BL

1
Contents
1 Abstract ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
2 General Symbols ............................................................................................................................. 1
3 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 2
3.1 Aims and Objective ................................................................................................................. 2
4 Literature Review ............................................................................................................................ 3
4.1 History of Fluid Dynamics ....................................................................................................... 3
4.2 Introduction to Boundary Layer .............................................................................................. 4
4.3 Background Theory ................................................................................................................. 5
4.3.1 Basic physical concepts ................................................................................................... 5
4.3.2 Theoretical Foundation ................................................................................................... 8
4.3.3 Effects of Boundary Layer ............................................................................................. 21
4.3.4 Solutions of Boundary Layer Problem........................................................................... 24
4.4 Flow Separation and Flow control ........................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.5 CFD ........................................................................................................................................ 36
4.6 Ansys ........................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
5 Simulation ..................................................................................................................................... 37
6 Results ........................................................................................................................................... 37
7 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................... 37
8 Acknowledgement ........................................................................................................................ 37
9 Bibliography .................................................................................................................................. 37
10 Appendix ................................................................................................................................... 38

1 General Symbols

Density of fluid
Reynolds number
Viscosity
Kinematic viscosity
u Velocity in x-direction
2

v Velocity in y-direction
w Velocity in z-direction
Cofficient of drag
D Drag force
Displacement Thickness
Momentum Thickness
Shear Stress

2 Introduction
All the man-made vehicles have to travel through a viscous fluid when it moves from one point to
another. This is true for no matter what the vehicle was designed for, i.e. flying, moving in the sea or
moving on a road. The fluid flow behaviour close to the surface of a vehicle is of great importance
when designing the outer body of a vehicle as it determines the amount of resistance the vehicle has
to overcome when moving. Fluid dynamics is the study of fluid in motion which started a long time
ago as the humans started to understand the effect of the viscous flow on the projectile weapons
and pipes used to transport fluids. This report concentrates on the aerodynamics aspect of the fluid
dynamics and the first part of this report is about an important breakthrough in the study of fluid
dynamics made by Ludwig Prandtl in 1904 through his discovery of thin boundary layer and its
implication. He discovered that for a moving fluid with low viscosity a boundary layer is formed
which confines the viscous effect. The discovery of boundary layer allowed some simplification of
the Navier-Stokes equation that governs the fluid flow which existed and was derived before he
discovered the formation of boundary layers. The first part looks at some of the solution of the
laminar boundary layer prolem.
Second part of this report studies look at the turbulent flow regime and the effect of the turbulent
flow. Some flow control method in order to avoid turbulence is also looked at. Finally, flow over a
flat plate CFD simulation was done by using software called Ansys has been carried out in order
visualise boundary layer formation over a flat plate.
2.1 Aims and Objective
The main aims and objective and aim of this report are as follows:-
Look at the theories associated with boundary layer.
Study the effect of boundary layer.
Explore some of the methods employed by engineers to simplify or solve laminar boundary
layer problems.
Study the effect of active flow control techniques.
3

Use of CFD software as Ansys to simulate boundary layer problem.
3 Literature Review
3.1 History of Fluid Dynamics
The study of viscous fluid flow started at prehistoric times as human began developing weapons that
were streamlined, such as weighted spears and fin-stabilised arrow. This implies that the primitive
people recognised the effect of viscous resistance and took the first step in solving the viscous flow
problem. (White)
Later, Greek mathematician Archimedes (287-212 B.C) gave the exact solution for the problem of
viscous fluid at rest. At the same time the Romans displayed intuitive understating of the effect of
viscous resistance through their infrastructure and water-supply systems. (White)
After a period of little or no progress in the study of fluid flow, Leonardo da Vinci deduced the
equation of conservation of mass for incompressible one-dimensional viscous flow in 1500. (White)
Another notable achievement was made by Evangelista Torricelli by publishing his theorem in 1964
which states that the velocity of efflux of a (viscous) liquid from a hole in a tank is equal to the
velocity which a liquid particle would attain in free fall. (White)
The achievements mentioned so far were a result of study of inviscid flow or the flow of perfect fluid
which happened to be valid for invisicd or real flow situation too and can be considered indirect
study of viscous flow. The first direct study was done by Edme Mariotte who invented a balance
system to measure the drag of a model held inside a wind tunnel. (White)
In 1687 Newton published his Principia which described the viscous behaviour of the majority of
the fluids. (White)
In 1738, Daniel Bernoulli Demonstrated the proportionality between pressure gradient and the
acceleration in the in viscid flow. Euler then derived the frictionless equation which is now knows as
the Bernoullis equation. This derivation is still unchanged in ideal-fluid theory. At the same time
period Jean dAlembert published his famous paradox in 1752, which states that a body immersed
in a frictionless flow would have zero drag. (White)
Theoretical result of the Paradox caused the fluid mechanics to divide into two parts: hydrodynamics
which was the invsicid flow study consisting mathematical formulas and the hydraulics which relied
on experimental measurements. (White)
After the Derivation of frictionless equation, the frictional resistance term was added to the
equation through the contribution of 5 people. Those 5 people were Navier. Cauchy, Poisson, St.
Venant and Stokes. In the present time, these equations are called the Navier-Stokes equation and
are fundamental to the fluid dynamic analysis. This Navier-Stoke equation is non-linear, complex and
difficult to solve with little particular solution discovered so far. (White)
The biggest breakthrough for practical engineering was done by Ludwig Prandl in 1904 through his
discovery of boundary layer which confined the vicious effect. This discovery allowed simplification
4

of the formidable Navier-Stoke equation in some circumstances through use of boundary conditions.
It also allowed engineers to look at the fluid flow problem intelligibly. (White)

3.2 Introduction to Boundary Layer
Due to the theoretical result of the famous paradox by Jean dAlembert, the study of fluids branched
off into two seemingly different field of study. On one hand, there was the study of hydrodynamics
which resulted in the development of the inviscid theory consisting of mathematical equation. The
invisicid theory produced relevant results when the focus was not on the flow regions close to a solid
body. However, same could not be said about the region of the flow near a solid body as the theory
ignored the frictional resistance and the drag associated with it. On another hand, there was the
study of hydraulics which focused on the mechanical properties of liquids and was based on
formulae and datas generated through experiments and experience of engineers. This field of study
or approach focused on the engineering use of the fluid properties and helped solve engineering
problems such as design. (YOUNG)
Even though, these two fields seemed remarkably different, Prandtl linked these two fields by using
his boundary layer theory. The theory was based on certain basic observations. Those observations
were as follows:- (YOUNG)
No matter how small the viscosity of a moving fluid is, it cannot be ignored. The fluid at the
surface of a body is at rest and the relative fluid velocity increases with distance normal to
the surface until it equals to the free stream velocity . (YOUNG)
The viscosity of a fluid results in shear stress which is directly related to the velocity gradient
due the difference in the relative velocity of the fluid or the rate of strain. (YOUNG)
The Reynolds number is a controlling parameter of flow phenomena and is the ratio of
inertial and viscous forces. =

(YOUNG)
The relative thickness of boundary layer decreases with increase in Reynolds number. So,
high Reynolds number permits some simplification to the Navier-Stokes equation or the
equation of motion of a viscous fluid. (YOUNG)
From these observations it can be deduced that when there is an interaction between a viscous fluid
and a solid body in motion, a region where relative velocity of the fluid increase from zero at the
surface of the body to free stream velocity at the boundary of the boundary layer is created. In other
words a region where the effect of the viscous force can be felt because of the presence of velocity
gradient is created. So, a boundary layer can be described as a boundary confining the viscous effect
or the region where the viscous effect cannot be ignored. The last observation implies that the
boundary layer thickness is related to the Reynolds number or the fluid velocity. The thinness of the
boundary layer at higher Reynolds number can be explained by the fact that higher speed allows
lower time for the diffusion of viscous effect. A visual representation of the boundary layer
formation is shown in Figure 1.
5

Figure 1- (wikipedia)
3.3 Background Theory
Before being able to apply the boundary layer approximation, we need to consider and understand
the principal, theories and equations that is used to model a fluid flow problem. These include the
principles of conservation of mass and momentum which is also called the Navier-Stokes equation
along with other basic concepts. All these concept and equation are considered and derived in this
section of the report.
3.3.1 Basic physical concepts
Before getting into elaborate and detailed study of theories behind the viscous flow, familiarity with
some concepts and phenomenon is necessary. This section discusses some of these concepts and
phenomenon.
3.3.1.1 Continuous Fluid
Billions of molecules separated by empty space make up a fluid. In standard condition i.e. sea level
the fluid is highly dense and has large number of molecules separated by very small distance. This
means that in the seas level, when the wind blows, we feel that a fluid or air as a continuous
medium. However, above certain altitude, due to the decrease in density the air feels discontinuous
or the impact of each molecule can be felt. We assume that the fluid is continuous and use a physical
model in order to carry out the study of fluid dynamics. (F.Motallebi D. )
3.3.1.2 Fluid Density
Density of a fluid which has smallest elementary volume of and the total mass of all the molecule
of can be defined as an equation as follows:-
=

Equation 1
We call the smallest elementary volume a fluid particle. (F.Motallebi D. )
3.3.1.3 Viscosity
Let us consider a two dimensional shearing motion past a plate. Take x-axis parallel to the plate in
the direction of the motion and z axis perpendicular to it. Since, the fluid is moving in x-direction, the
velocity component in the z direction or w=0. Now, from the definition of shear stress we know that
it is proportional to the velocity gradient
. The equation of the shear stress is as follows:-

6

Equation 2
The symbol or the gradient of a graph of
and
is the coefficient of viscosity of the fluid. The

viscosity of a fluid is the fluid property which determines how easily the fluid flows, i.e. highly
viscous fluid flow less easily in comparison to fluid with low viscosity. If the relationship between
fluids shear stress and the velocity gradient is linear, the fluid is known as Newtonian fluid. (YOUNG)
3.3.1.4 Reynolds Number
The Reynolds number is a dimensionless number defined as the ratio of inertial forces and the
viscous forces. It can be used to determine or predict the flow characteristic or pattern. The formula
to calculate the Reynolds is as follows:-
=

Equation 3

Where U is velocity, L is a geometric size and and are the fluid density and viscosity, respectively.
(White)
3.3.1.5 Laminar flow, transition and turbulent flow
Depending upon the Reynolds number and speed of the fluid, the boundary layer can be either
Laminar or Turbulent. For a low Reynolds below critical value, we have laminar boundary layer
characterised by smooth streamline where the layers of the fluid travels parallel to each other. The
layers do not intersect and there is no disruption between the layers. The Turbulent flow occurs at
high Reynolds number and is characterised by unstable and irregular fluctuation of properties or
parameters of the flow such as velocity and pressure. The unsteady vortices and swirls occur during
the turbulent flow. Before a flow becomes turbulent form laminar, the fluid has to go through a
transition stage where the flow begins to exhibit turbulent behaviours. This transition stage exhibit
both laminar and turbulent behaviour and is a mixture of the two type of behaviour before the flow
becomes fully turbulent. The visual representation of this process can be seen in Figure 2.

Figure 2- (avalanche-center)
7

3.3.1.6 Effect of non-uniform pressure distribution
Lets consider flow around the top surface of an aerofoil. Near the leading edge, velocity increases
and the pressure drop along the x-direction resulting in negative or favourable pressure gradient i.e.
< 0. At around the max thickness of the aerofoil the pressure gradient tends to become zero. As
the flow pass beyond the point of zero pressure gradient towards the trailing there is a positive
pressure gradient causing the pressure to increase. If this positive pressure gradient and if the
increase in pressure is high enough the difference between the pressures can cause separation or
reversal of the flow. In the separation point the skin friction is zero as the velocity and its gradient
becomes zero. This phenomenon can be seen in Figure 3.

Figure 3- (F.Motallebi D. )
Flow separation due to adverse pressure gradient has many many effects. For example, if there is a
flow separation from a wing of an aircraft, it results to higher pressure drag and reduction of lift. If
the flow separates close to the leading edge of an aerofoil it causes stall. So, in order to increase the
efficiency of the aircraft it is essential to prevent or delay flow separation. This can be achieved
through active or passive methods such as suction and vortex generators. (F.Motallebi D. )
3.3.1.7 Drag
Drag of a body moving inside a fluid is the force component acting on the opposite direction of the
motion. It is and important parameter in aerospace engineering and is used to evaluate the
performance level of an aircraft.
The drag force can be divided into two components called the Skin friction drag and the pressure
drag. The skin friction drag is the result of shear or frictional stresses that acts in tangential direction
to the surface of the body and the pressure drag is the result of pressure acting on the surface. A lift
induced drag is the drag due to energy dissipation into the vortices or rotating air formed at the wing
tips due to the pressure difference between the upper and the lower surfaces. The lift induced
manifest as a part of pressure drag like the wave drag due to formation of shock wave causing
mechanical energy dissipation. (YOUNG)
8

In the absence of lift dependent drag and the wave drag, the pressure drag is due the change in the
pressure distribution due to the formation of the boundary layer caused by the velocity distribution.
This means that in the absence of those two drags the pressure drag is the result of the viscosity of
the fluid or air in this case. (YOUNG)
The drag is often expressed in the non-dimensional form as drag coefficient (
):
=

1
2

Equation 4
Where is he density, is the velocity, is the representative area and is the drag force.
3.3.2 Theoretical Foundation
This section of the report looks at the theories and equation that governs the viscous fluid flow
problem.
3.3.2.1 Conservation of mass


Lets consider the control volume as shown in Figure 4. Now let say that the control volume has
length of (dx,dy,dz) in direction x,y,z respectively. Now, lets say that the control volume has density
and velocity u,v and w in x,y and z direction respectively at the centre. In order to find out the fluid
property corresponding to each direction, we need to find the increment of these variables near the
centre or in this case at each face of the control volume. The Taylor expansion can be used to find
the increment of these variables and for the face dy*dz it can be written as follows:-
+

2
+
()
2
2
[
(
2
)
2
2!
] +
Equation 5 (F.Motallebi D. )
9

If the control volume is assumed to be small enough the higher power including square of the
distance from the centre i.e. dx/2 can be ignored because higher power of a small number is smaller
and can be though to diminish as the volume considered is sufficiently small .All the Taylor
expansion of the variables after ignoring the higher power terms which corresponding to the
increment of these variables in each faces can be seen in Figure 4. Now we can now evaluate the
terms needed to derive the continuity equation.
We know that the mas flow rate is given by the product of density, velocity and the cross section
area at each face. So, the mass out of the control volume can be written as follows:-
+ + +(
2

Similarly rate of flux of mass into the control volume can be written as
+ + (
2

For flows that is unsteady where the density is the function of time the rate of increase of mass flow
inside the control volume can be written as follows :-
()
Now, from Equation 6 and Equation 7 the difference between the mass flow rate out of the control
and the mass flow rate inside of the control volume can be written as follows:-
+ + +(
2

+ (
2

Or, (
2
+(
2

Or, (
) (
2
2
)
(
)
Equation 9
The continuity equation states that the difference between the mass flow rate going into the control
volume and the mass flow rate going out the control volume + time rate change of the mass inside
the control volume is equal to zero. To get the continuity equation Equation 8 needs to be added to
the expression shown in Equation 9. So, the continuity equation becomes as follows:-
10

() +(
) = 0
Or,
() +

() +

() = 0
Equation 10
3.3.2.2 Momentum equation (Newtons Second Law)
From the Newtons second law of motion, we know that the rate of change of momentum of a body
is equal to the force applied to the body. The momentum equation for fluid is also known as the
Navier Stokes Equation. By applying the Newtons second law the x-component of the total force
applied to a control volume shown in the Figure 4 the force applied can be expressed in terms of
rate of change of momentum of the control volume.
Each term required to formulate the momentum equation in x-direction can be expressed in terms
of the fluids mas flow rate and velocity. Similar approach can be taken to derive the momentum
equation in the y and z direction. Now the Rate of increase momentum of the fluid within the
control volume in x-direction can be expressed as following:-
()
Now the total Rate of flow of momentum into the control volume from x-direction is the sum of flow
of momentum from each faces. The momentum flow rate is given by the product of the mass flow
rate and the velocity and the total momentum flow into the control volume can be expressed as
follows:-
(

2
) (
2
) +(

2
) (
2
)
+(

2
) (

2
)
Equation 12
Similarly, total rate of flow of momentum of out of the Control Volume in x-direction can be
expressed as follows:-
( +

2
) ( +
2
) +( +

2
) ( +
2
)
+( +

2
) ( +

2
)
Equation 13
The sum of forces applied to the control volume in each direction can be expressed using the
following notations
Sum of x-component of forces =

11

Sum of y-component of forces =

Sum of y-component of forces =

Now, applying the newtons second Law to the control volume in x-direction the momentum
equation which states that the rate of increase of momentum+ the difference between the
momentum flow out and the momentum flow in gives us the total force applied to the control
volume in x-direction. Therefore, the difference of Equation 12 and Equation 13+ Equation 11 should
give us the total force in x-direction. So the total force in x-direction can be expressed as follows:-
(
) =

Equation 14- (F.Motallebi D. )
Similarly the momentum equations in y and z direction can be obtained
(
) =

(
) =

Now, the R.H.S or the momentum equations or components of the total force acting on the fluid or
the control volume needs to be formulated. Two types of forces called the body force which acts at
a distance like gravity, electric and magnetic force and the surface force which acts at the surface
acts on the fluid or the control volume. The component of the body force per unit mass can be
denoted as
for x,y and z direction respectively. Now, since the force is the product of
the mass and the acceleration the body force components for x,y and z direction can be written as
follows:-
(
= (
)
Equation 17
(
= (
)
Equation 18
(
= (
)
Equation 19
Surface force acting on each surface or the face of the control volume has two direction, a tangential
direction to the faces and perpendicular direction to the faces. If we express these two forces as
stresses, the tangential force corresponds to shear stress and the perpendicular surface corresponds
12

to normal stress. The stresses acting on each faces are shown in Figure 5-. The normal stress is
denoted by and the shear stress by in the diagram.

Now the total surface force in x-direction is due to the combination of shear and normal stress and
can be expressed as follows:-
(
= (
+(
)

So, from Figure 5-, the total surface force in x-direction can be expressed as follows
(
= (
)
Similarly, for y and z direction following express can be obtained
(
= (
)
(
= (
)
If we look at these surface force equations, it can be seen that there are total of 9 stresses acting on
the faces of the control volume and they make up stress tensor which can be expressed as matrix as
shown below:-
13

= (
)
Now, the total force acting on the control volume can expressed as the sum of body forces and the
surface forces as follows:-
(
= (
) +

Equation 24
(
= (
) +

Equation 25
(
= (
) +

Equation 26
Now let us consider the force due to the pressure acting on the control volume. We know that the
pressure forces always acts normal to the surface and it tries to compress the control volume or
pushes in towards the centre of the control volume. So pressure force acting in the x-direction can
be expressed as follows:-
For face dy*dz pressure forces are
For the left dy*dz face pressure force=(

2
)
For the right dy*dz face pressure force=( +

2
)
Now taking the difference of these two pressure force we get the net pressure force acting on the x-
direction as follows:-
(

2
) ( +

2
) =

Similarly for x and y direction the net pressure force are
For y direction=

For z direction=

Adding the pressure force to the total Surface force equations we get
(
+(
) +

Equation 27
14

(
+(
) +

Equation 28
(
+(
) +

Equation 29
It can be also said that the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid when it is at rest will be equal to the
normal stress because the shear stress are absent. This implies that shear stress for moving fluid can
be expressed as
and so on.
The next step is to express the stress in terms of velocity so that the momentum equation can be
found in terms of velocity. To do this we need to formulate the rate of strain for the fluid because
deformation law for Newtonian Fluid states that for Newtonian fluid the stress is proportional to the
rate of strain. The strain can be defines as the ratio of deformed or elongated length with the
original length. SO, the rate of strain is the ratio of time and strain. In order to formulate the strain
for fluid element we need to consider difference kind of strain those results due to the way the fluid
is deformed and/or elongated. (White).
Let us consider a fluid element at time t and undergoes deformation and looks like the element
shown at time t+dt as shown in Figure 6-. In the figure it can be seen that the fluid element has
gone through translation, rotation, extension or dilatation and shear strain. (White)

Figure 6- (White)
Since we know that the displacement is given by the product of the velocity and time, the translation
of the fluid element can be described as udt and vdt.
The rotation of the fluid element can be described as difference of the angle of the diagonal of the
fluid element after time t+dt and the angle of the diagonal of the fluid element at time t. This can be
expressed in form of equation as
= + 45
. We can also see that the right angle can be

expressed as 2 +d +d = 90
o
. So the rotation of the fluid can be expressed in terms of d and
as following equation (White):-
15

=
1
2
(d d)
Equation 30 (White)
Now from trigonometry, we can find the angle and as follows:-
tan() =

or = lim
0
(
1

) =

Equation 31
Similarly,
=

Equation 32
Substituting Equation 32 and Equation 31 into Equation 30 we get:-
=
1
2
(
)
Equation 33 (White)
Similarly the rate of rotation for y and z direction can be expressed as
=
1
2
(
) and
=
1
2
(
)
Equation 34 (White)
The shear stain is commonly defines as the average decrease of the angle between two lines which
are initially perpendicular in the unstrained state (White). So, from Figure 6- the shear strain can be
expressed as follows:-
Shear strain=
1
2
( +)
Using this expression the shear strain rate in each direction can be expressed as follows
=
1
2
(
) =
1
2
(
)
Equation 35 (White)
Similarly
=
1
2
(
=
1
2
(
)
Equation 36 (White)
16

These equations are the component of the angular velocity.
Finally, the linear extensional strain needs to be considered. The extensional strain can be calculated
as the strain is calculated by taking the ratio of the extended length and the original length. So, for x-
direction of the fluid element shown in Figure 6- the shear strain can be expressed as follows:-
=
(+

So, the shear strain rate in each direction can be expressed as follows:-

Equation 37 (White)
The sum of these 3 components of the extensional strain tells us about the expansion, dilation or
divergence of the fluid element due to strain in the direction. This divergence is denoted as (
)
Now the strain tensor can be expressed in terms of velocity gradient as follows:-
=
(
1
2
(
)
1
2
(
)
1
2
(
1
2
(
)
1
2
(
)
1
2
(
)

)

Finally we can use the relationship between the stress and the strain in order to express the stresses
in term of the velocity gradient. For Newtonian fluid the relationship between the viscous stresses
and the strain rate is assumed to be linear. These relationship for stress component in the stress
tensor and the strain rate can expressed as follows;-
= (
) +2
= 2
= 2

Using these relationship to replace the stresses and substituting the result into the momentum
equation i.e. Equation 13Equation 14-, Equation 15and Equation 16 we get the momentum equation
or the Navier-Stokes equation as follows:-
(
) =
(2
+) +

[ (
)] +

[(
)
Equation 39 (White)
(
) =
[ (
)] +

(2
+ ) +

[(
)
Equation 40 (White)
17

(
) =
[ (
)] +

[ (
)] +

(2
+ )
Equation 41 (White)
3.3.2.3 Energy equation
Let us consider the box type control volume similar to the one shown in Figure 4-. Now, form the
first law of thermodynamics we know that:
An increase of the energy of the control volume is the result of the sum of the work done and the
heat energy added to the control volume. This can be expressed as
= +. (White)
Here
denotes the total energy and is the sum of internal, kinetic and potential energy. The total
energy per volume can be expressed as follows:-
= ( +
1
2
2
)
Equation 42 (White)
Where r=displacement of fluid particles, V=velocity of the fluid particles and e=internal energy per
mass.
In order to find the rate of energy change in the control volume the time derivative of the expression
of total energy can be taken. This time derivative can be expressed as follows:-

Equation 43 (White)
Since the Total energy is the sum of internal, kinetic and potential energy, the time derivative of the
total energy or the R.H.S of Equation 43 can be expressed as follows:-
= (
. )
Equation 44 (White)
Now the R.H.S of the equation needs to be formulated. To do so, let us consider the control volume
shown in Figure 4-. Assume that the heat transfer into and out of the control volume is denoted by q.
So in x direction the heat transfer out of the control volume through face dydz is denoted by (

2
) and the heat transfer into the control volume can be expressed as (

2
).
So the net heat transfer into the control volume from x-direction can be expressed as the difference
between heat transfer in and the heat transfer out of the control volume
(

2
) (

2
) =
dq

We get the negative sign because in this case the heat is being removed from the control volume.
Similarly, the heat transfer in y and z direction can be expressed as follows:-
18

So the net heat transfer from all the faces can be expressed as follows
(
)
Equation 45
Dividing the equation by the volume of the control volume we get,
(
)
Now the heat flux per unit area can be expressed as follows by using Fouriers Law

Similar expression can be used for

In other words
=
So heat transfer per volume can be expressed as follows
= = ()
Equation 46 (White)
Now the Work done on the control volume needs to be formulated. Lets consider the same control
volume and look at the work done in x-direction. So the work done per area or the work added per
area to the control volume from dydz face is as follows:
2

Similarly the work done by the control volume from dydz face that corresponds to x-direction is
2

Therefore the net work done per area can be written as follows:-

If wx represent the work per unit area then it can be expressed in terms of stress as follows
= (
)
So, the rate of work done for the control volume is:-
19

= =

) +

) +

)
Using the indicial notation and decomposing the result we get
DW
Dt
= . (.
) = . (.
) +

Equation 47 (White)
We can compare the above equation to the newtons second law or momentum equation. The x-
momentum equation can be written as follows:-

+(
)
Or,
+(
)
Equation 48
Since .
= (
) +
Comparing Equation 47Equation 48 we can express .
as follows:-
.
, .
= (
)
Equation 49
Therefore,
. (.
) = (
. )
Equation 50 (White)
Now using the terms for
and substituting it to the original energy balance equation

shown in Equation 44, we get
(
. ) = () + (
. ) +

Or,
= () +

Equation 51
In order to get the equation in terms of enthalpy, the stress tensor can be split. This gives us

Where = . =

20

From continuity
=

Substituting this into the energy balance equation we get
( +
) =

+() +

Or,
+() +

Equation 52 (White)
The last term in the above equation is called dissipation function and is denoted by the symbol
So, the Energy equation can be rewritten as follows
+() +
Equation 53
3.3.2.4 The governing equation for steady incompressible flow
For steady and incompressible flow the momentum and the continuity equation reduces to the
following equations:-
Continuity equation
= 0
Equation 54
Momentum equation in x-direction
(
) =
2
+
2
+
2
)
Equation 55
Momentum equation in y-direction
(
) =
2
+
2
+
2
)
Equation 56
Momentum equation in z-direction
(
) =
2
+
2
+
2
)
Equation 57
21

3.3.3 Effects of Boundary Layer
Most of the engineering problem involves high Reynolds number flow as the viscosity of the fluids
involved in engineering usually have low visocity. However, Prandtl discovered that viscous terms in
the Navier-Stokes equation cannot be ignored no matter how small the visocity is. Due to the
formation of the boundary layer around a body the flow field can be divided into two regions:-
For flows far away from a body or outside a boundary layer an inviscid region is created
where the velocity gradient is very small and the effect of viscosity is negligible. For this
region the flow can be regarded as inviscid and inviscid theories and equation can be used.
Within the immediate vicinity of the body, boundary layer growth occurs which induces high
velocity gradient. This velocity gradient means that the effect of the viscosity or the shear
stress cannot be ignored inside the boundary layer. This region can be said to be a viscous
region.

(F.Motallebi D. )
Some of the other effects of the boundary layer formation are discussed in this section
3.3.3.1 Shear Stress Distribution
Inside the boundary layer the product of viscosity and the velocity gradient or the shear stress
cannot be ignored which causes stress distribution inside the boundary layer. The shear stress at the
wall of a body is the highest and is called the skin friction drag and it decreases as we move away
from the solid wall until it becomes zero at the boundary of the boundary layer where the velocity is
equal to the free stream velocity. (F.Motallebi D. )
The integral of shear stress at the solid boundary or wall of a body with length L gives the shear
friction drag and can be calculated using the following equation
()
0

Figure 7
Where the shear stress at wall
is calculate using the following formula
= (
)
=0

Figure 8
Similarly the drag coefficient due to the drag friction can be calculated as follows
1
2
2

Figure 9
22

3.3.3.2 Displacement Thickness
As the fluid flow past a solid boundary, the fluid particles stick to the surface of a body. This results
in the reduction of the mass flow rate per unit area leaving the boundary layer causing the external
free streamlines to be displaced outward to compensate the mass flow reduction. To estimate the
displacement we need to consider a control volume ABCD as shown in Figure 10-

Mass enters the control volume from side AB and leaves the control volume through side CD. AD
represents the solid wall and BC represents the displaced streamline to compensate the reduction of
mass flow rate. Now the mass flow rate inside the control volume for steady flow can be calculated
as follows:-

= 0
0

Or,
= (
0

Or,
( ) = (
0

Or,
= (1

0

Or,
= (1

0

If we replace the upper limit of integration by boundary layer thickness we get
= (1

0

This parameter denoted by
is called displacement thickness and is the distance by which the

external free streamlines are displacement in the y-direction due to the formation of the boundary
layer. (F.Motallebi D. )
23

3.3.3.3 Momentum Thickness
Due to the effect of viscosity within the boundary layer, the velocity of the fluid inside the boundary
layer decreases which results in decrease of the momentum flow rate. This reduction of the
momentum can be calculated as follows:-
(
0

Now, by defining the momentum thickness () as the thickness of free stream layer which has the
same momentum flow rate as the reduced momentum flow rate due to the formation of the
boundary layer, we can write
(
2
) = (
0

Or, =

(1

0

3.3.3.4 The Boundary Layer equation
Lets consider a simple case two dimensional incompressible steady fluid flow over a plane surface.
Furthermore, assume that the body forces are not present. If we take the x-direction as parallel to
the fluid motion and y direction perpendicular to the motion and apply these conditions, the
continuity and the momentum equation reduces to the following equations:-
= 0
Equation 60
=
1
2
+
2
)
Equation 61
=
1
2
+

2
2
)
Equation 62
24

Now from the concept of boundary layer, we know that the flow outside the boundary layer can be
treated as inviscid further reducing the momentum equation as follows:-
=
1
=
1

However, inside the boundary layer the visocity cannot be ignored as strong velocity gradient is
induced due to the formation of boundary layer. This means that the squared terms in the
momentum equation does not disappear. For high Reynolds number the boundary layer is very thin
and the ratio of boundary layer thickness and the length is very small i.e.
1. The order of
magnitude of the parameters can be used in order to compare and estimate terms. Prandtl used this
argument in order to simplify the conservation equations which resulted in reduction of the
conservation of the equation into the following equations:- (F.Motallebi D. )
= 0
=
1
2

And
0
These equations can be used for thin boundary layer problem when the Reynolds number is high. So,
from practical point of view these equations have great importance as many engineering problem
involves fluid with low viscosity such as water and air which results in high Reynolds number. This is
because the Reynolds number is inversely proportional to the viscosity of the fluid involved.
However, if separation occurs due to strong adverse pressure gradient the flow becomes thick and
these boundary layer equations becomes invalid as it was based on thin boundary layer assumption.
(F.Motallebi D. )
3.3.4 Solutions of Laminar Boundary Layer Problem
This section of the report looks at some of the well-known solution found for a boundary layer
problem.
3.3.4.1 Blassius Solution
The Blassius Solution deals with simple solution of Boundary layer problem when pressure is
constant. In order to get the solution, Blassius introduced a stream function . A stream function is
a function that gives us the velocity u if we take the derivative of the function in terms of y and give
us the velocity v if we take the negative derivative of the function in terms of x. The stream function
that was proposed by him was
25

=
()
Equation 66
Where the
is the free stream velocity for constant pressure condition and is a function of y
defined as follows:-
=

Equation 67
Now from the definition of the stream line the velocity in x-direction or v can be expressed as
follows:-
=

dy
=

d
d

Since the is a function of y, the above equation becomes
=
() ,
() =

Similarly,
=
1
2
)
Equation 69
By replacing the velocity u and v in to the momentum equation for boundary layer the momentum
equation reduces to the following form
+2
= 0
Equation 70
This is a non-linear third order equation which is not straight forward to tackle or find the analytical
solution for. This is a boundary value problem and the boundary condition it needs to satisfy is at
the extreme value of = 0 and as = . For condition near the wall the function ()was
expressed as a series by Blasius that looked like like
() =
0
+
1
1
+
2
2!

2
+
Equation 71
After finding a way to find the cofficients in the series, the expression for the function was found.
This expression was as follows:-
26

=

2
+1
(3 +2)!
3+2
=
=0

Where
= 1,
1
= 1,
2
= 11 ,
3
= 375.
He then found the value of A2 by matching the solution for small to large value of .
It can be seen that finding the analytical solution for the differential equation is long and tedious
process . Numerical solution method can be used and the tabulated Blasius solution is readily
available nowadays.
By using the Blasius solution equation to calculate various thin boundary layer parameter can be
derived in terms of the Reynolds number. These equations are as follows:-
Boundary Layer Thickness: = 5.2

Boundary Layer Displacement Thickness:
= 1.781

_

Boundary Layer Momentum Thickness: = 0.664

Shear Stress: =

Wall shear stress:
= 0.332
1

Skin friction coefficient:
=
0.664

3.3.4.2 Approximate Solution Method
To this day, there is only few exact solution of the Navier- Stokes equation for laminar boundary for
simple cases. As the complexity of the problem such as the complexity of geometric shape of the
body increases the Navier-Stokes equation become more difficult to solve. Therefore, a method for
approximating the solution for complex situation has to be found. This section looks at some of the
methods that can be used to find the approximate solution.
3.3.4.2.1 Momentum integral equation
This method is based on the integration of the momentum equation of the fluid flow.
Lets consider the thin boundary layer equations:-
= 0
=
1
2

For thin boundary layers the pressure at a given x coordinate is constant through the y axis i.e.
dP/dx=0 for a given x. So the pressure inside the boundary layer is equal to the free stream pressure
for a given x. So by applying the energy equation or Bernoulli equation the expression of
1
=
27

. Similarly, replacing the
2

1
because of the boundary layer momentum equation

becomes
+
1

Equation 72 (Tuncer Cebeci)
Here the subscript e represents the parameter value at the edge of the boundary layer.
Now, multiply the continuity equation by u and add it to the momentum equation to get
+
1

Now integrating the equation with respect to y between y=0 to y= we get

2
0

Here ,
0

So. Equation 73 becomes
(
) =

Rearranging the equation we get
{

[(
)]
)} =
0

Since the value of
= 0 when the upper limit of the integral equation needs to be

changed. After some rearranging we can get the following expression
2
[
(
2
] +
0
=

Or, [
2
[
(1

)] +
(1

0
=

Now , since
in the Equation 58 and Equation 59 is same as
, we can use the definition of

displacement and momentum thickness for constant density to re write the above equation as
follows:-

28

Or finally
+( +2)

2

Where =

and is known as shape factor.

3.3.4.2.2 Method of Thwaites
Thwaites used the momentum integral equation to find the parameter of the boundary layer
equation. The idea of this method is to multiply the Momentum Integral Equation by
which
Lets consider the momentum Integral equation in the form :-

Now it can be shown that

So, the momentum equation can be written as follows:-
(2 +) =

Equation 77
Now, multiplying the equation by
(2 +) =

Equation 78
Now, assume that the R.H.S of the equation and the shape factor are correlated reasonably by a
single parameter. Assume that parameter is m. SO
= ()
= ()
Now, as

= (
2
2
) the Equation 78 can be written as
= 2[ () (2 +())] = ()
29

Thwaites proposed a linear equation for F(m)
This was:
() = 0.45 6.0
Now multiplying the both side of the equation by the equation
= 0.45 6.0
Reduces to
) = 0.45
2

Equation 80
By looking at Equation 80, it can be seen that integrating this equation in terms of x between x=0
and any x > 0 gives the estimation of momentum thickness. (F.Motallebi D. )Therefore, we can
integrate both sides to find the equation to find the equation to calculate the boundary layer
thickness. The result obtained after integrating both side of the equation is as follows
2
=
0.45
0

Equation 81
In order to find the Separation point by using the Thwaites method, we need to locate the point
where the wall shear stress is zero. In this case when S(m)=0. It has been found that this happens
when m=-0.09 (F.Motallebi D. )
3.3.4.2.3 Pohlhausens method
The Pohlhausens approach was to use an approximated quadratic velocity profile of the following
form:-
= +
2
+
3
+
4

Equation 82 (YOUNG)
Where =

Since the velocity profile must satisfy the boundary condition imposed by the formation of boundary
layer, the coefficients a,b,c and d can be found by applying the boundary conditions;-
The four of the boundary conditions are as follows:-
For y=0 , u=0
For y= , u=

For y= ,
= 0
For y=0 (
2
) =

30

By applying these four boundary condition the value the four coefficient were found to be as
follows:-
= 2 +
6

=

2

= 2 +
2

= 1
6

Where =

2

Equation 83 (YOUNG)
So, the Pohlhausens velocity profile in terms of will become
= 2 2
3
+
4
+
6
(1 )
3

Or,
= 2 2
3
+
4
+
6
( 3
2
+3
3

4
)
Based on this velocity the boundary layer parameters can be calculated which gives following results

(2 +
6
)
Equation 85

=
3
10

120

Equation 86

=
1
63
(
37
5

15

2
144
)
Equation 87
Using Equation 85, the value of at separation point can be found as follows
At separation pint, we have
(2 +
6
) = 0
Therefore at separation point
(2 +
6
) = 0
Or = 12
Equation 88
31

3.3.5 Transition
Transition is the process or phase at which an initial laminar flow starts to exhibit turbulent
behaviour characterised by irregular movements. As, I have mentioned before the behaviour of a
flow seem s to be dependent on the Reynolds number. The Reynolds number below which the flow
is laminar is called the critical Reynolds number. It was found that the critical Reynolds number is
influenced by the disturbance to the flow. Due to the typical nature or viscosity of the fluids that
engineers encounter, the critical Reynolds number is difficult to avoid. This is because the Reynolds
number is inversely proportional to the fluids viscosity and low viscosity fluid will have high
Reynolds number al lower speed, resulting in transition. The turbulent flow also induces more drag
on a body which means that the ability to predict the transition phase is a vital for designing
application or engineering. A result of an experiment using dyes to visualise the transitional and
turbulent flow is shown Figure 11.

Figure 11 (Aerodynamics for Student, 2005)
From the figure it can be seen that during transitional flow the initial laminar starts behaving in
random manner. However, the Flow did not become fully turbulent and it can be seen that
transitional process in not instantaneous and can happen over a length. This length is known as the
transitional region. (YOUNG)
3.3.5.1 Parameters that effect transition
Depending upon some properties of the fluid and the body that it interacts with, it can affect the
point at which transition starts or begin. Some of these parameters that have an effect on transition
are as follows:-
Pressure gradient
External Turbulence
Heat Transfer
Excrescences
3.3.5.1.1 Pressure gradient
As, I have mentioned before the pressure distribution determines how a boundary layer develops.
The adverse pressure gradient can cause separation and reversal which creates an inflection point in
32

velocity profile. This results in the instability of the boundary layer making it more susceptible to
transition as transition can occur before separation. (F.Motallebi D. )
3.3.5.1.2 External Turbulence
Dryden carried out an experiment on a flat plate at zero incidences and used the results to analyse
the effect of external turbulence on the turbulence. He noted that at low external turbulence i.e.
about 0.1% there was no significant impact on the transition Reynolds number, but further increase
showed that external turbulence decreased the transition Reynolds number. Since the Reynolds
number can be expressed as a function of x because of the length parameter in it, decreasing
transitional Reynolds number meant that the transition point was moving upstream towards the
leading edge of the plate. So, it can be concluded that the higher external turbulence encourages
transition to occur earlier. (YOUNG)
3.3.5.1.3 Heat Transfer
Let us consider the boundary layer momentum equation. For zero pressure gradient and
incompressible flow the momentum equation at the wall reduces to the following equation
(
2
)
=
1

Figure 12
If we assume that a solid boundary has higher temperature compared to the fluid it interacts with,
then there will be heat transfer from the solid boundary to the fluid. Now, we know that the
viscosity of a fluid is a function of temperature. In case of gas, the viscosity of the gas increases with
temperature so due to the heat transfer the viscosity near the wall is more compared to the fluid
particles above and perpendicular to it which means that (
< 0. Now, from boundary layer

concept we know that
> 0 and so, at surface (
2
)
> 0. However at the edge of the boundary

layer
2
< 0. This implies that there must be an inflexion pint which causes instability and cause
transition to occur faster. In case of cooling opposite happens causing the stability of the boundary
layer to increase if the fluid is a gas. However, if the fluid is liquid the visocity decreases with
temperature which means opposite thing happen when compared to gas. (YOUNG)
3.3.5.1.4 Excrescence
If an excrescence is considered then, it has been found that if the excrescence height is above a
critical height
then the excrescence can cause the transition process to happen earlier. If the
height of the excrescence is increased more, the transition moves towards the front of the
excrescence. Excrescence can also be thought of as surface roughness which introduces disturbance
to the boundary layer causing earlier transition.
3.3.5.2 Transition Prediction
Although the study of fluid dynamics is relatively old and many breakthroughs have been made,
general and refined method for predicting transition has still not been found. The methods that are
used are empirical and are based on data collected for various cases. (YOUNG)
33

One of the simple methods of predicting the transition is to use Reynolds number based on the
momentum thickness suggested by Michel. The Reynolds number given by the following equation

He found out that (
2.9
0.4

Figure 13 (F.Motallebi D. )
Here

And = . 664

In order to find the transition point
and
needs to be expressed in terms of
and
.
For a given velocity profile the momentum thickness distribution can be found by using Thwaites
method.
3.3.5.3 Effect of suction
In order to maintain laminar flow over a profile, suction can be applied. The result of the suction is
that it reduces the boundary layer thickness and makes the velocity profile thicker. It also increases
the stability of the laminar boundary layer it creates. (YOUNG)
3.3.6 Turbulent Flow
As, I have mentioned before, the fluids typically encountered in engineering problem are very much
susceptible to transition and turbulence. Turbulent Boundary Layer is formed for high Reynolds
number after the flow goes through transition at Reynolds number of about2 10
5
. The turbulent
boundary layer is characterised by random fluctuation of the flow properties like velocity, pressure
etc. The flow also breaks into swirls and forms eddy which allows strong mixing. A picture of
turbulent flow is shown in Figure 14.

Figure 14 (Basu)
34

Due to the fluctuation of the fluid properties inside the turbulent boundary layer it becomes difficult
to exactly predict the fluid parameters. However for many engineering problems, the designer is not
interested in the fluctuating values of the parameters. So, it can be said that, for turbulent flow
finding the average quantity that that can represent the approximate value of the parameter that
the engineers require is sufficient. So, turbulent flow analysis deals with finding ways to approximate
these average parameters that are essential for designing process. (F.Motallebi D. )
3.3.6.1 Time averaging
Time averaging is required for turbulent flow so that the governing equation can be used for the
turbulent flow.
For laminar flow we defined the velocities as u,v and w indirection x,y and z. However, in turbulent
flow we have fluctuating velocity component in each direction. Let us denote the fluctuating
velocities as
in x,y and z direction respectively. Similarly, let say that the mean velocity
in each direction are denoted by, . Now the instantaneous velocity u,v and w can be
defined in terms of their mean and fluctuating part as follows:-
= +

= +

= +

Now, let us concentrate on velocity in x-axis or u. It we take the time average of the instantaneous
velocity u we get the following expression
=
1
T
( +
)
+
= +

So, we have = +

For steady turbulent flow, there exit a time interval in which the average fluctuation value becomes
zero. So,
= 0
Extensive experiments have showed that the product of two fluctuating time average velocity is not
zero. (F.Motallebi D. )
Therefore,
2
,
2
,
, 0
Now let us look at the 2D conservation equations
= 0
35

=
1
2
+
2
)
Now, substituting u, v and w expressions in terms of their the mean and fluctuating part into the
continuity equation, we get
( +
) +

( +
) = 0
Or,
= 0
Equation 90
Now, if we take time average of each term in the L.H.S in the above equation the equation becomes
= 0
However, for steady turbulent flow, it can be argued that
is zero. Therefore the continuity

equation reduces to
= 0
Or,
= 0
Following the same procedure for the momentum equations and manipulating them, we get the
time average momentum equation which becomes
2
+
2
) (
)
2
+

2
2
) (
)
Multiplying the fluctuating velocity product i.e2multiplying the time average fluctuating velocity
products (i.e.
) in the momentum equation introduced by the density gives the

extra stress terms called the Reynolds stress that occurs in the turbulent flow. For 3D flow, total of 9
fluctuating velocity product would be added to the 3 momentum equation in 3 directions. By
multiplying these 9 fluctuating velocity products and the density gives us 9 components of the
Reynolds stress tensor. These terms introduce more unknown into the equations and therefore
additional equation for these unknown quantities need be found. This is referred as the turbulent
flow closure problem (Tuncer Cebeci)
36

As for the laminar flow, the turbulent thin boundary layer equation can be deduced. The equations
take the following form
= 0
Equation 94
=
1
+
1
)
Equation 95

3.4 CFD
Computational fluid dynamics deals make use numerical method and algorithms to solve the
equations that govern a fluid flow problem. Although the Navier-Stokes equations were formulate
long time ago, only few and trivial solution exist as the Navier-Stokes equation are formidable and
difficult to solve. Nowadays, many engineers have started using CFD as an alternative to physical
modelling as it saves time and money if the model is simple. This is not always true because like
physical modelling, using CFD required resources and obtaining high degree of accuracy is expensive
because it requires powerful computer. (Tuncer Cebeci)
The numerical approach use by the computers is based on discretisation of the continuous equation
allowing computers solve the problem for set of discrete points. Some of the discretisation
technique that CFD uses as follows:-
Finite Difference Method
Finite Volume Method
3.4.1 Finite Difference Method
The Finite Difference method allows discretising of continuous equation or function and is
concerned with balancing derivatives at a point. This method allows the computer to approximate a
solution of differential equation which is used to model almost any fluid phenomena. The method
works by replacing the derivative with the finite difference equation. The result of doing so, is that
we get an algebraic equation that can approximate the solution of the differential equation. An
example is given below
=
( +) ()

Equation 96
In the above equation the R.H.S is the finite difference that can be sued to approximate the L.H.S
which is a differential equation. For grids with nodes, using finite difference approach means that
the calculation is done in each nodes. (Muller)
3.4.2 Finite Volume Method
If we imagine a 2D grid with bunch of nodes then we will have some rectangle, square or other
geometric shape. In 3D grid, there will be a 3D shapes such as cube. The finite volume method is
37

based on performing calculation in this column of area created by group of nodes connected
together. This method is also sometime referred as control volume method because in finite volume
method, the software make use of flux based on the conservation form (Muller), So it is similar to
control volume theory which is used to derive conservation equation.
4 Simulation
Two dimensional flow of air over a flat plate of length 0.5 m was simulated using fluent in Ansys
workbench.

5 Results
The results obtained by deploying

6 Conclusions
7 Acknowledgement
I would like to thank my friend Philip Malla for helping me out in my simulation and providing me
with enough knowledge to allow me to do the simulation.
8 Bibliography
(n.d.). Retrieved March 15, 2014, from avalanche-center: http://www.avalanche-
center.org/Education/topics/wind1.php
(n.d.). Retrieved March 15, 2014, from wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary_layer
Aerodynamics for Student. (2005). Retrieved March 28, 2014, from mdp.eng.cam: http://www-
mdp.eng.cam.ac.uk/web/library/enginfo/aerothermal_dvd_only/aero/fprops/pipeflow/nod
e8.html
Balmer, D. (n.d.). Retrieved March 10, 2014, from see.ed:
http://www.see.ed.ac.uk/~johnc/teaching/fluidmechanics4/2003-04/fluids10/integral.html
Basu, A. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2014, from saha.ac.in:
http://www.saha.ac.in/cmp/Abhik.Basu/abhik_home.html
Chang, P. K. (n.d.). Control of Flow Seperation. Hemisphere Publishing Corporation.
F.Motallebi, D. (n.d.). Lecture Note 1: Aerothermodynamics of Fluid FLow Den5242. Part 1:
Fundamentals of Viscous FLows.
F.Motallebi, D. (n.d.). Low Speed Aerodynamics Viscous FLOw around a wing and flow control.
38

Muller, J.-D. (n.d.). Den 331. Computational FLuid Dyanamics, Part1: OUtline and introduction.
Puttkammer, P. (n.d.). http://essay.utwente.nl/. Retrieved March 10, 2014, from
http://essay.utwente.nl/63314/1/BSc_report_Peter_Puttkammer.pdf
Tuncer Cebeci, J. C. (n.d.). Modelling and Computation of Boundary-Layer FLows.
White, F. M. (n.d.). VISCOUS FLUID FLOW.
YOUNG, A. (n.d.). BOUNDARY LAYERS.

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1

. The equation of the shear stress is as follows:-

is the coefficient of viscosity of the fluid. The

. We can also see that the right angle can be

and substituting it to the original energy balance equation

is calculate using the following formula

is called displacement thickness and is the distance by which the

. Similarly, replacing the

because of the boundary layer momentum equation

= 0 when the upper limit of the integral equation needs to be

in the Equation 58 and Equation 59 is same as

, we can use the definition of

and is known as shape factor.

< 0. Now, from boundary layer

> 0 and so, at surface (

> 0. However at the edge of the boundary

needs to be expressed in terms of

is zero. Therefore the continuity

) in the momentum equation introduced by the density gives the

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