The Scientific Method

Biology is a science.
Science means to know.
Biologists want to know the secrets of life.
The scientific method is an ordered sequence of investigative steps used by most scientists to
explain the phenomena observed in nature.
The steps involved try to remove any bias from the discovery process.
Science can only investigate phenomena that can be observed, measured and tested.

The Scientific Method
Observation Made: must be accurate and unbiased.
Hypothesis Put Forward: a testable possible explanation.
Prediction Made: based on the hypothesis.
Hypothesis Tested: by further observation, experiment or modelling.
Conclusion Drawn on the Results: hypothesis supported or not supported.
Further Testing of the Supported Hypothesis: further checking of its validity.
Theory Established: a hypothesis that has withstood all testing.
Principle Accepted: a theory that has held up against long vigorous testing.
If a hypothesis is not supported then form available knowledge and creative thinking a new
hypothesis must be made and tested. And so it continues until a hypothesis, subjected to rigorous
testing, is found not false.
Supported hypothesis are often modified as more knowledge becomes available from its more
vigorous testing or new information becomes available from other areas of study.

Experimentation
Hypotheses, laws and principles are often tested by the experimental method.
An experiment is a practical test carried out under very carefully manipulated conditions.

Controlled Experiments a double test
The Control: the procedure without the factor under investigation.
The Experiment: the procedure that includes the factor under investigation.
The control and the experimental procedures must be identical in all other aspects.
Results of control and experiment are compared.
Repeat the controlled experiment many times to verify the results.
Important Aspects of Good Experimental Procedure
Well planned and designed: the hypothesis will be tested properly.
Safe working: a full and accurate risk assessment each step is vital.
A suitable control must be designed.
Repetition: to verify the results.
Independent Verification: other unconnected scientists must repeat the work exactly and
obtain the same results.
No Bias: the appeal of the hypothesis must not influence the procedures or interpretation
of the results.
Avoiding Bias
Large sample size: better chance of gaining the true representative average.
Random selection: more likely to produce a regular type.
Double-blind testing: the investigating scientist and the test subjects do not know the
composition of the control or experimental group.











Nutrition The Chemistry of Food
Food is material that is a good source of one or more of the following: protein, carbohydrate or lipid.
Living organisms need food for energy, growth, repair, defence and reproduction.
Food often contains vitamins and minerals.
Metabolism
Metabolism is the full set of chemical processes carried out by a living organism (anabolism +
catabolism).
Anabolism: the formation of large complex organic molecules by linking smaller simpler organic
molecules.
Catabolism: the breakdown of large complex molecules into smaller simpler biomolecules.
Anabolic reactions require energy input and catabolic reactions release energy.

Protein
Elements: C, H, O and N in all proteins. Some proteins also contain P and/or S.
Subunits: Amino acids are the subunits that are linked by peptide bonds in chains, folds and
branches.
Twenty different amino acids each different sequence of amino acids produces a different
protein.
Each protein has a specific functional shape.
Proteins synthesis takes place at the ribosomes.
Meat, fish, eggs, milk, beans, peas and nuts are good sources of dietary protein.
Structural Role of Protein
Keratin: in hair and outer layer of the skin.
Myosin: major protein in skeletal and cardiac muscle.
Metabolic Role of Protein
Many proteins function as enzymes (specific biological catalysts).
Some proteins function as hormones.


Carbohydrate
Elements: CHO. General Formula: (CH
2
O)n or C
X
(H
2
O)
Y

Monosaccharides: single sugar unit
Pentoses: C
5
H
10
O
5
Deoxyribose of DNA and Ribose of RNA
Hexoses: C
6
H
12
O
6
Glucose, Fructose, Galactose use for respiration
Disaccharides: double sugars two sugar units linked together
Maltose: glucose + glucose intermediate between glucose and starch
Sucrose: glucose + fructose food transported in the phloem of plants is a sucrose solution
Lactose: glucose + galactose the sugar present in milk
Polysaccharides: multisugars the three examples are multiglucoses
Starch: plant glucose reserve
Glycogen: glucose reserve of animals and fungi. Glycogen stored in skeletal muscle and liver
Cellulose: plant cells walls and fibre in our diet
Dietary Sources of Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides: fruit, honey and jam.
Disaccharides: Sucrose - fruit, table sugar. Lactose - milk. Maltose - germinating seeds.
Polysaccharides: Starch: bread, rice, pasta, potatoes, seeds.
Cellulose: fruit, vegetables, wholegrain cereals, nuts.
Structural Role of Carbohydrate
Cellulose walls of plant cells.
Chitin in the cell walls of fungi.
Metabolic Role of Carbohydrate
Energy Source: energy released by the respiration of glucose is used to make ATP.
Energy Storage: starch in plants, glycogen in animals and fungi.

Lipid
Elements: CHO with more H but less O than carbohydrates.
Composed of glycerol with three fatty acids linked to the glycerol.
Fat solid lipid at room temperature. Oil lipid that is liquid at room temperature.
Phospholipid: two fatty acids and a phosphate group linked to the glycerol.
Good Dietary Sources: meat, milk, butter, cheese, plant oils, margarine.
Structural Role of Lipid
Lipids and Phospholipids are very important in cell membrane structure.
The protective wax cuticle on the outside of leaves.
Metabolic Role of Lipids
Energy storage: more than twice the energy of carbohydrate or protein.
Energy source: released during respiration.
Storage of fat-soluble vitamins.
Some lipids function as hormones.
Hormones as Regulators of Metabolic Activity
Hormones are chemical messengers that cause their target cells or tissues to adjust or alter
their activity.
Hormones stimulate or inhibit specific metabolic reactions.
The level of stimulation or inhibition depends on the concentration of hormone in the blood.
Hormones play an important role in homeostasis.

Vitamins
A vitamin is an organic compound needed in small quantities in the diet for health.
Water-soluble Vitamin: Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
Obtained in fresh fruit and vegetables.
Needed to make and maintain connective tissue and the absorption of iron by the gut.
Long term deficiency of vitamin C causes a disease called scurvy.
Scurvy symptoms: internal bleeding, bruising, bleeding gums, poor healing.
Fat-soluble Vitamin: Vitamin D (calciferol)
Obtained from milk, eggs, liver, fish liver oils and produced in skin exposed to UV light.
It is needed for bone and tooth formation, bone maintenance and the absorption of calcium
from the gut.
Long term deficiency cause diseases known as rickets and osteomalacia.
Major deficiency symptoms: late teething and walking, deformed legs and arms, weak
bones.

Minerals
Minerals or mineral nutrients are soluble inorganic salts that contain elements essential for
metabolism.
Minerals are only needed in small quantities in comparison to protein, carbohydrate and lipid.
Plants obtain their minerals by absorbing them from external water soil water, freshwater and
seawater.
Animals receive most of their minerals in the food they eat; some from the water they drink.
Plant Mineral Requirement (any two)
Calcium: for the middle lamella that glues neighbouring plant cell walls.
Magnesium: for the production of chlorophyll so vital for photosynthesis.
Animal Mineral Requirement (any two)
Calcium: formation of teeth and bones.
Iron: formation of haemoglobin so vital for oxygen transport in our blood.
General Role of Minerals in Living Organisms
Construction of Hard Parts: calcium for teeth and bone; nitrogen for chitin in the cell walls of
fungi.
Formation of Soft Tissue: nitrogen and sulphur in the protein of muscle tissue.
Maintain Correct Fluid Concentration: sodium chloride role in blood plasma concentration.

Water: H
2
O
Importance of Water for Organisms
Fluid Component: 90% of cell cytoplasm, 92% of blood plasma, 97% of tissue fluid and
lymph.
Multipurpose Solvent: medium for metabolism and transport.
Take Part in Metabolic Reactions
o Photosynthesis: water is a raw material in the light stage.
o Respiration: aerobic respiration produces water.
o Anabolism: water in produced when the subunits of macromolecules link together.
o Catabolism: water is used to break the bonds that hold together the subunits of
macromolecules.
Movement of Materials through Cell Membranes: diffusion, osmosis and active transport.
Control Cell Shape
o Immature plant cell enlarge to mature size and shape as a result of their absorption
of water by osmosis.
o Opening and closing of the stoma by change in shape of the guard cells by change in
their turgor.
o Turgor plays an important role in the support of soft plant tissue.
Good Absorber of Heat Energy
o A lot of heat energy has to be absorbed to bring about an increase in temperature or
vaporisation.
o Water as a medium is a temperature-stable which is so important for homeostasis.
o Vaporisation of water is an excellent cooling mechanism.

Mandatory Food Tests
Starch
Yellow-brown iodine solution is placed on the food sample.
A blue-black colour indicates that starch is present.
A yellow-brown colour indicates that starch is not present.
Reducing Sugar
E.g., glucose, fructose, maltose, lactose. (Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar).
Add an equal volume of blue Benedicts Reagent to the food solution.
Heat but do not boil.
A brick-red colour indicates that reducing sugar is present.
A blue colour indicates that reducing sugar is not present.
Control: water blue colour result.

Lipid
Rub the food onto brown paper.
A translucent stain that does not dry out indicates fat is present.
Control: water stain dries out and the brown paper remains opaque.
Protein
Biuret Test: Add sodium hydroxide solution to the food solution.
Then add a few drops of blue copper sulphate solution.
Shake the contents vigorously.
A purple-violet colour indicates protein is present.


















The Cell
All living organisms are made up of cells and new cells are produced when live cells divide.
Textbook Diagrams: animal and plant cell as seen with light and electron microscopes.
Light Microscope Study
Components of Animal Cells: cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, chromosomes.
Extra Components of Plant Cells: cell wall, chloroplast, vacuole.
Electron Microscope Study
Extra components and details:
Cell membrane, mitochondrion, nuclear pores, ribosomes, chromatin, details of chloroplast
mitochondrion structure, double membrane nature of nuclear envelope and outline structure of cell
membranes.
(The term protoplasm is useful and refers to the cell membrane, cytoplasm and its contents and the
nucleus. The large vacuole of plant cells is not included.)

Cell Structure
Cell Membrane
Semipermeable: water, oxygen and carbon dioxide freely pass through it, many other
chemicals cannot.
Selectively permeable: controls entry and exit of specific materials.
Keeps cell contents together allowing efficient coordination of its activity.
Maintains the interior of the cell at a suitable constant composition for efficient metabolism
Cytoplasm
The living contents of a cell excluding the nucleus and large vacuoles.
A complex solution in which the cells organelles are suspended.
Many biochemical processes take place here, e.g., glycolysis and fermentation.
About 90% water.
Nucleus
Contains DNA, the hereditary material.
The genes are present in the DNA.
Controls the cells structure and metabolism.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is visible as chromatin in active cells and as chromosomes during
mitosis and meiosis.
A nucleus is not present in a red blood cell or phloem sieve element.
Chromatin
Chromatin is the very fine thread-like combinations of DNA and protein in non-dividing nuclei.
The protein assists in the efficient packaging and regulation of DNA activity.
A human nucleus contains 46 such fine threads of chromatin.
Chromosomes
A chromosome is a condensed chromatin thread visible during mitosis and meiosis.
Haploid nuclei have one set of chromosomes i.e. one of each kind of chromosome.
Each chromosome has a unique set of genes.
Each gene has a specific locus it is on a particular chromosome at a specific site.
The nuclei of human somatic cells are diploid (2n).
Each human nucleus has 46 chromosomes i.e. two sets of 23 chromosomes.
One set was received from the mother in the haploid egg cell, the other in the fathers haploid
sperm cell.
Mitochondria:
The aerobic steps of respiration occur here Krebs Cycle and Electron Transport System.
Liver, muscle and nerve cells are rich in mitochondria.
Bone and fat cells have low numbers of mitochondria.
Root hair cells and meristematic cells of plants have large numbers of mitochondria.
Stem and root ground tissue cells of plants are low in mitochondria.
Ribosomes:
Composed of RNA and protein.
Function in protein synthesis translation of mRNA into a specific sequence of amino acids.
Chloroplast
Photosynthesis is the major function of the chloroplast.
The light stage takes place in the green internal membranes.
The dark stage occurs in liquid part of the chloroplast.
Starch may be stored in the chloroplast

Large Plant Cell Vacuole
Storage of water, food (sugar, amino acids), ions, wastes.
Role in cell elongation during plant growth.
Plant Cell Wall
Composed of cellulose.
Permeable to water and solutes
Protects and supports plant cells.
Prevents plant cells bursting in more dilute solutions.
The middle lamella of pectin glues neighbouring plant cell walls together.
Structural role it is the plant skeleton.
Prokaryotic Cell: no nucleus.
Prokaryotic cells do not have membrane-bound organelles such as nuclei, mitochondria or
chloroplasts.
All prokaryotes are placed in the Kingdom Monera i.e. the bacteria.
Eukaryotic Cell: membrane-bound nucleus is present.
Membrane-bound organelles such as nuclei, mitochondria and chloroplasts are only present in
eukaryotic cells.
The Protista, Fungi, Plants and Animals are eukaryotic organisms
Cell Co-operation
Tissue: a group of structurally similar cells carrying out a particular function.
Organ: a group of different tissues working together performing a specific job.
Organ System: a group of different organs operating together carrying out a definite task.
Plant Tissues: dermal, ground, meristematic, vascular (xylem, phloem).
Animal Tissues: connective, nervous, adipose, muscular.
Plant Organs: root, stem, leaf.
Animal Organs: skin, heart, liver, kidney.
Animal Organ Systems: circulatory, nervous, endocrine, reproductive.




Enzymes
Proteins that function as biological catalysts are called enzymes.
Enzymes speed up specific metabolic reactions.
Low contamination, low temperature and fast metabolism are only possible with enzymes.
Metabolism is fast, with the product made to a high degree of purity.

General Properties
Catalysts
Protein
Specific
Reversible can catalyse the reaction in both directions
Denatured by high temperature and change in pH
Rate of action affected by temperature and pH
Protein Nature of Enzymes
Composed of C, H, O and N. Sulphur (S) may also be present.
One or more polypetide chains - large number of linked amino acids.
Formed by the ribosomes translation of mRNA during protein synthesis.
Denatured by high temperature and unfavourable pH.
Folded Shape of Enzymes
The polypeptide chains are folded into a particular three-dimensional shape.
The correct folded shape is essential for enzyme action.
The shape gives the enzyme special domains that function as active sites.
The compatible substrate molecules bind to the active site.
Different enzymes have a differently shaped active site.
Roles of Enzymes in Plants and Animals
Enzymes catalyse all metabolic reactions.
Lower the activation energy the energy input needed to bring about the reaction.
Regulate the thousands of different metabolic reactions in a cell and in the organism.
The activity of a cell is determined by which enzymes are active in the cell at that time.
Cell activity is altered by removing specific enzymes and/or synthesising new enzymes.

Active Site Theory
Lock and Key Hypothesis and Induced Fit
The enzymes active site has a shape closely complementary to the substrate The substrate
locks into the active site of the enzyme.
The active site alters its shape holding the substrate more tightly and straining it.
An enzyme-substrate complex is formed.
The substrate undergoes a chemical change a new substance, product, is formed.
The product is released from the active site.
The free unaltered active site is ready to receive fresh substrate.

Native Enzyme: an enzyme that can function normally because its active site has the correct shape.
Denatured Enzyme: an enzyme that cannot operate because the shape of its active site is altered
and so the substrate cannot combine with it change in shape resulting in loss of biological function.
Renatured Enzyme: the denatured enzyme has recovered it shape and function when the
temperature and/or pH are again favourable.

Factors Affecting Enzyme Action
Enzyme action occurs when the enzyme and substrate collide.
During the collision the substrate slots into the active site of the enzyme.
Collisions happen because of the rapid random movement of molecules in liquids.
Temperature
at 0C enzyme action is low because the movement of molecules is low
the collision frequency between enzyme and substrate is therefore low
increasing the temperature speed up the movement of molecules
collision frequency increases raising the collision frequency
therefore enzyme action increases
maximum enzyme action at 40C - maximum collision frequency between native enzymes
and substrates
enzyme action decreases above 40C because the enzymes are denaturing
when all the enzymes are denatured enzyme action stops
pH
enzyme action is greatest within a narrow range of pH, because
all the enzymes are in their native state
increased acidity or alkalinity decreases the ability of the substrates to bind to the active site
and so enzyme action decreases
a major pH change denatures the enzymes so enzyme action stops

Optimum Enzyme Activity
Enzymes function best within a narrow range of temperature and pH.
Human intracellular enzymes work best at 37C and pH 7.

Bioprocessing
Bioprocessing is the use of biological materials (organisms, cells, organelles, enzymes) to carry out
manufacturing or treatment prodedures of commercial or scientific interest.
Examples of Bioprocessing with Enzymes:
Glucose Isomerase: production of fructose from glucose.
Sucrase: production of glucose and fructose from sucrose.
Immobilised enzymes are not free in solution for example they cam be held in a bead of soft
permeable gel or coat the internal surface of a porous solid.
Teztbook Diagram: Bioreactor Setup.
Bioprocessing Procedure
Bioprocessing with immobilised enzymes is carried out in a bioreactor.
The gel beads, with the immobilised enzymes, are held in suspension in the nutrient
medium.
The bioreactor is sterile micro-organisms would have a major negative impact.
Temperature, pH, substrate and product concentration and waste level are checked
constantly.
The product can be produced by continuous flow or batch processing.
Advantages of Immobilised Enzymes
Easier purification of the product as the separation of the enzyme beads is not a problem.
Easy to recover and recycle the enzymes more economical process.
It is cheap.




















The Characteristics Of Life
Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions in an organisim
o E.g. A teenager has a high metabolisim therefore can eat a lot and not gain weight
The continuity of life- means that life can arise only from living things of the same type.
Life- is defined as the possession of all the characteristics of living things.
Organisation
Nutrition
Excretion(is the removal of waste products of a metabolism from the body) urea, salt +
water.
Response
Reproduction
Areas Of Biology:
Botany- the study of plants
Cytology- study of cells
Taxonomy-study of classification (putting animals into group)
Anatomy- study of body parts
Physiology-working parts of all the body
Zoology-the study of animals
Genetics-the study of inheritance
Ecology-plants and animals and how they react in their environment
Microbiology-small (microscope) living things
Bacteriology-bacteria
Mycology- fungi
Virology- study of viruses