Concept and Foundation of

Remote Sensing
Lecture No. : 103_02
103: Fundamentals of Remote Sensing and GIS
Dr. A. K. Saha
Assistant Professor
Department of Geography
University of Delhi
Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO)
Image of the Sun Obtained on September 14, 1999
Electromagnetic Energy Interaction
Energy recorded by remote sensing systems undergoes
fundamental interactions that should be understood to
properly interpret the remotely sensed data. For example,
if the energy being remotely sensed comes from the Sun,
the energy:
is radiated by atomic particles at the source (the Sun),
propagates through the vacuum of space at the speed of
light,
interacts with the Earth's atmosphere,
interacts with the Earth's surface,
interacts with the Earth's atmosphere once again, and
finally reaches the remote sensor where it interacts with
various optical systems, filters, emulsions, or detectors.
Electromagnetic Radiation
To understand how electromagnetic radiation is
created, how it propagates through space, and how
it interacts with other matter, it is useful to describe
the processes using two different models:

the wave model, and
the particle model.

Wave Model of Electromagnetic Radiation
In the 1860s, James Clerk Maxwell (18311879) conceptualized electromagnetic
radiation (EMR) as an electromagnetic wave that travels through space at the speed of
light, c, which is 3 x 10
8
meters per second (hereafter referred to as m s
-1
) or
186,282.03 miles s
-1
. The electromagnetic wave consists of two fluctuating fieldsone
electric and the other magnetic. The two vectors are at right angles (orthogonal) to one
another, and both are perpendicular to the direction of travel.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Wave model
light travels in waves
wavelength () and frequency () have inverse relationship
C = speed of EM energy (light) =

= wavelength
= frequency

] [
1
s cycles
] [m
c
sec /
8
000 , 300 10 3
1
km
s m

ond
cycles
cycle
meters
ond
meters
sec sec

Quantum theory (Particle model)
Light travels as discrete particles (photons)
Photon energy (Q) and frequency () have positive relationship
h Q
Q = energy of 1 photon
[J]

h = planks constant =
= frequency

] [
34
1
10 6 . 6

S J
] [
1
s cycles
Combination of two models

c
h h Q
c
and Q have inverse relationship (since h and c are constant)
Measuring Light
Gamma Rays Ultraviolet Infrared Microwave X-Ray TV/Radio
Wavelength
The Electromagnetic Spectrum (EMS)
Visible
0.4
micrometers
0.7
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Short wave length
High frequency
High energy
Low frequency
Low energy
Long wave length
(v)
(Q)
()
(v)
(Q)
()
Energy and Wavelength Relationship
Using the wave model, it is possible to characterize the energy of the Sun which
represents the initial source of most of the electromagnetic energy recorded by
remote sensing systems (except radar). We may think of the Sun as a 6,000 K
blackbody (A hypothetical, ideal radiator that totally absorbs and reemits all energy
incident upon it). The total emitted radiation (M, watts (W) m
-2
) from a blackbody
is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature. This is known as
the Stefan-Boltzmann law and is expressed as:

where s is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.6697 x 10
-8
W m
-2
K
-4
. T is
absolute temperature (K) of the emitting material.
Thus, the amount of energy emitted by an object such as the Sun or the Earth is a
function of its temperature.
4
T M s

Stephen Boltzmann Law
0 K = - 273 C
Spectral distribution of energy radiated
from blackbodies of various temperatures
Weins Displacement Law
In addition to computing the total amount of energy exiting a theoretical blackbody
such as the Sun, we can determine its dominant wavelength (
max
) based on
Wein's displacement law:



where k is a constant equaling 2898 mm K, and T is the absolute temperature in
kelvin. Therefore, as the Sun approximates a 6000 K blackbody, its dominant
wavelength (
max
) is 0.48 mm:




where s is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.66697 x 10
-8
W m
-2
K
-4
.
T
k

max

K
K m
m
6000
2898
483 . 0
m
m
For Earth at 300 K (27C), the dominant wavelength is about 9.7mm)
Energy Available for Sensing
Passive Sensing : : Passive Sensor
Solar Radiation


Active Sensing : : Active Sensor
Artificial Radiation
Energy interaction in the atmosphere
R.S. Instrument
Sun
Clouds
transmitted
radiation
Scattered
radiation*
Atmospheric
absorption
Earth
Reflection processes
Emission processes
Thermal emission
Atmospheric
emission
Reflected
radiation
scattered
radiation**
* selective radiation (bluish optical images)
** non-selective radiation (white clouds)
Atmosphere
Atmospheric
interactions
Degree of Atmospheric Interaction depends on Pathlength and Wavelength.
Scattering Emission Absorption
Some Definitions :
Transmissivity of atmosphere at a particular wavelength is a measure of
the fraction of the radiance that emanates from the ground and passes
through the atmosphere without interacting with it.

Optical thickness of the atmosphere is the efficiency of the atmosphere in
blocking the ground EM radiation by absorption or scattering.

Path radiance is the part of the signal emanating from the atmosphere.

Ground radiance is the part of the signal coming from the ground.
Atmospheric Scattering
Atmospheric Scattering
Non-selective Scattering : All wavelengths are equally scattered
(caused by dust, cloud, fog and appear white)

Selective Scattering : Depends on particle size and wavelength
involved.
- Raleigh Scattering : gas molecules and tiny particles,
much smaller than wavelength involved.
Severe in shorter wavelength region.
- Mie Scattering : Coarse suspended particles of size
larger than wavelength involved. Affects
entire wavelength region.
Non - selective scattering
no s pass through.
Still the shadows of clouds are not black. (Why?)
SPOT
Germany
1999
Particles>>wavelength
water droplets
Selective (Raleigh) scattering
The shorter , the greater the scattering effect.
Scattering is mostly done by aerosols.
Particle smaller than blue, so blue is
not blocked, but highly influenced (scattered)
Blue light
big angle
Red light
small angle
Particles<wavelength
Blue sky
Day time
Earth
Atmosphere
B
G
R
Sun
Earth
Sunset
Blue
Red
Sun
Green
Atmosphere
Why shadows are
darker on the moon?
Selective (Rayleigh) scattering
Selective (Mie) scattering
When is equal to the particle size
(usually bigger particles than those of
Rayleigh scattering) .
Example: Sun and Smoke.
Particles=wavelength
aerosols
mixture of dust, gas,
water vapour
Atmospheric Absorption
Atmospheric gases
selectively absorb
EM radiation
Atmospheric Absorption
Major Atmospheric Windows (Boldface = Clearer Window)
Energy interactions with Earth Surface features
Principle of Conservation of energy
The relative amount of each energy (R,A,T) changes with
q
q
(a) Specular reflection
from a smooth surface
Reflections from the surface
(b) Diffused (Lambertian)
reflection from a rough
surface
()
Albedo
When considered over a broader
wavelength range, ratio of reflected energy
and incident energy is called albedo.
Atmospheric influence on
Spectral Response Patterns