Sociology paper-2 Revision Notes

Chapter 1- Indian Thinkers

AR Desai- Marxist- Stdent o! "hrye- Social #ackgrond o! Indian Nationalis$-
historical as %ell as dialectical approach&
're colonial( )edal Syste$ di!!erent !ro$ *ropean- Cooperative !edalis$- state %as
taking tax %ithot any $easres !or the develop$ent o! it&
Colonial( +a$indari syste$- trade $onopoly- destrction o! SSI and artisans&
'ost Colonial( "reen Revoltion-'RIs-landlessness and Naxalite $ove$ent-'olicies in
interests o! the rich indstrial hoses-12 !a$ilies and ,-. o! the indstries&
Criticis$- MN Srinivas Naxalis$ started dring co$$nist govern$ent o! /engal-
Stdied only $odes o! prodction0 ignoring edcation0 cltre0 ideology etc- MS "ore
'ost colonial periods Cooperatives have redced poverty- SC D#ey on co$$nity
progra$$es- 1 Singh said Desai directly didnt se Marxis$ ideas0 gave a plat!or$ !or
stdy o! Indian society&
MN Srinivas- Strctral )nctionalist #y his teacher AR /ro%n- Stdent o! "hrye- !ield
%ork strongly against #ook vie%- !onder o! strctral approach in India- got to !ield0 do
e$pirical stdy&
Caste syste$-s# caste and s# s# caste syste$-re2ected 3arna vie% o! caste syste$ #y
D$ont-Rital criteria 4!ood0 langage0 speech etc5 and Seclar Criteria 4edcation0
%ealth0 po%er5- *arlier rital %as i$portant0 advent o! !oreigners Seclar #eca$e
i$portant- D$ont %as telling village %as a $yth and caste is the reality0 #t Srinivas
gave i$portant to #oth caste and village- Rital $o#ility via Sanskritisation-
Sanskritisation #eco$es easier %hen they i$prove their position in the seclar sphere-
Rise o! Do$inant Caste- 6and Re!or$s 'RIs- "reen revoltion- A"7R 4Ahir0 "22ar0
7ats0 Ra2pts5&
3illage syste$- Critical a#ot Marx vie% o! sel! s!!icient little rep#lic- Critical a#ot
D$ont vie% o! village is a geographical territory- Srinivas talked a#ot village
exoga$y-niting dring !estivals-niting against external aggression- going across
villages !or needs and co$$erce- village as identity- caste divides0 village nites&
Strctre o! 2oint !a$ily- Srinivas distingishes #et%een 2oint hosehold and 2oint
!a$ily- AR Desai vie%ed rise o! nclear !a$ily in r#an centres as rise o! capitalis$-
Srinivas told that in so called nclear !a$ily 2ointness is still present- dring child #irth
elders are invited either !ro$ hs#ands side or !ro$ %i!es side- decisions are taken in
nclear !a$ily a!ter consltation !ro$ the 2oint !a$ily-2oint hosehold is #reaking do%n
#t not the spirit o! 2ointness&
Social Changes- 8esternisation-19- years o! /ritish rle- rail%ays0 press0 radio0
television0 $odern technologies- Ne%s paper glori!ying caste syste$ via $atri$onial
col$ns- Te$ples are collective gathering !or %here politics and econo$ics are
discssed-#alance #et%een *ropean $odernity and tradition&
"S "hrye- Indology- Stdy o! Indian society sing religios texts0 Indian art0
architectre0 !olklores0 legends0 $yths :se o! Sanskrit text Stdent o! 'ro! Rivers-
Method o! di!!sion&
Caste Syste$- Caste and Race in India Method o! di!!sion he doesnt glori!y caste or
conde$n caste- he told caste is prodct o! Indian cltre- Caste co$es throgh advent o!
Aryans- In Aryans ti$e it %as #ased on Do6- #t no concept o! Sperior or In!erior-
'riests and travellers glori!ied caste and it spreaded to soth India-; characteristics o!
caste syste$- seg$entation-hierarchy- civil and religios disa#ilities and privileges
restricted occpation- restriction on !ood4o!!ering cooked !ood0 ra% ite$s etc5-
endoga$y- <nce caste %as #inding0 no% it is polarising society- /rah$inic do$ination-
Caste is not static- D$onts vie%s also sa$e as "hrye /rah$inical spre$acy- Srinivas
criticised the /rah$inical vie%&
Tri#es- tri#al deities sa$e as =ind deities- Ani$is$0 tote$is$ and natralis$ present in
Indian society- tri#es are #ack%ard =inds as they are slo%ly adopting =ind cltre-
"hrye criticised *lvins approach o! isolationis$&
'ro! 3engopal The content o! sociology is changing %o$ens isses0 environ$ental
isses0 social protests0 glo#alisation etc- %hich is a%ay !ro$ the traditional Indian
sociology approach- stdy o! caste0 !a$ily0 $arriage etc&
D$ont- 8estern sociological concepts cant #e directly applied to stdy Indian
sociology& Indian society is di!!erent> an ethno centric approach is needed to specially
stdy a#ot Indian society in great detail&
2-Social #ackgrond o! Indian nationalis$
*arly 1?th senctry-cltral a%akening-re!or$ $ove$ents against orthodoxy-!ondation
o! nationalis$&
1,,9 to 1?-9-INC !or$ation-progress o! nationalis$&
1?-9 to 1?1,-extre$ist phase-lal #al pal era- violent revoltion- spirited nationalis$
1?1, to 1?@A- era o! "andhi- #orgeois and $iddle class-peasant class cha$paran0
kheda0 #ardoli &
A!ter 1?@A-All sections inclded- nationalis$ at its peak- independence
Internal colonialis$ replaced external colonialis$
'artha Chatter2ee- no link #et%een people and nationalis$- people %ere sed !or the
interest o! the elites&
Theosophical society- Not only Sanskrit is $other o! all langages- Indian cltre is
$other o! all cltres&
3ivekananda- Indian cltre has soltions !or all the pro#le$s o! the %orld&
Ra2ara$ Mohan Roy- Indian cltre-degradation #y dog$as and !alse #elieves- %elco$e
/ritish- to $odernsise it&
Rightist- Sanskritik cltre- ni!ication across diversities&
"andhi2i-%anted a ni!ied nationalis$-not a hind $sli$ nationalis$- love #rotherhood
a$ong people o! all sections&
"rassroot develop$ent is the need- decentralised $ove$ents !or their needs and
de$ands- to acco$odate Indian nationalis$&
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Modernisation o! Indian tradition
*ropean $odernity- ideal !or the %orld-renaissance-art o! Bestioning and enBiry-
seclaris$ in *rope&
*dcation- seclar- li#erated !ro$ chrch do$ination&
3ale trans!or$ation- political sovereignty- eBality-!raternity-de$ocracy
Nehr-glori!ied Indian $odernity- rral r#an devide in indian $odernity
India-selective $odernity-*rope-a#solte $odernity
"andhi2i- not a sy$#ol o! $odernity- varna syste$ #t not #ased on #irth- #elieved in
hindis$ #t #elieved in eBality&
'eter /erger- $odernity-cancer-thro%s people ot o! contry-alien in other places-
con!sion a$ong $asses-social hopelessness a$ong the ne% generations&
Anthony "iddens- $odernity has glori!ied #orgeois capitalist interest&
Nehrvian era to 6'" era-$odernity in India&
/ritish era $odernity- /engal intelletcal capital- Delhi political capital-/o$#ay
econo$ic capital&
Tradition and $odernity in dialectical relationship- can $odernity e!!ect is sa$e across
traditions-can $odernity and tradition share sa$e set o! attri#tes&
Modernity is not endoga$os to India-a *ropean concept&
'eter 8orsley- $odernity and sociology relationships- sociology ot o! $odernity-
sociology also Bestions $odernity- dyna$ic and dialectical relationships&
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Modernity in *rope
Cele#ration phase-Bestioning phase-re2ection phase
Si$on0Co$te0Spencer0Marx08e#er0'arson- cele#rated $odernity !or di!! reasons&
I$$anel Cant- $odernity spirit o! h$an reason-a%ay !ro$
dog$as0sperstitions0$yths&
Co$te and Spenser- $odernity-indstrialistion-e$otions0ritalis$ and orthodoxy are
replaced #y la%0rationality0gro%th0technological develop$ent and rise o! inclsive
society&
Modernity-cant #e said as good or #ad- $odernity gives rise to indstrialisation-
controlled #y capitalist class-alienation o! %orking class- state shold take control o! it
!or eBity and happiness o! the $asses&
8e#er-$odernity-rise o! rational legal athorit&
'arson and Drkhi$e- $odernity-technocratic division o! la#or-social integration-
chances o! $o#ility&
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A!ter !irst 88- $odernity %as Bestioned- ar$ed race&
'eter 8orsley and Anthoney "iddens- $odernity do#le edged %eapons- econo$ic
develop$ent vs ho$elessness0 disillsion$ent and dependency- in recent ti$es re#ellion
against $odernity is starting as ne% social $ove$ents&
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Modernity and tradition in India
/ritish 2sti!ied colonial rle saying- they can li#erate people !ro$ ncivilised society to
advance$ent and $orality- =ence early re!or$ leaders accepted %estern thoghts to
$odernise India&
1ogendra Singh- /rah$o Sa$a2- !irst step to%ards $odernity-Arya Sa$a2 took #lend o!
$odernity and tradition&
A#hi2it 'athak- Indian intelligentia accepted $odernity %ith scepticis$-!ro$ Dayanand
Saras%ati to "andhi and Nehr Anglo Sanksritik edcation&
3ivekananda and Aro#inda "hosh- Connectivity #et%een Indian and %estern vales&
/anki$ Chndra and Ra$ Mohan- glori!ied teachngs o! :panishads&
Tilak sed rital !estivals !or political ni!ication&
"andhi also sed religios nity not political nity&
MN Srinivas in his analysis o! %esternisation and social change in India& =e considers
$odernisation is a vale loaded concept #ecase it is generally perceived as anything
$odern is necessarily good& =e pre!ers to se %esternisation as against $odernisation to
nderstand social change in India advocating 19- years o! /ritish rle has reslted into
technological changes0 instittional changes and vale trans!or$ation in Indian society&
=o%ever these changes are selective0 optional than #eing co$pletely %holeso$e& =e
gave the exa$ple o! $odern technologies like printing press0 telephopnes0 ne%spapers
and other agencies o! $ass $edia to i$ply ho% they glori!ied traditional vales %ithot
co$pro$ising their $odern desira#le roles& There!ore tradition and $odernity are
$tally coexistant and India and one canDt replace otrightly the other& The Indian
$odernity selective0 pre!erential and partial $odernity&
1ogendra Singh- highly !orce!l to dis$antle tradition- #ook E$odernisation o! Indian
traditionE- la%s like a#olition o! child $arriage act0 a#olition o! Sati0 =ind $arriage act0
=ind adoption and $aintenance act enor$osly in!lenced the stats o! %o$en in India&
8o$en in traditional Indian society didnDt have right over their !a$ily0 children0property0
right to divorce that has no% #een granted to the$& =ence sel!-assrance to %o$en0
respect to their dignity and eBality can #e considered as i$pact o! $odernity in India&
Modernity-technology-indstry-agrictre-$assive e$ploy$ent opprtnity-occpational
$o#ility& /t the #ene!its hav not #een reached to all section o! society&
1ogendra Singh- $odernity- co$petitive character a$ong all the stake holders& 'olitical
$odernity- de$ocracy- political parties- constittional rles- citiFenship-acceleration o!
p#lic participation in de$ocratic process- traditional do$ination o! selective #odies has
gone- peasants0 !actory %orkers0vrral people are de$and $o#ility and political
po%er&Traditional vales are verge o! extinction- MS "ore and SC D#ey spported
Singhs vie%&
TN Madan %rites that people %ho accepted $odernity have closed $ind as co$pared to
those %ho donDt go !or $odernity and have open $ind as they Bestion $odernity&
State and religion- Indian constittion prea$#le says seclar- /t social li!e in!lenced
#y religion- e&g !ood also has cltral i$plication- veg or non veg&
=il!erding Rdol!- selective $odernity- "R as a sy$o#l o! $odernity- #t #ene!iciaries
o! $odernity are going !or political do$ination %ithot !orgetting tradition and caste-
There!ore Indian $odernity is Indian in character %herein Andre /eteille tells that Ecaste
old is replaced #y caste ne%&
/R A$#edkar indicated that $odernity shold #e niversalistic in character& Its #ene!it
shold not #e pocketed #y !e% people there!ore reservation is essential !or nprotected
people !or a long period o! ti$e& To $ake $odernity in!lential in India one shold #e
allo%ed to choose his o%n caste& =e %as allergic to =indis$ and Christianity #t he too
%anted religion "andhi2i %anted =indis$ and A$#edkar %anted /ddhis$& They #oth
%anted tradition and $odernity 2xtaposition #t ho%0 it di!!ered&
Dr A$#edkar #elieved that since the #ene!its o! $odernity is not reaching the
$arginalised section they have the right to re#el&
)e$inist vie% on $odernity points ot that %o$en are t%isted #et%een o!!icial and
do$estic de$ands& Sexal harass$ent and exploitation at place o! %ork0 neBal pay !or
eBal %ork etc&
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'rotests and Social re!or$ $ove$ents in colonial period
'rotest-peoples desire to change- $ay not #ring change-gives a sense o! satis!action- not
accidental- driven #y ideology and interest- %hen it is driven #y ideology0 #eco$es
sstaina#le- o!!ers !ondation to social $ove$ents&
6i#eral sociologist- protest can #e $lti di$ensional- political 0 cltral0 econo$ic and
social&
Ra$chandra "ha considers protest is $ani!ested in di!!erent !or$s like
'radarshan0Rasta Roko007al Sa$adhi0 )ast nto Death4 recent Anna =aFares protest50
"herao etc&
Sociologist say a#ot protest- $ani!estation o! 'eopleDs 'o%er %ho are dissatis!ied %ith
the policies0 progra$$es and sy$#olic !or$ o! cltral do$ination introdced either #y
do$inant class or #y the state&
=ind re!or$ progra$$e-2 ai$s- hind nity- to prove that eBality and inclsiveness in
the hind cltre-Arya Sa$a2 $ove$ent- Theosophical $ove$ent or Sddhi $ove$ent-
/rah$o sa$a2 $ove$ent taken p #y Ra$akrishna $ission&
Arya Sa$a2 $ove$ent- 3edas shold #e considered sacred-nity o! !aith a$ong all
=inds-a#andon caste syste$0 pilgri$s visit0 ntocha#ility and glori!y idea o! prity o!
sol and pro$ote !raternity- eli$inate attri#tes o! polytheis$0 ritalis$0 /rah$inic
spre$acy0 sectarian division&
once 3arna %as greatly #ased pon its Balities and capa#ilities than on the #asis o! #irth&
This $ove$ent !ascinated a large #ody o! Shdras in case o! North India to go !or
Sanskritisation and challenge /rah$inic $onopoly& rise o! 7ats in North India can #e
attri#ted to the
i$pact o! Arya Sa$a2 $ove$ent& spported #y 6ala 6a2pat Rai&
Arya Sa$a2ists accelerated Sddhi $ove$ent- encoraged the converts to revert #ack
into the !old o! =ind co$$nity& glori!ication o! =ind cltre-!ondation o! nationalist
$ove$ent in India&
Theosophical society driven #y ideology o! Max Mller perceived that =ind cltral
tradition is #oth niBe and ancient& glori!ied the teachings o! /hag%at "ita0 3edas0
:panishads and indicated =ind theological doctrine are analytical and logical and
there!ore it cold o!!er a soltion to all the pro#le$s o! the %orld&
/rah$o Sa$a2 Move$ent- 6i#eral cltral $ove$ent- $ore dyna$ic and inclsive than
arya sa$a2 $ove$ent- e$phasised on %o$en e$po%er$ent0 li#eral edcation0 seclar
vales and challenged the caste syste$ 0/rah$inic orthodoxy and =ind religion in
totality- #orro%ed ideas !ro$ :panishads &
Strong link #et%een /rah$o Sa$a2 and Ra$krishna $ission-as they talk a#ot seclar
vales0 nity o! "od0 :niversality o! trth0 !raternity a$ong people #elonging to di!!erent
religios !aith& No political agenda like !ighting %ar against /ritish& It e$phasised on
creation o! $issionaries and provided a plat!or$ !or glori!ication o! religios tolerance0
$issionaries activities& It opened pschools and colleges- salvation only throgh
kno%ledge&
All the three- Arya Sa$a2-/rah$o Sa$a2-Ra$krishna Mission- initiated #y pper-class0
pper caste Indians to #ring re!or$s in =ind society preaching thet there sholdnDt #e
hierarchical social order and that society can #e trans!or$ed into egalitarian
syste$&Critics- all these started #y pper caste and class people-no in!lence on the
$asses- their ideas %ere not nderstood #y $asses&
"hanashya$ Saha- distinction #et%een cltre and class $ove$ent- re!or$ $ove$ents
%anted changes in the syste$- peasant $ove$ent %anted change o! the syste$&
1ogendra Singh- Re!or$s $ove$ents indications !or Best !or $odernity-they %ere
driven #y high caste and class people-so $odernity in india pri$arily enter throgh pper
caste and pper class&
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S#altern Re!or$ $ove$ents
Satya Sodhak Sa$a2- 7yoti#a 'hle-M=- glori!ied the ideology that indigenos rlers o!
India #elong to Shdra co$$nity- %ith the advent o! Aryans into North India and
s#seBently their conBest over the other parts o! the contry in2ected caste syste$s into
traditional egalitarian society- Caste identity0 variation in occpations #ased pon caste
divided the Shdras %ho %ere historically eBal-The Shdras in their o%n soil0 !orgetting
their o%n cltre started !ighting %ar %ith each other-people started evalating their
stats %ith re!erence to /rah$inic ideas0 practices and the concept o! 'aap 'nya -
7yoti#a 'hle %anted all the non-/rah$ins o! 8est India to develop a ne%!ond identity
o! /ah2an and stand ni!ied together against =ind cltre0 /rah$inic orthodoxy- =e
gave a ne% identity to all the non-/rah$ins o! Maharashtra as Marathas- There!ore the
rise o! Maratha consciosness as against /rah$inic consciosness is a $ani!estation o!
s#altern cltral protest&
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Sel!-Respect $ove$ent- * 3 Ra$asa$y Naicker- Ta$il Nad- encorage nity a$ong
all the non-/rah$ins o! Soth India indicating that Soth Indian cltre is ancient0
niBe and endogenos-Caste is pathological ele$ent introdced into egalitarian sort
Indian society- encorage the non-/rah$ins to go !or edcation-s$all !a$ily na$es-stay
a%ay !ro$ spirital activities-co$$it onesel! to intensive econo$ic activities-=e asked
people to glori!y their sel!-identity- rather than to #e te$pted #y Sanskritisation and
added reservation in provincial asse$#lies on the #asis o! caste&
8ith the e!!ect o! SRM- !ro$ 1?2-- people !orgetting intercaste di!!erences- took the
state po%er- nder Dravidian $ove$ent- Dring this $ove$ent anti-/rah$inic0 anti
Sanskritic0 anti =ind and anti-North Indian senti$ents got $o$ent$&
This $ove$ent cannot #e considered as secessionist $ove$ent #ecase it %as a 'rotest
against an alien cltre en!orced pon the indigenos co$$nity& 8hen "S "hrye
considers this $ove$ent as secessionist MS Rao call this $ove$ent as reactionary
re!lexive $ove$ent&
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SND' Move$ent- Sri Narayan Dhar$a 'aripalana- Narayan "r- Cerala- protest
against the /rah$in in Cerala- asking the non /rah$ins and non Nair caste to stand
ni!ied- parallel schools and te$ples !or lo%er caste in %hich priests and teachers %ere
#elonging to lo%er caste origin- indicated that /rah$inic spre$acy is a prodct o! the
access to edcation- I! non-/rah$ins !ollo% this seclar standard then they %ill #e never
s#ded to /rah$ins&
The s#altern $ove$ent o!!ered !ondation to Dr A$#edkar to search !or 2stice and
eBality !orthe Dalits in India& A$#edkar re2ected Man S$riti- =e institted 7at-'at-
Todak Mandal- #elieved that one cannot get 2stice and eBality staying %ithin the
!ra$e%ork o! caste and =indis$- =ence he encoraged conversion into the !old o!
/ddhis$- =e #elieved that historic discri$ination associated %ith the$ cannot #e
addressed #y social re!or$s - =ence he sggested constittional garantee !or !reedo$0
li#erty and eBality !or the Dalit co$$nity in India&
Social re!or$ $ove$ents- !irst started #y pper caste and class grops sch as- Arya
sa$a2 $ove$ent- /rah$o Sa$a2 $ove$ent- Ra$akrishna $ission& Then started the
s#altern $ove$ents sch as Satya sodhak sa$a20 Sel! respect $ove$ent- SND'
$ove$ent&
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'easant $ove$ents
1,9G to 1?2--series o! peasant $ove$ents- sense o! integration ctting across their
religios caste and langage- Reasons( a#sentee landlordis$- nathorised Fa$indars-
!orced eviction o! peasants !ro$ the land on non-pay$ent o! land revens- land tenr
syste$ introdced #y /ritish- high interest rates !or seasonal peasant loans- no
i$prove$ents in conditions o! agricltre- #rtality o! police and private ar$y o land
lords- no e!!ective $easres to protect peasants !ro$ natral cala$ities&
*ka $ove$ent-Moplah re#ellion- Cha$paran- Cheda Satyagraha- protest against the
exploitative colonial polices&
'easant $ove$ent-!ondation o! Cisan Sa#ha&
/y 1?@-s- All India Cisan Sa#ha- all India presence- #rning tax records-attacked police-
engaged %ith %ar against private ar$y o! landlords- gives a plat!or$ !or the coalition !or
di!!erent grops o! Indian poplation- Reslted coordination #et%een landlords-peasants-
intelligentia-and indian $asses- gives plat!or$ !or Nationalist $ove$ent in India&
'easant $ove$ent %as not restricted in the heartlands- /irsa Mnda $ove$ent- Santhal
re#ellion- Coel prising- got $o$ent$ in central part o! India&
AR Desai 'easant $ove$ent #roke do%n the lingistic0regional0 tri#al-caste division
a$ong the people o! India in2ecting into the$ a co$$on class consciosness& Colonial
land revene policy o! capitalist interest a!!ected indian peasants $ore than proletrait
class o! Capitalist /ritain&Class consciosness in India glori!ied natinalis$&
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@-Idea o! Indian 3illage and village stdies
G-. poplation in 9 6akhs villages dependent on Agricltre- cltral nit-
conte$porary political nit
Mghals- s$allest ad$inistrative nits
/ritishers- +a$indari syste$ etc little rep#lics&
"andhi2i India lives in villages one cant i$agine !reedo$ $ove$ent %ithot Indian
villages taking part in it& Marx and "andhi- 're-developed econo$y #ecase pri$itive
techniBes e$ployed&
Andre /eteille- Siripra$ 3illage- near Tan2avr Ta$il Nad villages are not driven #y
caste alone0 class and po%er has also to #e considered& =e criticised /ritish vie% that
villages are closed society- he told h$an #y natre appreciate change- so people in
villages are also responding to change #y at a slo%er rate& /ritishs ar#itrary policies0 still
villages adopted the$ and colonialis$ sstained in India0 else it %old have #een thro%n
ot&
MN Srinivas- Ra$pra village- rise o! seclar do$ination over rital do$ination in
village&
MS Rao- 1adavpr- econo$ic a!!lence- sel! con!idence to 1adavs- po%er!l in politics&
The little rep#lics theory %as discarded #y MN Srinivas and AM Shah in their !a$os
article Myth o! sel! s!!iciency- village exoga$y- the incidence o! !oreign trade
doc$ented in Indian history expose village into the oter %orld- specialised $arkets
like cattle $arkets etc or haats- political net%ork via caste concils or local concils little
rep#lic concept %as colonial #ias- 'RIs have exposed 3illages&
Milton Singer and Mcki$ Marriott- re2ection o! sel! s!!iciency concept- graveyards
/ar#ers and /rah$ins !ro$ near#y villages&
SC D#ey- Against sel! s!!icient concept- Indian local cltres $ove into larger
societies- Sniya started in a village #eca$e Rakshya /andhan all over India- dance0
dra$a0 langage $ove in a circlar !ashion&
Mcki$ Mariott- Concept o! niversalisation-cltral co$$nication #et%een village and
larger co$$nity- green revoltion peasant political party- village to national politics&
6and #inds the village- $yth o! Marx and other /ritish sociologists- 6and otside the
2risdiction o! the village&
Agrarian Social strcctre evoltion o! land tenre syste$
Scarlett *pstein- i$apct o! irrigation pro2ect and green revoltion 2 soth indian villages-
relation #et%een landholdings and caste&
Cathleen "agh- C$#apetta village- Agrarian $odernity has consolidated class division
#ig #orgeois0 rich !ar$ers0 petty #orgeois0 se$i proletraiat0 pre proletariat&
Daniel Thorner- green revoltion and land re!or$s did not help the poor- linkage #et%een
caste and class in agrarian India- capitalist agricltre- Malik4pper caste50 Cisan4$iddle
caste50 $aFdoor4lo%er caste5&
Colonial 6and tenre syste$- +a$indari-Ryot%ari-Mahal%ari- exploitation #y /ritish-
ignorance a$ong people aggreavated the sitation-poverty&
)orce!l cash crop cltivation-*cono$ic interest #y /ritish- destrction o! artisan
indstry- srpls la#or !or agricltre- /ritish exploited&
Moplah re#ellion-Cheda Satyagraha- Cha$paran satyagraha- /ardoli $ove$ent- Cisan
sa#ha $ove$ent&
I$apct o! tenre syste$ (
"andhian- relation #et%een land lords and peasants- they shold co$e together and give
extra lands to the land less peasant&
Nationalist- State shold take the responsi#ility to i$prove agricltre via cheap loans0
credit0 edcation etc&
Marxian-State shold not take steps in re!or$ing the land& 'easants shold sel! $o#ilise
the$selves and carry ar$s and they shold go !or naxalite $ove$ent& 8/ and Cerala
land re!or$s %as sccess!l de to co$$nist govt&
I$plication o! land re!or$s o! syste$(
A!ter 2- years o! i$ple$entation o! land re!or$s- no change in landholdings o! the pper
class- strong link #et%een caste and class- develop$ent o! capitalist agricltre&
/ena$i trans!ers spported #y state ad$inistration- claste and class strong nexs-
pri$ary sorce ineBality&
"S /halla and "C Chadha- stdy on i$pact o! green revoltion in 2- villages o! 'n2a#-
#oth 6R or "R have not helped land less and poor !ar$ers- the #ene!its o! "R and 6R
pocketed #y rich !ar$ers %ho have control over seed cooperatives0 credit cooperatives
and irrigation cooperatives&
IneBalities $ass $ove$ents- $aoist $ove$ents and naxal $ove$ents- rral
develop$ent progra$$es shold #e reoriented to address the isses o! poor&
Social ConseBences o! 6R
/ho$iars o! /ihar 7ats o! =aryana and 'n2a#- e$erged as do$inant class- $ore
ineBality and $ore polarisation&
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------
A-Caste Syste$
Special type o! social strati!ication !ond in India-Caste has its origin !ro$ a Spanish
%ord Casta $eans #read0 race or a co$plex o! hereditary Balities&
Anderson and 'arker- Caste is that extre$e !or$ o! class organisation in %hich the
position o! individals in the stats hierarchy is deter$ined #y descent and #irth&
"hrye- Despite all e!!orts #y stdents0 %e dont have a de!inition o! caste&
3arna theory - /rah$in0 Cshyatriya0 3aishya0 Shdras- <ccpation theory-Race theory
etc&
MN Srinivas- Caste and 3arna theory- A varnas and thosands o! castes& 3arna considers
each 3arna as ni!ied grops0 #t there %ere s#divisions- 3arna provides an ideological
!ra$e%ork and econo$ic perspectives&
Caste Mo#ility "hrye and /ritishers gave an ideological vie% on caste0 Srinivas %anted
to li#erate caste !ro$ an ideological point o! vie%- dyna$ic natre o! caste- #ook caste in
$odern India and Social change in India- polltion %as the o#strction in caste $o#ility-
polltion is contagios0 #t prity is non-trans!era#le&
Caste $o#ility has passed @ di!!erent phases- Search !or rital $o#ility0 seclar $o#ility
as a $edi$ !or rital $o#ility0 seclar $o#ility an end in itsel!& 1& Non-/rah$ins o!
soth India $igrated to Tir$ala hills started operating as priests and #eca$e /rah$ins&
2& Nairs o! Cerala and Cayasthas o! /ihar #y the patronage o! Mghals got property and
po%er0 and sed those !or their rital $o#ility& =e !ond ot that Cings grace and socio-
cltral contact has raised the stats o! 7ats and 6ingayats- Atte$pt o! caste $o#ility has
given rise to intra-caste con!licts&
Caste $o#ility is not an easy pheno$enon like class $o#ility& Caste $o#ility is related to
Sanskritisation&
Do$inant Caste- Stdy o! Ra$pr 3illage- $ltiple !or$s o! do$inance- 7ats do$inate
econo$ic sphere- Ra2pts in political sphere- /rha$ins in rital sphere- class $o#ility is
giving rise to caste consciosness- social distance a$ong caste grops is #eco$ing !lid-
intra caste and inter caste con!licts are on a rise- i$pact o! caste $o#ility is not ni!or$
across the contry&
Srinivas contradicted %ith 1ogendra Singh and said class is not replacing caste&
)tre o! Caste syste$ in India - =e explained this in his #ook Do$inant Caste and 2-th
Centry- Ne% avatar o! caste& Caste consolidation a!ter 1?G-- green revoltion0
cooperatives0 'RIs0 +a$indari a#olition act- a large #ody o! non-/rah$ins and non-
ntocha#les have evolved into do$inant caste-do$inant in econo$ic and political
sphere- no longer interested in Sanskritisation and !ocsing their attention on
seclarisation- 6ingayats and 3okalingayats o! Carnataka0 Reddys in A'0 1adavs in :'0
/h$iars in /ihar- $odern edcation0 r#an living0 rral develop$ent progra$$es0
in!lential in political spheres0 o%n political parties or part o! $a2or political parties-they
are identi!ied as </Cs&
"hanashya$ Shah extended the concept o! do$inant caste& Do$inant caste- po%er
politics& Caste %as i$portant in past !or rital reasons- i$portant in present !or seclar
reasons& Caste-India is not #eing replaced #y Class-India& 'eople se #oth class and caste
identity depending on the sitation&
Srinivas pointed ot that caste is taking di!!erent !or$s in all spheres o! society #e it
political0 econo$ic or social0 So i$agining India %ithot caste $ay #e a constittional
vision #t not an e$pirical reality&
6ois D$ont- =o$o =ierarchies Concept o! prity and polltion- !ollo%ed strctral
theory- told %estern theories cant #e applied to stdy Indian society- Caste is a synthesis
o! text and context- strctralists dont stdy the %hole reality0 they take speci!ic reality&
=e took ideas !ro$ %ritings o! *$ile Drkhi$e and =egels&
<ccpational Specialisation- *xclsivity o! /rah$inic position- Social di!!erence a$ong
di!!erent castes& <ccpation depends on cltral prescription rather econo$ic
consideration& *very caste is evolving keeping /rah$ins as re!erence caste&
'rity and 'olltion Things0 #eings and 'heno$ena- "anga %ater0 people and ani$al-
Sanskrit kno%ledge& According to D$ont0 prity and polltion are the ideas %hich gide
peoples actions&
Caste is a syste$ o! ideas and vales This is !or$al0 co$prehensi#le and rational syste$&
=e stdied caste !ro$ ideological perspective sing classical texts and historical
exa$ples- *thno Sociological approach-Caste is not going to die- as it is #ased on
consciosness&
Criticis$s( No $ention a#ot politics a#ot caste0 over loaded %ith cltral aspect o!
caste& /rah$inic exclsivity- Ne% Mans$riti- 'rity and polltion is a #ook vie%
7onathan 'erry talked a#ot non-/rah$in sadhs and saints- Andre /eteille pointed ot
di!!erences a$ong /rah$ins and con!licts a$ong the$0 considering the$ as ni!ied and
pre is a $yth& Dipankar "pta non-/rah$inic reactions is not driven #y respect- 7ats
consider /rah$ins as inaspicios-contradiction to D$onts theory- Sanskritisation is
not ot o! respect0 #t a !or$ o! protest&
/eteilles criticis$ to D$ont- D$ont called *ropean society as =o$oeBalis0 despite
presence o! 'ope do$ination- =o$ohierarchics in case o! India0 /rah$inic do$ination&
=ierarchy %ill exist #t not on only caste rather property0 %ealth0 political po%er etc&
D$ont %as concerned a#ot only one hierarchy- caste hierarchy& /eteille gives another
vie% o! ineBality- reprodction o! occpation in conte$porary India like teachers
children teacher0 doctors children doctor etc& Nationalist $ove$ents0 SND' $ove$ents
tried to pli!t the stats o! i$pre classes-D$ont %as silent on this type o! social
change&
D$ont-*thno sociological $atter- ans%er to the Bestion %hy caste is persistent- a
prodct o! consciosness #ondage o! =ind-cltral consciosness&
Andre /eteille on Caste- India cant #e stdied !ro$ the stand point o! caste only- D'
Mkher2ee0 "hrye0 Srinivas derived all ineBalities in society into caste- 6inked
/hadralok in /engal0 /angerposhi in /ihar0 Ashra!ins in "2rat> not #ased on caste #t
respected- $ltiple hierarchies in Indian society- so sociological stdies shold not #e
restricted to caste #ased stdies- /ook vie% highly stereotypical0 !ield vie% highly
$echanical0 there shold #e a #alance #et%een these t%o&
Microscopic vie% on caste- Siripra$ village0 Ta$il Nad0 !ield vie%- #ook class0 caste
and po%er- %e#erian theory o! $ltiple di$ensions o! strati!ication- each hierarchy is
in!lencing other hierarchy- caste hierarchy and class hierarchy- di!!erential political
po%er depends on the political net%ork extends !ro$ village to the capital&
/rah$ins0 Non-/rah$ins and Adi-/rah$ins 4ntocha#les5-#ack%ard class $ove$ents-
8ithin castes0 s#-castes0 s# s# caste0 n$#er o! threads a /rah$in %ear- In case o!
$arriage they search spose !ro$ that particlar s# grop- intra caste di!!erences along
%ith inter caste di!!erences-&
Modernisation0 $odern trade0 e$ploy$ent opportnity introdced class aspect into caste
and s# caste- in case o! $arriage #oth caste and class is #eing considered- people search
spose in s# s# caste0 i! not get search in s# caste0 i! not go !or caste alliance- caste is
changing having #asic strctre intact- /eteille %as against Marxist D' Mkher2ee and
1ogendra Singhs point o! vie% that caste %ill lose its signi!icance&
/ook Caste <ld and Ne% /eteille exa$ined changing natre o! caste- IneBality a$ong
s# caste grops- each grop strive !or econo$ic and political do$ination- Since 1?2-s
non-/rah$ins have consolidated the$selves- have !or$ed political parties like DMC-
/rah$ins have #eco$e r#an #ond selling their land to Non-/rah$ins& A$ong
/rah$ins class di!!erence0 econo$ic or political ter$s etc traditional caste syste$ %as
closed- slo%ly evolving into dyna$ic caste syste$&
/eteilles sociology %as a protest against caste !ocssed society&
:ntocha#ility- Rig 3eda says a#ot achhts or chandals - Social discri$ination is
legiti$ised in Mans$riti di!!erent Sanskrit texts talks a#ot ntocha#ility- "S "hryes
Race and caste in India and 'N 'ra#hs =ind Social <rganisation- "hryes ; points on
caste syste$&
*arly social re!or$ists- Dayanand Saras%ati0 3ivekananda0 /anki$ Chnadra-
di!!erentiate #et%een religion and caste- !or nationalis$ to raise0 ntocha#ility to go&
"andhi2i- My heart #leeds0 Caste $st go0 :ntocha#ility- a cri$e against "od talked
against caste syste$ and ntocha#ility- Caste is perversion o! 3arna- 3arna syste$ on
Do6 and holistic and inclsive and egalitarian- Caste thogh derived !ro$ 3arna divides
the society- =ari2ans- Caste syste$ historic $istake-=is distinction #et%een Caste syste$
and 3arna syste$ and !avoritis$ !or 3arna syste$- =ari2an sevak Sangh- 21 days !ast
against closing o! te$ples !or ntocha#les&
Di!!erent !or$s o! ntocha#ility-!ro$ note #ook&
A$#edkar- ntocha#ility is a $atter o! sel! dignity- !or$ o! satis!ying $aterialistic need
to the higher classes- ideological spport given #y Sa$akhya philosophy- %hich says
people are #orn into t%o categories Sattvic and Ta$asic& Shdras are al%ays #orn into
Ta$asic& A$#edkar advocated !or eBality& Constittion and !nda$ental right against
ntocha#ility&
9-Tri#al co$$nities in India
De!initional 'ro#le$s
*!!orts #y acade$cians- have #een de!ined as grop o! indigenos people- langage-
territory-co$$nity o%nership o! property- traditional ritals-di!!erent csto$s-s$all
siFe-endoga$y-kinship #onds&
Cenneth D /ailey- to de!ine tri#e yo have to consider caste-tri#es egalitarian and not
$tally inter dependent- caste syste$ o! organic solidarity-tri#es have direct access to
land0 no inter$ediaries&
Sinha41?;95 concept o! civilisation- tri#es relatively s#sistence technology- hnting
gathering shi!ting cltivation- egalitarian seg$entary social syste$- gided entirely #y
non literate ethnic tradition&
In India- tri#es are trans!or$ing the$selves into caste syste$- have #eco$e $sli$s and
christians-2oin the rank o! peasantry- %age la#orers in plantation %orks> $ining etc-
changing aspects o! tri#es&
"onds0Santhals0/hils are large in siFe and spread over large territory- /irhors o! /ihar
are in specialised !or$ %ork> #askets $aking etc- Tri#es are in govt 2o#s- so$e nontri#als
are taking p hnting0 gathering activities&
"eographical Spread
,. o! indian poplation- =i$alayan region 7HC0 hi$achal0 :C0 N*- #et%een Nar$ada
and "odavari-<disha0 /ihar0 8/0 7harkhand& In karnataka0TN0CeralaIless poplation&
N*-Arp0MiFoa$0Naga0MeghaI?-. tri#e- Assa$0Tripra0Manipr0Sikki$I2--@-.
tri#e&
6argest partIcentral india&
N*0 sikki$0=i$alayasI "aro0khasi02aintia06apcha0Naga0MiFo0/hotia0thar&
8esternI/hil0Seheria0Mina0 8orli0 "irisia0 Re#ari0 Dang&
CentralIMnda0=o0Santhal0"ond0Condh0Chench0<raon0/h$i20'oro2a&
SohthIToda0 Irla0 /adaga0 'aliyan0Cholanaicken&-pc#it
Island co$$nitiesI 7ara%a0 "reat Anda$anese0 Nico#arese0 Sho$pen0 Sentinnclose&
6ingistic Classi!ication
Astro AsiaticIChasi0Nico#ari0Santhali0=o0Mndari
DriavidianIToda0 Cota0 Ci0 <raon0 Cor%a0 /adaga
Ti#eto chineseI6epcha0Miri0Da!la0"aro0Naga06shai
Indo *ropeanI/hil0 =a2ong
Colonial 'olicies and Tri#es
AR Desai- Colonial policy-syste$atic exploitation o! !orest and $ineral deposits-
throght the se o! tri#al la#or-contractors and $oney lenders-protests %ere rthlessly
spressed-la#eled tri#es as cri$inals e&g Mina Tri#e-De tri#alisation
6a#elling tri#es as cri$inals-killing innocents to crate !ear&
"andhi-rising =ind !nda$entalis$ is against conversion o! tri#als #y $issionary
activities&
Another 3ie%- Missionary activities-enlight$ent !or tri#es-spreading edction-health etc&
/ritish Act o! 1,?1- 'artially seclded area4tri#al poplation at least 9-.50 !lly seclded
area 4tri#al poplation J,-.5-tri#als islands- no otsiders- per$ission needed !or any
activities- lead to distinction #et%een caste society and tri#al society- tri#es considered
caste as their ene$y as Diks4Dacoits5- Colonial rlers per$itted contractors and traders
to exploit-hostility #et%een caste and tri#e& Tri#e-Caste divide lead to secessionist
$ove$ent 0 is contining even today0 de to !alty colonial rle&
A!ter independence Nehrs panchsheel policy(
-tri#al develop$ent shold take place on their o%n genis
-develop$ent sholdnt #e evalated on ho% $ch $oney spent rather ho% $any national
characters developed&
-not to #e kept in a state o! isolation
-$any develop$ental pro2ects sholdnt #e in introdced in tri#al areas to accelerate the
process o! develop$ent
-tri#al develop$ent shold take place as per the need o! the tri#al people
Isses o! integration and atono$y
3eerrier *l%in- isolation approach- tri#als $st kept a%ay !ro$ their progressive conter
parts- die ot o! cltral shock& Critics called it Mse$ology&
"S "hrye- Critics o! 3eerrier *l%in- tri#al develop$ent shold nt #ilding national
parks- phase %ise develop$ent- Tri#e to caste and lti$ately to class throgh taking
caste #ased occpations&
6' 3idyarthi- Tri#al develop$ent progra$$e- since Ath 9 year plan- Co$$nity
develop$ent areas- edcation0 health0 irrigation etc- involving tri#als in $ainline
econo$y- proper reha#ilitation plans in case o! pro2ects casing displac$ent- vocational
training centres- integration %ith the larger econo$y and society- identi!y the tri#es at the
verge o! extinction- protect the$&
8orst victi$s o! land alienation- develop$ent indced displace$ent- $ining activities-
!orest acess restriction- encrach$ent into their cltral li!e- $igration !ro$ $ainlandto
tri#al areas- A)S'A in tri#al areas-denial o! 2stice-killing incocents considering the$ as
$aoists&
Maoist $ove$ent-/odo land-naga re#ellion- nar$ada #achao andoloan- kalinga nagar
2a2pr 2--;- 2al satyagraha on nar$ada da$- =irakd-Tehri etc
8hy all the displace$ent pro2ects are only in tri#al areas K
So$e calls its their $ani!estation o! cltral $yopia0 so$e consider the$ as their search
!or a appropriate place in the social li!e0 %hich has #een historically denide to the$&
;-Social classes in India
Class-Sociological Concept-"iven #y Marx- only *cono$ic strctre point o! vie%-
Sociological and Cltral Di$ensions are also i$portant& In *rope class con!licts-
Indstry and )edal- In india other strati!ications like caste0 po%er0 occpation etc
Caste #ased stati!ication and class #ased strati!ication-dialectical relationship&
Agrarian Class strctre
Revene assess$ent o! land- +a$indari0 Ryot%ari0 Mahal%ari&
+a$indari- +a$indar0 tenants and agricltral la#ors
Ryot%ari- landlord and peasants
Agrarian class-)edal character- +a$indars collected tax- non %orking o%ners o! the
land- peasants %ere having no secrity o! tenre&
Daniel Thorner Marxian approach- *ven a!ter land re!or$s $easres- peasants contine
to s!!er $ore and the Maliks are en2oying the do$inant position- has social
relationships- the lo%er caste %orks as land less la#orers- the lando%ning #elongs to
higher caste&
'C 7oshi @ trends in agrarian class- declining !edalistics and csto$ary tenacy- rising o!
co$$ercially oriented landlords- it increased the e!!iciency and prodctivity0 #t the
con!lict #et%een the poor peasantry and the agricltre la#orers are in rise&
TC <o$$en- 9 Categories o! classes in rral agrarian India- landlords- rich !ar$ers-
$iddle peasants- poor peasants- landless %orkers&
Andre #eteille- 6i#eral point o! vie%- <%nership- Control- :se o! land&
<%nership( *ntreprenerial landlords- #ig o%ners- !ond in green revoltion #elt- pro!it
$otive&
Medi$ land lords- land is !a$ily property- !or na$esake they keep the$selves attached
to the land- a#sentee landlords
S$all o%ners- dont go !or sel! cltivation !or cltrl #ondage- Cltral landlords
Controller- So$e one %ho sees the land in the a#sence o! the actl lando%ner-one can #e
o%ner0 controller and ser at the sa$e ti$e&
:sers- No o%nership- no controlling rights- %ork there !or earning livelihood&
/eteille pointed ot ho% in #engal a!ter land re!or$s the n$#er o! s$all and $arginal
!ar$ers expanded0 %ho %ere earler share croppers&
Marxist 2 classes- conservative and radical- radical can #ring revoltion&
A R Desai pper class- $iddle class- lo%er class&
:tsa 'attnaik- stdied 'n2a# and =aryana- 9 types- #ig land lords0 rich !ar$ers0 $iddle
peasants0 s$all peasants0 agricltral la#orers& /ig landlords- 9- acres or $ore0 pro!it
$otive0 technology0 politically active0 se hired la#or& Rich !ar$ers- 2- to A- acres0
highly a$#itios0 hired la#ors0 at ti$es !a$ily la#ors& Middle 'easants- 1- to 2- acres0
!a$ily la#or0 little srpls& S$all !ar$ers- 9 to 1- acres0 $arginalised !ar$ers&
Agricltral la#orers- land less la#orers& The !irst 2 types #ig land lords and the rich
!ar$ers are controlling all the $eans o! prodction and conslidating the$&develop$ent o!
capitalist agricltre& In the "R #elt polirisation #eco$ing $ore pro$inent&
Neo Marxist vie%( Agrarian class strctre cant #e stdied in isolation %ith the non-
agrarian class& Money lenders0 $erchants0 traders living in r#an areas-linkage %ith the
village land lords- procre$ents in the harvesting season !ro$ the s$all and $edi$
peasants- they dont have voice to raise against the$- - *xploitation Migration- sicide&
Anand Chakravarty- nder class- cant !ight against hege$onistic do$ination o!
landlords0 police and legal corts- they accept ineBality and start re#ellion&
6i#eral sociologist- consider the ele$ents like !edalis$0 se$i !edalis$0 se$i capitalist0
capitalist and caste class nexs- Nexs #et%een agarian class and non-agarian class
$akes the sitation co$plex- govern$ent progra$$es shold take the holistic vie%
#e!ore co$ing p %ith any plan&
Middle classes in India
Carl Marx- Middle class %ill vanish4petty #orgeoisie0 s$all $erchants %ho o%n their
$eans o! prodction5
Marx 8e#er and 6ock%ood- Middle class poplation %ill gro%- %ith indstrialisation
and r#anisation- depends on skills- old $iddle class4petty #orgeoisise5- ne% $iddle
class4 %hite colored %orkers0 salaried e$ployee5
Talcolt 'arson- Rise o! $iddle class in indstrialised society- analysis o! $eritocracy
society&
<rdinary vie%- $odern edcation- rational and co$petitive vale- seclarised in
approach- cons$erist class- aspiring !or the $o#ility- capacity o! social change&
A R Desai- talked a#ot Indian $ddle class and their role in indian nationalis$- evolved
!ro$ caste strctre- $iddle classs role in #ringing re!or$s in cltre and religion- Social
religios $ove$ents are $iddle class $ove$ents& /ritish introdced press0 rail%ays0 tv0
radio0 #reacracy0 2dicairy0 edcation- gave #irth to $iddle class- nationalis$ to !ight
against /ritish& Middle class co$position across caste and region line- hence class nites
and caste devides&
D 6 Seth Article Middle class in Modern India A!ter independence the #ase o! MC is
expanding- In %estern and soth india0 MC ca$e ot o! re!or$ $ove$nts like Saty
Sodhak Sa$a2 o! M=0 Sel! Respect $ove$ent o! Ta$il Nad0 SND' $ove$ent o!
Cerala- non-traditional and anti /rah$inic vie%- de$anding eBity and control over
po%er strtre& Indian $iddle class gro%n ot o! soil- hold tight to the tradition and
cltre and tries to get #ene!its !ro$ $odern instittions& Indian $iddle class is keeping
one step on $odernity and one step on tradition and trying to extract #ene!it !ro$ #oth&
Andre /eteille ( Bestions the genesis o! indian $iddle class- di!!erent sorces at
di!!erent point o! ti$e- not ho$ogenos like %est $iddle class& =a#it o! reading ne%s
paper- going !or !a$ily vacation- spending $oney on non cons$ption- are constantly
increasing& /t interrelationship #et%een a !actory %orker0 a lo%er police $an and a
s$all trader takes place in hierarchical $anner&Indian $iddle class has expanded #t still
carry hierarchical ideas- This vie% is in contrast to 1ogendra Singhs vie% that %ith
$odernity class %ill replace caste&
1?9--1?,-- indstrialisation- $odern edcation- $odern 2o#s- #reacracy- green
revoltion- $odern trade- led to $assive e$ploye$nt- no %ish to consolidate their
econo$ic position- gave a sond #ase to peasant $o#ilisaion naxal $ove$ents %as
spported #y intellectals co$ing !ro$ di!!erent spheres o! li!e&
Anti-e$ergency $ove$ent #y $iddle class stdents0 teachers etc&A!ter gl#alisation
$iddle classes expanded- interests spheres #roadened- %o$en isses- civil rights isses-
environ$ental pro#e- rise o! civil society $ove$ents in India&
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
"rcharan Das- India n#ond
A$artya Sen Arg$entative Indians
A#dl kala$- India 2-2-
'ost 6i#eralisation Indian scientists0 indstrialsits0 researchers #rinnging glory to to India
#y proving Indias h$an resorce potential- glo#al recognition&
"rcharan Das- "lo#alisation- has given n#old li$it !or prosperity0 $o#ility and
happiness and sel! expression&
A$artya Sen- India s literacy ca$paign- trans!ering India into a kno%ledge #ased
society- sstaina#le econo$ic gro%th&
The Institte o! Applied *cono$ics and Resarch sho%s- 1?AG( 12. MC0 1?9G( 2-.0
2--1(9,.0 in 2-2- it %ill #e G-.&- $iddle class expanded- lo%er class is sBeeFed-
pper class is not hege$onistic- $ore inclsive india0dyna$ic0 gro%th oriented&
Skeptical vie%s on MC( gender ineBality0 hege$onistic do$ination in rral India0
hi2acking o! $odern #ene!its #t do$inant class0 distinction #et%een literacy and
!nctional literacy0 %o$en exploitation and environ$ental degradation&
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------
Indstrial Class
/ritish Rle- trading internal and external- export and I$port #siness- gro%th o! class o!
$erchants- idstrial and co$$ercial $iddle class&
Rail%ays-$odern indstries- $iddle class invested in diverse !ields- econo$icall and
socially0 #eca$e strongest class in India&
Independence- indstrialisation- govt policies ag$ented the prodction- $ore rise o!
indstril classes&
Acc$lated %ealth !ro$ colonial ti$e- investe$ent and reinvest$ent- #sinees carried
on in !a$ily lines& *g& Tatas0 /irlas etc&- they spported !reedo$ $ove$ent #t not pto
their capacity&
Started %ith tetiles- inter$ediate capital goods- cons$er dra#les- possi#le #ecase o!
patronage o! the state& Tax #ene!its-Credit !acility- export and i$port policies etc&
Recent ti$e rise o! MSM*s to get tax #ene!its and other credit related and interest
s#vention #ene!its&
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-----------
G-Syste$s o! Cinship in India
6ineage and Descent in India
6ineage- a #ody o! people %ho are arranged together on the #asis o! co$$on #lood
linkage& 'atriarchal society-daghter not part o! !athers lineage grop&
Classical antropologists- patrilineal-deter$ining descent throgh the $ale
line&$atrilineal-deter$ining descent throgh the !e$ale line&
6ineage syste$ can #e divided into 2 parts- :nilineal- a syste$ o! deter$ining descent in
%hich so$eone either #elongs to !athers lineage or $others lineage0 #oth patrilineal and
$atrilineal are inclded nder nilineal lineage syste$- Non nilineal- a syste$ %here
exists $ltiple !or$s o! relationships&
Indologist- "hrye- role o! descent in de!ining $arriage0 !a$ily0 kinship and India& In
northen India- so$e one cant $arry %ithin extended kinship grop- $arriage is driven #y
rles o! kinship and descent&"hrye indicated- "otra and Charna are exoga$os grops-
#rings dispersed people together&
"ail <$vedt Caste is an expanded descent syste$&
Andre /eteille- kinship in India so strong that- 3oting is driven #y kinship rather than on
$erir- 'ri$ary sorce o! political recrit$ent (kinship grop- Ths De$ocratic political
syste$ in India is engaged in social and cltral reprodction&
Crishna C$ar- Cinship in India is so intensive that- #ehind every corrpt $an- there is
an a$#itios !a$ily- Indstrial recrit$ent greatly takes place on the #asis o! kinship
rather than on $erit&
8ith $odernity in India- kinship and descent have not changed a little also- so i$portant
to stdy nder social trans!or$ation&
Role o! descent and kinship not only decides private shperes o! li!e like $arriage0 !a$ily
etc rather very %ell de!ines occpation0 political activities etc
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Types o! kinship syste$
Ira%ati Carve- A di!!erent kinship Fones- North0 soth0central and east&
North Indian Cinship Syste$- Areas o! $ore aryan cltre in!lence and <disha0 /ihar
and 8est /engal& 'atrikins and Matrikins are di!!erent& 8ithin patrilineal syste$ !athers
#rother is distingished !ro$ !athers sister& )athers #rothers are also distingished in
ter$s o! age0 so di!!erential respect is attri#ted to the$&
Rle o! $arriage is highly exhastive- <ne is not spposed to receive a %o$an !ro$ a
grop to %hich a %o$an is o!!ered %ithin 9 to G generations& <ne cant receive a %o$an
!ro$ his $others grop0 $others $other grop0 !athers $other grop0 and his o%n
village&Marriage not in intra !a$ily ties rather in inter village ties& Residentail syste$ is
3irilocal0 sa$e as patrilocal involves a series o! presentational o#ligations&
3eena Das- In north Indian kinship !ather son relationship precedes over hs#and %i!e
relationship-on analysis o! 'n2a#i kinship syste$ she said- the natral sexal relationshp
#et%een hs#and and %i!e is s#ded to socially esta#lished !ather son relationship
glori!ying patriarchy&
--------------------------------------------------
Soth Indian Cinship syste$( entire soth india0 so$e parts o! M= and <disha- No
distinction #et%een patrilineal and $atrilineal-
!athers #rother is eBivalent to $others sisters hs#and- #oth their children0 parallel
cosins0 so $arriage a$ong the$&
)athers sister grop L $others #rother grop IJ$others #rotherI !athers sisters hs#and&
Speci!ic patrilineal kins are eBated %ith speci!ic $atrilineal kins&
6ove !or yonger and respect !or elders ctting across generational principles- !ather L
elder #rother0 $other L elder sister and yonger #rother L son0 yonger sister L daghter&
Cross cosins $arriage allo%a#le exoga$y not exhastive like north India&
=s#and %i!e relationship is not s#ded to !ather son relationship nlike north India&
=ostility o! relationship #et%een the la%s driven #y sspicion %eak in soth India&
---------------------------------------------------
Central India Cinship syste$- "2rat0 Maharashtra0 M'- $ixtre o! ele$ents !ro$ NI
and SI&
Ra2pts- $arriage- on stats o! girlss !a$ily- no caste #ar- girl o! their choice&
Marthas-@2 divisions- pri$ary0 secondary0tertiary divisions- $arriage accordingly&
C$#i o! "2rat- cant $arry %ithin one generations !ro$ !athers side and %ithin @
generations in $others side&
Ra2asthan- <n Akshya Tritiya- $assive $arriage takes place- all age grops-relaxed
nor$s&
------------------------------------------------------
*astern India Cinship syste$- Mnda o! <disha0 Manipri o! Manipr0 Nagas0 Ckis and
Chasi&
Mnda- ; di!!erent class- associated %ith sy$#ols like- #a$#oo0liFards0 teak0 crocodiles
etc- each class $any lineage grop- son gets patrilineal grand!athers na$e-daghter gets
patrilineal grand$others na$e-divorce is co$$on a$ong the$&
Chasi- yongest daghter inherits property !ro$ $other- stats o! $an L stats o! %o$an
in north India&
----------------------
These variations o! kinship syste$ speaks a#ot di!!erential residential syste$0 property
relations0 stats o! $en0%o$en and children 0 entitle$ents #ased on gender-plralistic
society- nity is not a#ot destrction o! plrality rather respecting the plrality&
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------
)a$ily and $arriage in India
Stdy o! !a$ily I de#ate on 2oint !a$ily vs nclear !a$ily&
Sir =enry Maine- legal advisor to colonial govt- Indian 2oint !a$ily vs Ro$an and "reek
2oint !a$ily- #ased on texal $aterial- #ased on 2 concepts- co$$on property holdings
and A#solte athority o! Carta- corporate nit0 everyone contri#tes di!!erently #t takes
as per need- Its sstenance #ecase o! $oral instittions and ritals !or co$$on dead
ancestors&
"S "hrye- 'odct o! Indian cltre0 that glori!ied classical vales- niversal presence
o! 2oint !a$ily across caste0 religion and region&
'N 'ra#h-Individals association %ith 2oint !a$ily is #ased on $oralis$-%hen
$oralis$ converts to individalis$4tradition to $odernity5- 2oint !a$ily converts to
nclear !a$ily&
Ira%ati karve- @-A generations people organically related to each other- co$$on kitchen-
co$$on residence- co$$on ritals- co$$on o#ligations to kartas& 7oint !a$ilyI prodct
o! cltre0 so econo$ic trans!or$ations cant change 2oint !a$ily syste$&
1ogendra Singh- Modernisation o! Indian tradition in r#an India- inter caste $arriage-
love $arriage- nclear !a$ily- gilt !ree sexality in pre $arital and post $arital li!e&
Indstry-occpational $o#ility- %o$en e$po%er$ent- strctral #reak do%n o! 2oint
!a$ily syste$&
MN Srinivas and SC D#ey- caste and 2oint !a$ily relation- higher caste go !or 2oint
!a$ily- lo%er caste nclear !a$ily- 2oint !a$ily is driven #y econo$ics logic rather than
cltral logic&Contrast to 1 Singh0 2oint !a$ily is not #reaking do%n nder in!lence o!
r#an living&
Alan Rose- a stdy in #angalore- G-. o! !a$ilies- either strctral 2ointness-!nctional
2ointness or #oth&
MS "ore- stdy on Agar%als o! delhi- Mother son relationship precedes over hs#and
%i!e relationship- !a$ily strong spport #ase !or its $e$#ers in selection o! occpation-
!inancial assistance and selection o! $ates also&
TN Madan- residential separation- no #reak do%n o! 2oint !a$ily- $oney order econo$y
!a$ily 2ointness has al%ays #een endring in India&
)a$ily trans!or$ation in India is di!!erent !ro$ %estern trans!or$ations&
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----
=osehold di$ensions o! the !a$ily
AM Shah- #ookhosehold di$ension o! indian !a$ily-!nda$ental Bestion- 2oint
hosehold disintegrating or 2oint !a$ily- proportion o! 2oint hoseholds $ore today as
co$pare to past- reason- rising poplation- constrction o! hoses costly- $igration !or
e$ploy$ents etc- #igger hoseholds splitting into s$aller hoseholds- #t strong
e$otional ties thogh not staying together- 2oint hosehold splitting not 2oint
!a$ilies&hosehold stdy i$portant&
'aline Colenda- a!ter $odernity 2oint hoseholds and 2oint !a$ilies still exist- no
conclsion nlike Marxist scholars&
)e$inist vie%- %hether 2oint !a$ily or nclear !a$ily trans!or$ation is not a!!ecting
stats o! %o$en- sexality0D<60 reprodction #ased on patriarchy&
Classical sociologists-$odernity- =osehold residencial place- !a$ily social istittion&
Rise o! socialis$ and $odernity- !a$ily !ntions are #eing taken #y play schools0 old age
ho$es0 $arriage #reas0 child care centers- !a$ily i$portance do%n- hosehold
i$portance p- scandinavian contries- hosehold stdy is i$portant&
)ro$ hosehold stdy- can !ind ot changes in indian society&
"lo#al $igration-'hillipines and India- $arried %o$en- 2o# otside- living in
hoseholds %ith !riends or alone&
In hosehold- $ore i$portance to !riendship to kinship- i$$ense individal li#erty-
sexal !reedo$- li$ited or no lia#ility to%ards other $e$#ers- sita#le !or !ragile or
$o#ile poplation- Scandinavian senss $ore i$portance to hoseholds than !a$ilies&
=osehold stdy is taking place o! !a$ily stdy0 so as !riendship stdy taking place o!
kinship stdy&
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-----------------
'atriarchy0 entitle$ents and sexal division o! la#or
*ntitle$ent- !or$ o! individal right- cltre- rles o! la%- #y society
Modernist theory- varios !or$s o! entitle$ents- no% extended to every section gender
not a criteria& )e$inists criticised this&
Talcolt parson- Indstrialisation0 r#anisation0 $igration- occpational $o#ility-
e$po%er$ent o! %o$en and gender gap redced&
Modernist theory in case o! India- relationship #et%een hs#and and %i!e prceeding
parent child relationship- con2gal relationship $ore i$po than o#ligation to%ards
kinships- irrespective o! gender every child inherits property !ro$ parents- selection o!
$ates no longer !a$ilys responsi#ility- child #irth is linked to econo$ics and $tal
agree$ent #et%een spose- $odernity has #roken do%n traditional !or$ o!
$arriage0hierarchical !or$ o! relationship&
=indis$ e$phasis- sexal prity so child $arriage- sexal experi$entation otside
$ariage and pre$arital sex is hell- $ale child $akes a %o$an co$plete- divorce is evil-
%ido%hood is disaster- cltre de!ines sexality- reprodction- D<60sexality-
Modernist contradicted- nclear !a$ily- child #irth #y choice- individal control over
sexality&
Indira 7ai Singh- All la%s o! entitle$ents #ased on patriarchy than gender eBality-
=ind $arriage act- divorce can #e #ased on adltery- #t have to #e proved in cort-
4Ne% act pdate KK5
3icti$s o! rape has to recast the sa$e experience again and again in order to get 2stice-
inheritance rights over parents property to %o$en recently $ade la%- 6egal la%s #ased
on patriarchy&
Tlsi 'atel- 8o$en consider it as sin to prohi#it their hs#ands !ro$ sexality- n%anted
pregnancy- lose li!e dring child #irth- in #ad healths also they accept to patriarchal
convention- !orgetting their entitle$ents- 8age pay$ent %o$en less than hal! co$pared
to $en-despite doing t%ice %ork than $en in !actories&
)a$ily is a paradise in a hopeless %orld- %here $arriage0 child #irth0 $otherhood $akes
%o$ans li!e co$plete&
)e$inist $ove$ents is not re#ellion against patriarchy rather asking !or eBality&
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
,-Religion and Society
Religios co$$nities in India
India #irth place o! =indis$0 /ddhis$0 7ianis$ and Sikhis$- Religios diversity and
religios tolerance esta#lished #y la%&
Diversity- religios assi$ilation- invaders- $erchants- conBerors-traders and travellers&
Isla$0 Christian0 =ind0 Sikhis$0 /ddists0 7ains0 +oroastrians0 +e%is&
6ess inter religios $arriages- Co$$nal clashes&
'ro#le$s o! Religios $inorities
'lral Society trans!or$ing into a $odern state&
Religios $inorities- 6ingistic $inorities and ethnic $inorities4tri#e5- !ear o! loss o!
identity hence #lockade- e&g& Delhi 'n2a#i living in 'n2a#i /agh&
"ndhi2i rise o! hind !nde$entalis$- reactionary to conversion o! hinds to christians
#y $issionary activities- e&g the hierarchy syste$ is still there- Cerala @ types o!
christians- Syrian Christian- 6atin Christians- Ne% Christians 4ntocha#les5-
Christianity indianised&
Northeast- $issionary activity- christianity- $odern edcation e&g MiFora$- ethnic
identity- con!lict a$ong the$&
Constittion- article 29 to 2,
Threat to christian $inorities- right %ing !nda$entalis$- organised terror&
'ro#le$s o! Msli$s in India
Arond 12. o! poplation- edcated highly placed $sli$s very less- $a2or edcated
$igrate to %estern- $iddle class co$$nity is very less- poor section is large&
Co$$nal distr#ances- ineBality and poverty and exploitation #y priestly co$$nity
i&e Mllas- !oreign inter!erence&
7ohn start Mill the %orst o! the tyrannies is the tyranny o! the $a2ority- it doesnt $ean
$a2ority deli#erately tries to h$iliate- i&e sensitive $inority co$plex is a natral
pheno$ena&
Role o! politicians- Anti-social ele$ents- #itter $e$ories o! past&
8hy north#elt hind revivalist grops are active there and #itter $e$ories o! partition-
politics over co$$nal clashes- parties tend to handle the sitation a #alanced $anner-
things goes ot o! control&
Soth India and M=- Co$$nal clashes are less&
Theoritically-Isla$ no caste syste$- since they are converts- hence caste syste$&
Sachar Co$$ittee Report ad$in services less representation- A. $sli$ stdents
co$plete class x- 2. class MII- 1&2. gradation- on an avg 2A? co$$nal clashed in
each year-%o$en gradates are less than 1. a$ong $sli$ poplation- at co$$nal
riots ,-. $sli$s lose their property and so$eti$es li!e&
Deepak Mehta Minority psychosis- dharavi sl$ exa$ple-easy trigger&
*dcational pro#le$s- school crricl$ in hindi or english-less a#ot isla$ic cltre or
society-less interesting !or $sli$ stdents> isla$ic cltre no encorage$ent !or co-
edction> no special school !or $sli$ girls in contry as %ell> Many state govts
pro$oting Madrasa- no pro$otion o! seclar edcation- religios edcation-little
attention to rational kno%ledge !or livelihood- hge gap #et%een hinds and $sli$s-
vote #ank politics so $a2or re!or$s !or their edcation-policy o! appease$ent&
+oya =asan- #ack%ard ness o! $sli$ %o$en- religios orthodox leaders and state-
ni!or$ civil code %hich cold have e$po%ered $sli$ %o$en %as re2ected- on the
grond that hind agenda en!orec$ent on $sli$ %o$en&
Randhir singh isla$opho#ia- vertical division o! society- religios !nde$entalis$-
Bestioning the seclar credentials o! India&
"ovts steps
'Ms 19 point progra$$e- Anti-co$$nal violence #ill- Co$$ission !or Minorities-
National $inorities develop$ent and !inance corporation4NMD)C5-Sachar co$$ittee-
%ak! #oard property protection #ill&
?-3isions o! Social changes in India
Idea o! develop$ent planning and $ixed eceono$y
Non capitalist-as no technoloy-no $arket-agri #ased econo$y&
Non socialist-as state %old control $arket0 prodction0distri#tion-$ight lead to
atocratic rle&
=ence $ixed econo$y- #oth state and private players- rail%ays 0 shipping etc only govt-
edcation0health0aviation etc #oth private and govt&
Sociologists analysis(
MS "ore- #ook develop$ental policies o! India since independence-land re!or$ syste$
introdced in a haphaFard $anner-helped the landlords- do$inant classes got the
o%nerships throgh #ena$i trans!er syste$ in the na$e o! cooperative !ar$ing&
Daniel Thorner- Capitalist agricltre in socialist India&
Cooperative $ove$ent- helped the do$inat classes-%as #ased on s#sidy and tax re#ate
etc&
'C 7oshi- #ook develop$ental strategies o! India- gandhian vision o! planning- se o!
appropriate technology- trsteeship and #alance #et%een natre and cltre e$phasiFing
on h$an happiness-than 2st $aterialistic prosperity&
1??-s-6'"-not sstaina#le develop$ent $odel-pro!it centric %ithot social
responsi#ility- despite gro%th ra$pant poverty
*cono$ic li#eralisation- India #eca$e hnting grond !or cheap la#or- ne% capitalist
agenda
Anita Minocha- yong so!t%are pro!essionals-health haFards- cons$erist #ehavior
A$artya Sen- "ro%th shold #e centred on health and edcation- $ental and physical
health-capacity to gather skill and !ight discri$ination- de$and o! 2stice %hen it is not
extended to hi$
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------
Constittion0 6a% and Social Change
'rea$#le- 8e the people o! India sole$nly resolve&&&-does
it inclde interests o! all the people- constittion %as #rainchild o! !e% intellectals
In the %est #lacks and %o$en got citiFenship later-In India one day everyone got it-
%ithot kno%ing %hat is a#ot-%ith )Rs- so it is not #eing realised #y the citiFens
*Bality0!raternity and li#erty- %as di!!erent !ro$ %est-in %est collective action-India
so$e section %as co$!ta#le %ith the /ritish- 8e introdced *)6 %ith thinking a#ot r
capacity to i$ple$ent it&
D'S' and )RS-#asic direction in %hich a state shold go
No i$prove$ents in edcation sector-#asic e$phasis is still on health and nitrition and
health&
Carl Marx- la#or is the co$$odity sold in the capitalist $arket- children are not getting
adeBate attention- Calahandi child selling case
Seclaris$- Can a state go !or strong seclar credentials %hen people are driven #y
strong religios consciosness- contest #et%een %hat state %ants and %hat people
actally are
Andre /eteille- people are $ore driven #y Mans$riti than constittion&
/onded la#or and child la#or- #anned- in reality practiced&
3i2ayalaksh$i- tells a#ot ho% #onded la#or is still prevalent even in Mteros like Delhi
%here hose$aids co$ing /ihar-lack protection&
Adlt !ranchsie and voting #ehavior&
:pendra /akshi and Ra$achandra "ha- 6i#erty and !reedo$-!airy tale !or the tri#als-
displace$ents-!orest la%s-$ining etc&
Ra$achandra "ha-<n Nar$ada /achao andolan-ho% the poor tri#al people %ere
%aiting !or A %eeks to $eet the head o! the govt&
Constittional provisions o! !reedo$ is #ased on class identity0 ethnic identity and
econo$ic stats&
A$artya Sen- 'overty $akes an individal speechless0 $arginalised and there!ore
!reedo$ as a constittional provision is not #eing really en2oyed or exercise #y a large
$a2ority o! indian people&
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------
*dcation and social change
)nctional paradig$ and con!lict paradig$-@rd 9 yr plan- Cothari co$$ission on
edcation
No thinkers stdy !ro$ note #ook
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1--Rral and Agrarian Trans!or$ation in India
'rogra$$es o! Rral Develop$ent
1&'M"S1- all %eather roads
2&S"S1- shg and activity clsters
@&IA1- latrines and s$okeless chlahs
A&M"NR*"A- eBal pay
9&NSA'- pension and annaprna sche$e
;&CA'ART- rral technology
G&DRDA- to see anti-poverty progra$$es
,&':RA
?&'MRD)
1-&NR6M- A2eevika-sstaina#le livelihood progra$$e throgh !inance spport
11&6and re!or$s progra$$es
---------------------------------------------------------
Rral develop$ent- econo$ic develop$ent as %ell as social trns!or$ation&- particpation
o! local people and resorces- develop$ent !ro$ grassroot level rather develop$ent
i$posing on the$&
Collective !ar$ing- social !orestry- credit !inancing
Scholars !ond i$pedi$ents in rral develop$ent progra$$es- strong caste
conscioness- politisisation o! rral develop$ent progra$$es- contradictions a$ong
villages dring 'RI elections&
D6 7oshi- RD progra$$es started %ith a no#le ai$ #t !ailed to alter the hierarchical
$indset o! people reslting into pre$atre collapse&
Develop$ent progra$$e have intensi!ied caste consolidation and caste con!lict in village
India&
SC-ST-8o$en coldnt #ene!it lack o! a%areness- $ost o! the$ didnt have in!ra to take
credit spport&
In ,th 9 year plan- ;, di!!erent overlapping RD sche$es- Integrated rral develop$ent
progra$$e4IRD'5-consolidation
Sociologists concerns -cltral character o! people0 gender involve$ent %ith %ork are the
non-econo$ic varia#les shold also #e cosidered&
Drea$ o! rral develop$ent into reality&
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
"reen revoltion
A!ter 1?;9-=13-irrigation-!ertiliFers-sel! s!!icient in !ood grain prodction- social
ethnic and political e!!ect&
2 stages-!irst stage 'n2a# =aryana %estern :'- 2nd stage Soth and %estern India
Nor$an /orlag- M S S%a$inathan- %onder %heat Mexico-'n2a# and =aryana 2--
ti$es prodction
Seed cooperatives-credit cooperatives-irrigation cooperatives- !ertiliser cooperatives-
pper class rich got the #ene!it-poor !ar$ers old seed
In Carnataka- nexs #et%een class caste po%er- li!t irrigation at the centre o! the !ield o!
rich !ar$er-o#strction %alls- lands at higher height-no %ater-less prodction-disstress
sale-do$inant caste #eca$e do$inant class&
Credit cooperatives- nexs #et%een rich !ar$ers-#ri#e-capitalist agricltre
' 3ardhan- 'overty stdy is al%ays #ased on #asic needs and its !l!ill$ent- not on
econo$ic sstaina#ility o! !a$ily- srpls inco$e to invest in edcation0health etc- is
green revoltion creating e$ploy$ent or disgised ne$ploy$ent&*!!ect o! "R shold
stdied in these lines&
"R-prodctivity increased-#t rich poor devide %idened-not hep!l in rral develop$ent
as it %as one o! its agenda&
/halla and Chadda- In 'n2a# and =aryana- 2-- villages- the per acre di!!erence in
prodctivity #et%een rich and poor is 2-- ti$es and the inco$e di!!erence is 1; ti$es&
"R-distress $igration !ro$ /ihar and eastern :' to 'n2a# and =aryana-exploited&
6aksh$i Menon and :tsa pattnaik- gender i$pact on green revoltion- !a$ily inco$e
goes #eyond cons$ption needs- it #eco$es stats sy$#ol- people #eco$e stats
conscios- %o$en are %ithdr%an !ro$ la#or- econo$y do$inated #y $en- glori!ication
o! gender role o! %o$en- i&e $en as prodcers and %o$en shold stay at ho$e-
i$portance o! $ale child increased-people have $oney to take technological aid !or
selective a#ortion o! !e$ale !oets- "R is one o! the adverse gender gap in case o!
'n2a# and =aryana&
"R and po%er and politics- developed political aspiration-political parties-rich !ar$ers
enter into politics- served interests o! rich !ar$ers throgh cooperatives&
"R and ethnic distinction 'n2a#i !ar$ers and non pn2a#i !ar$ers- poor !ar$ers and
rich !ar$ers con!lict&
<$en- positive side o! "R- rral e$ploy$ent- addressed rral poverty- !ood de!icit
contry to !ood srpls contry&
Changes taking place in one sector leads to change in other sectors also- "R has
in!lenced local politics-strati!cation-gender stats-ethnicity- inter caste relationship-
regional identities- $igration&
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Changing $odes o! prodction in Indian Agricltre
8estern-shi!t !ro$ !edalis$ to capitalist agri-India- change is not ni!or$-speci!ic
pockets o! capitalis$&
Agrarian trans!or$ation in India-depends on- geographical diversity-historical
di!!erences and conte$porary varia#ilities&
Marxist Sociologists- no peasant $o#ilisation like China or Rssia-class di!!erence is the
o#strction&
"ail <$vedt- strong nexs #et%een caste and class- caste con!lict is also class con!lict&
Andre /eteilles #ook- Agrarian Social strctre- no vertical $o#ility o! peasants&
AR Desai- land re!or$s not sccess!l- #ena$i trans!ers in the na$e o! cooperative
!ar$ing- landlords holding tenants in no!!icial contracts-so they cant take legal rote-
they dont en2oy their rights&
Colonial ti$e-prely !edalistic
<rissa0Manipr0Assa$-traditional technology-caste land holdings nexs is %eak-se$i
!edal in natre&
M'0 /ihar0 :'0 /engal- so$e land reserved !or co$$ercial agri- contractal la#orers
rather than hired la#orers- old land lord peasant syste$ is still there- land re!or$s has
least i$pact-se$i capitalist $ode o! prodction&
Sothern states- #ene!its o! agricltre pocketed #y rich !ar$ers-lo% level tehnology se-
lo%er caste people as agri la#ors-lo% intensive capitalist region&
'na2# and =aryana-tenacy syste$ a#sent- hired la#or- prodction as per $arket
de$ands- !ar$ers are highly nionised-caste and lando%nership relationship is a#sent-
class consolidation high- intensive capitalist agricltre&
Mltiple $odes o! prodction-;-. are still landless- $arginal !ar$ers co$e !ro$ Dalit
and Tri#al origin- 1;. agricltrists are !ro$ do$inant castes-
7ats01adavs0/ho$iars06ingayats0Ra2pts and Reddys etc&Rest !ro$ artisan caste-s$all
holdings&
Agrarian trans!or$ation in India neither capitalist nor socialist-$ixed o! #oth-a co$plex
pheno$enon&
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----
Cooperatives
Re$inder to the international co$$nity that econo$ic via#ility and social responsi#ility
is possi#le at the sa$e ti$e&
1?-A-cooperative societies act- started No%-all over the contry
Cooperative credit syste$-largest in the %orld-have given $ore credit than co$$ercial
#anks
3illage cooperative societies- strategic inpt in agricltral sector- cons$er society
$eets their cons$ption at concessional rates- coopratives help in #ilding store hoses-
godo%ns and cold storages0irrigation and rral roads etc
Sgra cooperatives-!ertiliser cooperatives-national diary develop$ent #oard- cooperative
$ilk $arketing #oard- early 1?G-s <peration !lood-diary processing plants-collection
stations-natinal $ilk transportation grid&
A!ter the insrance act-cooperatives are in insrance sector as %ell&
Indian !ar$ers !ertiliFers cooperatives-tea$ed p %ith 2apans cooperatives-internal in
natre& the central govt enacted the Mlti State Cooperative Societies Act0 2--2 %hich
provided !or de$ocratic and atono$os %orking o! the Cooperatives&
8hy coopeartives i$portant- !or the poor-nskilled-illiterate-instittion o! $tal help
and sharing- so!tens the social con!lict and redces the social divisions- redces the
#reacratics evils-overco$es the hddles o! agri develop$ent- craetes condcive
environ$ent !or s$all scale indstries&
8hy gro%th is slo%(
"ovts inter!erence
Maniplations and $is$anage$ent-in elections !or the top posts
6ack o! a%areness
Restricted coverage
)nctional %eakness-lack o! trained personnel-e!!icient people dont 2oin the$&
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
'overty Allieviation progra$$e
Re!er notes-2 page-22
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Co$$nity develop$ent 'rogra$$e
Re!er notes-2 page-1?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
'ro#le$s o! Rral la#or
Agricltral la#or- tillage o! soil0 prodction0 cltivation0gro%ing0 harvesting&
/onded la#or-take cashNkind loan !ro$ land lords0then %orks !or hi$
6a#orer in !orestry- ti$#ering etc
'ara Agricltre-allied activities0post harvest processing0taking prodcts to $arket etc
'lantation la#or-cltivation and prodction o! plantations o!
tea0co!!ee0sgarcane0cocont0grondnt etc
Rral la#or in allied activities- raising livestock0 diary !ar$ing0 #ees and poltry graFing
etc
Rral la#or other %ork- $ilk$an0 #lacks$ith0 carpenter0#ar#er0%asher$an etc
Sel! e$ployed person- sel! e$ployed in an occpation-s$all shop o%ner etc
Agricltral is seasonal and di!!erent variations- so di!!iclt to dra% a line #et%een
agricltral and non agricltral la#orers
)i!ty per cent o! the agricltral la#or hoseholds- landless and have no asset #ase- The
landless la#orers are s!!ering !ro$ a co$ponded pro#le$ o! ne$ploy$ent-lo% and
ncertain inco$e-ntritional de!iciencies- inde#tedness-nder e$ploy$ent- illiteracy-
ignorance-#ig siFe o! the !a$ily $ay pri$arily #e acconted !or the high degree o!
poverty a$ong rral la#orers&
ncertainty o! e$ploy$ent in lean seasons- e$ployed on day to day #asis %ihtot any
contract- one-!i!th o! the total n$#er o! agricltral la#ors is e$ployed on annal
ter$s they %ork as do$estic servants&
%ide illiteracy existing a$ong the$ and their in!erior social conditions add to their %eak
#argaining state&
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
/onded la#or
Read !ro$ note #ook-2 page no-2,
:tsa pattnaik and Sashi k$ar
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Migration
In search o! #etter li!e or so$eti$es throgh co$plsion&distance0 direction and dration
o! $igration& Reasons-econo$ic0social and political& Internal $igration and international
$igration&
e&g The 7e%s $igrated !ro$ "er$any to other parts o! the %orld to avoid persection
nder =itlers NaFist regi$e& 'artition o! /ritish India&
'sh !actors and pll !actors&
Ashish /ose !or instance explains Migration in India !ro$ rral to :r#an !ro$ a
de$ographic perspective& perspective& The psh !actors %hich operate in places o! origin0
in this case the rral areas0 is lack o! resorces0 ne$ploy$ent0 overpoplation0 droght
or !loods or sch other natral cala$ities0 essentially all sch !actors %hich $akes a
decent living standards i$possi#le& The pll !actors o! cities are $any- e$ploy$ent
opportnities0 entertain$ent 0 edcation !acilities0 trade centres0 instittional set ps0
availa#ility o! opportnities 0 seclar environ$ent etc& Ashish /ose0 arges that the psh
and pll !actors shold #e interpreted in overall de$ographic contexts& :nder conditions
o! high natral increase in poplation0 not only in rral areas #t in the r#an areas as
%ell 4as a reslt o! high r#an #irth rates and rapidly declining death rates50 the psh
!actor operates =e calls it as psh #ack !actor&
Meenakshi Thapan in her recent #ook Transnational Migration and 'olitics o! Identity0
arges that any theory on $igration!or a holitstic perspective$st accont !or it in ter$s
o! race0 religion0 nationality and on gender0 %hich $ch o! early literatre on $igration is
silent& She asserts that strctral ra$i!ications o! %o$ens $igration extend #eyond the
lives o! $igrant %o$en the$selves0 inso!ar as the la#or o! sch %o$en is an i$portant
!actor in shaping gender relations !ond in societies o! #oth 0 the i$$igrants and their
hosts0 there#y sggesting ne% %ays o! looking at isses sch as gender eBality0
hosehold division o! la#or and at the state policies regarding %el!are positions&
Cyclic or circlatory $igration- te$porary change o! place not $igration-toris$ and
co$$nication&
Internal and external- lots o! planning !or $igration sch as !or so!t%are enginners&
'ri$itive $igration-Rando$ nplanned $igration
)orced $igration- natral disasters0exods o! A!ganisthanis to 'akistan&
Seasonal and periodic- no$adic people living on the $argins o! deserts&
8&/& )isher noted that periodic $igrations are so$eti$es te$pted to settle per$anently
in their place o! %ork& =o%ever0 initially their intentions %ere to re$ain there only
te$porarily
---------------
Rral-rral- #ased on agri or $arriage in north India
Rral-r#an- In rral areas the #rgeoning poverty0 $eagre e$ploy$ent opportnities0
lo% and ncertainNirreglar %ages0 lack o! edcation and health !acilities are the $ain
psh !actors& Sch ngided $igration to the city leads to the pro#le$s o! hosing in the
to%nsNcities& )or sch $igrants0 ha#itat changes0 #t not the Bality o! li!e& Clearly0 this
kind o! $igration is !raght %ith haFards especially !or %o$en0 %ho there#y expose
the$selves to the possi#ility o! sexal exploitation and violence&
As $igrants0 these %orkers then do not have access to any o! the p#lic !acilities !or
health care0 since they are not resident in that area& They cannot #y their !ood
reBire$ents !ro$ the ration shops since they do not have ration cards valid !or that
place& I! they have co$e %ith s$all children0 they are na#le to place the$ in local
govern$ent schools0 or even to access the local angan%adi !or their legally recognised
reBire$ents& They are ignored #y p#lic sche$es and progra$$es0 inclding those
related to sch p#lic health isses as i$$nisation drives& And then there are the other
sins o! p#lic o$ission and co$$ission that directly a!!ect sch $igrants& There are no
p#lic help centres0 no in!or$ation o!!ices0 no co$plaint cells %here they can go to
redress any grievances0 %hether these relate to non-pay$ent o! %ages or terri#le
conditions o! %ork or physical exploitation and violence& Rather0 local o!!icialdo$ in the
destination typically vie%s $igrants as vagrants or nisances0 takes aggressive attitdes
to%ards the$ and #eco$es another sorce o! tri#lation !or the $igrants&
:r#an-rral- reverse !lo%-the pro#le$s o! hosing de to over-congestion o! cities and
the resltant pro#le$s o! environ$ental polltion and poor health& This o!ten !orces the
$igrants to retrn to their native villages& In India $any o! the retired persons tend to
settle in their native villages or s$all to%ns %here they o%n property or acBire it later&
:r#an-r#an- 'eople $ove ot !ro$ one r#an place to the other& The $otive is to !ind
2o#s to i$prove their econo$ic stats& It is a co$$on !eatre that large cities attract
people !ro$ s$all to%ns in their neigh#orhood& This is especially tre in the case o!
skilled %orkers& This practice is kno%n as step-%ise $igration& The !irst step is to $ove
ot !ro$ a village to a s$all to%n> the second step is to $ove ot !ro$ a s$all to%n to a
large city& :r#an to r#an $igration is de to $ltiple !actors0 econo$ic as %ell as socio-
cltral& It is the $ain channel o! la#or spply to the !ast gro%ing city&
---------------------------
)actors o! $igration
'ri$arily econo$ic0 sch as high inco$e0 #etter e$ploy$ent opportnities0 and 2o#s in
the in!or$al sector0 and the hope !or a #etter Bality o! li!e& Marriages0 social insecrity0
civil stri!e and inter-ethnic con!licts are i$portant social !actors0 %hich in!lence the
decision to $igrate& *xtra-ordinary episodes in history0 sch as %ar and terroris$ also
lead to $igration&
*cono$ic !actors- "R in 'n2a# and =aryana la#or de$and $igration !ro$ /ihar and
eastern :'
Social !actors- $arriage-#etter o!! people tend to $igrate&
De$ographic !actor- age o! the $igrant is an i$portant de$ographic !actor& 1ong
people have a !ar greater desire to ot-$igrate than the elderly people& A high rate o!
natral increase o! poplation provides the #asis !or ot-$igration& 6arge-scale ot-
$igration !ro$ the thickly poplated parts o! /ihar and east :ttar 'radesh is largely de
to the di$inishing land resorces in the native villages&
I$pact o! Migration
Migration is not a si$ple pheno$enon& It #rings a#ot changes in the poplation
co$position in the ho$e villages as %ell as in the regions o! destination& It helps the
$igrants and their !a$ilies to achieve a certain level o! sel!-s!!iciency and a #etter
Bality o! li!e in the regionsNcontries o! destination& The de$ographic scene changes
drastically leading to the synthesis o! cltre0 langage0 Bality o! li!e0 and the in!lx o!
kno%ledge&
The i$$igrants adapt the$selves to the conditions prevailing in the contries o!
destination& Migration #rings a#ot a cltral change and its ra$i!ications are too $any&
*ven the place na$es are carried to the regions o! destination& *&g Ne% *ngland 4:SA5
=$an desire to preserve their $e$ories o! the places they have le!t #ehind& The
Msli$s %ho $igrated to 'akistan a!ter the partition o! /ritish India gave the na$es o!
their ho$eto%ns in India to the places o! their settle$ent in 'akistan particlarly0 the
'rovince o! Sind&
It has #een sggested that the regions o! destination generally #ene!it0 %hile the regions
o! origin s!!er& 8hen the edcationally Bali!ied personnel $ove ot their $igration is
o!ten re!erred to as #rain drain& This kind o! $igration is likely to play a $a2or role in
ter$s o! econo$ic develop$ent o! the contries o! destination& =o%ever0 the regions o!
origin also #ene!it !ro$ the re$ittances o! $oney #y the $igrants&
Inter-ethnic $arriages o!ten take place in the contries o! destination& A ne% class o!
NRIs 4non-resident Indians5 has e$erged& They not only re$it $oney #ack ho$e #t also
#ring ne% cltral in!lences %ith the$&
The i$$igrants #eca$e a sorce o! tension leading to inter-ethnic clashes and civil stri!e&
An interesting !eatre is that a#ot G9 per cent o! the total intrastate $igrants are !e$ales&
This sho%s that the #lk o! the !e$ale $igration in India is related to $arriage&
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------
11-Indstrialisation and :r#anisation in India
"ro%th o! r#an settle$ensts in India
In si$ple %ordsI:r#anisationIpoplation gro%th o! the cities and to%ns&
SociologicallyIit $eans spreading r#an %ay o! li!e to the contry side&
In the present ti$es spread o! indstrialisation has gave $o$ent$ to the r#anisation
process0especially in the third %orld contries&
Rapid gro%th o! r#an poplationI in social science a controversial ter$ called over
r#anisation&
:r#anisation co$$nity living li!e style tends to #eco$eI i$personal0 !or$al0 goal
oriented0 contractal and transitory&
Trans!or$ation o! ecocno$ic activities !ro$ agricltral to non agricltralI $ore
e$ploy$ent in secondary and tertiary sectorIdivision o! la#or and specialisation o!
%ork&
'rocess o! r#anisation I #reakdo%n in the !nctioning o! traditional instittions and
patterns o! #ehavior and o! social control&
So$eti$es the traditional !or$s contine to exist #t change and evolve at the !ace o!
r#anisation&
1ogendra Singh- $any ne% roles0 o!ten rational and $odern in orientation0 are added on
to the traditional instittional !or$s& In India0 the traditional instittions like caste0 2oint
!a$ily and neigh#orhood0 etc&0 o!!er a$ple evidence o! sch continity and change in
cities&
:r#an gro%th copled %ith indstrialisation I rral r#an $igrationI tend to over!lo%
%ith rral $igrants I sch $igrations accelerate the pace o! r#anisation&*xcessive
poplation pressre on the p#lic tilities0 cities s!!er pro#le$s o! cri$e0 sl$s0
ne$ploy$ent0 r#an poverty0 polltion0 congestion0 ill health and other deviant social
activities&
:r#anisation has #een vie%ed as an i$portant !orce o! social change& In India0 this
process has0 on the one hand0 $eant econo$ic gro%th0 political change0 ne% vales and
ne% attitdes& It re!lects also the ele$ents o! continity #et%een rral and r#an social
strctres&
--------------------------------
Social Cltral Character o! :r#anisation
Cities o! India have achieved heterogeneos character in ter$s o! ethnicity0 caste0 race0
class and cltre& Coexistence o! di!!erent cltres& Cltral plralis$&
Stdies sho% that thogh varios ethnic andNor caste grops have ad2sted the$selves
%ith each other in the city0 they have also tried to $aintain their traditional identity&
N&C& /ose points ot that the $igrants tend to clster arond people %ith %ho$ they
have lingistic0 local0 regional0 caste and ethnic ties&
A stdy #y 7agannathan and =aldar on the pave$ent-d%ellers in Calctta sho%s that they
retain close ties %ith kinship and caste grops !or socialiFing and trans$itting or
receiving in!or$ation !ro$ the village&
Social strati!ication has taken a ne% !or$ in the r#an society& It is ass$ed that %ith
r#anisation caste trans!or$s itsel! into class in the r#an areas& /t caste syste$s do
exist in the cities thogh %ith signi!icant organiFational di!!erences&
Marriage and !a$ily- In the r#an areas caste nor$s have #een !lexi#le %ith regard to the
selection o! $ates& There have #een increasing opportnities !or the !ree $ixing o! yong
$en and %o$en& Again the volntary associations have encoraged inter-caste $arriages&
As a reslt there have #een $ore inter-caste and inter-religios $arriage in the r#an
areas than earlier&
Thogh it has #een pointed ot that 2oint !a$ilies are #reaking do%n in the r#an areas&
--------------------
'ro#le$s o! :r#an Areas
nplanned r#anisation-sl$s-hygiene-tansport-health-polltion-environ$ental
degradation-antisocial ele$ents-$igration- ns!!icient %ater sppy- anadeBate
hosing&
:r#anisation along %ith %esternisation and $odernisationIrapid social change #oth in
rral and r#an areas&
MN Srinivas pointed ot that r#anisation in sothern India has a caste co$ponent and
that0 it %as the /rah$in %ho !irst le!t the village !or the to%ns and took advantage o!
%estern edcation and $odern pro!essions& At the sa$e ti$e as they retained their
ancestral lands they contined to #e at the top o! the rral socio-econo$ic hierarchy&
Again0 in the r#an areas they had a near $onopoly o! all non-$anal posts&
As a reslt o! $igration there has #een a !lo% o! r#an $oney into the rral areas&
*$igrants reglarly send $oney to their native villages& Sch $oney !acilitates the
dependants to clear o!! loans0 #ild hoses and edcate children&
Many cltral traits have e$erged in rral areas !ro$ r#an areas
dress0!ood0ideas0vales0thoghts0ideologies etc-de to increase in co$$nication0 radio0
television0 ne%spaper0 co$pter etc&
The di!!ering vie%points held #y varios sociologist %herein one expects r#anisation as
a leading !orce pshing Indian society to%ards $odernisation there#y trans!or$ing caste
into class0 %hile on the other hand sociologists like MN Srinivas points ot that it is
trans!or$ing caste old into caste ne% rather than changing caste into class0 so it is #etter
to #e called %esternisation than $odernisation&
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------
Sl$s and deprivations in r#an areas
Sl$ poplation acconts !or a s#stantial share o! r#an poplation in all types o! cities
in India& *ven a planned city like Chandigarh has not escaped sl$s&
Sl$s-s#standard hosing-over cro%ding-lack o! electri!ication-ventilation-sanitaion-
roads-drinking %ater !acilities- #reeding grond !or diseases-anti social ele$ents-
poverty-2venile delinBency-ga$#ling&
The National Institte o! :r#an A!!airs0 Ne% Delhi0 has recorded that the e$ergence o!
sl$s is
essentially the prodct o! three !orces(
1& "reater potential !or e$ploy$ent0 %hich attracts rral people>
2& incapacity to $eet the rising de$and !or hosing
@& The r#an policy doesnt allo% the poor to #y land&
Characteristics o! Sl$s(
-'oorly designed hosing on nathorised land&
-<ver-cro%ding and congestion&
-6ack o! p#lic tilities and !acilities0 sch as0 drainage0 sanitation0 %ater taps0 electric
light0
health centres0 co$$on latrines and p#lic parks0 etc
- high incidence o! deviant #ehavior sch as cri$e0 2venile delinBency0 prostittion0
drg se0
#eggary0 illegiti$acy0 illicit distilling o! liBor0 ga$#ling and other social evils are
associated %ith
sl$ areas& It does not $ean that all those residing in sl$s are necessarily associated
%ith
sch deviant #ehavior& The sl$ areas0 socially and physically provide greater
opportnity !or
sch kinds o! deviant #ehavior&
- Thogh the sl$-d%ellers are !nctionally integrated to the city li!e& These areas are
looked do%n pon and considered in!erior& Sch a reaction !ro$ the larger co$$nity
renders sl$s into social isolation0 detached !ro$ the city as a %hole&
- 'eople living in sl$s are not al%ays poor and $arginalised& 6ooking at the gro%ing
cost o! r#an land0 so$e o! the traders and land $a!ias encroach over the land in sl$s
and rent it ot& They %ait till the land gets athorised0 %hich sally happens 2st #e!ore
the election& There!ore sl$ operates as a #ig sorce o! pro!it !or the$&
- 'eople living in particlar sl$ largely co$e !ro$ one area there!ore they addresse to
each other in pri$ary kinship ter$s and !ollo% traditional !or$ o! ritals& There!ore
sl$s are
evolving into $ini cltral Centre&
MSA Rao advocate that sl$s are not the centres o! cltral poverty rather they are
centres o! cltral prosperity& 'eople living in sl$s glori!y0 practice and pro$ote their
cltre and considered otsiders as s!!ering !ro$ cltral poverty&
MS "ore conceded that sl$s and r#an gro%th are co$ple$entary to each other
#ecase !or the constrction o! roads0 #ildings $igrant %orkers co$e !ro$ di!!erent
pockets o! the contry& They o!!er their service at a cheaper rate to the $ainstrea$
occpation& =e !rther said that sl$ provides e$otional co$!ort to people and there!ore
sl$ is the li!eline o! r#anity0 itDs
the s%eet spot on the #eati!l !ace o! r#an India&
Marxist sociologist point ot that r#an centres develop ot o! the s%eat and #lood o!
poor people !or %hich they do not get any #ene!it& They !rther consider that $ost o! the
people
living in sl$s are accsed o! cri$e0 drg paddling and other kinds o! cri$inal activities&
Sl$s are
sed as a sorce o! cheap la#or #y the r#an pper and $iddle class and there!ore
gro%th o! sl$ is talking a#ot exploitation #et%een haves and have-nots in $odern
society&
"S "hrye- in his #ook Sociology o! sl$s sl$s are the other cltres that doesnt carry
co$$onalities %ith Sanskritik =ind cltre& There!ore protest $ove$ents co$ing ot
!ro$ the sl$ is Bestioning to the nity and integrity o! the Indian society&
In conclsion it can #e said that sl$s is not a challenge to r#an planners0 rather it is an
area o! sociological research that takes into consideration tha !actors like-1& Sl$s and
social change
2& !nctions and dys!nctions o! sl$s
@& sl$s and deviance
In!or$al Sector
In!or$al sectorIin!or$al econo$yI that part o! an econo$y that is not taxed0 $onitored
#y any !or$ o! govern$ent0 or inclded in any gross national prodct 4"N'5& In India
arond G-. o! the potential %orking poplation earn their living in the in!or$al sector&
Agricltral %orkers constitte #y !ar the largest seg$ent o! %orkers in the norganiFed
sector&
The in!or$al Nnorganised sector in India contines to re$ain #igger than the organised
sector in $any key respects in spite o! the large control over resorces and social
econo$ic po%er en2oy it #y the organised sector&
Despite its large0 s#stantial place in econo$y0 the norganised sector is a relatively
neglected sector in the arena o! p#lic policy spport and acade$ic discorse&
)eatres o! In!or$al sector(-
1& 6o% level o! organisation0 less than 1- e$ployess0 so$eti$es i$$ediate !a$ily
$e$e#ers
2& =eterogeneity in activities
@& *asy entry and exit than the !or$al sector
A& :sally lo% capital invest$ent0 no di!!erence #et%een capital and la#or
9& 6a#or intensive 2o#0 lo% level skills0 %orkers learn on the 2o#
;& *$plyoee and e$ployer relationship is in!or$al and n%ritten %ith little and no rights
G& De to their isolation and invisi#ility0 %orkers in the in!or$al sector are o!ten largely
na%are o! their rights0 cant organise the$ and have little negotiating po%er
Categories o! in!or$al sector(-
/ased on occpation- S$all and $arginal !ar$ers0 landless agricltral la#orers0 share
croppers0
!isher$en0 those engaged in ani$al hs#andry0 in #eedi rolling0 la#elling and packing0
#ilding and
constrction0 collection o! ra% hides and skins0 handloo$s %eaving in rral areas0 #rick
kilns and stone Barries0 sa% $ills0 oil $ills0 et cetera&
/ased pon natre o! e$ploy$ent( attached agricltral la#orers0 #onded la#orers0
$igrant
%orkers0 contract and casal la#orers et cetera&
Speci!ically distressed categories( scavengers0 carriers o! head loads0 drivers o! ani$al
driven
vehicles0 loaders0 noaders et cetera&
Service categories( $id%ives0 do$estic %orkers0 #ar#ers0 vegeta#le and !rit vendor is0
ne%spaper vendorDs et cetera&
'ro#le$s o! in!or$al sector(-
1& Rral agricltral la#or poor secrity o! tenre- lo% inco$e-inadeBate
diversi!ication o! econo$ic activities in rral areas- they are dispersed0norganised and
generally have poor #argaining po%er- seasonal %ork0so they $igarte to r#an centres !or
constrction %orks in o!! seasons&
2& Circ$stances !orce the$ to #orro% either !or cons$ption prposes or to $eet social
o#ligaions like $arriage et cetera0 !ro$ private sorces0 endp in #onded la#or in $any
cases&
@& The isses and pro#le$s o! ho$e #ased %orkers are very co$plex #ecase o! the
a#sence
o! any direct $aster-servant or e$ployer-e$ployee relationship #et%een the ho$e
%orker and the person or organiFation !or %ho$ he %orks& The relationship #eing
a$#igos and inde!inite0 the ho$e %orker is s#2ected to exploitation in varios !or$s&
In India0 there is no athentic data on ho$e #ased %orkers& <!!icial data sorces sch as
Censs o! India0 do not recogniFe these %orkers as an independent category #t have
inclded the$ in the #road category o! those %orking in hose-hold Indstries& =o$e
#ased %orkers are
not visi#le in national statistics& =o%ever0 it has #een esti$ated that over @ crore %orkers
in the
contry are ho$e #ased %orkers& *&g #eedi rolling0 handloo$ %eaving0 rral artisans and
cra!t persons0 agar#atti $akers0 Fari %orkers0 papad $akers0 co##lers0 lady tailors0
carpenters0 etc&
<ne o! the $a2or !eatres o! constrction indstry is that it is prone to risks o! accidents&
Ma2ority goes nreported&
sexal exploitation o! %o$en $igrant %orkers>
very less a$ont o! $oney paid in the !or$ o! %age>
$ost o! the $igrant %orkers in the in!or$al sector live in sl$s %ith poor sanitation
leading
to health haFard&
------------------
Social secrity $easres taken #y govern$ent !or %orkers in norganised sector
DS%avala$#an sche$e- National pension sche$e !or norganised sche$e
1&centrally !nded social assistance progra$s-S"S10 National social assistance sche$e0
e$ploy$ent assrance sche$e0 !a$ily #ene!its and $aternity #ene!its0
2&social insrance sche$e-Rashtriya S%asthya /i$a 1o2ana
@&social assistance throgh %el!are !nds o! Central and State govern$ents
A& p#lic initiatives
Several p#lic instittions and agencies are also i$parting varios kinds o! social secrity
#ene!its to the selected grop o! %orkers0 A$ong these Sel! *$ployed 8o$enDs
Association 4S*8A5 has $ade signi!icant achieve$ent in pro$oting social secrity
throgh the !or$ation o! cooperatives&
------------------------------
Child 6a#or in India
%orst !or$s o! child la#or %hich incldes Child Slavery0 Child prostittion0 Child
Tra!!icking0 Child Soldiers& <!!icial !igre o! child la#orers %orld %ide is 1@ $illion& /t
the actal n$#er is $ch higher&Cenya0So$alia0Nigeria0/angladesh0'akistan0India&
India has the d#ios distinction o! #eing the nation %ith the largest n$#er o! child
la#orers in the %orld&
They do not go to school> $ore than hal! o! the$ are na#le to learn the #arest skills o!
literacy& 'overty is one o! the $ain reasons #ehind this pheno$enon&
The nrelenting poverty !orces the parents to psh their yong children in all !or$s o!
haFardos occpations& In India the e$ergence o! child la#or is also #ecase o!
nsstaina#le syste$s o! landholding in agricltral areas and caste syste$ in the rral
areas&
The de#t that #inds the$ to their e$ployer is incrred not #y the children the$selves #t
#y their parent&
The arrange$ents #et%een the parents and contracting agents are sally in!or$al and
n%ritten& The n$#er o! years reBired to pay o!! sch a loan is indeter$inate& The
lo%er castes sch as Dalits and tri#al $ake the$ vlnera#le grops !or exploitation&
Migration to cities- <n arrival in overcro%ded cities the disintegration o! !a$ily nits
takes place throgh alcoholis$0 ne$ploy$ent or disillsion$ent o! #etter li!e etc& The
girls are !orced to %ork as sex -%orkers or #eggars& A large n$#er o! girls end p
%orking as do$estic %orkers on lo% %ages and nhealthy living conditions&
So$eti$es children are a#andoned #y their parents or sold to !actory o%ners& 6o% %ages
and lo% #argaining po%er& They se all $eans to lre the parents into giving their
children on pretext o! providing edcation and good li!e&
In the norganiFed sector child la#or is paid #y piece-#y-piece rates that reslt in even
longer hors !or very lo% pay&
The attitdes o! parents also contri#te to child la#or> so$e parents !eel that children
shold %ork in order to develop skills se!l in the 2o# $arket0 instead o! taking
advantage o! a !or$al edcation&
A!ter RT*-2--?0 no child can %ork in %age #ased e$ploy$ent #elo% the age o! 1A&
The /onded 6a#or Syste$ Act o! 1?G; !l!ills the Indian ConstittionDs directive o!
ending !orced la#or&
There are la%s governing the se o! $igrant la#or and contract la#or&
The Child 6a#or 4'rohi#ition and Reglation la%5 o! 1?,; designates a child as a person
%ho has
co$pleted their 1Ath year o! age& In light o! the Right o! Children to )ree and
Co$plsory *dcation Act0 2--?0 the /ill seeks to prohi#it e$ploy$ent o! children
#elo% 1A years in all occpations except %here the child helps his !a$ily a!ter school
hors&
Child la#or 4prohi#ition and reglation a$end$ent /ill 5 2-12-ne% ter$ adolescent-1A
to 1,- no haFardos indstry %ork&The 'rotection o! Children !ro$ Sexal <!!ences Act0
2-12------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----8orking Class0 Strctre0 "ro%th Class $o#ilisation
The Bestion %ho and %hat is %orking class is not an easy one to ans%er& There is a
pro#le$ o! %here to dra% the line& The di!!erence !rther extends in ter$s o! skill0 sex0
age0 inco$e and caste&
In the Marxian sche$e0 the capitalist society is characterised #y t%o principal classes(
#orgeoisie and proletariat& /orgeoisie o%ns the $eans o! prodction and proletariat
sell their la#or !or %ages in order to live&
India has a $lti-strctral econo$y %here a n$#er o! pre-capitalist relations o!
prodction co-exist %ith capitalist relations o! prodction&
"ro%th o! %orking class in India
The $odern %orking class ca$e into #eing %ith the rise o! capitalist $ode o! prodction&
This $ode o! prodction #roght %ith it the !actory type o! indstry& Conversely0 %ithot
a !actory indstry there can #e no %orking class #t only %orking people&
)or$ative periodI /ritish destroyed the artsan and handloo$ indstry %ithot replacing
the$ %ith $odern !actory syste$& A!ter the introdction o! Rail%ays and sporadic
gro%th o! so$e indstries0 the %orkers %ho had lost their livelihoods0 2oined as
disstressed la#orers&
*$ergence o! %orking classI8ith the gro%th o! $odern indstriesI si$ilar experience
and shared interests I !or$ation o! %orking class in the later hal! o! the 1?th centry&
=ence0 the consciosness o! #eing exploited #y the capitalistsN o%ners o! !actories %as
evident as
early as 1,,,0 %hen %orkers o! Shya$nagar 7te Mill assalted the $anager&That is0 the
reactions
against the exploitation in early phases %ere $arked #y riots0 a!!rays0 assalts and
physical violence&
Consolidation o! %orking classI end o! 1?th centry and #eginning o! 2-th centryI
organised national $ove$ents and consolidation o! the %orking class&
This political develop$ent %orked as a !avora#le condition !or the Indian %orking class
too !or $oving ahead %ith its econo$ic strggles and raising the$ to a higher pitch&
These strggles led to the laying o! the !ondation o! the !irst trade nions o! the contry&
Natre and strctre o! %orking class today(
$lti-strctral econo$y and e!!ects o! pri$ordial a!!iliations0 a variety o! !or$s o! the
%orking class exists in India&
)irst0 those %orkers %ho are per$anent e$ployees o! the large !actory sector and get
!a$ily %age & 4/y !a$ily %age it is $eant that the %age o! the %orker shold #e
s!!icient to $aintain not only the individal #t also the %orkers !a$ily5&
Second0 there is a large and preponderant section o! the %orking class that does not get a
!a$ily %age&This incldes %orkers in the older indstries like cotton and 2te textiles0
sgar and paper&
Third0 there is a section o! the %orking class at the #otto$ o! the %age scale the $ass o!
contract and so$eti$es casal la#orers in indstry0 inclding constrction0 #rick $aking
and other casal %orkers&
)orth0 #elo% all these lie a reserve ar$y o! la#or0 %ho %ork in petty co$$odities
prodction in petty trading0 ranging !ro$ ha%king to rag-picking& They are generally
engaged in the in!or$al sector and carry on !or the %ant o! s!!icient srvival %age&
/etter paid la#or has also $ch greater 2o# secrity& =o%ever the %orkers on the lo%er
end o! the
%age scale have not only 2o# secrity #t also considera#le extra-econo$ic coercion and
personal
#ondage %hich leads to lack o! civil rights& Si$ilarly0 %orking conditions !or the lo% paid
%orkers are
ni!or$ly %orse than !or high paid %orkers& So0 in the sa$e plant or site there is a clear
di!!erence
in the sa!ety $easres !or the t%o grops o! %orkers& The sitation %orsens !rther %ith
regard to
%o$en %orkers&
Social #ack grond o! Indian %orking class
This stdy points ot that in higher inco$e 2o#s pper castes do$inate %hereas
DalitsNadivasis have preponderance in lo% %age 2o#s&
The $iddle castes are concentrated in $iddle to #otto$ ranges& *ven in p#lic sector0 the
representation o! #ack%ard castes0 schedle castes and tri#es is not p to their proportion
in the
poplation&
Moreover0 it see$s that caste #ased division o! la#or is !ollo%ed in the class III and I3
2o#s in govern$ent and p#lic sector enterprises& So the 2o#s o! s%eepers are reserved !or
dalits and
adivasis& In coal $ines0 hard physical la#or o! loading and pshing the coal t#s is done
#y dalits and advasis& In steel plants the prodction %ork in the intense heat o! coke oven
and #last !rnace is
$ainly done #y advasis and dalits& This is #ecase o! pre la#or $arket characteristic
sch as
edcation and land holding&
The depressed conditions o! adivasis and dalits helps in ensring a spply o! la#or0 %ho
can #e $ade to %ork at the $ere s#sistence level & =ence0 caste on one hand plays a role
in keeping the lo%er sections o! the society in the lo%er strata o! the %orking class0 on
the other hand0 the pper caste get a privilege in the la#or $arket& )rther0 caste is not
only a $atter o! $arriage and to an extent residence0 #t $ore so a contining pool o!
social relation !or the spply o! varios kinds o! la#or !or the capitalist $ode o!
prodction&
8orking classis a co$plex0 contradictory and constantly changing entity& The concept o!
classconsciosness0 is very slippery %ith regard to the %orking class&
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----------
12-'olitics and Society
Nation
A nation a grop o! people %ho share-co$$on-langage-cltre-ethnicity-history etc&
/t in this de!inition a nations physical #orders is not considered& It can also #e seen as
people o! co$$on territory and govern$ent irrespective o! their ethnicity& In case o!
international relation any sovereign nation is considered as a nation&
Nationalis$-a political ideology-Modernist vie%0 it is the nationalis$ %ho creates
national identity& Nationalis$-a collective identity- people $st #e atono$os0 nited to
express a single national cltre&
Nationalis$-So$eti$es reactionary- calling !or a retrn to the national past-so$eti$es
!or the explsion o! !oreigners&
Nationalis$-so$eti$es revoltionary- calling !or an esta#lish$ent o! an independent
state as a ho$eland !or an ethnic nderclass&
The concept o! nation developed in the 8est&Nationalis$ got $o$ent$ as an ideology
dring the !reedo$ strggle&
Nationalis$ is needed !or political discorse-seclar credentials&
8hy seclaris$-%hen politicians take oath on the na$e o! god-presence o! god
every%here in p#lic li!e&
Rise o! cltral consciosness is contesting %ith seclar ideology& 8hy religion and
cltre is sed in the na$e o! natinalis$&)reedo$ strggle-nationalis$ ot o! religion
and cltre& /anki$ Chandra said that nationalis$ is not a political agenda #t the $oral
dty o! the people #orn in this particlar territory to protect their $otherland&
A!ter !reedo$ strggle %e changed attention !ro$ nationalist state to inclsive0
de$ocratic0 socialist and plralistic nation&
A$#edkar %as critical o! "andhis philosophy o! cltral nationalis$& Dring 1?@-s
secessionist $ove$ent %as started in Soth India as a !ear that a!ter Independence Aryan
cltre %ill #e i$posed on the$ there#y Bestioning their identity& They considered
=indis$ as an aggressive ideology&
A$artya Sen tells that nationalis$ is a !or$ o! religios revivalis$ that is attacking to
individal !reedo$0 seclar character o! the contry0 accelerating co$$nal tension and
ptting the develop$ent progra$$es and %el!are $easres at the #ackseat&
TN Madan considered at cltral revivalis$ and glori!ication o! co$$nal politics is a
natral pheno$enon in a society like India& In India people are so co$$itted to cltre in
ter$s o! langage0 speech0 !ood0 $arriage and ritals that #ringing religion #ack to p#lic
sphere is never di!!iclt&
Andre /eteille considered that search !or nationalis$ is not relevant to conte$porary
ti$es %hen illiteracy0 deprivation0 poverty0 gender isse are so greatly a!!ecting to the rise
o! India as a plralistic seclar state&
D6 7oshi consider that nationalis$0 its evoltion0 gro%th and decline $st #e stdied in
the context o! ti$e& =e indicates that glori!ication o! nationalis$ in conte$porary ti$es
can #e attri#ted to the !ollo%ing !actors( cltral nationalis$ perceived as a $echanis$
to ni!y people in past-political parties are trying to evoke cltral consciosness to get
$axi$$ political spport& 'ro#le$s like cross-#order terroris$ $ani!est hostility
#et%een India and 'akistan is #eing sed as a pretext !or the glori!ication o! =ind
revivalis$ that e$phasises on the rise o! strong state that can pt a stop on the nisance
o! hostile neigh#ors&
India %as never a ni!ied nation #ecase di!!erent co$$nities and cltre located at
di!!erent regions %ere speaking di!!erent langages0 practising di!!erent cltre0
exhi#iting the character o! diversity& There!ore nationalis$ %as constred agenda dring
!reedo$ strggle in India& /ringing #ack the spirit o! nationalis$ today can only develop
sspicion0 hatred and con!lict a$ong varios sections o! society to split Indian to
di!!erent pieces&
Ra$chandra "ha indicates that people o! India go !or di!!erential nationalis$ re2ecting
otrightly cltral nationalis$ and !e% o! these di!!erential nationalis$ are cricket
nationalis$0 Cargil nationalis$0 Nationalis$ to sy$pathise %ith tsna$i victi$s etc
%hich needs to #e appreciated&
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------
De$ocracy
De$ocracy is a !or$ o! govern$ent in %hich all people have an eBal say in the
decisions that a!!ect their lives& It can also enco$pass social0 econo$ic and cltral
conditions that ena#le the !ree and eBal practice o! political sel!-deter$ination&
De$ocracy is not only a political syste$ #t an ideal0 an aspiration to lead a digni!ied
li!e&
*Bality and !reedo$ have #oth #een identi!ied as i$portant characteristics o! de$ocracy
since ancient ti$es& All citiFens #eing eBal #e!ore the la% and having eBal access to
legislative processes&e&g in a representative de$ocracy0 every vote has eBal %eight&
)air co$petitive elections- !reedo$ o! expression and press- capacity o! individals to
participate !reely and !lly in the li!e o! their society&
India-largest de$ocracy-eBality-li#erty-!raternity-2stice-'rea$#le-!nda$ental right
and D'S's-spirit o! de$ocracy&
De$ocracy in theory not in practice- There is ineBality in every sphere- social0
econo$ic and political& Illiteracy is the $ain case o! ineBality-vote #ank politics-po%er
a#se-nepotis$-corrption-poor gets poorer-cri$inal politicians etc
'rogressed in $any aspects- "reen revoltion-!ood grains s!!icient-!ood secrity #ill-
polio eradication etc-Nota-ev$-vi#rant press-pressre grops-civil soicety activis$-
2diciary activis$&
De$ocracy de$ands !ro$ the co$$on $an- rational condct- intelligent nderstanding
o! p#lic a!!air- nsel!ish devotion to p#lic interest and political a%areness&
In a de$ocracy %here civil society is stronger0 people are en2oying their citiFenship right
to the !llest& 8hen %e talk a#ot state and citiFenship %e cannot ignore the role o! civil
society& The %hole concept o! civil society evolved !ro$ 8estern speci!ically co!!ee-
hose in /ritain0 Salons in )rance and Ta#le "rops in "er$any %hich are considered as
the roots o! civil society& At these places di!!erent isses %ere discssed leading to a
particlar p#lic opinion %hich %as then p#lished in ne%spapers0 $agaFines etc& A!ter
1??-s civil society has #eco$e very strong in India and have taken pon itsel! varios
isses concerning people like corrption0 environ$ent0 %o$en isses0 edcation0 child
la#or etc&
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-----------------------
CitiFenship
A citiFen is one %ho participates in the process o! govern$ent& In a de$ocratic society0
there $st #e a t%o-%ay tra!!ic #et%een the citiFens and the govern$ent&
'erson %ho is rled #y la%s #t %ho has no political rights is not a citiFen&
A citiFen $st have econo$ic rights0 political rights and social rights&
Social citiFenship( it gives an individal right to eBality on the #asis o! gender0 caste0
religion0 langage&
'olitical citiFenship ( it is right to people to register protest0 !reedo$ o! speech and
expression0 right to vote&
India is a de$ocratic contry #t people are not en2oying de$ocratic rights #ecase o!
ineBalities e&g& rral poplation&
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------
'olitical 'arties
A political organisation %hich in!lences policy $aking0 people o! a political party share
sa$e ideas0as to ho% the contry %ill #e governed& They hold political o!!ice to enact
ne% la%s and to alter old la%s&
In case o! India even i! political parties are going !or coalition they are not sharing
co$$on ideology and so they re$ain divided and hence lack sta#ility&
)irst political party %hich evolved ot o! $ass $ove$ent i&e& Indian !reedo$ strggle
%as Congress& 'eople !ro$ every %alk o! li!e %ere party to !reedo$ strggle and
there!ore Congress had the advantage o! incorporating the$ all %ithin its a$#it and en2oy
a#solte po%er !or al$ost @ decades&
Dring 1?G-s green revoltion reslted into sccess and prosperity %hich led to
increasing political aspiration a$ong people there#y %e cold see the e$ergence o! ne%
political parties& 1?,9 on%ards %e see a seachange in party syste$ in India& )or the !irst
ti$e Congress took spport !ro$ regional parties to constitte govern$ent nder '3
Narasi$ha Rao& =ence regional party got $o$ent$& This led to the e$ergence o!
politics o! coalition&
Coalition politics has reslted into horse trading and a!!ecting political ideology redcing
Indianpolitics into skeletal de$ocracy& Ra2ni Cothari contradicting to the a#ove state$ent
indicates that %ith centralised party syste$0 regional interest and local interests %ere not
glori!ied& As a reslt political aspiration o! $any %ere getting sidelined& The gro%th o!
s$all political parties and their gro%ing signi!icance in conte$porary politics in India is
$aking Indian politics )ederal in character leading to inclsive governance&
Mlti-party syste$ has $ade Indian politics inclsive and people centric& It is evident
!ro$ the !act that !orgetting their ideology0 coalition partners are introdcing policies like
National Rral *$ploy$ent "arantee Sche$e0 hosing sche$es0 road%ays progra$$e
to prove that govern$ent is not only servicing #t %orking as !nctional govern$ent to
!l!ill the needs and aspirations o! the people& There!ore neither regional party nor
coalition govern$ent can #e considered as !ailre o! de$ocracy #ecase they are $aking
Indian society a plralistic de$ocracy&
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------
'ressre grops
'ressre gropIinterest gropIlo##y gropIprotest gropIdoes not pt p candidates !or
electionI #t seeks to in!lence govern$ent policy or legislation&
i! necessary0 in their interest0 they $ay spport one political party or the other0 and try to
in!lence legislation and exective decisions #y sing varios $ethods o! exercising
pressre on the govern$ent o! the day&
8hen a grop carries on its !nction o! pressrising $e$#ers o! the legislatre #y
contacting the$ in the parlia$entary galleries0 the practice is kno%n as lo##ying& 8est
lo##ying vs indian lo##ying&
8ithot seeking govern$ent 2o#s or entering the legislatres0 the interest and pressre
grops do play a vital role in conte$porary de$ocracies in the decision-$aking process&
Types o! pressre grops-
Instittional Interest "rops- !or$ally organised %hich consist o!pro!essional e$ployed
persons #reacrats-ar$y personnel etc&
Associational Interest "rops-organised0 specialist grops-trade nions-#siness grops-
)ICCI-CII-Indian cha$#ers o! co$$erce&
Ano$ic interest grop-grops have individal sel!-representation- These grops are
!or$ed in the shape o! $ove$ent0 de$onstrations 0proceedings0 signatre ca$paigns0
street corner $eetings etc&
Non-Associational Interest "rops( These are the kinship and lineage grops having
ethnic0 regional0 stats and caste grops&
Natre o! pressre grops in India-
/siness grops- )ICCI0 CII-!ro$ the ti$e #e!ore independence-dring pre #dget
period- govt takes inpts !ro$ theses grops
Trade nions- !ro$ pre independence ti$e- %ork throgh %eapons o! strike etc&
'easant organisations- a#olition o! Fa$indari syste$- i$ple$enation o! panchayati ra2
syste$- land re!or$ s $easres-green revoltion& All india kisan sa#ha 1?@;& All india
kisan congress& Akhila #haratiya kisan sangh& /haratiya kisan party etc&
Stdent organisations- all #engal stdent associaltion 1?2,- all india stdent !ederation
1?@;- national stdents nion o! India NS:I Stdent !ederation o! India S)I- Akhil
/haratiya 3idyarthhy 'arishsd A/3'-sdent grops associated %ith political parties&
Co$$nity associations- #ased on religion0 class and region etc& 3ish%a =ind 'arishad0
Northern and Sothern India christian con!erence&
Caste pressre grops- caste panchayats-caste #ased politics-SC !ederation0#ack%ard
caste !ederation etc&
Mass Media- print $edia0 electronic $edia and social $edia exterting pressre on
govern$ent&
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------
Social and 'olitical elites
An elite is a grop o! relatively s$all siFe0 that is do$inant %ithin a large society0 having
a privileged stats& 'olitical elite concept developed in the :nited States0 a!ter the Second
8orld 8ar& 'areto and Mosca are the chie! exponents o! this concepts&
'olitical elites in India-
'olitical elites in India #e!ore independence ca$e !ro$ pper-$iddle class& These leaders
%ere sally !oreign edcated and at high and good contacts& They %ere intellectals #t
did not like to $ix %ith the co$$on $an %ho$ they considered as lo% person %ith no
po%er o! nderstanding-r#an #ase- no $ass contact&
A!ter constittion- eBality and eBal access !or all !or political po%er- So$e o! the elites
no% have #egn to e$erge !ro$ the rral areas and even !ro$ $iddle and lo%er $iddle
classes- $ass appeal a$ong their caste and region people& /y and large Indian political
elite still co$es !ro$ pper-$iddle class&
"reen revoltion has prodced ne% elite grop&
In India no% the people #elonging to schedled castes and schedled Tri#es and other
#ack%ard classes %ho cold never think o! #eco$ing political elite0 have 2oined the high
rank o! political elite& So$e o! the$ hold great po%er and position and also high prestige0
there!ore no% in India political po%er #elong to all sections o! society %hich has dilted
the role and n$#er o! political elites giving Indian de$ocracy %ide coverage&
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Regionalis$
Region re!ers to a geographic territory %here one lives& It is not 2st the love !or region
#t the senti$ents attached %ith the territory0 love !or cltral aspects o! that particlar
region0 love !or csto$ and vales o! that region&
Classical theory- regionalis$ and nationalis$ are engaged in dialectics %ith each other-
Regional consciosness is !ast entering into s#national consciosness %hich is leading
to separatist tendencies paving the %ay !or the division o! India&
The isses like poverty0 ne$ploy$ent etc have taken a #ack seat and regionalis$ is
glori!ied %hich !rther encorages ineBality& In order to nderstand regionalis$ today
%e have to nderstand its roots& In India %e have ;--- dialects0 9-- di!!erent langages
ot o! %hich only !e% langages are recognised i&e& en2oy o!!icial stats&
Dring 1?9-s reconstrction o! Indian State on the #asis o! langage so%ed the seeds !or
regional aspirations %hich is prevalent even today& In a region %e !ind people speaking
di!!erent dialects and %hen people !ind ot that langage is the $ain criteria !or
recognition o! state 4organisation o! state on lingistic #asis5 people trans!or$ their
dialects into langage& people having regional consciosness !ind no pro#le$ !or
de$anding state&The conte$porary regional $ove$ent is the reslt o! t%o reasons i&e&
overdevelop$ent in so$e areas and nderdevelop$ent in other areas&
In North *ast India there is no single criteria on the #asis o! %hich one can create a state
#ecase every tri#e is di!!erent !ro$ the other %hich creates #ig pro#le$ !or govern$ent
and so the concept o! nion territories co$e into play&
/t there is a contrasting vie%point %hich has #een pt !or%ard #y varios sociologist
%ho do not consider regionalis$ as divisive !orce& Ra2ni Cothari #elieves that regional
$ove$ent is a search !or political aspirations that is $aking Indian de$ocracy co$petent
and strong&
'artho Chatter2ee indicates that regionalis$ is a challenge to nationalis$& Dring the
early phase o! Indian nationalis$ regionalis$ #eca$e an i$portant instr$ent !or
national aspirations #t in conte$porary context 0 Bestions like develop$ent0
nderdevelop$ent0 e$po%er$ent and po%erlessness0 relative deprivation are the giding
!orce #ehind regionalis$&
S$all is not al%ays #eati!l is evident !ro$ gro%ing poverty in case o! Chhattisgarh as
co$pared to $ini$$ poverty in 'n2a#& A s$all state cannot garantee happiness& It is
evident !ro$ or crrent position %here !ailre o! the state to address the deprivation o!
the people has given %ay to acceleration o! naxalite $ove$ent& In the %hole o! North
*ast India people are !ighting on the #asis o! ethnic identity0 s# ethnic identity and s#
s# ethnic identity %hich #rings !or%ard the conclsion that s$all states are not al%ays
#etter governed and there is no end to peoples aspirations !or po%er&
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Decentralisation o! 'o%er
It is not 2st an instittion #orro%ed !ro$ 8est #t an experience %hich every section o!
society in their everyday li!e goes throgh& "andhi2i !ocsed pon governance !ro$
#elo% i&e setting p o! instittion o! 'anchayati Ra2 to address e!!ectively the pro#le$s o!
the people at the grassroot level&
8hen /ritish ca$e to India- introdce +a$indari syste$ -atocratic and coercive po%er
reslting into the collapse o! traditional strctre&
/al%ant Rai Mehta co$$ittee- constitted in 1?92- gave its report in 1?9?- !irst
'anchayati Ra2 instittions in Ra2asthan- three tier syste$ i&e& village level0 #lock level0
district level& Its o#2ective %as to go !or sel!-governance %herein $e$#er o! village
panchayat sitting together %old take p isses related to everyday li!e like health0 rral
develop$ent0 sanitation etc
India is kno%n in the %orld !or political decentralisation& /t there is a point to it India
has political decentralisation #t not ad$inistrative decentralisation&
All o!!icial proceedings o! the 'RIDs can #e alteredNrevie%ed #y the state to its
convenience& State #ehaves like a #ig #rother0 their policies and !inances and other
processes are continosly scrtinise the state& State is also e$po%ered to sspend any
'RI instittion0 o!!icer any ti$e on the #asis o! ine!!iciency and so the $e$#ers o!
'anchayati Ra2 donDt have any !nctional atono$y&
Sarpanchati-rral lo%er caste %o$en-illsion o! %o$en e$po%er$ent&
Introdction o! ne% 'RI has led to contest #et%een old traditional po%erholders and ne%
aspirants o! po%er& There have #een instances in Soth India %hen Dalit %ere not
per$itted to cast vote in 'RI election& Their votes %ere cast #y other people& /ooth
captring and $scle po%er is pro$inent and hence traditional hierarchy still persist
there!ore ne% 'RI is like old %ine in a ne% #ottle&
3ellpra$ village incident- The 'RI election %as %on #y a Dalit %o$an& She pro$ised
her electorates that once she ca$e to po%er she %ill ensre drinking %ater !or the $asses&
As per her pro$ise she took all necessary steps to ensre %ater spply #t do$inant caste
in order to prse their do$inance raped and $rdered her in #road daylight& This
incident le!t a Bestion $ark on the !nctioning o! this $odern instittion in traditional
society&
Ra$pra village incident -In this village in Ra2asthan %hen a Dalit %o$en ca$e to hoist
the national !lag dring 19 Agst she %as #eaten #rtally as to ho% can she play the role
$eant !or do$inant caste&
8alter )ernandes indicates that 'RIs are !acing serios pro#le$ as it is trying to #ring in
the Bestion o! civil rights0 de$ocratic rights into society %hich is driven #y cltre o!
caste0 patriarchy since ancient ti$es& In case o! Ra2asthan there are instances %hen Dalit
Sarpanch is $ade to sit on the !loor %hile other $e$#ers o! the 'anchayati Ra2 sit on the
chair& 'RIDs $eetings are initiated #y $e$#ers #elonging to higher classNcaste than #y
Sarpanch #elonging to lo%er caste& This dichoto$y indicates ho% 'RIDs have not really
e$po%ered the s#altern grops like Dalits0 tri#es and %o$en&
"ail o$vedt considers this kind o! con!lict as a !ailre o! 'anchayati Ra2 instittions
%hich has not #roken any grond to #ring change in the po%er strctre in village India&
Re2ecting to the concept o! Sarpanchpati Calpana Shah indicate that e$po%er$ent o!
%o$en in a hierarchical society can only co$e in a phased $anner& The %o$en Sarpanch
%ho are not proxy leaders are going throgh a period o! pro#ation& She points ot that
po%er is in#ilt in %o$en and that they %ill #e exercising it in the $ost appropriate ti$e&
She considers that 'RIDs have really e$po%ered %o$en or at least it has given a #oost !or
their sel!-assertion&
'RIDs have %orked %ell in states like Cerala0 Carnataka and 8est /engal& In case o!
Carnataka it has given $o$ent$ to %o$en e$po%er$ent& Mtal sel!-help grops
have evolved nder the patronage o! 'RIDs in Carnataka& In case o! 8est /engal it has
$ade people political sensitive %ho are no $ore %illing to accept any nisance !ro$
di!!erent political leaders any longer& 'RIDs have introdced a political revoltion in the
$icroscopic strctre o! Indian society&
=o%ever a $a2or threat to 'RIDs is co$ing !ro$ non-govern$ent organisation 4N"<5&
The isses taken p #y N"<s are delivering i$$ediate reslts there!ore people are
#acking the intervention o! N"<s in rral develop$ent progra$$e than si$ply %anting
'RIDs&
'RIDs thogh #ringing revoltion in $icro-politics o! India0 its spport #ase is Bite
!ragile& %hen social trans!or$ation takes place in traditional society driven #y
hierarchical principles there is a#sence o! strctral condciveness !or change and so
con!licts #eco$e inevita#le& Sociologically speaking these contradictions are
$ani!estations o! strctral ad2st$ent !or %hich one cannot otrightly conceptalised
that the experience o! 'RIDs is an a#solte !ailre& Ths IndiaDs experience %ith 'RI is not
a story o! co$plete strctral #reakdo%n #t the story o! continity and change&
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SeclariFation
Seclaris$ is a %estern ideology initiated dring the Renaissance %hen people started
Bestioning the <rthodox Chrch& 8hen the in!lence o! the Chrch do$inated the
decision-$aking o! the state0 only spirital needs o! individals %ere !l!illed and other
needs like gender eBality0 poverty0 ne$ploy$ent %ere not addressed& In :S religion
keeps a%ay !ro$ p#lic #t on the contrary in India people $ix-p their p#lic position
%ith seclar position&
It %as realised that $an and religion in India are so greatly e$#edded that India cannot
go !or nonreligios society like Co$$nist contries there!ore it has #een speci!ically
$entioned in the Constittion that every religion has !reedo$ to preach0 practice and
propagate its o%n religios vales and no citiFen o! the contry %ill #e discri$inated on
the gronds o! religion&
Indian seclaris$ stands on the pre$ise o! plralis$&
TN Madan and Ashish Nandy consider that seclaris$ %ill a niBe experience in Indian
context #ecase love !or religion is so intensive and reglar in case o! India that %e have
never seen a single sphere %ithot co$$nal con!lict since IndiaDs independence& They
#elieve that religion is in the #lood o! people o! India that strongly in!lenced to their
choice o! $arriage0 !ood #ehavior0 pattern o! thinking0 interpersonal
elations and there!ore to separate $an in India !ro$ religion is a#soltely i$possi#le&
Ths %hen constittion tries to separate religion !ro$ p#lic sphere0 it slo%ly enters into
p#lic do$ain in one !or$ or the other&
Ashish Nandy indicates that $ore India $oves in the direction o! $odernity0 higher is the
acceleration o! co$$nal con!lict& In!or$ation technology0 television and
teleco$$nications acts as an accelerating $edi$ to spread co$$nally charged
$essages in a #ig %ay in conte$porary India& There!ore seclar edcation0 seclar
e$ploy$ent in no %ay has sppressed the co$$nal passion and co$$nalis$ in India
is a %ay o! li!e and thinking o! seclaris$ is a di!!iclt proposition&
These arg$ents o! anti-seclarist natre is re2ected #y varios sociologists %ho $akes
se o! certain speci!ic scales to stdy the degree o! seclaris$ possi#le in any given
society-
Oto %hat extent the religion is prepared to go !or internal re!or$s- to %hat extent one
religion is prepared to coexist %ith other religion-to %hat extent one religion is prepared
to #orro% attri#tes !ro$ other religion and pass it on-and !inally to %hat extent a state
can o!!er eBalitarian space to every religion $aintaining a sa!e distance !ro$ every
religion %hile discharging seclar responsi#ilities&
Ceeping in vie% the a#ove scale to $easre any society it can #e advocated that no
society is prely seclar and no society is prely anti-seclar or sacred&
A$artya Sen considers hi$sel! as non-re!or$ist sociologist along %ith Andre /eteille
and :pendra /akshi and indicate that Indian state is dty #ond to protect its seclar
credentials #y paying eBal respect to all religions& I! any religios co$$nity #y virte
o! its siFe tries to seiFe the govern$ent throgh poplar $andate0 Constittional
provisions shold #e deterring the$ to cherish their distinctive religios goals& There!ore
Indian seclaris$ is not positioned at a %eak space #ecase the cort o! la%0 the
Constittion o! India stand as an o#stacle to challenges co$ing to it&
The seclaris$ in India is a niBe experience& It has #een challenged #y di!!erent !orces
at di!!erent points o! ti$e #t has never cr$#led do%n co$pro$ising %ith the
principles o! plralis$ and eBality !or %hich one can conclde that Indian seclaris$ is
Indian seclaris$> itDs neither %eak nor strong and not a replica o! seclaris$ in the 8est&
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1@-Social $ove$ents in $odern India
8ith the gro%ing consciosness 0 people are co$ing !or%ard in large n$#ers and it has
#eco$e di!!iclt !or the state to ignore the de$and o! the people and introdce its o%n
%ishes& There is a dialectical relationship #et%een state and people&
Dring di!!erent points o! ti$e in Indian history identity $ove$ent have also taken place
so that everyone has a space in society0 every individal is !ree and that they do not to
hide their actal identity in !ront o! others e&g& ho$osexals0 transgenders&
8herever $arginaliFation0 exploitation is cased in extre$e !or$ it leads to protest
%hich s#seBently trans!or$s itsel! into a $ove$ent throgh ideological in2ection e&g&
civil rights $ove$ent in A$erica nder the leadership o! A#raha$ 6incoln %here #lacks
%ere nited to !ight against hnger and discri$ination #y the state and people alike&
Dring the colonial rle0 the tri#al areas %ere least inter!ered %ith as it %as thoght that it
is di!!iclt0 costly and c$#erso$e to ad$inister these areas& =ence it %as $issionaries
%ho landed in those places to %ork& /t so$e tri#al areas %ere highly resorce!l and so
they %ere highly exploited&
'rotestant $ove$ents in case o! India can #e divided into three distinctive stages i&e&(
Social religios $ove$ent %hich got $o$ent$ #e!ore !reedo$ strggle&
*cono$ic and political $ove$ent dring the !reedo$ strggle&
Identity and isse-#ased $ove$ent in conte$porary India&
'rotest is not overreaction o! a grop o! people to the action o! others& <ne goes !or
protest #ecase the action o! others are not accepta#le #y the$& 'rotest is al%ays a
registration against the voice o! do$inance& 'rotest is re$inder to the state that it has
li$ited po%er& 'rotest $ove$ent %ill #e $axi$$ in a de$ocratic setp&
Collective action can #e the !ondation to social $ove$ent #t it is not necessary that
al%ays collective action %ill #e leading to social $ove$ent& )or instance ne% social
$ove$ents are $ostly isse-#ased like environ$ental $ove$ents0 anti-%ar $ove$ents0
civil rights $ove$ent etc that involve people !ro$ di!!erent sections o! society asking
the$ to !or$ di!!erent kinds o! $o#ilisation&
Collective action is not 2st the !ondation to social $ove$ent0 it $ay #e having a larger
appeal as %ell&
A$artya Sen( Collective action shold #e engineered !or collective %ell-#eing&
'articipation in $any edcational progra$s0 a%areness ca$paigns0 electoral policies are
exa$ples o! collective action !or collective %ell-#eing %hich is instr$ental !or the rise
o! an inclsive society&
Sstaina#le develop$ent approach !or%arded #y 3andana Shiva indicate that 2oint !orest
$anage$ent sche$e0 %asteland $anage$ent0 %atershed $anage$ent involve the
contesting co$$nities accelerating collective action !or co$$on %ell-#eing& In
$acroscopic plane one !inds ot collective action is initiated #y all contries o! the %orld
in areas o! environ$ental protection0 a#se o! nclear po%er0 h$anitarian aids0 and
political peace& Ths collective action shold not only #e stdied !ro$ a single standpoint
%hich consider it as a tool !or class con!lict0 revoltion and social change&
'reviosly social $ove$ents %ere highly organised0 ideologically charged& /t social
$ove$ents today are $ore re!lexive0 reactionary0 isse-#ased and te$poral& Social
$ove$ents can #e distingished !ro$ protest and collective action on the grond that
social $ove$ent is progra$$ed #t 'rotest and collective action are not necessarily
progra$$ed&
The social $ove$ent !or its sccess has to !l!il a n$#er o! preconditions like(
Isses Identi!ication&
Identi!ication and expansion o! spport #ase&
Creation o! strctral condciveness&
Crystallisation o! ideology&
*voltion o! leadership&
"ro%th o! organisational characteristics&
Allocation o! responsi#ility&
Social $ove$ent passes throgh di!!erent stages %hich incldes excite$ent stage
4identi!ication o! isses50 consolidation stage 4propaganda and search !or $ass spport50
crystallisation stage 4rise o! leadership0 p#lication o! literatre50 $atrity stage 4in2ection
o! ideology and allocation o! responsi#ility50 resoltion stage 4acco$plish$ent o! goals
and decline o! social $ove$ent5&
8hen a social $ove$ent dies ot0 it $ay give rise to a political party or the resides o!
social $ove$ent %ill operate as a re$inder o! past& Social $ove$ents can #e classi!ied
into di!!erent types on the #asis o! their appeal and capa#ilities to introdce change like(
Trans!or$ative Move$ent that $akes so$e atte$pt to prodce a#solte change&
Radical $ove$ent that $akes so$e atte$pt to se violent $easres to $ake so$e
changes&
Restorative $ove$ent %hich gives i$portance to the restoration o! so$e vales and
ideals !or the co$$on %ell-#eing o! people&
Re!or$ative $ove$ent %hich $akes an atte$pt to eli$inate non-progressive stereotype
ideas and vales !ro$ the li!e o! people and searches !or progress and happiness&
Rede$ptive $ove$ent %hich $akes people to change their opinion a#ot the existential
condition instead o! changing the condition&
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'easants and !ar$ers $ove$ent
'easant re!ers to s$all prodcers %ho are controlling a s$all piece o! !a$ily land0 sing
si$ple technologies0 !a$ily la#or to grati!y their cons$ption needs& /et%een $an and
land there is e$otional relationship in peasants society& To its contrast !ar$ers prodce
!or $arket and so they vie% their land also !ro$ econo$ic perspective and so land is a
sorce o! pro!it !or the$& I! land !ails to $ake pro!it !ar$ers go !or other !or$s o!
occpation a#andoning agricltre %hich is not so in case o! peasant& There!ore
conceptalising agrarian $ove$ent as peasant $ove$ents or !ar$ers $ove$ent is a
great sociological challenge&4!ar$er vs peasant5
In India there is present $ltiple $odes o! prodction&
In so$e pockets o! the contry there are peasants0 $edi$ !ar$ers0 s$all and
$arginalised !ar$ers %ho do not $ake a hge $argin o! pro!it !ro$ land and landless
peasants&
In so$e areas o! the contry capitalist agricltre has developed %hich has led to
$igration o! agricltral %orkers !ro$ the poor regions to these !lorishing regions in
search o! e$ploy$ent0 there!ore the con!lict #et%een land and agricltre class and
landless la#orers is potentially a#sent in green revoltion #elt&
In so$e other areas $iddle !ar$ers have #een organised0 they have received spport !ro$
state and organised cooperatives to i$prove their econo$ic conditions and so in this case
also the con!lict #et%een the$ and agricltral la#orers is $ostly n!ond&
In certain pockets o! the contry traditional !or$ o! landlordis$ is present& Con!lict is
!ond here&Ar$ed re#ellion&
"ail <$vedt %rites that in case o! India the participants o! agrarian $ove$ent are tri#es0
lo%er caste0 ethnic $inority %ho is $ore or less %ere landless since historic ti$es
there!ore peasant !ar$er $ove$ent cannot #e disassociated !ro$ Dalit $ove$ent and
tri#al $ove$ents&
)edal $ode o! agricltre is still in practice in case o! /ihar0 M'0 *astern :ttar 'radesh
and certain pockets o! <rissa& There is also se$i!edal $ode o! agricltre practised in
Ra2asthan0 Andhra 'radesh& Se$i-capitalist $ode o! agricltre prodction can #e !ond
in Maharashtra0 Ta$il Nad0 Carnataka and pockets o! Andhra 'radesh& And lastly
capitalist agricltre $ode o! prodction can #e !ond in 'n2a#0 =aryana and 8estern
:ttar 'radesh&
So$e sociologists consider that $ove$ents initiated dring IndiaDs !reedo$ strggle
shold #e considered as peasant $ove$ent %hereas a!ter IndiaDs independence the
agrarian $ove$ent shold #e considered as !ar$ers $ove$ent&
*ven A R Desai $akes a distinction #et%een t%o ti$e!ra$es i&e& protest dring colonial
period and protest dring postcolonial period&
so$e sociologist #elieve that it is conceptally di!!iclt to distingish not only peasant
$ove$ents !ro$ !ar$ers #t also agrarian $ove$ent !or$ social and religios
$ove$ents&
In India peasants and !ar$ers $ove$ents %ere initiated as econo$ic organisation
highlighting the Bestions like landlessness0 inde#tedness0 tenancy rights #t
s#seBently people got nionised !orging their class identity on the #asis o! cltre and
religion&
Moplah $ove$ent0 *ka $ove$ent and 'easant Re#ellion in case o! /engal vertically
divided the people on the #asis o! cltre and religion&
This is contradictory to MarxDs nderstanding o! class-action %hen he says that classes is
a sorce peoples ni!ication #ecase in case o! India peasants #elonging to =ind
co$$nity spported =ind landlords in /engal rather than 2oining hands %ith Msli$
peasants&
JJ'easant $ove$ent dring /ritish 'eriod
/ritish introdced the exploitative 6and Tenre Syste$ %ith Ryot%ari syste$ in %estern
and sothern India and +a$indari syste$ in eastern and northern India& These t%o
distinctive Syste$s o! 6and Tenre Syste$ gave %ay to the rise o! !edal 6ords0 s#
!edal 6ords0 s# s# !edal 6ords there #y giving rise to the evoltion o! large #ody o!
leisre class living on the exploitation o! peasants in India&
*xploitative taxation and introdction o! cash crops co$pletely paralysed s#sistence
prodction& 'easants %ere exploited #y #oth 6andlords and exploitative $arket o!
/ritish& =ence $ove$ent in di!! parts o! contry Sanyasi 3idroh0 Indigo Move$ent0
Cha$paran Move$ent0 /ardoli Move$ent0 *ka Move$ent0 Moplah Re#ellion0 /irsa
Mnda Move$ent&
The a#ove-$entioned $ove$ents had t%o $a2or conseBences(-
-!orgetting the lingistic and regional di!!erences 0driven #y co$$on interest the entire
contry got ni!ied together and started protesting against the /ritish&
-peasant $ove$ent o!!ered plat!or$ !or the rise o! localised leadership in varios parts o!
the contry %hich #eca$e the precrsor to the national $ove$ent in India&
AR Desai considers that peasant $ove$ent in India is the $other o! IndiaDs nationalist
$ove$ent&
JJCisan Sa#ha Move$ent
1?2G-Cisan sa#ha %as !or$ed to sa!e gard peasants interests and to protect the$
exportation o! landlords0 $oney lenders and exploitative colonial regi$e& All the leaders
o! early peasant $ove$ent got associated %ith Cisan Sa#ha $ove$ent& This $ove$ent
introdced Cisan Sa#ha in every village0 sti$lating the peasant to control village land
and go !or cooperative !ar$ing0 evict a#sentee landlord !ro$ the land and on $any
occasions also pro$oted $ilitaristic $ethod to eli$inate the inter$ediaries control over
the land&
Many landlords0 s# landlords and s# s# landlords took p leadership o! Cisan Sa#ha
$ove$ent exhi#iting consensal attitde to%ards peasants and agricltre !ar$ers& It %as
spelt ot all over the contry that the real exploiters o! Indian peasantry are not local
Fa$indars rather it is exploitative /ritish land tenre syste$&
AR Desai considers that this $ove$ent is originally initiated #y $iddle peasants and
s#seBently received ideological spport !ro$ $iddle-class yoth and !inally %hen this
$ove$ent acBired a nationalistic appeal several peasants 2oined the $ove$ent as a
reslt o! %hich class $ove$ent got converted into $ass $ove$ent&
The leaders o! Cisan Sa#ha s#seBently #eca$e leaders o! Congress and pro$ised
indigenos !ar$ersNpeasants =eaven on *arth a!ter IndiaDs independence&
JJNaxalite $ove$ent
This $ove$ent %as started !ro$ Siligri district o! 8est /engal #y Char MaF$dar
%ho #elonged to pper class a!!lent !a$ily& Dring that period the state %as rled #y
Co$$nist 'arty and its associate0 ho%ever the govern$ent had not taken serios steps
to i$ple$ent land re!or$ syste$s in tre spirit&
Char MaF$dar alleged that land distri#tion a$ongst landless peasants are
n!avora#le and non-prodctive there!ore state as a $atter o! !or$ality is engaged in
land distri#tion& State is li$iting !ar$ers !ro$ encroaching the !ertile land o%ned #y the
a#sentee landlord deploying police and sing legal cort&
=e $o#ilised 2-0--- peasants0 gave the$ training in $odern techniBes o! %ar!are and
asked the$ to loot police stations to procre %eapons and to attack Fa$indars0 !orci#ly
occpying the land& In every village gorilla %ar!are techniBes %ere taght to the yoth
and village ar$y %as trained to !ight against police and private ar$y o! the landlords&
This !orced the state govern$ent to expedite land re!or$ in several state&
3arios sociologists consider that naxalite $ove$ent shold #e stdied !ro$ peopleDs
perspective rather than !ro$ State perspective& Masses have appreciated naxalite
$ove$ent #ecase they have introdced %el!are sche$es0 edcational ca$paign0
cooperative !ar$ing& To $ake naxalites npoplar state police have de$olished $any
schools0 #ridges constrcted #y naxalites there!ore naxalite $ove$ent today is a strggle
#et%een peoples po%er state po%er&
JJConte$porary Agrarian $ove$ent
A!ter IndiaDs independence peasant $ove$ent has gone to the state o! o#livion& The
!actors responsi#le !or that can #e attri#ted to rral develop$ent progra$$e introdced
#y the state& More signi!icantly cooperative $ove$ent0 green revoltion in North0
8estern and Soth India have %eakened peasant $ove$ent& Reglar e$ploy$ent-access
to $arket-dependency a$ong the$ increases-co$pati#le %orking relationship&
Dipankar "pta indicates that land tenre syste$ has gone throgh a series o!
trans!or$ation since IndiaDs independence& Division o! land as contri#ted !or
seg$entation o! agricltral land0 as a reslt i! the !ather is #ig !ar$er o! the and his
children are redced into $iddle !ar$ers& Relationship #et%een agricltre %orkers and
the $iddle and s$all peasants has #eco$e an inclsive relationship driven #y
dependency& Agricltral la#orers today are spported #y the p#lic policy o! the State
hence they are $te and accepting exploitation& Ths the intervention and develop$ental
policies have s!!iciently contri#ted !or decline o! nrest in India&
/y cooperative $ove$ents s$all and $arginal !ar$ers in India li#erated the$selves
!ro$ historical exploitation0 gather sel! con!idence and i$proved their Bality o! li!e&
This vie% %as contradicted #y $arxist scholar :tsa 'attnaik& She said all the #ig !ar$ers
are hi2acking all the instittionalised #ene!its in their o%n !avor& There is consolidation
o! capitalis$ in 'n2a# and =aryana&
Stdies have !ond ot the paradox in develop$ent in the green revoltion #elt o! the
contry %here poor !ar$ers are co$$itting sicide and rich !ar$ers are consolidating
their econo$ic #ase&
/haratiya Cisan :nion operating in North India is consolidating its #ase0 $o#ilising all
the cash crop prodces and #argaining %ith the govern$ent to #ene!it the capitalist
agricltralists&
'easant Move$ent in India is !ractred and articlates di!!erent concerns in ti$e and
space&
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/ack%ard Classes and Dalit $ove$ent
Dalit $ove$ent is a conte$porary pheno$ena started dring !reedo$ strggle has
#eco$e!orce!l today& It got its ideological spport !ro$ #ack%ard class $ove$ent-
Satya Sodhak Sa$a2 $ove$ent and Sel! Respect $ove$ent etc&
/ack%ard classes is a very loose concept& Sociologically these classes consist o! a large
n$#er o! #ack%ard castes %hich re$ain a#ove schedle caste and #elo% the pper
caste& These casts consist o! inter$ediate caste the cltivating caste0 artisans and service
castes&
Satyashodak Sa$a2 %hich consolidated the $asses along the castelines& *&3 Ra$as%a$y
started Sel!-Respect $ove$ent against the /rah$ins in Soth India& The SND'
$ove$ent in Cerala %as $ore o! a re!or$ist $ove$ent&
In 1?9-s there %as a %idespread desire a$ong the non-/rah$in castes to #e categoriFed
as /ack%ard &S#seBently /ack%ard Class co$$ission %as set p to look into the
conditions and reBire$ents o! these classes& Mandal Co$$ission s#$itted its report in
1?,- reco$$ending reservations !or #ack%ard castes in edcational instittions and
govern$ent o!!ices&
JJDalit Move$ents
Dalit0 also called <tcaste& Dalits are a $ixed poplation o! n$eros caste grops all
over India& Dalits %ork as $anal la#orers cleaning streets0 latrines0 and
se%ers&*ngaging in these activities %as considered to #e pollting to the individal0 and
this polltion %as considered contagios& As a reslt0 Dalits %ere co$$only segregated0
and #anned !ro$ !ll participation in =ind social li!e&
Dalit $ove$ent receives $o$ent$ and con!idence !ro$ "andhi& =e %as recognised as
$ass leader and %hen he dined %ith Dalits it gave a $ass $essage to eradicate this
discri$ination& =e gave the concept o! =ari2an&
Most o! the people %ho cold not go !or Sanskritisation %ent !or conversion as a protest
against /rah$inic do$ination& "andhi2i said that Eone is high or lo% on the #asis o!
deeds and not on the #asis o! #irthE&
"ail o$vedt considers that Dalit $ove$ent is not an ideological $ove$ent #t rather it
is a class $ove$ent& Dalit identity and poverty as an experience are interconnected to
each other& Since the #eginning o! Indian civilisation till conte$porary ti$es Dalits are
oppressed class& Ths their condition is no di!!erent !ro$ #lacks in case o! 8est&
Dalit panthers 'arty-JRep#lican 'arty o! India-J/ah2an Sa$a2 'artyIindication o!
politicisation o! Dalit case rather than !ocsing pon a$eliorating the conditions o!
Dalits&
So$e sociologists are also concerned a#ot the rise o! Dalits %ithin Dalit& Their concern
is that Dalit $ove$ent in India has given %ay to the gro%th o! elitis$ and that di!!erent
Dalit leaders does not only engage in contesting di!!erent ideologies #t they also keep
changing their ideology according to their o%n convenience& There!ore Dalit party today
is not a prodct o! Dalit $ove$ent rather it is a politics o! opportnis$ and politics o!
convenience si$ilarl to other political parties&
The ti$e %ill co$e0 they %old take pride and conviction in glori!ying the idea o! yes %e
are dalits&
Dalit $ove$ent is a $ove$ent o! protest0 a protest against /rah$anis$0 ineBality0
cltral s#ordination& It %ants to de$olish the distinction #et%een $an and $an& It %as
to create a society driven #y sel!-respect0 inclsiveness and eBity& Ths Dalit $ove$ent
is an ideologically charged 0ho$ogenised class $ove$ent intended to #ring change o!
strctre rather than change in strctre&
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)e$inist Move$ent
Isses sch as reprodctive rights0 do$estic violence0 $aternity leave0 eBal pay0
%o$enDs s!!rage0 sexal harass$ent and sexal violence&
A 6inga$ advocate the !e$inist $ove$ent in India is slo%ly leading to%ards
N"<isation& She !inds ot that thosands o! N"<s %orking arond the contry are
taking p %o$en isses di!!erently in di!!erent space& She #elieves that %o$en
$ove$ent in India shold #e integrated in order to #eco$e $ore !ocsed in approach and
appeal&
3eena MaF$dar-r#an and rral india %o$en $ove$ent-In r#an $ostly accsed to
#eing $iddleclass0 edcated %o$enDs $ove$ent %ho are Bestioning to %o$enDs rights
#oth in p#lic and private sphere&In rral areas pro#le$s are related to %o$enDs
livelihood0 their protection and their rights&
"ail <$vedt divided IndiaDs !e$inist $ove$ent into t%o types sch as %o$en eBality
$ove$ent and %o$en li#eration $ove$ent&
JJ)irst 'hase 1,9--1?19
social re!or$ $ove$ents related to caste and gender relations& proot the social evils o!
sati 4%ido% i$$olation50 to allo% %ido% re$arriage0 to !or#id child $arriage0 and to
redce illiteracy0 as %ell as to reglate the age o! consent and to ensre property rights
throgh legal intervention& The %o$en involved %ere those related to $ale activists0
elite0 %estern edcated0 pper caste =inds&
JJSecond 'hase 1?19-1?AG
"andhi2i-CDM %o$ens participation-role o! %o$en %ent #eyond caring0 sacri!ice and
tolerance- 8o$en-only organiFations like All India 8o$enDs Con!erence 4AI8C5 and
the National )ederation o! Indian 8o$en 4N)I85 e$erged&
8o$en %ere grappling %ith the isses relating to the scope o! %o$ens political
participation0 %o$ens !ranchise0 co$$nal a%ards0 and leadership roles in political
parties&
There %as provision !or %o$ens pli!t$ent throgh a!!ir$ative action0 $aternal health
and child care provision 4crches50 eBal pay !or eBal %ork etc& The state adopted a
patroniFing role to%ards %o$en& 8o$en in India did not have to strggle !or #asic rights
as did %o$en in the 8est&
Calpana Shah- divides Indian !e$inist $ove$ent into three types(
Moderate it talks o! gender eBality0 sensitisation o! state to%ards the needs o! %o$en&
Socialist it is largely in!lenced #y Marxist ideology and speaks a#ot class $o#ilisation
and class action&
6i#eral it is concerned a#ot integrative approach to %o$en isses involving state0
%o$en organisation0 %o$en research centres and !e$inist grops&
8o$en $ove$ent in India is $ore Indian addressing to isses associated %ith everyday
li!e o! %o$en co$ing !ro$ di!!erent strata o! social li!e&
*nviron$ent Move$ent
Natre nrtres individal and is the !ondation to or religion& 6ove !or natre is not
conte$porary pheno$ena& Since historic ti$es they are never considered as li!eless&
Atharva 3eda gives description a#ot di!!erent kinds o! plants %hich have $edicinal
vale hence natre is the sorce o! $anDs li!e&
Dring /ritish are colonial rlers !ond hge deposits o! $inerals present in the !orest&
They tried to persade the tri#al people and trap $ineral %ealth& )orest #eca$e the land
o! the state and the !orest prodce #eca$e !irst right o! the state& The se o! land !or
co$$ercial prposes displaced the tri#als leading to distress!l relationships&
JJChipko Move$ent
In the early 1?G-s in the "arh%al =i$alayas o! :ttarakhand-The land$ark event in this
strggle took place in 1?GA0 %hen a grop o! peasant %o$en acted to prevent the ctting
o! trees and reclai$ their traditional !orest rights that %ere threatened #y the contractor
syste$ o! the state )orest Depart$ent&
3illage co$$nities took responsi#ility to protect !orest !ro$ police and co$$ercial
!orest sers& They initiated 2A-hor srveillance %hich persisted !or G to , years&Spreaded
across India& 8orld i$$ediately took notice o! this non-violent Tree hgging $ove$ent &
A#ove all0 it stirred p the existing civil society in India0 %hich #egan to address the
isses o! tri#al and $arginaliFed people&
Ra$achandra "ha %rites that da$s are sy$#ols o! civilisation0 develop$ent0 econo$y0
$odernity& It talks a#ot sociology o! da$s and raise $any Bestions EDa$s )or
8ho$EK =e %rites that de to da$s0 !ro$ 1?9- to 2--- arond 19 $illion people are
#eing displaced& 'easants0 tri#al co$$nities0 illiterate people have no exposre to
$odern edcation0 they donDt have the skills and hence they are directly dependent on
natral resorces& The state has not provided adeBate reha#ilitation to the a!!ected
people&
7a%ahar 6al Nehr said that !or the larger case o! develop$ent o! nation people shold
$ake so$e sacri!ice& =e considered indstries as te$ples o! $odernity and to Achieve
econo$ic develop$ent they need to #e set p& /t in reality the actal cost o!
develop$ent is paid #y the indigenos people %ho in the na$e o! develop$ent lost
everything&
Nehr considered the indstrial develop$ent as #ilder o! $odern India #t it has created
$ore disparity leading to poverty and ineBality %herein there is gro%th #t no
develop$ent&
Sardar sarovar 'ro2ect-Nar$ada /achao Andolan-Medha 'atker-'I6&
ChIlka /achao Andolan- Co$$ercial !ishing- livelihood o! local !isher$en a!!ected &
'eople %ent !or #oth violent and nonviolent $ethods !ollo%ed #y $assive protest
reslting into a #an on tra%lers& This also reslted the retrn o! $igratory #irds and
preserved the #eaty o! natre and also its ecology&
/hopal gas tragedy-<pen cast $ining in 7harkhand-a!!ecting health and livelihood o!
$illions&
The /hagidari $ove$ent o! Delhi is a good exa$ple o! this kind o! environ$ental
$ove$ent&
A #alance $st #e esta#lished #et%een econo$ic gro%th and environ$ental protection&
8e need to go !or syste$atic planning and scienti!ic application throgh the se o!
$odern technology to $ini$ise environ$ental i$pact as $ch as possi#le and $ake it a
develop$ent led gro%th rather than gro%th %ithot develop$ent&
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*thincity and Identity $ove$ent
Strggle #et%een tri#es and non-tri#es are historic #t $ore speci!ic dring colonial
ti$es& Tri#al protest %as not anti-i$perialis$ as they %ere na%are o! this ter$& They
2st $eant to control their o%n land& The tri#al $ove$ents in central India %as against
exploitation& Tri#al never $akes a di!!erence #et%een indigenos exploitation and
colonial exploitation&
*very co$$nity %hile searching !or identity %ent !or territorial de$arcation& 6angage
cannot #ring nity a$ong people #ecase di!!erent tri#es speak di!!erent langages
there!ore %hat #rings nity is the territory& I! Asa$ese !or Aho$0 Maharashtra !or
Marathis then %hat is !or tri#al people&
Territory is essential !or political assertion and this $ove$ent #eca$e intensi!ied %hen
the tri#als %ere dislocated and %anted their land #ack& )rag$ented tri#al $ove$ents
%ent !or ni!ication0 proclai$ing their identity0 territory0 state etc to revive their past
cltre e&g& 7harkhand and Chhattisgarh identity are exa$ples o! sch $ove$ent&
7harkhand $ove$ent revolves arond !actors like cltre0 econo$ic and socio - polity& It
is ananti-colonial and anti-i$perial $ove$ent> anti-govern$ent $ove$ent %hich is
reacting to develop$ent displace$ent and !inally anti-exploitation $ove$ent nited
against traders and $oneylenders& Identity is the !ondation to tri#al $ove$ent in
general and 7harkhand $ove$ent in particlar& Identity is !ondation to social $ove$ent
has #een an essence o! ethno-politics in India&
In case o! tri#al society geographical isolation0 land alienation0 indstrialisation0 in!lo% o!
nontri#al poplation into tri#al areas pt the tri#al poplation into a disadvantaged
position %hich led to glori!ication o! tri#al identity %hich !rther reslted into a
$ove$ent in search o! separate state& Identity !ocsed $ove$ent has gone throgh
stages o! revoltion starting !ro$ the colonial period&
/irsa Mnda $ove$ent0"ond re#ellion0 Santhal re#ellion are o!ten considered as peasant
$ove$ent #y sociologistDs #t Dr&3&Maxa considers these $ove$ents as identity !ocsed
$ove$ents& =e says that %hen =ind peasants si$ply re#elled against exploitative land
tenre syste$0 the tri#al people re#elled against the lost o! identity than 2st loss o!
livelihood& =e criticised the nationalist sociologists like "hrye0 MN Srinivas0 NC /ose
%ho #elieved that tri#es volntarily accepted =ind cltre and that they are #ack%ard
=inds& Tri#als %ent !or non-tri#al identity !or social recognition0 !or srvival #ecase
non-tri#als %ere predo$inant in every area& There!ore it is a !or$ o! en!orced identity&
Adivasi Mahasa#ha %as constitted and atte$pts %ere $ade to ni!y all dispersed tri#e
located in central Indian state to stand together and go !or ho$eland !or tri#es$en0
kno%n as greater 7harkhand as sovereign state&
The nationalist aspiration o! tri#es o! central India is considered as an atte$pt !or tri#al
de$and to control the #ene!its o! progress and $odernity& Srinivas considers a as o#stacle
in the process o! nation-#ilding and "hrye tells this as secessionist and antinational
$ove$ent&
*ven in tri#al states non-tri#als have a signi!icant econo$ic and n$erical presence as a
reslt the tri#al states evolved p#lic policies that do not !l!il the aspiration o! tri#al
co$$nity& There!ore the tri#es are not divided on class lines %hich is glori!ying naxalite
$ove$ent and Maoist insrgency in tri#al states& The $arginalisation0 displace$ent and
alienation o! tri#als in their o%n soil is providing !ondation to co$$on ideology and
co$$on class identity accelerating class con!licts in tri#al India& There!ore central Indian
tri#es are shi!ting !ro$ identity-#ased $ove$ent to isse-#ased $ove$ent&
In case o! North *ast India0 the states o! Assa$0 Manipr0 Meghalaya0 Nagaland and
Tripraare experiencing identity $ove$ents& In Manipr t%o grops exist i&e& Nagas and
Ckkis& Tripra is !ll %ith non-tri#al poplation %hich is the reslt o! escalation o!
con!licts a$ong the people&
The /odo people in Assa$ %ho consider the$selves to #e the original inha#itants are
otn$#ered slo%ly #y the /engali poplation %ho have control over indstries %hich
leads to reglar con!lict #et%een the$& Tri#al identity is glori!ied de to this in!iltration
o! non tri#al people into tri#al areas&
In 1?G- separate State o! Nagaland ca$e into existence ths giving right to the people to
have their o%n govern$ent %hich !rther glori!ied political aspirations #y varios tri#es
o! other states& The sa$e thing happened in case o! MiFora$ %herein the MiFos %ho
considered the$selves as =ighlanders and indigenos peopleNoriginal inha#itant
protested !or a separate State stats %hich %as granted to the$&
<ther $ove$ents can die ot #t identity $ove$ent %ill srvive in one %ay or the other
e&g& in conte$porary ti$es-Maharashtra Navnir$an Sena&
Ths it can #e conclded that identity and tri#al con!licts in India is a con!lict #et%een(
state verss people>
%ithin a state insider verss otsider>
%ithin tri#e one !action verss other !action&
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------
1A-'oplation Dyna$ics
'oplation explosionI rapid poplation gro%th& Not al%ays #ad& 8hen econo$y is not
capa#le o! $aintaining the poplation0 then its a pro#le$& )or India and China it $ight #e
arole$0 %here as !or Israel0 Rssia and 7apan0 their govern$ents pro$ote poplation
gro%th&
're-indstrial phaseIhigh /R and and DRIagararian econo$yIlo% technologyIin!ant
$ortality rate highIso insecrity regading the srvival o! ne% #ornsI$otivation !or
!reBent child #irthsIhigh !ertility&
*arly indstrialisation phaseI kno%ledge a#ot hygieneIsanitationIhealthIdevelop$ent
o! science and technologyI vaccinations !or epide$ics and ende$ic diseasesIlo% in!ant
$ortality rateIlo% $ortality rate& =igh /R de to lo% stats o! %o$enIreligion
glori!ying child #irthI dea$and nskilled large $anpo%erI traditional otlook0 not open
to adopt !a$ily planning techniBes etcI high /RIpoplation explosion&
Advanced indstrial societyI lo% /R and lo% DRI i$proved $edicines and other social
and natral environ$entsIparticipation in the econo$y reBires highly specialised skills-
so prolonged training and edcation is neededIso proper p#ringing o! children #eco$e
i$portant %ith in li$ited resorcesIchild #irth controlledI people #eca$e rational and
not so $ch religion and $yth driven&I$proved stats o! %o$enI%orking
%o$enIconcerned a#ot health o! $othersIeasy availa#ility o! #irth control $easres
de to innovation in the #irth control technologyIchild #irth sta#ilisedIsta#le poplation
siFe&
India is in pre-indstrial phaseIas in last @- years poplation has do#ledIas per 2-11
senss provisional dataI1&21 #illionI a $atter o! concern !or all o! s&
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------
Death and Mortality
8o$en died in the ti$e child #irth0 no proper diagnosis o! diseases& <ther !actors-
%estern $edicines %ere inadeBate !or r#an areas0not reaching rral areas-poverty no
adeBate !ood-prone !or diseases-not health conscios-%ere not in!or$ed a#ot healthy
practices- $arried cople %ere not a%are that health deteriorates a!ter each child #irth-
child and in!ant death %ere high- $edical !acility %as costly not a!!orda#le #y all&
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------
SiFe and "ro%th o! poplation o! India
2-11I2&1 #illion0 1, crore added a!ter 2--1& 1?91 censs @;- $illion& Change in siFe o!
poplation $eansI added #y #irth0 s#stracted #y death0 net n$#er #y i$$igration or
e$igration& 'er capita prodction o! !ood grain has increased #t only $arginally0
#ecase o! high poplation gro%th& =osing shortage& =ealth and Medical services have
not #een $et yet& The sitation related to ne$ploy$ent and ndere$poy$ent re!lects
the ina#ility o! the e$ploy$ent $arket to a#sor# the pressre o! increasingly large la#or
!orce&
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)ertility
Reprodctive per!or$ance o! individal or gropI in the crde #irth rate considering the
children #orn alive is an i$portant $easre$ent o! !ertlity&
1& Religion and Social instittions spporting high !ertility&
2& Marriage is sacra$ent in =ind religion&
@& Csto$ in India0 girl child to #e $arried #e!ore she attains p#erty& *ven today despite
legislation o! age #ar at 1,& Traditionally0 they start child#earing at an early age0 contine
to do so till she reaches the age at %hich they are no longer #iologically capa#le o!
#earing children&
A& 8o$en %ho do not #ear child looked doen pon #y society& The ne% daghter-in-la%
attains a right!l stats in the !a$ily only a!ter she prodces a child0pre!era#ly a son&
9& 8hy son is i$ortant historically-lighting the !neral pyre o! !ather e!!ecting the
salvation o! his !athers sol- extending !a$ily line-taking care o! parents at their old age-
it is so i$portant that child #earing goes on in the hope o! having atleast one son&
;& Children are considered to #e gi!ts o! god& No control o! child #earing&
G& =igh IMR and child $ortality rate- in the hope o! so$e children %ill reach their
childhood-they $ay have $ore children &
,& 6o% stats o! %o$en-nBestiona#ly accept excessive child #earing-%ithot any
alternative avenes o! child #earing&
?& 'oor !a$ilies consider the$ as sorce o! inco$e&
I$plications o! high !ertility rate-
1& 8o$en are tied do%n to child#earing and childrearing !or the #est years o! their
prodctive lives- denied the opportnity to explore other avenes !or sel!-expression and
sel!-develop$ent&
2& *xcessive child#earing a!!ects their o%n health and that o! their children& 6ooking a!ter
a large n$#er o! children pts !rther strain on the physical and e$otional resorces o!
sch %o$en&
@& /rden on the #read %inner o! the !a$ily&To escape !ro$ the pro#le$s o! everyday
li!e& =e takes p to drinking- !rther deterioration o! the econo$ic and e$otional %ell
#eing o! the !a$ily&
A& The children are so$eti$es n%anted0 nloved and neglected& Childla#or at an early
age& No edcation0 %hole li!e spoiled& "irls case $ore %orse& =elp her $other at an early
age& Do$estic chores& And looking a!ter si#lings0 %hen $other is at %ork&
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--------------
Mortality
In IMR0 girls $ortality is $ore than #oys& /iologically the chances srvival o! the girl
child is $ore than the #oy 0 in reality the opposite happens&$ortality rate a$ong "irl
children is $ore co$pared to /oys&
Crde Death Rate ( It is the ratio o! total registered deaths occrring in a speci!ied
calendar year to the total $idyear poplation $ltiplied #y 1---&
*xpectation o! li!e at #irth( The average expectation o! li!e at #irth&
In!ant $ortality rate ( In!ants are de!ined as those children %ho are in the !irst year o!
their li!e& As an indicator !or deter$ining the social econo$ic stats o! the contry and
the Bality o! li!e in it&
Decline in $ortality rate in India de to p#lic health and disease control $easres&
These inclde vaccines against $any co$$nica#le diseases0 eradication o! killer
diseases like plage and s$allpox and extension o! health and $edical services& The
e!!ect o! severe !a$ines have also #een considera#ly redced #y preventive and relie!
$easres&
8hen strong spports are not provided #y the 2oint !a$ily0 the #rden !alls on society&
<ld-age ho$es or !oster care ho$es !or the aged have to #e provided !ro$ the state
!nds& 3arios sche$es to provide pension to the old&
The high levels o! in!ant and child $ortality0 a cople $ay go in !or a large n$#er o!
children in the hope that at least a !e% %old srvive to reach adlthood& Ths0 apart
!ro$ e$otional tra$a cased to parents0 high in!ant and child $ortality rates reslt in
high !ertility rates leading to in!lation and poplation&
8hile in traditional societies0 age de$ands respect0 $odern societies $ay #e $ore yoth
oriented&
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Age strctre o! India
More in!ants and children srvive leading to an increase in the proportion o! the yong
persons in the poplation as in the case o! India& Ageing o! the poplation& Sch a
sitation prevails in developed contries like S%eden0 the :nited States0 the :nited
Cingdo$0 Canada0 7apan0 )rance and Astralia&
The data sho%s that Indias %orking age poplation 419-;A years5 is no% ;@&A. o! the
total0 as against 2st short o! ;-. in 2--1& The n$#ers also sho% that the dependency
ratio the ratio o! children 4--1A5 and the elderly 4;9-1--5 to those in the %orking age has
shrnk !rther to -&99& *ven as the %estern %orld is ageing0 these ne% n$#ers sho% that
Indias poplation is still very yong0
As !ertility !alls !aster in r#an areas0 rral India is yonger than r#an India&
India0 as expected0 is not getting any yonger& Indias $edian age has risen !ro$ arond
22 years in 2--1 to over 2A years in 2-11&
The proportion o! the poplation nder the age o! 2A has dropped #y !or percentage
points0 #t de$ographers cation that this shold not #e interpreted as a sign that the
yoth #lge is shrinking& 8ith !alling !ertility0 the n$#er o! in!ants and children is %hat
redces !irst and this is %hat %e are seeing %ith the n$#er o! nder-29s !alling0 )a2dar
Ra$0 director o! the M$#ai-#ased International Institte !or 'oplation Sciences said&
The key isse in ter$s o! a de$ographic dividend is %hether this gro%ing yoth #lge
has the right skills !or the %ork!orce&
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Sex Ratio
N$#er o! !e$ales per 1--- $ales& 2-11 censsI?A- Thogh #iologically stronger than
$ale0 the !e$ale in India is in a socially and cltrally disadvantaged position and has
#een accorded a in!erior stats since centries& The death rates !or the !e$ales in $ost
age grops are higher than those !or the $ales& A sex ratio that is adverse to the !e$ales is
a pecliarity o! the Indian de$ographic pictre not seen any%here else&
)a$ily 'lanning and 8el!are
The li$ited sccess in adoption o! !a$ily planning in India can #e explained in ter$s o!
varios socio-cltral and econo$ic !actors& :r#an poplation is $ore responsive to
!a$ily planning $easres than rral poplation& )rther0 edcated grops accept #irth
control practices $ch $ore easily&
Age o! $arriage- The traditional practices o! early $arriage in rral India and a$ong the
poorer sections o! r#an poplation contri#tes to high !ertility&
6o% stats o! %o$en( The lo% stats o! %o$en0 lack o! a%areness regarding the
conseBences o! $others health de to !reBent pregnancy and the vale syste$ in India
according to %hich respect is accorded to %o$en on the #asis o! n$#er o! children0
especially sons they have given #irth to0 are responsi#le !or high #irth rate& *ven the 2oint
!a$ily syste$ in %hich %o$en as %i!e is accorded a lo% stats is responsi#le !or high
#irth rate& 8o$en the$selves decide to give #irth to a n$#er o! sons and seek e$otional
secrity in their relationship %ith the sons& This is $ainly de to the !act that in a
patrilineal 2oint !a$ily hs#and%i!e relations are not characterised #y high e$otional
inti$acy&
Religios /elie!s( Indian society contines to #e predo$inantly rral and even in r#an
areas di!!sion o! seclar scienti!ic edcation is con!ined only to the pper and $iddle
classes& All religions extol child#irth and are against any intervention in the process o!
reprodction&
The preoccpation %ith the #irth o! a son is to #e !ond even a$ong edcated people in
the r#an areas and ths the religios #elie! discorages the$ to adopt !a$ily planning
progra$$es& *ven a Isla$ discorages its #elievers !ro$ adopting #irth control
$easres& The $inority consciosness a$ong the Msli$s is another !actor %hich
$otivates the$ in giving #irth to $any children&
=igh in!ant $ortality and lack o! provisions !or old age Secrity( =igh in!ant $ortality
and the ina#ility o! the state to provide any provision !or the old-age creates a sense o!
insecrity and $akes the rral people rely on their $ale children0 to provide spport in
the old age And hence #irth o! $any children is considered desira#le&
*cono$ic reasons( Another $ost i$portant !actor %hich creates a pre!erence !or a larger
!a$ily is the high incidence o! poverty in #oth rral and r#an areas& A$ong the poor
sections o! the poplation 0 children are vie%ed as an asset& The p#ringing o! the
children does not reBire any extra e!!ort0 neither do they provide !or the edcation o! the
children& At a very early age #oth #oys and girls in the poorer !a$ilies start %orking and
#egin contri#ting to the !a$ily inco$e& Si$ilarly0 in the !ar$ing sector a$ong the
$iddle and s$all !ar$ers0 the agricltral practices are #ased on la#or-intensive
technology& Ths large siFed !a$ilies are considered desira#le #ecase they spply the
$anpo%er needed !or agricltral activities& Ths poverty and #ack%ardness and lack o!
$odern scienti!ic edcation are also responsi#le to a great extent in discoraging people
!ro$ the adoption o! !a$ily planning $easres&
Another !actor %hich has contri#ted to the poor per!or$ance o! !a$ily planning
progra$s is that- the !ocs has #een pri$arily on #irth control 0 rather than $aking a
$ltipronged attack on varios aspects %hich are responsi#le !or high #irth rate&
<nly in the sixth and seventh !ive year plans0 a #roader perspective %as adopted in the
!or$ o! !a$ily %el!are progra$$e&
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19-Challenges o! Social trans!or$ation
Crisis o! develop$et (Displace$ent
Develop$ent indced displace$ent- eBal to !orced $igration- violation o! h$an
rights- e!!ects spill over generations- loss o! traditional $eans o! e$ploy$ent- change o!
environ$ent- disrpted co$$nity li!e and relationships- $arginalisation- psychological
tra$a&
Singr 8/ Tata Nano Shi!ted to "2- 'osco <disha- developing S*+s- Sardar Sarovar
Da$ Nar$ada and ca$cellation o! the da$ #y %orld #ank de to protests- Tehri da$
oter hi$alays etc&
Devlop$ent indced displace$ent- ecological- social-e$otive- cltral connotations&
6and given !or co$pensation- in!ertile- non prodctive& No co$pensation !or co$$on
property resorces like !orest land0 pastre land0 river #ed %hich are not co$pensated-
Traditional skill lose its signi!icace0 no inco$e0 poverty- so$eti$es they are asked to pay
di!!erential price0 di!!iclt !or the$ to arrange- distress $igration-%o$en and children
are $ost a!!ected- sociological cost-h$an cost-ecological cost-cltral cst %hich is
$ore than the econo$ic cost&
Steps to #e taken- #e!ore introdction o! any pro2ect0 alternate site !or reha#ilitation0
shold nt #e !ar a%ay !ro$ the original place-co$$on property resorces re-enacted-
edcation and training so that they can #e e$ployed- sanitation0 edcation0 health care0
co$$nity in!rastrctre spport- $ini$$ ecological da$aga- consent #ased approach
not consltation&
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ra$achandra "ha- *nviron$ental $ove$ents are not gronded on skepticis$-it is
addressing to the !nda$ental Bestions like civil rights0 political rights0 econo$ic rights0
%hich is taken a%ay !ro$ the$ #y the protector o! these rights&
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*nviron$ental $ove$ent- peoples perception o! state stands dialectical to the strategy
!or develop$ent adopted #y state govern$ent&
6and aBision resettle$ent and reha#ilitation #ill
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------------------
*nviron$ental pro#le$s
*cono$ic develop$ent- poplation gro%th @-- $illion in 1?AG to 1&2 #illion no%- strain
on contrys natral resorces&
Indstrial polltion- soil erosion- %ater #odies polltion- land degradation- de!orestation-
nplanned r#anisation- rapid indstrialisation- heavy reliance on coal !o po%er
generation- $ore than ,-. o! energy !ro$ coal&
6and degradation- %ind erosion-%ater logging- #ad land se practices&
6oss o! #iodiversity- Air polltion- Conta$ination o! %ater #odies along %ith grond
%ater aBi!ers- )ly ash !ro$ coal plants0 %hich have traces o! al$ina and traces o!
carcinogenic $aterial- Da$s and large area s#$erged in %ater- <pen cast $ining0
grond %ater and sr!ace %ater conta$intation0 eye sight isse and lngs isse0%hen
a#andoned0 no re-gro%th o! ecology0per$anent da$age to environ$ent&
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---------------
Addressing Sstaina#ility
Meeting present needs keeping an eye on !tre generations- Re$oval o! poverty-
Technology and in!rastrctre decisions shold #e taken on the #asis o! sstaina#iity-
evalation o! pro2ects in ecological perspective- incding local people to kno% their
stakes- /io$ass is the !el !or rral poor0 startegy to help the$ !or sstaina#le sage-
Sacred groves and ponds #y co$$nity participation-8o$en e$po%er$ent- 'RIs-
*!!ect o! "lo#alisation-S="s&
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----------------
3iolence against 8o$en
Marraige <ccpations- nor$s o! every day #ehavior- there is a cltral lag- even a
#acklash %hen %o$en de$and their ne%ly availa#le rights&
Cri$inal violence- Rape0 Mrder0 A#dction0 Molestation0prostittion0 tra!!icing0 Acid
attack&
Do$estic violence- Do%ry death0%i!e #attering0 sexal a#se #y kins0 $altreat$ent o!
%ido%s and elderly %o$en0tortre o! daghter-in-la%s&
Social and cltral violence- )e$ale !oeticide0in!anticide0eve-teasing0%ido%
i$$olation4sati50 re!sing to give share to %o$en in property&
Do$estic violence-yong $arried %o$en- in their a!!inal ho$es- #eating0
trtring0ver#al a#se0 starving0locking p0 i$posing excess %ork #rden0sexal a#se0
$arital rape0 even $rder or %o$an co$$its sicide- $rder ca$o!laged as sicide-
Reasons- sspicion a#ot %i!es !iedility0 her childlessness- not #earing a son- disptes
a#ot hosehold $atter- %i!es protests a#ot hs#ands alcoholis$- hs#ands in!actation
%ith another %o$an etc- co$plaints in these areas are rarely registered- i! registered
rarely apprehended- i! apprehended rarely #roght cort- i! #roght to cort rarely
convicted& So$eti$es Media and %o$ens grop pt pressre&
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---------
Tlsi 'atel age o! $arriage0 !reBency o! pregnancy0 %o$ens health0 their rights over
!ood are decided #y traditional csto$s and conventions not #y her choice& 8o$en are
ass$ed to take the role o! preparing !ood and prodce children&
Nivedita Menon- The gender gap in edcation is related to the pro#le$ o! do%ry-#irth o!
child is considered as a !tre lia#ility- In "R #elts they dont see the light o! the day-
!e$ale !oeticide&
MN Srinivas- Do%ry as $odern day Sati&
Malavika Carlekar- Do$estic violence- $ore in r#an pper $iddle class !a$ilies-
8o$en are s#2ected to Devi-Dasi dichoto$y $ore saci!ice %ill cosidered Devi- asking
!or her rights Dasi and s#2ected to physical and $ental agony&
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Rape-grossly nreported de to the stig$a attached to the victi$- yong girls in sBatter
settle$ents- lo% caste and tri#al %o$en- %o$en dring co$$nal riots- A)S'A ar$y
and para$ilitary in sensitive areas- disaster hit regions&
Child $arriage- physical in2ry to girl de to early cons$$ation o! $arriage- early
pregnancies can #e !atal- e$otional strain o! do$estic responsi#ilities-Child Marriage
Restraint Act
'rostittion- 'revention o! I$$oral Tra!!ic in 8o$en Act- poverty0 sexal a#se and
rape in childhood $akes the$ easy victi$s o! the prostittion racket- %o$en resced
!ro$ #rothels !ace re2ection !ro$ their !a$ilies- !ate in resce ho$e is also #ad&
*ve-teasing- harass$ent o! %o$en in p#lic places-#oth rral and r#an-3er$a
co$$ittee report inclded eveteasing-SCs order to govt to treat the eveteaser %ith an iron
!ist&
Acid attack- SCs order0 reglation on sale o! acid etc&
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=o% to adress- Creating a%areness a$ong %o$en a#ot their rights- strcit la%s- $orally
sensitive o!!icers- strong spport syste$ !or %o$en in distress- $oral spport-legal aid-
giving the$ 2o#s- rnning training progra$$es- legal literacy- school crricl$ shold
pro$ote eBality a$ong genders and respect !or %o$en- SensitiFation o! the police-
govern$ent o!!icial- 2diciary etc&
:22a%ala- S%adhar- ST*'-<ne stop crisis centreI govt pg$s
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*thnic Con!licts
*thnic grop- co$$on langage- co$$on cltre- so$eti$es shared religion- co$$on
ancestry-endoga$y-co$$on religios !aith&
----------------------------------------------------
"hanashya$ Saha- Dring Indias !reedo$ strggle0 there %as glori!ication o! north soth
divide- apprehension north indias #rah$inic sanskritic cltre %ill #e i$posed on
indigenos non-sanskritic dravidian peasant cltre& So Ta$il /rah$ins !irst %ent !or
$odern edcation0 trade and co$$erce %ithot re2ecting sanskritik vales- non #rah$ins
%ent !or $odernisation and seclarisation re2ecting sanskritic vales-hence caste %as
%eak in soth india0 co$$nal disparity %as $ini$$ and political a%areness %as
$ore&
-------------------------------------------------------
Assa$-de to in!lx o! /engalis
Meghalaya- #et%een "aro and Chasi tri#es- not !or cltre rather access !or po%er0
edcation etc&
Manipr- Con!lict #et%een Naga and Cki-<n control over p#lic instittions-Tri#al
advisory concil-District atono$os concil-looks !or land 0 !orest and other resorces-
son o! the soils is getting glori!ied&
Maharashtra- M$#aikars-non $arathis- access to edcation and e$ploy$ent- 1?;-s it
%as #et%een Soth indians vs $arathis- no% it is north indians vs $arathis&
=indi as national langage isse- to pro$ote nity in diversity- riot in Ta$il Nad&
*thnic con!licts- $ani!est case-langage0 region0 religion& 6atent case-con!licting
econo$ic and political interests&
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Co$$nalis$
Indian context- con!lict #et%een religios co$$nities
/ipin Chandra- $arxist historian- anti h$an $o#ilisation- lose lose sitation- $inority
co$$nalis$ and $a2ority co$$nalis$- %ith $odernity and literacy co$$nalis$
%oldnt disappear- historically glori!ication o! co$$nalis$- Mao in china nedcated-
=itler in "er$any highly edcated $asses
Chs%ant singh Co$$nalis$ has nothing to do %ith ideology- !irst phase politics then
econo$cs and then di!!erential psychosis- in all cases th religios $inorities s!!er a lot&
A$artya Sen0 :pendra /akshi0 Andre /eteille0 Ra2eev /hargav historic roots o! co$nal
tensions- india pak division #ad $e$ories- /ritishs divide and rle policy&
Repeated co$$nal tension- concentration o! $inorities in speci!ic localities&
State spport to co$$nal tension- 3ote #ank politics #ehind co$$nal tensions&
T N Madan- think co$$nl- eat co$$nal- eat co$$nal- $arry co$$nal-speak
co$$nal- glori!ication o! co$$nal identities- Seclaris$ is i$possi#le- co$$nalis$
is #ond to appear in one !or$ or the other&
Sdhir Cakkar- Co$$nalis$ a state o! $ind- $odernity #rings ni!or$ity and people
love diversity- $ost o! the co$$nal tensions in $odern India- $ore $odernity $ore
co$$nal tensions&
Sociologits- Cerala $odel vs Dharavi sl$ or Aligarh co$$nalis$
It shold not #e stdied only !ro$ political and econo$ic stand point #t also !ro$
develop$ent disparity&
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Illiteracy and disparities in edcation
Traditional- Sanskritic edcation and Madrasa edcation
/ritish- non vocational and christian $issionaries
/ritish edcation syste$- ne% $iddle class- glori!ication o! class edcation
Cothari co$$ission41?;,5- To accelerate $ass edcation- co$$nity $ade $d school
#ilding- 9 years0 pkka hose0 grants in aid- ? years !ll grant- $any schools ca$e p0
#t %ithot adeBate teachers&
1??-s- niversalisation o! edcation- vocatinalisation o! secondary edcaion- delinking
o! 2o#s !ro$ certi!icate&
3eena MaF$dar- entry o! a girl to the %orld o! %ork at a tender age- the co$plsion o!
do%ry- patriarchal character o! society %hich e$phasiFes on sexal prity- lack o!
schools !or girls- lack o! %o$en teachers- responsi#le !or gender gap in edcation&
Recent Spre$e corts order to constct sanitation !acilities in schools0 #ecase o! lack
o! sanitaion !acilities0 girls are the $a2ority a$on dropots&
A$ong STs- crricl$ is not revised- texts not availa#le in thier tri#a langage- hge
gap #et%een tri#al thinking and corses in schools- large scale dropots&
Sachar Co$$ittee report on $sli$ edcation- A. 1-th- 2. 12th- 1&2. gradation- 1.
gradation a$ong %o$en- state sponsored $adrasa edction- i$portance to religios
edcation0 prodcing yoths n!it !or $odern e$ploy$ent- orthodox isla$ic %orld vie%
prohi#ited co-edcation- so less literacy a$ong $sli$ %o$en&
Modernity- Rich people pvt schools-poor stdents govt schools- RT* is a $yth- SCs
order 29. reservation in private schools-in!lence o! social #ackgrond on edcation-
Cycles #y state govts to girl stdents and SC ST stdents- 6aptops to $eritoris stdents
#t stae govts&
Andre /eteille- In the sphere o! edcation there is present social and cltral
reprodction rather than edcation pro$oting eBality in Indian society&
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-------------------
'overty0 Deprivation and IneBalities
*cono$ist- Calorie and Inco$e
Sociologist- Access to edcation0 =ealth care !acilities0 sorce o! entertain$ent0 Bality
o! li!e0 political participation&
A$artya Sen- 'overty is a li!e experience0 cant #e explained in $echanical econo$ics
ter$s&
Andre /eteille- 'overty is $ore contagios than polltion& 'overty #reeds poverty& I! the
!ather is poor0he cant #y ntritios !ood0good edcation !or his children0 children %ill
endp in lo% paying 2o#s0 hence poverty contines&
SC D#ey- 'overty and prosperity are sel! perpetating in character& In case o! India0
$ost o! the poor are #orn as poor0 !e% o! the poors stay as non-poors and none o! the rich
ever #eco$e poor&
Dada /hai Naro2i- !irst nationalist %ho relate poverty to colonial rle- drain o! %ealth
theory&
AR Desai- None o! the poverty alliviation progra$$es o! state is sccess!l in
eradicating poverty& 'overty linked to ecology& Rral poors co$ing to r#an environ$ent
and a!ter a long period o! ti$e spoiling their health and going #ack to rral environ$ent&
=ence poverty is trans!erred and trans$itted rather getting cred&
'lanning co$$issions recent poverty line !igres-#ased on Tendlkar co$$ittee report-
2A-- calories in rral areas and 21-- calories in r#an areas- accordingly $oney to
prchase these ite$s& International poverty line 1 dollar in ''' ter$s& @2Rs in r#an and
2G Rs in rral areas&
Recent reports on poverty !igres have to #e inclded- Civil society criticised the poverty
line !igres&
'overty is not 2st an econo$ic handicap- 'olicy $akers not took h$anistic !igres like
happiness0 Bality o! li!e0 !reedo$0 gender eBality into considertaion- so holistic
approach is needed to solve the pro#le$ o! ineBality0health0edcation0 land allocation0
e$ploy$ent opportnities etc- $echanistic approach to poverty is responsi#le !or its
perpetation&
1ogendra Singh- poverty perpetates #ecase o! lack o! activities #y civil society
organisations- Ra$pant a$ong SCs0 STs 0elderly persons0 physically handicapped0
victi$s o! disstress $igration and single parent !a$ily&
Anand C$ar /ook'olitics o! poverty Most o! the poverty eradication progra$$es are
not to eli$inate poverty #t to $ani!est the visi#ility o! govern$ent to people& Anti
poverty progra$$es are #eco$ing hot#eds o! politics in rral India0 dividing people on
the #asis o! caste0 creed0 religion0 political a!!iliation> there!ore politics o! poverty ensres
poverty stays in India to $ake India a de$ocracy&
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Caste con!licts stdy !ro$ Note-@ 'age No-21
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Religios revivalis$- not done %ell- stdy !ro$ Note-@ 'age No- @2
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(-Santosh C$ar /ehera