime mud. Finally, they interpreted that the Rodeo Creek Formation as
being deposited in a continued deepening, silled starved basin, anoxic environment.
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Study Area
The depositional model proposed by Armstrong et al. (1997) was based on a basic
concept proposed by Wilson (1975). Their model suggested the basinal Rodeo Creek and
Popovich fore-slope-to-basin margin facies were deposited in a progressively deepening
sequence that drowned the Bootstrap Limestone due to downwarping and/or faulting.
This would have resulted in a deepening succession found laterally uniform throughout
the entire area. In fact, preliminary work by Griffin (1999; 2000) and this study
recognized that the Popovich WS, PL, and SSD facies laterally pinch out to the NNE
onto the Bootstrap Limestone and Roberts Mountains Apron facies, with no evidence of
an overall deepening sequence encompassing the entire area.
Ultimately, the Armstrong et al. (1997) model only provided a static
representation of the carbonate system by depicting an idealized distribution pattern of
facies and paleoenvironments based on an instant in time and in the absence of relative
sea-level changes. Now, by using methodology originally developed for clastic seismic
sequence stratigraphy by Vail et al. (1977), we can utilize sequence stratigraphy for
carbonates to overcome the static problem inherent in previous models, and integrate
time and relative sea-level changes in a new model.
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SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK
General Background
Over the past several decades, geologists have routinely used carbonate facies
models to describe and interpret lateral facies relationships in ancient carbonate
platforms. This model only provides a static representation of the carbonate platform by
depicting an idealized distribution of facies and paleoenvironments. This results in an
interpretation based on an instant in time and in the absence of relative sea-level changes.
This approach is unrealistic, because carbonate platforms appear, migrate, disappear, and
reappear in response to depositional and erosional processes associated with marine
transgressions and regressions imposed by relative sea-level changes (Handford and
Loucks, 1993). This study successfully utilized a new approach by integrating sequence
stratigraphy and the use of systems tracts to overcome the static problem by incorporating
time and relative sea-level changes to track migration of facies.
Fundamental carbonate depositional principles and geologic-based observations
are used to construct depositional sequence and systems tracts responding to lowstand,
transgressive, and highstand conditions. This section does not attempt to summarize all
of the history, definitions, and concepts of sequence stratigraphy. However, it will
briefly define some sequence stratigraphic terms and methods used in sequence analysis.
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Loucks and Sarg (1993) published more detailed summaries of the history and terms of
carbonate sequence stratigraphy.
Significant Surfaces
Significant surfaces comprise maximum flooding surfaces and sequence
boundaries. These significant surfaces are bounding surfaces between systems tracts and
their associated parts.
Maximum Flooding Surface
By definition, the Maximum Flooding Surface (MFS) is the inflection point that
signifies a change from a continuous increase to gradual slowing of the rate of relative
sea-level rise with respect to subsidence (Figure 55). The surface is located just above
the condensed section (Loutit et al., 1988; Wendt, 1988). These sediments, composed of
pelagic or hemipelagic fauna and flora, are typically thin due to very low rates of
sedimentation and/or periods of non-deposition (Handford and Loucks, 1993), but
represent a long period of geologic time.
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Sequence Boundary
Sequence boundaries (SB) are unconformities or their correlative conformities
bounded above and below by genetically related strata (Vail et al., 1977). Sequence
boundaries are time transgressive, separating the underlying highstand and overlying
lowstand deposits (Figure 55).
Systems Tracts
A systems tract is a linkage of contemporaneous depositional systems (Brown and
Fisher, 1977). Three systems tracts developed in response to varying relative sea-level
responses are recognized: the lowstand, transgressive, and highstand systems tracts (Van
Wagoner, 1995).
Lowstand Systems Tract
Lowstand Systems Tract (LST) represents the mid- to late-part of a relative sea-
level fall, stillstand, and the early part of a relative sea-level rise (Figure 55; Van
Wagoner et al., 1988). The platform is exposed and carbonate production is limited to
the area seaward of the platform margin, resulting in minimal shelf-edge progradation
(Figure 56). Karstification is common on the platform when relative sea level falls below
the shelf edge, exposing the platform to meteoric conditions. LST sediment gravity-flow
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deposits contain skeletal grains and clasts shed penecontemporaneously from shelf-edge
environments and clasts derived from the older, subaerially exposed shelf edge. Ooid
and peloid production is minimal and these grain types are rarely found in LST gravity
flows. (Schlager, 1991).
Transgressive Systems Tract
Trangressive Systems Tract (TST) represents the maximum transgression with
respect to relative sea level (Figure 55; Van Wagoner et al., 1988). Maximum
transgression commonly leads to sediment starvation and the deposition of hemipelagic
and pelagic sediments in the basin (Figure 56; Handford and Loucks, 1993), resulting in
the formation of the MFS. In most cases, a rapid rise in relative sea level will submerge
the platform. Under most conditions, initiation of the carbonate factory lags behind
platform submergence in response to the rapid rise, and eventually catches up (Kendall
and Schlager, 1981). In some cases, however, carbonate production is outpaced by sea-
level rise and the platform is drowned.
Highstand Systems Tract
Highstand Systems Tract (HST) represents the late part of a relative sea-level rise,
a still stand, and early part of relative sea-level fall (Figure 55; Van Wagoner et al.,
1988). During the HST, shallow-water platforms produce large quantities of fine-grained
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sediment, ultimately shedding a large portion of carbonate sediment to the adjacent
slopes and basins (Figure 56; Neumann and Land, 1975; Mullins, 1983). This results in
deposition of aggradational to progradational shelf, shelf-edge, and slope facies (Sarg,
1988). Progradating HST shelf-edges and slopes commonly oversteepen and
catastrophically fail by way of rockfalls, sediment slides, and sediment gravity-flows,
forming base-of-slope aprons (Handford and Loucks, 1993). Ooid production is common
during the HST and corresponding sediment gravity-flows will contain oolitic grains,
making it possible to distinguish between LST and HST sediment gravity-flow deposits.
Sequences
A sequence is a stratigraphic unit composed of a relatively conformable
succession of genetically related strata bounded above and below by unconformities or
their correlative conformities (Mitchum et al., 1977). Depending on the location in the
carbonate system, a complete sequence may or may not contain all three systems tracts.
Depositional History
During the HST from late Llandoverian to early-middle Lochkovian, a thick
accumulation of Bootstrap Limestone facies developed on a shallow-water, rimmed
carbonate platform laterally adjacent to the Roberts Mountains LL anoxic, slope and
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basinal facies (Figures 57 and 58). By early Lochkovian time, a significant accumulation
of shallow-water sediment on the platform developed a pronounced platform-slope break
and slope where Roberts Mountains Apron facies was deposited. The subsequent fall in
relative sea level during the late-early Lochkovian resulted in a sequence boundary.
During the LST, the platform was exposed to meteoric conditions and deposition
of the Popovich WS facies was limited to the aerobic, slope and basin environment. The
overlying Popovich PL facies signifies another change in relative sea level during middle
Lochkovian time and the beginning of the TST.
Rapid rise in relative sea level during the TST led to drowning of the system,
including the platform, and a change to an anoxic environment in the basin. The lag-time
of carbonate production, in response to the rapid rise, resulted in minimal carbonate
platform sediment accumulation and starvation into the basin. The Monograptus sp. and
dendroidal variety graptolites found in the upper portion of the Popovich Planar facies
represent the condensed section of a MFS.
During the subsequent HST from Pragian to middle Emsian, reactivation of the
platform carbonate factory resulted in deposition of additional Bootstrap Limestone
facies on the platform. The Popovich SSD slope facies represents instability of carbonate
muds rapidly deposited onto the slope during the Pragian time. Sea level continued to
rise, eventually drowning the platform during the early-middle Emsian, resulting in
termination of the Bootstrap Limestone facies and deposition of the overlying Popovich
UM basinal facies.
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The Popovich UM abruptly ended in early-middle Frasnian time with a significant
time gap through the late-middle Famennian. The unconformable contact between the
Popovich UM facies and the overlying Rodeo Creek Formation represents a major
sequence boundary and a change from carbonate to dominantly clastic deposition.
Devonian Sea Level Curve
Johnson and Sandberg (1988) proposed a Devonian eustatic sea-level curve for
the western United States based on recognition of major biotic responses to eustatic
events (Figure 59). This study developed a relative sea-level curve for the northern
Carlin trend based on the sequence stratigraphic framework and chronostratigraphy
previously discussed.
The relative sea-level curve for the northern Carlin trend shows a relatively
consistent rise, then an abrupt fall, during early Lochkovian time. The abrupt change is
marked by a sequence boundary that separates the Roberts Mountains and Popovich
Formations. Another relative sea-level rise continued from early-middle Lochkovian
through early Frasnian time. This relative rise is marked by a second abrupt change
identified as a sequence boundary separating the Popovich and Rodeo Creek Formations.
A hiatus separating the formations extended from early Frasnian to middle Framennian
time, followed by another rise in relative sea level.
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In comparison, the Popovich portion of the relative sea-level curve mimics the
eustatic sea-level curve of Johnson and Sandberg (1988). The sequence boundary and
hiatus separating Popovich and Rodeo Creek Formations is consistent with a fall
identified near the FrasnianFamennian boundary on the eustatic curve. This suggests
that the Popovich and overlying Rodeo Creek Formations were largely influenced by
eustatic controls during deposition instead of local tectonism.
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CONCLUSIONS
Summary
The highstand Bootstrap Limestone reef and shoal facies was deposited on a
shallow-water platform that developed pronounced slope-breaks at the platform margin.
A steep slope developed adjacent to the reef facies that allowed for sediment bypass and
formation of a base-of-slope apron. A shallow slope developed adjacent to the shoal
facies and formed a slope-apron. A subsequent relative fall in sea level resulted in a
sequence boundary and exposed the platform to meteoric conditions. The lowstand
Popovich Wispy facies was deposited above the sequence boundary in the basin. The
overlying trangressive Popovich Planar facies represents another change in relative sea
level that eventually submerged the platform. The relative rise in sea level began to slow
during another highstand and carbonate production was rejuvenated on the platform.
Thick accumulations of sediment were deposited onto the slope that became unstable and
failed, forming the Popovich Soft-Sediment-Deformation facies. Relative rise in sea
level eventually outpaced carbonate production and deposited the Popovich UM deep-
water facies uniformly over the area.
The relative changes in sea level resulted in a variable lateral and vertical facies
distributions along the northern Carlin trend. The platform, located to the NNE, consists
of the Bootstrap Limestone overlain by the Popovich Micritic facies. The slope, located
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between the platform and basin, reflects the type of gradient (steep or shallow) and
relative location along the slope. On a steep slope, the Roberts Mountains Apron facies
is focused at the base-of-slope with the overlying Popovich facies sequentially onlapping
both it and the Bootstrap Limestone facies. On a shallow slope, the Roberts Mountains
Apron facies extended up to the platform margin, with the Popovich facies sequentially
onlapping it. The basin, located to the SSE, consists of the Roberts Mountains Laminated
Micritic Limestone facies unconformably overlain by a complete section of the Popovich
facies.
Significance
Detailed stratigraphic analysis of the study area identified an apron facies that is
time equivalent to the Roberts Mountains Laminated Micritic Limestone and
Bootstrap Limestone members.
The Popovich Wispy, Planar, and Soft-Sediment Deformation facies
depositionally pinch out onto a previously deposited Bootstrap Limestone and
Roberts Mountains Apron facies.
The sequence stratigraphic framework model developed in this study better
explains the lateral and vertical distribution of Siluro-Devonian succession of
facies by using multiple time lines.
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Recognition of spatial change in stratigraphy must be considered when
reconstructing structural complexities.
Geometry of the carbonate platform likely reflects a structural control, which led
to two different kinds of slopes that affected the type of aprons present.
Eustatic control on sedimentation appears to be pronounced during the Popovich
and Rodeo Creek Formation times based on comparison of sea-level curves for
the northern Carlin trend derived from this study with a published eustatic sea-
level curve for the western United States.
Recommendations
A follow-on study, utilizing additional stratigraphic control and focusing on
diagenesis and hydrothermal alteration of specific facies types, could help to
better understand the relationship between lateral facies changes and
mineralization.
A more detailed sequence stratigraphic analysis of the Silurian-Devonian Roberts
Mountains and Silurian-Devonian Bootstrap Limestone Formations should seek to
identify the presence of additional sequence boundaries that may be associated
with other potential gold-hosting apron and slope/basin facies.
A sequence stratigraphic study of the Rodeo Creek Formation should be
undertaken. The Rodeo Creek Formation likely represents another stratigraphic
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sequence and a change from carbonate-apron facies to a clastic-dominated
submarine-fan facies.
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APPENDIX A BASE MAP
Appendix A is a base map consisting of all the core (red), core photograph
(black), and conodont (blue) sample locations and core labels. Both BGMI mine (red)
and longitude/latitude (green) coordinates are included on the map. The BGMI mine
coordinates for each sample are listed in the data spread sheet in Appendix B.
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APPENDIX B DATA
Appendix B is a spread sheet of all the data utilized in this study for the
construction of isopachs, cross sections, and distribution maps. The spread sheet includes
the sample number; BGMI mine coordinates; and Bootstrap Limestone, Roberts
Mountains, and Popovich facies picks.
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144
145
146
147
148
149
150
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153
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APPENDIX C CORE LOGS
Appendix C is a representative example of both core and core photograph logs
constructed for this study. The logs include detailed descriptions of the carbonate facies
and depositional environments.
Key:
RC Rodeo Creek
UM Popovich Micritic member
SSD Popovich Soft-Sediment-Deformation member
PL Popovich Planar member
WS Popovich Wispy member
WS/DF Roberts Mountains Apron Wispy/Debris Flow unit
LL/WS/DF Roberts Mountains Apron Laminated Micritic Limestone/
Wispy/ Debris Flow unit
LL/DF Roberts Mountains Apron Laminated Mictritic Limestone/
Debris Flow unit
LL Roberts Mountains Laminated Micritic Limestone member
Boot Bootstrap Limestone Formation
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165
166
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APPENDIX D CONODONT REPORTS
Appendix D consists of a spread sheet reporting all the barren and conodont-
bearing samples analyzed from this study and additional dates provided by Dr. Anita
Harris from previously analyzed samples conducted for others in the same general
location. Also included is a detailed chronostratigraphic chart for the Bootstrap
Limestone, Roberts Mountains, Popovich, and Rodeo Creek Formations constructed for
this study.
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174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
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APPENDIX E STABLE ISOTOPE DATA
Appendix E consists of a spread sheet reporting the
13
C and
18
O isotope data
(reported in PDB) for RU8 and DC9501 and two corresponding excel plots for DC9501.
The excel plots for RU8 are included in the text (Figures 48 and 50).
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