Kaytto11 en

Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering
11.1
11. ASYNCHRONOUS MACHINE ............................................................................................. 1
11.1 Industrial Motor Types ........................................................................................................ 2
11.2 Machine Structures and Norms ............................................................................................ 3
11.3 Starting Current .................................................................................................................... 7
11.4 Electricity Consumption and Losses of Asynchronous Motors ........................................... 7
11.5 Loss Reduction by Appropriate Motor Selection .............................................................. 10
11.6 Selection of the Motor Size ................................................................................................ 12
11.7 Losses in an Inverter Drive ................................................................................................ 16
11.8 Load Capacity and Efficiency of an Inverter Drive ........................................................... 17
11.9 Control Methods of an Induction Motor ............................................................................ 25
11.9.1 Scalar Control ............................................................................................................ 25
11.9.2 Field Weakening ........................................................................................................ 27
11.9.3 Vector Control ........................................................................................................... 32
11.9.4 Direct Torque Control ................................................................................................ 39
11.9.5 Motor Model in a DTC Drive .................................................................................... 41
11.9.6 Flux Linkage Correction in the Induction Machine DTC .......................................... 44
11.9.7 The Outer Control Systems of the DTC..................................................................... 46
11.9.8 Torque Control ........................................................................................................... 47
11.10 Summary ........................................................................................................................ 51

11. ASYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

An induction motor is the most common motor type in industrial use. Industrial motors are usually
three-phase configurations. The machine is stator-fed, since the stator winding has to excite the
machine and also to take care of the energy conversion together with the short-circuited rotor
winding. When supplying the machine with three-phase current, a rotating field is generated into
the air gap of the motor together by the stator and rotor winding, the flux lines of which intersect
the rotor bars when the rotor runs with slip. In an asynchronous machine, slip is necessary for
torque production; thanks to the slip, an electromotive force, which produces the rotor current, is
induced to the rotor bars. According to the Lorentz force, the force effect between the current and
the rotating magnetic field produces the torque of the machine, which makes the rotor rotate. The
motor starts to rotate, when the electric torque is higher than the torque of the load braking the
rotor. As the rotor speed increases, the speed between the rotor bars and the field decreases, and
consequently, the rotor voltage reduces and its frequency decreases. The rotor rotates slower than
the magnetic field, and thus its speed deviates from the synchronous speed; therefore, an induction
motor is called an asynchronous motor. Figure 11.1 illustrates an asynchronous machine.

The rotation speed n of an asynchronous motor is

( ) n f s = 2 1 t (11.1)

and the synchronous speed n
s
n
f
p
s
=
60
. (11.2)
The frequency f is the line frequency and p is the number of pole pairs in the machine. The slip s of
the motor expresses the percentual difference of the synchronous speed n
s
determined by the line
frequency and the rotor speed n


11.2
s
n n
n
=

s
s
100 % (11.3)

Figure 11.1 Assembly of an ABB M2BA 280 motor (shaft height 280 mm). 75 kW 3000 min
-1
.

A part of the electric power taken by the motor is converted into heat in the stator, yet most of the
power is transferred as the air gap power through the rotating magnetic field to the rotor. The
mechanical power P
m
generated by the motor at the rotation speed n is
( ) P nT
p
s T T
m
1 = = = 2
1
t e O , (11.4)

where T is the torque, e is the electric angular speed of the grid and O is the mechanical angular
speed of the rotor.

An asynchronous machine is adapted for modest drives supplied directly from the grid. However, in
this case, the means to control the machine are almost nonexistent. Previously, slip-ring
asynchronous machines were a common choice; by adjusting the external rotor resistance, the static
torque curve of the machine could be affected so that it was possible to reduce the rotation speed of
the drive when necessary. However, the control method is lossy, and therefore no longer in wide
use. The rotation control of an asynchronous machine can be implemented by a voltage control only
in certain specific cases. An asynchronous machine has initially been the simplest machine type for
an inverter control drive, since the machine operates well scalar controlled in such a way that the
inverter takes care only of the ratio of the supply voltage and the frequency in compliance with the
requirements of the induction law. However, when aiming at a demanding vector control, we see
that an asynchronous machine is extremely challenging machine for the control drive. In particular,
the slip typical of the machine makes the control difficult especially if an accurate rotation speed
control without a speed feedback is required. In spite of their complex structure, the synchronous
machines discussed in the previous chapters are, after all, easier to control than asynchronous
machines.
11.1 Industrial Motor Types

In Finland, approximately 80 % of the industrial electricity is consumed in electrical motors, the
number of which in various industrial processes is about 600,000. If all the small-scale motors of
auxiliary devices are included, the total number adds up to 34 million [6]. At the moment, the

11.3
Finnish industry operates based on three conventional electrical machine types. The largest group in
number consists of induction motors. In control drives, there are still plenty of DC machines, and
the large constant-speed drives are often implemented by synchronous machines. A typical example
of this type of use are the large synchronous machines operating the wood grinders in groundwood
plants in the forest industry. Figure 11.2 presents the distribution of electrical motors in a typical
forest industry plant in South-Eastern Finland.

DC machines 3 % synchronous machines 0.1 %
asynchronous machines 97 %

Figure 11.2 Distribution of motors by quantity at the Enso Gutzeit Kaukop mill (now owned by Stora Enso) in 1994
[1].

The corresponding power distribution of the motors at the Kaukop mill is presented in Figure
11.3. The estimated dissipation power distribution is presented in Figure 11.4.

Synchronous motors 1 %
DC-motors 8 %
asynchronous motors 91 %

Figure 11.3 The installed power distribution of electrical
motors at the Kaukop mills in 1994 [1].

DC-motors 8.5 %
nduction motors 91 %
synchronous motors 0.5 %

Figure 11.4 The dissipation power distribution at the
Kaukop mills by motor types in 1994 [1].

Asynchronous machines constitute thus clearly the largest industrial energy consumption group.
Their share also among the control drives is constantly increasing along with the novel control
technology. The asynchronous machine is now probably in its heyday, and may in the future lose
ground to other machine types, such as permanent magnet machines and synchronous reluctance
machines.
11.2 Machine Structures and Norms

The structures and characteristics of electrical machines are regulated by various international and
national norms. Induction machines in particular are regulated by several standards. The most
important international standards have been published by IEC (International Electrotechnical
Commission) and CENELEC. The German VDE standards are largely congruent with the IEC
norms. The British Standard norms are widely applied to in the area of the former British Empire,
whereas throughout North America, NEMA motor standards are applied to; the NEMA standards

11.4
define notably tighter limits for instance for the starting current of induction motors than the IEC
norms.

Totally enclosed induction motors constitute the most significant motor group. In the following,
their structure and characteristics are discussed in brief. According to the manufacturer information
[2], the domestic totally enclosed induction motors comply with the following norms
The structure compliant with the standard IEC 34-1
The rated powers and dimensions are compliant with CENELEC HD 231
The enclosure class complies with the standard IEC 34-5. Totally enclosed machines in the
enclosure class IP55 are dust tight and water resistant
The type of cooling is IC 01 41, in compliance with IEC 34-6, in which the frame-surface
cooling takes place with an external shaft mounted blower. Machines are also supplied with
a separate blower.
The mounting position is compliant with the standard IEC 34-7. The mounting position is
indicated in the IEC standard only by two codes, of which the code I covers only the motor
and its bearing end shield, and a single shaft extension. The code II is a general code. The
motor mounting positions are identified by an IM code; there are dozens of different codes
for foot-mounted motors and for flange-mounted motors with a small flange or a large
flange. Different code variants are obtained by mounting the machines in different positions
either horizontally or vertically and by simultaneously indicating whether there are one or
two free shaft ends in the motor. An ordinary foot-mounted motor for normal floor
mounting is designated IM B3 or IM 1001. A horizontal flange-mounted machine, large
flange, is designated IM B5 or IM 3001.
D-end and N-end. The motor ends in compliance with the standard IEC 34-7 are designated
by the codes D (Drive end) and N (Non drive end).
The positive rotation direction for the motors is the clockwise direction when looking from
front of the machine towards the D-end.
Insulation and insulation classes. Insulation materials are categorized into insulation classes
in compliance with the standard IEC 85. The insulation class expresses the upper limit of the
operating ambient temperature range for the insulation material under normal operating
circumstances. The dimensioning of the motors is carried out with the ambient temperature
at 40 C, and the motors may be operated at their rated power up to 1000 m above sea level
at maximum, Table 11.1.

Table 11.1 The effect of temperature and mounting level on the load capacity.

Ambient temperature C 40 45 50 55 60 70
Allowed power in per cent of the rated power

100 96.5 93 90 86.5 79
Altitude above sea level / m 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Allowed power in per cent of the rated power 100 97 94.5 92 89 86.5 83.5

Insulating materials are classified according to their ability to resist high temperatures without
failures. Table 11.2 shows the temperatures according to IEC standard, and the previous, although
still commonly used temperature classes with letter codes. The hot spot allowance gives the highest
permitted temperature the warmest part of the insulation may reach. Temperature rise allowance
denotes the highest permitted temperature rise of the winding at rated load.


11.5
Table 11.2 Temperature (insulation) classes of insulating materials (IEC 34-1)

Insulation
Class
Hot spot allowance / C Permitted design temperature rise
/C, when the ambient temperature
is 40 C
Permitted average winding
temperature determined by
resistance measurement /C
Y 90
A 105 60
E 120 75
B 130 80 120
F 155 100 140
H 180 125 165
C >180

The most common temperature class in electric machines is 155 (F). Also the classes 130 (B) and
180 (H) are of common occurrence.

The aging of the insulation sets a limit to its long-term thermal resistance, i.e. to its temperature rise
allowance. When evaluating long-term thermal resistance of a single insulator, the concept of
thermal index is employed. Thermal index is the maximum temperature at which the insulator can
be operated based on specified controlled test conditions (e.g. IEEE) to yield an average life of 20
000 hours. Short-term thermal resistance refers to thermal stresses the duration of which is a few
hours at maximum. During this stress the insulator may melt, or bubbles may occur, or the insulator
may shrink or become charred. The insulation should not be damaged in any of the mentioned ways
if the temperature is moderately exceeded in any situation in normal operation circumstances. In
Table 11.2, temperature rise refers to a permitted temperature rise of a winding at rated load. This
temperature rise does not yet cause premature aging of the insulator. An excessive temperature
fluctuation may cause development of brittleness and cracks in the insulator. In certain operation
situations, also the frost resistance may decide the selection of insulating material.
- The tolerances in compliance with the standard IEC 34-1:
Power factor is measured at rated power. The tolerance limit compliant with the standard is
(1/6)(1-cos), yet the error has to be in the range of [0.02, 0.07].
Voltage and frequency. The tabular values hold for rated power and frequency. The motor may be
constantly loaded at its rated power, if the voltage deviates from the rated value 5 % at maximum.
In that case, the temperature rise may be 10 K. The voltage may deviate only temporarily 510 %
from the rated value.
The tolerance of slip is 20 %.
The tolerance of efficiency is 10 %(1-q), when the motor power is > 50 kW and 15 %(1-q),
when the motor power is s 50 kW.
Rotation speed. AC motors have to withstand at least 1.2 times the rated speed.
Instantaneous overcurrent. AC generators have to withstand 1.5 times the rated current for the
duration of 30 s. (15 s for generators above 1200 MVA). Three-phase AC generators below 1 kV
and 315 kW have to withstand 1.5 times the rated current for the duration of 2 min. Withstanding to
instantaneous overcurrent is not determined for three-phase motors larger than this, neither for any
single-phase motors.
Torque is the most important motor parameter; the standard IEC 34-12 defines the torque
requirements for various induction motors with three different torques. There are four motor types:
N (normal torque), H (high torque), and NY and HY (star-delta starting). The locked rotor torque
T
l
, the saddle torque T
u
, and the pullout torque T
b
are given for the machines producing normal
torque as a relative value of the rated torque according to Table 11.3. These values are minimum
values at the rated voltage (U
N
s 690 V). The torque values required of the H-type machines are
notably higher than these. The relative starting torque has to vary from the value of 2 for large
machines to the value of 3 for small machines. Correspondingly, the saddle torque varies between

11.6
1.42.1. In the start-up of NY-motors, T
l
and T
u
have to be 25 % of the values of corresponding N-
motors.

Table 11.3 Torque requirements of a three-phase induction motor producing normal torque (N-type) in compliance with
IEC 34-12

Number of poles
Power range 2 4 6 8
(kW) T
l
T
u
T
b
T
l
T
u
T
b
T
l
T
u
T
b
T
l
T
u
T
b

0.4 <P
n
s 0.63 1.9 1.3 2.0 2.0 1.4 2.0 1.7 1.2 1.7 1.5 1.1 1.6
0.63 <P
n
s 1.0 1.8 1.2 2.0 1.9 1.3 2.0 1.7 1.2 1.8 1.5 1.1 1.7
1.0 <P
n
s 1.6 1.8 1.2 2.0 1.9 1.3 2.0 1.6 1.1 1.9 1.4 1.0 1.8
1.6 <P
n
s 2.5 1.7 1.1 2.0 1.8 1.2 2.0 1.6 1.1 1.9 1.4 1.0 1.8
2.5 <P
n
s 4.0 1.6 1.1 2.0 1.7 1.2 2.0 1.5 1.1 1.9 1.3 1.0 1.8
4.0 <P
n
s 6.3 1.5 1.0 2.0 1.6 1.1 2.0 1.5 1.1 1.9 1.3 1.0 1.8
6.3 <P
n
s 10 1.5 1.0 2.0 1.6 1.1 2.0 1.5 1.1 18. 1.3 1.0 1.7
10 <P
n
s 16 1.4 1.0 2.0 1.5 1.1 2.0 1.4 1.0 1.8 1.2 0.9 1.7
16 <P
n
s 25 1.3 0.9 1.9 1.4 1.0 1.9 1.4 1.0 1.8 1.2 0.9 1.7
25 <P
n
s 40 1.2 0.9 1.9 1.3 1.0 1.9 1.3 1.0 1.8 1.2 0.9 1.7
40 <P
n
s 63 1.1 0.8 1.8 1.2 0.9 1.8 1.2 0.9 1.7 1.1 0.8 1.7
63 <P
n
s 100 1.0 0.7 1.8 1.1 0.8 1.8 1.1 0.8 1.7 1.0 0.7 1.6
100 <P
n
s 160 0.9 0.7 1.7 1.0 0.8 1.7 1.0 0.8 1.7 0.9 0.7 1.6
160 <P
n
s 250 0.8 0.6 1.7 0.9 0.7 1.7 0.9 0.7 1.6 0.9 0.7 1.6
250 <P
n
s 400 0.75 0.6 1.6 0.75 0.6 1.6 0.75 0.6 1.6 0.75 0.6 1.6
400 <P
n
s 630 0.65 0.5 1.6 0.65 0.5 1.6 0.65 0.5 1.6 0.65 0.5 1.6

Unless otherwise determined, the breakdown torque of the machine should be at least 160 % of the
rated torque under rated circumstances. At the rated voltage, the minimum torque for three-phase
machines below 100 kW has to be at least
0.5 times the rated torque
0.5 times the locked-rotor torque,
and correspondingly for motors 100 kW
0.3 times the rated torque
0.5 times the locked-rotor torque.

For single-phase motors and three-phase multi-speed motors, the minimum torque has to be at least
0.3 times the rated torque.

Irrespective of the duty type, the poly-phase asynchronous motors and DC motors have to withstand
exceeding of the rated torque by 60 % for a duration of 15 s without a sudden chance in rotation
speed. The frequency and voltage of the machine remain at their rated values.

An asynchronous motor with wound rotor (slip ring) has to withstand exceeding of the rated torque
by 35 % for a duration of 15 s. Correspondingly, a non-salient pole synchronous motor has to
withstand 35 % exceeding and a salient pole machine 50% exceeding without pulling out of
synchronism when the excitation remains at the rated value.


11.7
11.3 Starting Current

In starting, DC braking, or reversing the rotation direction of an induction motor operating direct-
on-line, the ratio of the machine current to the rated current increases multifold. The magnitude of
the ratio is inversely proportional to the short-circuit impedance of the machine. The magnitude of
the current also has an effect on the voltage drop of the line and the temperature rise of the machine.
The voltage drop also reduces the starting torque of the motor and, in a frail grid in particular, may
disturb other devices operating direct-on-line. The excessive temperature rise of the motor in turn
weakens the insulation structures and thus reduces their service life.

The international standards delimit the starting torque of induction motors by defining a maximum
apparent power or a maximum current for a motor at stall. Table 11.4 presents the maximum
permitted starting apparent powers proportioned to the motor shaft output power in compliance
with the IEC standard.

Table 11.4 The maximum permitted starting apparent powers in compliance with the IEC standard when the motor is at stall
supplied at its rated voltage.
motor size [kW] S
st
/P
0.4 < P s 6.3 13
6.3 < P s 25 12
25 < P s 100 11
100 < P s 630 10

For instance the starting apparent power of a 4 kW motor may thus be 53 kVA, which at 400 V
yields the permitted starting current of 75 A. The rated current of a 4 kW motor is typically 7.5 A,
and thus the maximum current could be ten-fold to the rated current of the motor. The American
NEMA standard is tighter than the IEC standard. The following table is compiled by interpolating a
permitted starting current for the 4 kW (5.36 hp) machine.

Table 11.5 Comparison of the IEC and NEMA standards with respect to the locked rotor current.

voltage 400 V, 50 Hz 460 V, 50 Hz

power / hp
NEMA
I
st
/A

I
st
/I
n

IEC
I
st
/A

I
st
/I
n

NEMA
I
st
/A

I
st
/I
n

IEC
I
st
/A

I
st
/I
n

5 58.08 8.2 69.58 9.9 50.5 8.2 60.5 9.9
5.36 * 61.23 * 8.2 73.92 * 9.9 53.24 * 8.2 64.28 * 9.9
10 101.78 8.2 129.95 9.9 88.5 8.2 113 9.9
* interpolated values

11.4 Electricity Consumption and Losses of Asynchronous Motors

In Finland, industry consumes more than a half of all produced electricity (51 % in 1992 [3]). More
than 80 % of the industrial electricity is consumed in motors; the share of asynchronous motors
amounts to 7580 %, that is, over 20 TWh. In average, 6 % of the electricity consumption of the
asynchronous machines is consumed in losses in the machine.

In the wood processing industry, asynchronous motors are by far the largest electric energy
consumer group. For example, at Stora Enso Kaukop mills and UPM Kymmene Kaukas mills in
Lappeenranta, there are about 15,000 asynchronous motors in total. At the Kaukop mills, 85 %
of the asynchronous motors are with power of 37 kW or below; the corresponding figure for
Kaukas is 89 %. Figure 11.5 illustrates the distribution of induction motors by power levels at the
Kaukop and Kaukas mills. The figure shows that the installed base of motors of these two

11.8
different wood processing mills are almost identical. At the Kaukop mill, fine paper and board are
produced of chemical pulp. Kaukas mills differ from Kaukop mills by having a sawmill; this
explains the difference in the number of motors in the 47.5 kW power class. Furthermore, Kaukas
also produces a considerable amount of mechanical pulp. The electricity consumption of these
example mills is approximately 8001000 GWh for both mills. Almost all of the synchronous
motors are induction motors. Previously, no special attention was paid to selecting small induction
motors best adapted to the purpose, or to the efficiency of the motors. Figure 11.6 presents the
power balance of a typical 4 kW induction motor. 15 % of the electric energy is converted into heat
when operating at the rated power of the machine. The proportion of the copper (load) losses is
quite large 77 % of the total losses. The situation is basically due to commercial factors, chiefly
the high copper prices. The machines are designed for general-purpose use, and therefore they are
not dimensioned for the demands of the drives operating constantly close to their rated power. As a
matter of fact, drives of this kind would require a machine type of their own.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
s
h
a
r
e

o
f

a
l
l

[
%
]
<1 1 ...
2
2.2 3 4 5.5 7.5 11 15 18.5 22 30 37
Kaukas
Kaukop
power class [kW]

a)
0
5
10
15
20
25
s
h
a
r
e

o
f

i
n
s
t
g
a
l
l
e
d

p
o
w
e
r

[
%
]
<1 1 ... 2 2,2 3 4 5,5 7,5 11 15 18,5 22 30 37
power class [kW]
Kaukas
Kaukop

b)

Figure 11.5 Distribution of induction motors with power of 37 kW or below by power levels at the Kaukop and
Kaukas mills; a) distribution by the number of motors, b) distribution weighted by the rated power of the motor [3].


11.9
P
s
100 %, 4.7 kW
P
a
85 %, 4.0 kW
P
Cus
6,9%
P
Fe

1,9%
P
l
0,5%
P
o
P
Cur
4,7%
P

1,0
255
300

Figure 11.6 A Sankey diagram of a 4 kW constant induction motor. P
Fe
, iron losses, P
Cus
, stator copper losses, P
l
,
additional losses, P
o
, air gap power, P
Cur
, rotor copper losses, P
, friction losses

An induction motor is very well adapted to industrial drives thanks to its simple and durable
configuration and good loading characteristics. Asynchronous motors account for 83 % of the total
electric energy consumption at Kaukop, and 69 % of the consumption at Kaukas. The difference
is chiefly due to synchronous drives used for the production of mechanical pulp at the Kaukas mill;
the energy consumption of these drives is considerable. Small-scale motors (s 37 kW) account for
16 % of the share of asynchronous motors of the total electricity consumption at Kaukop, and 19
% at Kaukas. Figure 11.7 illustrates the percentage distribution of the electrical energy consumption
of asynchronous motors at the investigated mills.

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
s
h
a
r
e

o
f

e
l
.

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

[
%
]
<4 kW 4 ... 11
kW
15 ...
37 kW
45 ...
90 kW
110 ...
250
>250
kW
power class [kW]
Kaukas
Kaukop

Figure 11.7 Percentage distribution of the electric energy consumption of asynchronous motors at Enso Gutzeit
Kaukop mills (currently owned by Stora Enso) and at UPM Kymmene Kaukas mills in Lappeenranta [3].


11.10
Losses account for about 6 % of the electric energy consumed by asynchronous motors. Motors
with a rated power of 37 kW or below account for 33 % of all losses at the Kaukop mills and 38
% at the Kaukas mills. When comparing the ratio of losses to the electricity consumed by the motor
group in question, we can see that the relative amount of energy consumed in losses in the motors
with a rated power of 37 kW or below is 2.5 times higher than in the motors above 37 kW.
Therefore, improving the efficiency of small-scale asynchronous motors in continuous operation
can be justified. Figure 11.8 shows the percentage distribution of the losses in asynchronous motors
by power classes at the investigated mills.

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
s
h
a
s
e

o
f

l
o
s
s
e
s

[
%
]

<4 kW 4 ... 11 kW 15 ... 37
kW
45 ... 90
kW
110 ... 250 >250 kW
power class [kW]
Kaukas
Kaukop

Figure 11.8 The percentage distribution of the losses in asynchronous motors by power classes at Enso-Gutzeit Oy
Kaukop mills in Imatra and UPM Kymmene Kaukas mills in Lappeenranta [3].

11.5 Loss Reduction by Appropriate Motor Selection

When selecting a motor for the asynchronous motor drive, a motor that is best adapted for the
purpose has to be chosen. The selection criteria in order of importance are the technical
functionality and the economical efficiency of the motor. A prerequisite of technical functionality is
correct dimensioning, based on the loading caused by the machine to be operated. Economical
efficiency in turn is based on long-term optimization, in which the sum of purchase price and
operating costs is minimized. The efficiency of the standard asynchronous motors improves as the
rated power of the motor increases. This makes it possible to improve the efficiency of the motor
drive in some power ranges by selecting a motor with somewhat higher power than actually
required for the duty. Figure 11.9 illustrates the efficiency of the motors as a function of both
relative and absolute power.


11.11
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0
P/P
n
[%]
q
||
0.55 kW
1.1 kW
4 kW
22 kW
55 kW

20
40
60
80
90
70
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
q
||
P [kW]
0
0
5.5 kW
7.5 kW
11 kW
15 kW

Figure 11.9 Efficiencies of three-phase four-pole standard induction motors as a function of load at rated voltage [3].

The efficiency remains quite constant when the power reduces from the rated load to the 50 % load.
By the present dimensioning criteria, the efficiency reaches its maximum value usually at the 75 %
load. Thus, to achieve the best efficiency, considering the limitations of the drive, it is advisable to
choose a motor such that it operates at approximately power. If we select a motor at one power
level higher than required by the load, we can exploit the high efficiency of the large motor, the
motor operating in that case at a 6784 % load. Particularly in the case of small-scale motors, the
efficiency at a rated power improves rapidly along with the machine size.

The figure shows clearly which machine should be chosen for a certain duty to maximize the
efficiency. Bearing this in mind, we should always select a motor with the topmost efficiency curve
at the shaft output power in question. The figure shows clearly that it is advisable to dimension the
machine to operate at about power, which, in practice, means over-dimensioning of one power
level (i.e., selecting a machine at the next power level). Selecting a machine larger or smaller than
this will yield a poor efficiency. Let us next consider an example of over-dimensioning: the power

11.12
required by the power tool is 5 kW. We could select a 5.5 kW motor for this drive, the efficiency of
which at the power in question would be 86 %. However, considering the efficiency of the drive, it
is preferable to select a motor over-dimensioned by one power level (7.5 kW), the efficiency of
which is 88 %. The losses can now be reduced by 14 %. Next, an example of excessive over-
dimensioning is discussed briefly: a 15 kW motor operates constantly at a 25 % (3.75 kW) load. Its
efficiency is thus about 82 %. We replace the motor by a 7.5 kW motor, and thus the efficiency of
the motor is increased to 87 %. The losses can be reduced by 26 %.

At the moment, the EU recommendations on the motor efficiencies are complied with throughout
Europe. Figure 11.10 how the motors provided by different manufacturers are placed on the curves.

70
75
80
85
90
95
100
1 10 100
Output power [ kW ]
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

[

%

]
EFF1
EFF2
EFF3

Figure 11.10 The EU efficiency classes EFF1, EFF2, and EFF3 as well as the efficiencies of standard asynchronous
motors of different manufacturers (Haataja 2003).

Figure 11.11 emphasizes the importance of the correct selection of the manufacturer when selecting
the motor. We can see that the dissipation power is almost doubled between the best and the
weakest alternative.

11.6 Selection of the Motor Size

In electric machines, a part of the supplied energy is always converted into heat. For instance, when
the efficiency of a 4 kW standard induction machine at a rated power is 85 %, the following
percentages of the energy supplied to the poles of the machine turn into heat: 6.9 % in the stator
copper losses, 1.9 % in the stator iron losses, 0.5 % in the additional losses, 4.7 % in the rotor
losses, and finally, about 1 % in the friction losses. The rest of the supplied energy is converted to
mechanical energy of the shaft. The heat generated in the machine has to be led to the medium
surrounding the machine. The cooling methods of the electric machines are defined in the standard
IEC 34-6, and the enclosure classes in the standard IEC 34-5. The enclosure class depends on the
cooling method. For instance, the enclosure class IP 44 designates a good mechanical and moisture
protection that are not compatible with the cooling method IC 01, since it requires an open machine.
Table 11.6 introduces the most common IC classes.


11.13
Table 11.6 The most common IC classes of electric machines.

Code Definition
IC 00 The coolant surrounding the machine cools the inner parts of the machine. The ventilating effect of
the rotor is insignificant. The coolant is transferred by free convection.
IC 01 Like IC 00, but there is an integral fan mounted on the shaft or the rotor to circulate the coolant.
This is a common cooling method of open induction motors.
IC 03 A method similar to IC 01, but with a separate motor mounted blower having same power source
with the machine to be cooled.
IC 06 A method similar to IC 01, but the coolant is circulated with separate motor mounted blower with
different power source. There can also be a single extensive blower system supplying the coolant
for several machines.
IC 11 The coolant enters the machine via a ventilating duct and passes freely to the surrounding
environment. The circulation of the coolant is carried out with a motor or shaft mounted blower.
IC 31 The rotating machine is inlet and outlet pipe ventilated. The circulation of the coolant is carried out
with a motor or shaft mounted blower.
IC 00 41 Totally-enclosed internal circulation of the coolant by convection and cooling through the frame
with no separate blower.
IC 01 41 Like IC 00 41, but the frame-surface cooling takes place with a separate shaft mounted blower
causing the circulation of the coolant. This is a cooling method of ordinary enclosed induction
motors.
IC 01 51 Totally-enclosed internal cooling by convection. The heat is transferred through an internal air-to-
air heat exchanger to the surrounding medium, which is circulated by a shaft mounted blower.
IC 01 61 Like IC 01 51, but the heat exchanger is mounted on the machine.
IC W37 A71 Totally-enclosed internal cooling by convection. The heat is transferred through an internal water-
to-air heat exchanger to the cooling water, which is circulated either by supply pressure or an
auxiliary pump.
IC W37 A81 Like IC W37 A71, but the heat exchanger is mounted on the machine.

The duty types of electric machines are designated according to IEC 34-1 (1983) and VDE 0530
Teil 1/12.84 as S1, S2, S3,...S9.

Duty type S1 Continuous running duty
Operation at constant load maintained for sufficient time to allow the machine to reach thermal
equilibrium. A machine for this kind of operation is stamped with the abbreviation S1. This is the
most common duty type.

Duty type S2 Short time duty
Operation at constant load for a given time, less than that required to reach thermal equilibrium.
Each operation period is followed by a time at rest and de-energized, of sufficient duration to re-
establish the temperature of the surrounding air. For machines of short time duty, the recommended
durations of the duty are 10, 30, 60, and 90 minutes. The appropriate abbreviation is S2, followed
by an indication of the duration of the duty, stamping e.g. S2 60 min.

Duty type S3 Intermittent periodic duty
A sequence of identical duty cycles, each including a time of operation at constant load and a time
at rest and de-energized. Thermal equilibrium is not reached during a duty cycle. Starting currents
do not significantly affect the temperature rise. The cyclic duration factor is 15, 25, 40, or 60 % of
the 10 minute duration of the duty. The appropriate abbreviation is S2, followed by the cyclic
duration factor, stamping e.g. S3 25 %.

Duty type S4 Intermittent periodic duty with starting
A sequence of identical duty cycles, each cycle including a significant starting time, a time of
operation at constant load and a time at rest and de-energized. Thermal equilibrium is not reached
during a duty cycle. The motor stops by naturally decelerating, and thus the motor is not thermally

11.14
stressed. The appropriate abbreviation for stamping is S4, followed by the cyclic duration factor,
the number of cycles in an hour (c/h), the moment of inertia of the motor (J
M
), the moment of
inertia of the load (J
ext
) referred to the motor shaft, and the permitted average counter torque T
v

during a change of speed given by means of the rated torque. Stamping e.g. S4 - 15% - 120 c/h - J
M

= 0,1 kgm - J
ext
= 0,1 kgm - T
v
= 0,5 T
N
.

Duty type S5 Intermittent periodic duty with electric braking
A sequence of identical duty cycles, each cycle consisting of a starting time, a time of operation at
constant load, a time of braking and a time at rest and de-energized. Thermal equilibrium is not
reached during a duty cycle. In this duty type, the motor is decelerated with electric braking, e.g.
counter-current braking. The appropriate abbreviation for stamping is S5, followed by the cyclic
duration factor, the number of cycles per hour (c/h), the moment of inertia of the motor J
M
, the
moment of inertia of the load J
ext
, and the permitted counter torque T
v
. Stamping e.g.

S5-60%-120 c/h-J
M
= 1,62 kgm - J
ext
= 3,2 kgm - T
v
= 0,35 T
N
.

Duty type S6 Continuous-operation periodic duty
A sequence of identical duty cycles, each cycle consisting of a time of operation at constant load
and a time of operation at no-load. Thermal equilibrium is not reached during a duty cycle. The
cyclic duration factor is 15, 25, 40, or 60 % and the duration of the duty is 10 min. Stamping e.g. S6
60 %.

Duty type S7 Continuous-operation periodic duty with electric braking
A sequence of identical duty cycles, each cycle consisting of a starting time, a time of operation at
constant load and a time of electric braking. The motor is decelerated by counter-current braking.
Thermal equilibrium is not reached during a duty cycle. The appropriate abbreviation is S7,
followed by the moment of inertia of the motor, the moment of inertia of the load and the permitted
counter torque (cf. S4). Stamping e.g. S7 - 500 c/h - J
M
= 0,06/kgm - T
v
= 0,25 T
N
.

Duty type S8 Continuous-operation periodic duty with related load/speed changes
A sequence of identical duty cycles, each cycle consisting of a time of operation at constant load
corresponding to a predetermined speed of rotation, followed by one or more times of operation at
other constant loads corresponding to different speeds of rotation (carried out, for example, by
means of a change in the number of poles in the case of induction motors). There is no time at rest
and de-energized. Thermal equilibrium is not reached during a duty cycle. The appropriate
abbreviation is S8, followed by the moment of inertia of the motor, the moment of inertia of the
load, and the number of duty cycles in an hour. Also a permitted counter torque and the cyclic
duration factor have to be given. Stamping e.g.

S8 - J
M

= 2.3 kgm - J
ext
35 kgm
30 c/h - T
v
= T
N
- 24 kW - 740 r/min - 30 %
30 c/h - T
v
= 0,5 T
N
- 60 kW - 1460 r/min - 30 %
30 c/h - T
v
= 0,5 T
N
- 45 kW - 980 r/min - 40 %

Load and combinations of rotation speeds are stamped in the order in which they occur in the duty.

When choosing the motor, the torque profile of the load and the thermal time constant of the
machine have to be known. When the duty comprises different periods, which are clearly shorter
than the thermal time constant of the motor it is possible to overload the motor during short periods
of time if the average losses are smaller than the rated losses of the motor. The thermal time
constants of totally enclosed induction motor vary depending on the machine size from tens of

11.15
minutes to an hour, or even to several hours. For instance, a 30 kW induction motor, operating at
the rated load, reaches its end temperature in about half an hour, and thus the thermal time constant
is about twenty minutes. In the dimensioning of the motor, a rms value has to be determined for the
power; this value is according to the definition of the rms value
( ) P P
t
P t t
t
N E
je 0
d
j
= =
}
1
2
. (11.5)

The duty types S1 (continuous running duty), S3 (intermittent periodic duty), and S6 (continuous-
operation periodic duty) in particular allow the dimensioning based on Eq. (11.5) as long as the
cycle time t
j
is short when compared with the thermal time constant of the machine. The motor
selection in compliance with the duty type S2 requires more specific knowledge on the machine.
Heavy starting and braking duties require an in-depth techno-economical dimensioning analysis.

In the rated duty, rated losses are removed from the motor. From the thermal point of view, the
motor selection in the periodic duties is based for instance on the definition of dissipation energy
balance. In that case, a dissipation power corresponding to the rated duty is removed from the
machine during the equivalent cooling time t
je
of the cycle. Thus, it is possible to base the
dimensioning of the motor on the determination of the rated current corresponding to the load. The
rated current I
N
of the motor corresponding to the load has to be at least

I
t
I t t
t
N
jE
d
j
=
}
1
2
0
( ) , (11.6)

t
j
is the current-carrying cycle time and t
jE
is the equivalent cooling time.

In dimensioning the rated current, the current is divided into sub-currents, which are used to
calculate the total current.

I
t
I t t I t t I t t I t t
t
t
t
t
t
t t
N
jE
n
d d d d
j(n-1)
jn
j2
j3
j1
j2 j1
= + + + +
(
(
} } } }
1
1
2
2
2
3
2 2
0
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (11.7)

The stator current of an asynchronous machine also includes inductive current, and therefore the
power factor of the motor is included in the calculation. In the case of partial loads, the respective
power factor of the motor has to be employed.

Determining the equivalent cooling time is somewhat problematic, since the cooling properties of
the motor are highly dependent on the rotation speed. We can estimate that the cooling power of a
machine at rest and de-energized is about 20 % of the rated cooling power. Thus, for instance in the
duty type S3, 20 % of the standing time is included in the equivalent cooling time. Next, we check
whether a motor, in which the motor power complying with S1 is exceeded by 30 %, can be applied
to the duty S3-25 %. The power factor at a 130 % power is cos = 0.87 and at the rated power cos
= 0.85. The equivalent cooling time is t
je
= 0.25 + 0.200.75 = 0.4. The current is thus I = 1.30 I
N

0.85/0.87 = 1.27 I
N
. The values are substituted to Eq. (11.7), which yields for the rated current of
the machine

I t t
N
d d = +
|
\
|
.
| =
} }
1
0 4
127 0 10
2
0
0 25
2
0 25
1 0
.
. .
.
.
.


11.16

We can see that the same peak temperature is reached and the machine cools closely as in the rated
S1 duty. The dimensioning is checked with Eq. (11.5)

( ) P P t t
N E
0
d = = =
}
1
0 4
13 103
2
0 25
.
. .
.
.

According to this result, we would need a slightly larger machine than initially dimensioned.

11.7 Losses in an Inverter Drive

Induction machine inverter drives are becoming increasingly common. The sine-triangle
comparison, still commonly used in connection with the PWM technique, produces pulse-width
modulated pulse trains for the voltage references between the points U and N and V and N as
shown in Figure 11.11. The voltage U
LL
between the phases U and V is obtained by subtracting the
voltages of the pulse trains from each other. A voltage of this kind includes, depending on the
voltage modulated stage m
f
and the amplitude modulated stage m
a
, for instance the frequency
spectrum illustrated in Figure 11.11.

As shown in Figure 11.11, in the vicinity of the multiples of the inverter switching frequency, there
occur sidebands of the harmonics of the motor supply voltage. The lowest harmonics of the PWM
inverter can thus be found in the vicinity of the switching frequency. When the target is to obtain as
sinusoidal current as possible to the motor, the switching frequency has to be raised. The state-of-
the-art motor control systems (e.g. the DTC by ABB) do not have a fixed modulation method, and
thus the frequency spectrum does not remain constant. However, there occur harmonics in
somewhat similar manner as in Figure 11.11. The difference is that the frequency spectrum is
spread over a wider range, and the peaks are not as clear as in the sine modulation.


11.17
m
f
2m
f
+1 2m
f
3m
f
+2 3m
f
m
f
= 15
m
a
= 0.8
1
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
U
LL
v
U
DC
v
U
UN
U
VN
U
DC
u
ref,U
u
ref,V
u
ref,W
U
LL
U
DC
+U
DC
-U
DC
N
N
+U
DC
/2
-U
DC
/2
0

Figure 11.11 Sine-triangle comparison for generating the PWM pulse pattern; the line-to-line voltage and its harmonics
[4].

The rate of current change in an inverter-driven induction motor at the inverter switching frequency
is limited basically by the transient inductance L
s
'
of the machine. The transient inductance
characterizes the inductance experienced by the fast pulse fed to the stator. The rotor manages to
react to the fast pulse only by its leakage inductance. This transient inductance can be determined
for instance by employing the short pulses obtained from the inverter.

11.8 Load Capacity and Efficiency of an Inverter Drive

A phase voltage of a star-connected motor in sine modulation follows the pulse pattern of Figure
11.12. In the modern vector-controlled inverters, the pulse pattern does not necessarily have a fixed

11.18
modulation scheme, but in the steady state, the pulse pattern is selected such that it is possible to
produce a current as sinusoidal as possible to the inductive load.

u
A,n
et

Figure 11.12 The pulse pattern of the phase voltage of a star-connected motor produced by a double-layer inverter, and
the fundamental harmonic of the phase voltage.

Considering the induction motor, an inverter drive is not completely unproblematic. When the
inverters entered the markets, it was considered a great advantage that an ordinary induction motor
could be applied to control drive. However, thyristor PWM inverters operating with a low switching
frequency caused so large additional losses in the electrical machine that the rated power at the
rated speed was recommended to be lowered by 1020 % in the continuous duty. In the thyristor
inverters, the switching frequencies were in the range of only a few hundred Hertz. The low
switching frequency and the resulting slow voltage-rise rates were also an advantage, since the
arrangement made it possible to avoid the problem of matching the motor cable and the motor
characteristic impedances; with the present technology, when using a long motor cable, this may
cause overvoltages in the windings that damage the motor insulations. The switching frequencies of
inverters applying GTO thyristors are still so low, and consequently, the curve forms of the currents
are so distorted that the motors can be loaded at the rated rotation speed only with a 9095 % load
when compared with the sinusoidal supply.

Irrespective of the switching frequency of the inverter, in the inverter-driven motor, distortion is
caused by the distortion voltages to the phase current of the motor. The high-frequency phenomena
experience the transient inductance L
s
'
of the motor. The number of flux components of the
switching frequency occurring in the air gap is quite small, and their penetration to the iron circuits
is quite limited. Nevertheless, switching-frequency loss components of the inverter are created in
the induction motor. The higher switching frequency is used, the better the motor current can be
made to resemble pure sinusoidal form and the smaller become the additional losses caused by the
inverter drive.

An inverter drive causes losses in the induction motor basically by the following ways:

High-frequency current components cause skin effect in the windings of the machine. The
stator winding of small machines, however, is usually made of so thin wire that the losses
caused by the skin effect are quite insignificant. If the winding of the machine is made of
preformed copper, the losses caused by the skin effect will increase.
In spite of the damping effect of the leakage inductances, the high-frequency current
components cause small high-frequency components also to the main flux of the machine,
thus increasing the iron losses of the machine.

11.19
The rotor surface of the machine is particularly susceptible to losses in the inverter drive.
Depending on the ratio of the rotor flux leakage and the magnetizing inductance, a small
part of the fast transient passes even through the magnetizing inductance, causing rapid
oscillation of the main flux. When the amplitude of the main flux of the machine oscillates
as an effect of the current harmonics, the eddy currents induced to the cage winding of the
induction motor tend to damp this oscillation. Consequently, losses occur both in the rotor
aluminium and the in the iron in the region of the rotor slot opening, Figure 11.13.

high frequency
leakage flux
pvuon vrin

Figure 11.13 As the amplitude of the main flux oscillates at the frequencies caused by the inverter, currents resisting the
ripple of the main flux are created in the rotor winding; for their part, these currents cause high-frequency leakage flux
components that cross the rotor slot opening. In the region of the slot opening, considerable losses occur in the
saturating iron particularly in the case of closed slots.

To reduce the losses in the rotor slot opening, the slot opening illustrated in Figure 11.4 has been
introduced for inverter motors. A slot opening of this kind provides a smaller leakage flux in the
rotor slot opening than the traditional solutions, since the saturating slot wedge is rather long.
Simultaneously, also the losses caused by eddy currents in the iron of the rotor slot opening are
reduced. In the 100 kW power class, with this slot opening type, the efficiency is improved by
several per cents when compared with the conventional solution.

Figure 11.14 The shape of the slot opening applied to
inverter motors when using an aluminium pressure-cast
rotor. This configuration provides a good path for the
leakage flux, and thus the losses in the long iron bridge
remain lower than in the case of ordinary rotor bars [7].

rotor bar
rotor lamination

An open rotor slot would best prevent the problems of the surface losses in the inverter motor.
Therefore, the rotor winding of motors intended for inverter drive is nowadays often manufactured
of preformed copper. The slot opening of the rotor can now be left slightly open. This, on the other
hand, reduces the transient inductance of the machine, and may thus cancel the effect of the open
rotor slot.

Already in the 1990s, in the Laboratory of Electric Drives Technology at LUT, test measurements
were carried out for a 22 kW induction motor fed through an ABB ACS 501 inverter. Figure 11.15
depicts the largest voltage and current harmonic components illustrated by the frequency spectrum.
We can see that the phase voltage is considerably distorted; however, the phase current is almost

11.20
sinusoidal including only very small-amplitude harmonic components when applying a switching
frequency of 2 kHz.

1
76 78 80 82 84
157 159 161 163 233 235 237 239 241 243 245 316 318 320
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
V,A
1
76 78 80 82 84
157 159 161 163 233 235 237 239 241 243 245 316 318 320
order of the harmonic
voltage
current x 10

Figure 11.15 The measured phase voltage and current spectrum of the motor. The switching frequency of the inverter is
2 kHz [3].

In the following, the behaviour of the efficiency of the ACS 501 inverter and the 22 kW motor is
presented based on the measured results. Figure 11.6 represents the measured efficiencies of the
components of the electrical motor drive and of the whole electrical drive at different frequencies at
the rated torque. The maximum efficiency 88 % is achieved at the rated frequency of 50 Hz of the
motor.

Figure 11.16 The efficiency
of an electrical motor drive
at the rated torque of the
motor, when the switching
frequency of the ACS 501
inverter is 1 kHz. The rated
frequency is 50 Hz, the
rated current is 62 A; the 22
kW 4-pole induction motor
(HXUR 368G2 B3 380 V
43 A cos = 0.86, 1460
min
-1
) [8].

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
supply frequency, p.u.
q
inverter
motor
drive

Since the information on the efficiency of the electrical drive at different torques and rotation
speeds is required for the determination of the efficiency of the complete drive system (pump,
blower, etc.), the efficiency measurements of the electrical drive and its components are next

11.21
presented in compliance with Figure 11.6 at 1.2, 0.75, 0.5, and 0.25-fold rated torque of the motor.
The differences are not significant, yet clearly detectable.

at a 1.2-fold rated torque of
the motor, when the
switching frequency of the
ACS501 inverter is 1 kHz.
The rated frequency is 50
Hz [8].

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
q
inverter
motor
drive

at a 0.75-fold rated torque
of the motor, when the
switching frequency of the
ACS501 inverter is 1 kHz.
The rated frequency is 50
Hz [8].

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
q
drive
motor
inverter


11.22

Figure 11.19 The efficiency of
an electrical motor drive at a
0.5-fold rated torque of the
frequency of the SAMI GS
frequency is 50 Hz [8].

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
q
drive
motor
inverter

Figure 11.20 The efficiency of
an electrical motor drive at a
0.25-fold rated torque of the
frequency of the SAMI GS
frequency is 50 Hz [8].

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
q
drive
motor
inverter

Since the switching frequency of the inverter impacts on the efficiency of the motor and the
inverter, the changes in the efficiency of the entire drive are presented as a function of the inverter
switching frequency in Figure 11.21. The figure shows that as the switching frequency increases,
the efficiency of the inverter decreases, and the efficiency of the motor improves. The decrease in
the inverter efficiency is clearly due to the increased switching losses. In our example case, as the
switching frequency increases, the motor losses decrease faster than the inverter losses, and thus the
efficiency of the whole drive improves together with the increased switching frequency.

11.23

Figure 11.21 The effect of the
switching frequency on the
efficiency of an inverter drive at a
75 % torque and a rated supply
frequency of 50 Hz. 12 kHz is the
maximum switching frequency of
the inverter in question. By this
switching frequency, almost a
sinusoidal motor current is
achieved, and the motor efficiency
becomes almost as high as when
operating at a sinusoidal line
voltage. The measurement is
carried out at the highest efficiency
1 of the motor at about 75 %
power at the rated frequency. The
information of the figure can be
applied to the IGBT inverters
operating at a high switching
frequency [8].

0.88
0.90
0.92
0.94
0.96
0.98
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
switching frequency [kHz]
inverter
motor
drive
q

Finally, Figure 11.22 sums up the total efficiencies of the assembly as a function of supply
frequency with switching frequency as a parameter, when the motor is let to run at its rated torque.
The figure shows that the efficiency of the drive does not significantly depend on the switching
frequency of the output stage of the inverter. In our example case, the changes in the inverter and
motor losses nearly cancel each other. In general, we may state that the PWM inverter and
induction motor combination can provide a quite high efficiency at different frequency and torque
ranges.

Figure 11.22 The efficiency of the
example drive as a function of
supply frequency at the rated
torque with switching frequency
as a parameter, The bars are
presented in the order of 1 kHz, 3
kHz, 6 kHz, 12 kHz. We can see
that in our example case, the
switching frequency is of minor
significance for the efficiency of
the whole drive. As the efficiency
of the electrical machine improves
together with the increased
switching frequency, the
efficiency of the inverter is
decreased correspondingly due to
the high switching frequency. In
general, we may state that a
switching frequency of 3 kHz
suffices well to bring the motor
current so close to sinusoidal
form that the losses of the
machine are not significantly
reduced by an increased switching
frequency [8].

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
q

As the frequency diminishes, the efficiency of the induction motor starts to decrease. If the torque
of the machine is kept constant when the speed decreases, the machine produces almost a constant

11.24
thermal loss during its operation. If the machine is self-ventilated, the cooling of the machine
declines crucially as the speed decreases. Hence it is not possible to load the machine constantly at
its rated constant torque, if the machine speed is clearly below the rated speed. The situation is
illustrated by Figure 11.23.

T/T
n
0
0.5
1.0
0 1 2
f/f
n
ACS 501
ACS 350
DTC
SAMI STAR
ACS 502...
ACS 504

Figure 11.23 Load capacity of the motor with different inverter types (ABB 2000). In the case of DTC inverters and
inverters with a high switching frequency, at rated speed, the machine can be operated at rated torque without
overheating of the machine. The topmost curve may be used for ACS 501 and ACS 400 as well as ACS 300 inverters
when operating at a switching frequency above 5 kHz. The middle curve relates to the ACS 502ACS 504 inverters at
3 kHz switching frequency. This curve has to be applied also to ACS 300, ACS 400 and ACS 500 inverters when
operating at low switching frequencies. The optimum switching applied to by the ACS 600 DTC inverter produces a
beautiful current curve form at approximately 3 kHz switching frequency, and thus the topmost curve can be followed.
The switching frequency of the old SAMI STAR is so low that the motor current has necessarily to be limited. At
speeds above rated speed, the torque is no longer restricted by cooling, but the lack of voltage. Since at the rated speed,
all the DC link voltage is already required, it is not possible to maintain the flux of the machine at speeds higher than
the rated speed, which leads to field weakening. Since the torque is produced based on the cross product of the flux and
the current, and the magnitude of the flux is now reduced, also the torque decreases.

Figure 11.24 depicts an estimate of the load capacity of a totally enclosed fan-cooled induction
motor in the corresponding circumstances.

T/T
n
0
0.5
1.0
0 1 2
f/f
n
ACS 350, f
sw
> 5 kHz
DTC
SAMI STAR
ACS 400
f
sw
= 3 kHz

Figure 11.24 Load capacity of a totally enclosed fan-cooled inverter-driven induction motor (ABB 2000). Now, the
exterior cooling of the motor functions well, but the rotor heat exchange is weakened, since the integral blower is
dependent on the rotation speed of the machine. The effect of the switching frequency is clearly detectable. The old

11.25
SAMI STAR inverters typically applied a switching frequency below 1 kHz, and therefore the motor current deviates
already clearly from the sinusoidal.

11.9 Control Methods of an Induction Motor

The control methods of an induction motor in chronological order are the scalar control, the vector
control, and the direct torque control. The first inverters were based on the scalar control principle.
Blaschke (1971) introduced the idea of vector control for rotating field machines in the early 1970s,
and the vector control was taken into wider use in the 1980s. In 1986, the direct flux linkage control
was introduced, and it was followed by the direct torque control, when ABB introduced its DTC
inverter in 1994.
11.9.1 Scalar Control

Scalar control is based chiefly on the information on the steady state of the motor. The scalar
control is a frequency control by nature. The control parameters are the motor frequency, voltage
and their corrections (adjustments) by current measurements. Figure 11.25 illustrates the schematic
of the scalar control of an inverter.

Torque-
control
M
3 ph
I
max
I
eff
o
o
pulse encoder
n
n
ref
T
ref
f
ref
control method
PI
u
f
u
ref
modulator
+
-
+
-
+
-
f '
ref
f
ref
f
ref
u
ref
i
act

Figure 11.25 Schematic of the control system of a scalar-controlled inverter.

The external reference of a scalar-controlled inverter is either a frequency, torque, or a speed
reference. The frequency reference is fed directly through the voltage reference block to the
modulator. The torque reference instead is fed to the torque controller, usually a PI controller. The
inverters usually include a digital PI controller also for the speed control. The implementation of the
frequency reference f
ref
might cause an overcurrent of the inverter, and therefore the frequency
reference is limited by a block monitoring the current and limiting it to the maximum allowed
value.


11.26
The voltage reference block includes either the generation of the constant u/f ratio obtained straight
from the induction law, a root-mean-square voltage curve, or an IR-compensated voltage reference
curve. In a drive requiring high torque at low speeds, IR-compensation is applied to; the method
takes into account the resistive voltage losses of the inverter and the motor, and increases the
terminal voltage of the machine at low speeds in order to keep the flux linkage at its rated value.
For drives slightly lighter than this, a constant ratio for the voltage and frequency can be applied to.
In blower drives, for energy saving purposes, it is possible to reduce the motor voltage at low
frequencies and to employ a quadratic voltage curve.

The modulator of an inverter is often a unit that digitally implements sine-triangle comparison, and
generates the references for the inverter change-over switches. As its references, the modulator
requires a frequency and amplitude modulation stage that corresponds to the desired voltage. The
modulators of the modern scalar inverters implement asynchronous pulse width modulation. The
conventional thyristor inverters used a synchronous modulation technique. In certain cases, third
harmonic is added to the voltage reference to increase the rms value of the voltage.

Scalar control is capable of implementing the torque control by estimating the active current of the
motor. When the modulator produces voltage vectors, a kind of an instantaneous average can be
computed for the vectors, and thus to estimate the exact position o of the voltage vector. With the
measured phase currents, it is easy to generate a current vector. Now we can calculate the angle
between the current and voltage. The active current of the inverter is proportional to the torque
produced by the motor, and thus, by the active current, it is possible to obtain an estimate for the
actual value of the torque. The scalar control can thus estimate the torque of the motor; however, it
does not contain an actual motor model. Scalar control is not capable of reacting exactly to fast
torque steps, but the drive switches gradually to a new operating state. The settling time can
typically be hundreds of milliseconds.

Scalar-controlled inverters often include a so-called slip compensation, in which the frequency
reference is increased proportional to the active current of the motor. This way, a scalar-controlled
drive is made to rotate almost at a constant speed irrespective of the load. The control electronics
require an information of the nameplate values of the motor and the calculated rated slip, by which
the slip compensation can be performed.

The simplest U/f speed control method does not include a feedback. Particularly when operating in
the field weakening region, the stepped increase of the frequency reference may lead to a situation
in which the slip exceeds the value corresponding to the breakdown torque, and the motor is driven
to an unstable area. A similar unstable situation may arise when the reference value decreases
stepwise. Therefore it is important that the reference value of the angular speed during both
acceleration and deceleration follows the mechanical speed, in which case the slip will not exceed
the breakdown torque. Figure 11.26 illustrates the stable acceleration of the rotation speed in scalar
control. When the control system obtains the stepped change in the rotation speed reference and
raises the frequency reference, the slip will increase until the stator current reaches the set limit.
The situation is illustrated by the range 12 in the torqueangular-speed graph. Next, the frequency
is increased under current limitation in the constant torque range (23). After this, the stator current
decreases until a new point 4 of a continuous state is reached.

11.27
2
1 4
3
T
T
e

Figure 11.26 Stable increase in rotation speed in scalar control from operating point one to operating point four. The
figure depicts the static torque curves of an asynchronous machine at different supply frequencies.

If the U/f ratio cannot be kept constant, the created air gap flux linkage may be saturated or it amy
remain below the desired value. The fluctuation of the parameters of the stator circuit resulting from
the temperature and saturation may cause fluctuations in the air gap flux linkage. When the air gap
flux linkage of the machine decreases, the slip has to increase (an increase in the stator current) in
order to reach the same torque; as a result, the transient stability of the motor will be reduced.
11.9.2 Field Weakening

Field weakening is required in a situation where the target is to make the motor rotate at a speed
higher than its rated speed. Now the voltage of the motor cannot be increased together with the
rotation speed, since all the voltage reserve is already in use, that is, the voltage has reached its
rated value. If the voltage is kept at its rated value and the frequency is increased, the U/f ratio
decreases, and simultaneously, also the flux linkage diminishes. The breakdown torque of an
asynchronous machine is reached when the angle between the stator and rotor flux linkage is
about 45 degrees. When the angle increases, the magnitude of the air gap flux linkage reduces as an
effect of the stator and rotor leakage inductances. When operating at a high torque in the deep field
weakening region, the magnitudes of the stator current and rotor current increase and the angle
between them increases, Therefore the magnetising current i
m
decreases and the air gap flux linkage
m
produced by it decreases. The excitation current i
m
required by the asynchronous machine is a
component of the stator current i
s
, as shown in Figure 11.27.


11.28
i
m
e
L
s
o
i
s
u
s
= 1.0

m
r
i
r
L
r
o
i
r
s
= 0.5
i
s
= 1.5
2L
s
o
i
s
s

m
i
m
e
L
s
o
i
s
u
s
= 1.0
r
i
r
L
r
o
i
r
s
= 0.5 i
s
= 1.5

Figure 11.27 Vector diagrams of an induction machine in the deep field weakening region. The left-hand illustration
depicts the machine operating above its breakdown torque, the right-hand illustration shows the machine operating
approximately at the breakdown point. The speed is about double, since the magnitude of the flux linkage is about 0.5.
The relative values of the stator and rotor leakage inductances are about 0.15 (these are disproportionately large owing
to the limitations in the graphics technique). The magnitude of the rotor flux linkage is 0.16 and the magnitude of the
rotor current producing torque is about 1.48, and thus the relative torque in this left-hand illustration is about 0.24.
Correspondingly, the torque at right is about 0.44. At the breakdown point, the vector diagram is approximately equal
to the simplified small illustration below.

The simplified vector diagram (the small illustration below in Figure 11.27) shows clearly that the
approximate breakdown torque is reached in a situation similar to the one illustrated in Figure 11.27
when the stator and rotor flux linkage are in an angle of about 45. Assuming the stator and rotor
leakage inductance equal, an approximately right-angled flux linkage triangle of Figure 11.27 is
obtained. Since the torque of the asynchronous machine is proportional to the cross product

s r
, as was previously shown, we can easily see that with the set boundary conditions, the
highest torque would in theory be reached, when these flux linkages were perpendicular to each
other. This, however, is not possible, as can be seen from Figure 11.27. If the power factor angle
increases excessively, the air gap flux linkage and the rotor flux linkage start to decrease, and
consequently, the torque starts to decrease.

From the point of view of an asynchronous machine, field weakening is an interesting operating
region, since as far as the mechanical structure of the machine is concerned, the machine is adapted
to the normal operation at least at double its rated speed. However, the torque production capacity
of the machine has to be considered carefully in the field weakening, as was already shown in the
previous discussion. Figures 11.28 and 11.29 show the behaviour of an asynchronous machine at
different speeds. The operating ranges can be divided into constant torque, constant power and
high- speed ranges. In the constant torque range, the air gap flux linkage is kept constant, and the
machine is capable of producing a constant torque at the constant slip frequency f
slip
. The relative
slip decreases as the speed increases. In the field weakening, the ratio U
s
/e of the terminal voltage
and the angular frequency decreases, and thus the flux has also to decrease. In the constant power

11.29
range, the torque of the machine is thus reduced inversely proportional to the frequency, since the
air gap flux linkage has to be reduced approximately inversely proportional to the frequency.

Let us next consider the high-speed range. The torque of the machine can be expressed by the rotor
current and the air gap flux linkage, which are already perpendicular to each other

T i
e m r m r
= ~
3
2
p i . (11.8)

The electromotive force induced to the rotor is

E k f
E r m slip
= . (11.9)

In the rotor, this emf generates a current

I
E
R L
k f
R
f
E
r
r
r slip r
m slip
r
m slip
j
=
+
~ ~
e

o
. (11.10)

By combining Eq. (11.8) and Eq. (11.9) we obtain

T f
e m slip
~
2
. (11.11)

Assuming that U
s m
~ e , we obtain from Eq. (11.11)

T
U
f
e
s
2 slip
~
2
e
. (11.12)

In the field weakening, in the constant power range, the rotor current has to be of the rated value, as
shown in the figure; this corresponds to a relative constant slip, which can be shown by Eq. (11.10),
the information
e
m
s
~
U
, and the definition of the slip frequency f sf
slip
=
constant
s r
= ~ s U I . (11.13)

Since the supply frequency is constant, also the relative slip is constant in the constant power range.
Thus, the actual slip frequency increases as the supply frequency f increases f sf
slip
= . When U
s

and f
slip
/f remain constant in the constant power range, and the magnitude of the flux linkage
decreases inversely proportional to the frequency, we can easily determine the maximum torque in
the constant power range

T
f
f
T
e max
nim
nim
= . (11.14)

In practice, in the constant power range, the motor can produce a power higher than its rated power,
since as the excitation current and the air gap flux are reduced, an increased proportion of the
current can be used in torque production. The reduction of the air gap flux linkage decreases iron
losses, and furthermore, the improved cooling resulting from the high speed also assists the
situation.


11.30
When the terminal voltage is constant in the field weakening, the air gap flux linkage of the
machine decreases constantly as the speed of the machine increases. Depending on the structure of
the machine typically at the relative speeds of 1.52 the air gap flux linkage has reduced to such
an extent that the motor approaches its breakdown torque, as shown in Figure 11.29. Should the
speed be raised from this, some margin has to be left with respect to the breakdown situation and
the torque has to be decreased again we have now shifted to the high-speed range. In this range,
the slip frequency of the rotor cannot be increased, and the maximum torque behaves inversely
proportional to the square of supply frequency.

T
f
e max
~
1
2
. (11.15)

Both the motor current and the torque decrease when proceeding to the high-speed range, since it is
not the thermal load capacity of the motor, but the breakdown torque that limits the drive.

T
e
/T
nom
1
0
0 1 2 O/O
nom
prop. 1/f
prop. 1/f
2
const. torque, const. power, high speed

Figure 11.28 Torque as a function of the rotor rotation speed O.

The rapid reduction of the breakdown torque of an asynchronous machine results from the increase
in the slip frequency, and from the fact that the rotor becomes more and more inductive in the field
weakening. Figure 11.29 illustrates the voltage U
s
, the stator current I
s
, the rotor current I
r
, the
excitation current I
m
, and the torque T
e
of an asynchronous machine as a function of rotor speed O
in normal duty, in the field weakening in the constant power range and in the high-speed range.

11.31
const. torque, const. power, high speed
T
e
T
e
T
e
I
r
I
r
U
s
U
s
I
m
I
m
s
f
slip
0 1 2 f/f
nom
0 1 2 f/f
nom

Figure 11.29 The performance of an asynchronous machine in normal duty, i.e., in the constant torque range; in the
field weakening, i.e., in the constant power range and high-speed range. The topmost illustration depicts the voltage U
s
,
the stator current I
s
, the rotor current I
r
, and the torque T
e
; the illustration below shows the slip s and the slip frequency
f
slip
as a function of the rotor angular speed O .

Sometimes the insulation level of the voltage of motors is such that the rated voltage given for the
motor can be exceeded when increasing the frequency. This enables running an inverter-driven
motor at values above the rated voltage and angular speed. If the machine is wound for 230/400 V,
50 Hz with D/Y connections, it can be operated in delta connection at 87 Hz frequency at 400 V
voltage at the rated air gap flux linkage, and thus the power increases in the ratio 31 : . This
arrangement, however, normally requires a consent of the manufacturer. Figure 11.30 illustrates the
operating point A of the motor at the rated values: the rated voltage is 230 V, the frequency is 50
Hz, and the rotation speed is 1400 rpm. At the operating point B, the motor is run at the 1.74-fold
voltage 400 V and the frequency 87 Hz. By changing the values of the voltage and frequency larger
in the range 5087 Hz (operating point B), the constant torque range can be expanded from the
original. The torque production capacity remains stable up to the rotating speed 2436 rpm [3].


11.32
f/Hz
0
50
87
Us/V
400
230
1400 2436
A
B
T
eB
UsB
TeB
T
eA
TeA
UsA
UsA
UsB
O/
rpm
T,
T
eB

Figure 11.30 The voltage and frequency of an induction motor at rated values (operating point A) and at 1.74-fold
values (operating point B). By using the voltage and frequency values at point B, the constant torque range of the motor
can be expanded from the original. Naturally, a higher current is required of the inverter than in the original 50 Hz 400
V drive.
11.9.3 Vector Control

Vector control is a magnetic-field-oriented control method for an induction motor. Vector control is
by nature a torque control, for which the rotation speed control gives a reference value. In the
computation, a two-axis model of the asynchronous machine is employed in such a way that the
measured current is divided into direct-axis and quadrature-axis components. The direct-axis
current component i
d
produces the excitation state of the machine, and it gives the actual value for
the flux linkage. The other current component, that is, the quadrature-axis component i
q
produces
the torque of the machine, and it gives the actual value for the torque. Figure 11.31 depicts the
schematic diagram for the conventional vector control.
M
3 ph
pulse encoder
n
n
ref
T
ref
ref
PI
u
ref
modulator
+
-
i
1
i
2
i
q
i
d
i
q,ref
i
dref
+
torque-
control
flux control
motor model
identification
circuit
+
+
k
f
ref
+
t
r
+
L1, L2, L3

Figure 11.31 Schematic diagram for the conventional vector control [2].

11.33

Figure 11.32 shows that the vector control also includes a motor model. The motor model is based
on the equivalent circuit of the two-axis motor model, which may be fixed for instance to the rotor
flux linkage reference frame. The required control parameters are calculated with this motor model
and feedbacks. In the identification block, the rotor time constant t
r
is computed; this time constant
is important for controlling the dynamic state of the motor. The vector control keeps the dynamic
state of the motor notably better under control than the scalar control.

Good alternatives for the implementation of the vector control of an asynchronous machine are the
stator reference frame (e
g
= 0), the rotor reference frame (e
g
= pO), or some flux linkage reference
frame. The flux linkage equations based on the space vector theory are next recapitulated in brief

s s s m r s s m
= + = + L L L i i i
o
. (11.16)

r r r m s r r m
= + = + L L L i i i
o
. (11.17)

( )
m m s r m m
= + = L L i i i . (11.18)

All the flux linkages depend on both the stator current and the rotor current. The rotor current
causes a problem in an induction machine, since its measurement is impossible in practice. For the
implementation of the vector control, one of the flux linkages has to be estimated by measurable
parameters. Let us next consider a method conventionally applied in the vector control. The
asynchronous machine is presented in the rotor reference frame, Figure 11.32.

L
m
L
s
o
L
r
o
R
s
R
r
jpO
s
u
s
i
s
i
r
i
m
s

m

r

Figure 11.32. The equivalent circuit of an induction motor based on the space vector theory, presented in a rotor
reference frame.

Equation (5.7) (
( )
u i
r r r
r
g r
d
d
j = + + R
t
p
e O ) can be presented in the rotor reference frame in

the form

R
t
r r
r
d
d
i =

. (11.19)

We solve the rotor current from Eq. (11.17)

i
i
r
r m s
r
=
L
L
. (11.20)

11.34
We obtain by substitution

d
d
r r
r
r
r
r
m s
t
R
L
R
L
L = + i . (11.21)

next, we adopt the no-load time constant of the rotor

t
r
r
r
=
L
R
; (11.22)

this term is often referred simply as the rotor time constant. Now Eq. (11.21) can be rewritten as

t

r
r
r m s
d
dt
L + = i . (11.23)

Transformation to the Laplace domain

( ) ( ) t
r r r m s
s s s L + = i , (11.24)

from which we solve the rotor flux linkage

( )
t
r
m s
r
s
L
s
=
+
i
1
, (11.25)

The above corresponds to the first-order low-pass filter, and thus the rotor flux linkage can be
determined by filtering the stator current multiplied by the magnetizing inductance. Estimation is
performed in practice by transforming the measured stator current vector to the rotor reference
frame, by multiplying by the magnetizing inductance, and by filtering the result with a low-pass
filter based on the rotor time constant, Figure 11.33

3 2
i
a
i
b
i
c
u
r
i
sd
i
sq
L
m
t
r
rq
rd

Figure 11.33 Estimation of the rotor flux linkage in the rotor reference frame.

Since the rotor is magnetically symmetric, no absolute rotor angle information is required, but the
relative information suffices; therefore, a pulse encoder is well adapted for the purpose.

The presented method is somewhat problematic, since none of the above mentioned machine
parameters remains constant: the rotor resistance changes as a function of skin effect and
temperature, and magnetic saturation has an effect on the magnetizing inductance. Consequently, a
saturation model and a rotor temperature estimator should be constructed for the machine. Torque
can be calculated by substituting Eq. (11.20) for rotor current to Eq. (11.16) for flux linkage

11.35

( ) T i i i i i
e s s s s
m
r
r m s s
m
r
r s
3 3 3
= = +
|
\
|
.
| =
2 2 2
p p L
L
L
L p
L
L
(11.26)

( )
T p
L
L
i i
e
m
r
rd sq rq sd
=
3
2
(11.27)

Thus, when the machine parameters are known, the actual values of the control can be estimated.
Since the machine is usually voltage-fed, it is necessary to determine next how the voltage control
is constructed in order to implement the rotor-flux-oriented current vector control. In a system
based on the rotor flux linkage, the machine equations can conveniently be transformed into the
rotor flux linkage reference frame
r
,T. In the transformation from the rotor reference frame to the
rotor flux linkage frame, the required trigonometric functions are obtained from the known
parameters

sin , cos u

d
rq
rd rq
rq
r
d
rd
r
=
+
= =
2 2
. (11.28)

Further, the torque can be expressed based on the cross field principle

( )
T i
e
m
r
r s
e
m
r
r sT rT s
m
r
r sT
3
3 3
=
= =
2
2 2
p
L
L
T p
L
L
i i p
L
L
i
,

. (11.29)

The simple result is explained by the fact that the rotor flux does not have a quadrature component
in the rotor flux linkage reference frame. Torque control is performed by the component i
sT

perpendicular to the rotor flux linkage. Its reference value is obtained directly from Eq. (11.25). The
control of flux linkage is not quite as simple as the torque control. The rotor voltage equation (7.2)
is written in the rotor flux linkage reference frame by components

( )
( )
u R i
t
p
u R i
t
p
r r r
r
r rT
rT r rT
rT
r r
d
d
d
d

= = +
= = +
0
0
e
O
O
. (11.30)

In the rotor flux linkage reference frame, the result is simplified somewhat further

( )
0
0
= +
= +
R i
t
R i p
r r
r
r rT r r
d
d
e O
. (11.31)

Equation (11.31) yields, similarly as Eq. (11.23),

t
r
r
r m s
d
d

t
L i + = . (11.32)


11.36
The magnitude of the rotor flux linkage follows the stator current component i
s
aligned with the
rotor linkage flux at the rotor no-load time constant, which, depending on the machine size, varies
typically between 0.151.5 s. The flux linkage remains constant by keeping the stator current
component i
s
constant. When operating in the field weakening region, we have to take into account
the differential term of Eq. (11.32, when the speed changes rapidly. When the rotor flux linkage is
kept constant while the torque changes, we obtain according to Eq. (11.31) i
r
= 0. Now the flux
linkages behave as shown in Figure 11.34

L
s
o
i
s
u
s
s
r
i
r
L
r
o
i
r
i
s
r
T
i
s
i
sT
L
s
o
i
s
u
s
r
i
r
L
r
o
i
r
i
s
r
T
i
s
i
sT
motor generator

Figure 11.34 Behaviour of the flux linkages in the rotor flux linkage reference frame at different load states of the
machine.

The points of the stator and air gap flux linkages plot the loci indicated by dashed lines, if the
magnetizing inductance does not saturate.

The stator voltage reference can be determined from the stator voltage equation in the rotor flux
linkage reference frame

( )
T
m
T
s s T
T
m
T
s
s
T
s s
T
s T
T
s T
s s
T
s
j
d
d
d
d
j
d
d
i
i
i
i u
+ + + + =
+ + =
o o
L
t t
L R
t
R
e
e
. (11.33)

The actual value for the air gap flux linkage is obtained by substituting Eq. (11.20) to Eq. (11.17) in
the T reference frame. The substitution yields

m
T r
T
r r r
T
r m s
T
r
m
T r
T
m r m s
T
r

o

o

o

=
+
=
+
L L L L
L
L L L
L
i
i
,
,


11.37
( )
m
T m
r
r
T
r s
T
o

= +
L
L
L i . (11.34)

Next, we substitute the above to Eq. (11.33)

u i
i
i
s
T
s s
T
s
m
r
r
s
T
m
r
r
T
T s
m
r
r s
T m
r
r
T
d
d
d
d
j

o o

o o

= + +
|
\
|
.
| + + +
|
\
|
.
| +
|
\
|
.
| R L
L
L
L
t
L
L t
L
L
L
L
L
L
e . (11.35)

By substituting ( ) i i
r r m s r
= L L / to the rotor voltage equation, we obtain the derivative of the
rotor flux linkage

( )
d
d
r r
r
r
m
r
r s r r

T
T T
T
t
R
L
L
L
R p = + i e O . (11.36)

This is substituted to the previous equation, which yields

u i
i
i
s
T
s
m
r
r s
T
s
m
r
r
s
T
m
r
r r
T
T s
m
r
r s
T m
r
r
T
d
d
j

o o
o o

= +
|
\
|
.
|
|
\
|
.
|
|
+ +
|
\
|
.
|
+ +
|
\
|
.
| +
|
\
|
.
|
R
L
L
R L
L
L
L
t
L
L
R
L
L
L
L p
L
L
2
2

e O
. (11.37)

Usually, when operating with processors, a Cartesian representation is easier to use than a polar
representation; thus, we decompose next the voltage vector into its components

u R
L
L
R i L
L
L
L
i
t
L
L
L
L p
L
L
sT s
m
r
r sT s
m
r
r
sT
T s
m
r
r s
m
r
r
d
d
= +
|
\
|
.
|
|
\
|
.
|
|
+ +
|
\
|
.
| + +
|
\
|
.
| +
2
o o o o
e i O (11.38)
u R
L
L
R i L
L
L
L
i
t
L
L
L
L
L
L
R
s s
m
r
r s s
m
r
r
s
T s
m
r
r s
m
r
2 r r
d
d
o o

o o T
= +
|
\
|
.
|
|
\
|
.
|
|
+ +
|
\
|
.
| + +
|
\
|
.
| +
2
e i (11.39)

the angular speed of the flux linkage reference frame occurring in the equations is obtained from
Eq. (11.31) by substituting ( ) i i
r r m s r
= L L / as the rotor current

e
t
T r
r
r
m
r
s
m
r r
s
= + = +
R
L
L
i p
L
i p O O. (11.40)

In a steady state, the angular speed of the flux linkage reference frame is equal to the electric
angular speed e
s
supplying the machine. By solving i
sT
from this, we obtain by the substitution to
the torque equation (11.29)

T p
L
L
p
L
p
R
e
m
r
r
r
m
r r
r r
2
r
3 3
=

=
2 2

e
t
e O
. (11.41)


11.38
This is a typical torque equation employed in the scalar control. e
r
is the angular frequency of the
rotor current.

The obtained voltage equations (11.38) and (11.39) resemble the control of a DC machine, since
one of the voltage components produces the desired rotor flux linkage, and the other
correspondingly the current that produces torque. These voltage components have next to be
transformed into the stator reference frame to enable the actual motor control. To make the
coordinate transformations easier, the sine and cosine of the rotor angle were determined from the
calculated flux linkage components according to Eq. (11.26).

The above vector control method for an induction motor was originally introduced by Blaschke
(1971), and it is known as the rotor-flux-oriented control. The system functions mainly as described
above in a reference frame fixed to the rotor flux linkage vector. Let us consider next, why a rotor-
flux-linkage-oriented control method is a justified choice. Let us investigate the differential
equation (11.19) R t
r r r
d d i = / of the rotor flux linkage, and substitute the equation of the rotor
flux linkage to it, and write the derivatives as delta parameters

A A A A
r m s r r r r
= + = L L R t i i i . (11.42)

Next, we determine a limit value for the above as the transition time approaches zero
( ) lim lim lim
r m s r r r r
A
A
A
A A
A
A
t t
L L
t
R t
+ =
=
0 0 0
0 i i i . (11.43)

The equation shows clearly how the rotor flux linkage cannot change instantaneously at all. We
obtain for the change in the rotor current

A = A i i
r
m
r
s
L
L
. (11.44)

The changes in the flux linkage resulting from the current step are obtained from the current
equations of the flux linkages

A = A
s
s r m
r
s
L L L
L
2
i . (11.45)
A = A
o
m
m
r
r s
L
L
L i . (11.46)

Finally, the changes in flux linkages are illustrated with the following example. Therefore, we
assume that in the machine to be investigated L
s
= L
r
= 2, L
m
= 1.9, and L
so
= L
ro
= 0.1; these are
typical values for the machine. Now ( )
s r s s
i
o o
+ 1.9 ~ L L and
s r m
1 i
o
.9 ~ L . A rapid
change in the stator current passes thus chiefly through leakage inductances. The rotor flux linkage
is inherently the most stable, and correspondingly, the stator flux linkage can be changed most
rapidly. Therefore, it is advisable to base the vector control on the rotor flux linkage, since from the
physical point of view, it can be most easily kept constant. Unfortunately, the magnitude of the
stator flux linkage changes in load changes, whereas the rotor flux linkage remains constant. Hence
the magnitude of the stator voltage should be adjusted as a function of load. This is fairly easy at
low speeds, however, problems arise when approaching field weakening. To guarantee a sufficient

11.39
voltage, the magnitude of the rotor flux linkage should be selected adequately low from the point of
view of the control.

Finally, we determine the breakdown torque of an asynchronous machine and the slip angular
frequency corresponding to the breakdown situation

T p
L
L L
p
L
L L
ek
m
2
s r s
2 s
m
2
r s
2 s
3 3
= =
2 2 2 2
2
2 2
e
u , (11.47)

e
rk
s r
r s m
2
=
L R
L L L
. (11.48)

In the derivation of the equations, the stator resistance is assumed zero.
11.9.4 Direct Torque Control

In the previous chapters, we discussed the application of the direct flux linkage control and the
direct torque control to various synchronous machines. In the direct torque control (DTC) of an
induction motor, as the name indicates, the flux linkage and torque of an electrical machine are
controlled directly. The DTC method is based on the theory of Direkte Selbst Regelung (direct self
control) introduced by Depenbrock, and on the novel control model for the induction motor
developed by Takahashi and Noguchi. ABB has developed DTC technology since 1988, and has
launched the ACS600/800 andACS1000/6000 inverters based on the DTC technology. Figure 11.35
shows a simplified schematic diagram of the DTC. The most important parts are the direct
hysteresis control of the flux linkage and torque, an optimum switching logic and an adaptive rotor
model.
-
torque and flux
linkage
hysteresis control
torque, act
flux linkage act
control signals
Tact
+
act
Motor model
calculation
estimation
flux
linkage
ref
controller
speed
controller
flyx optimization On/Off
Flux braking On/Off
Field weakening On/Off
Tref rate limiter
Tref
+
act
optimal
switching-
logic
L1 L2 L3
S1,S2,S3
S1,S2,S3
DC link voltage
M
3 ~
motor current, i1
motor current,

i2
+
nref
nact

Figure 11.35 The block diagram of the direct torque control (DTC) [5].

Figure 11.35 shows that the DTC measures two currents from the motor and the DC voltage of the
intermediate DC link. There is no rotor position measurement. Current and voltage information is

11.40
fed to the motor model, as well as the switch position information of the switches S1, S2, and S3.
The motor model gives the actual values for torque, flux linkage, and rotation speed. The optimum
switching logic selects the optimum instantaneous switch position based on the torque and the state
of the flux linkage. All the switch control decisions for the switches S1, S2, and S3 are based on the
knowledge of the electromagnetic state of the electrical machine. The switch control decisions are
made at the intervals of 25 s. In an asynchronous machine, the inductance-based current model can
be used to stabilize the behaviour of the induction machine without the rotor position feedback; this
is naturally based on the symmetry of an asynchronous machine. The entire analysis can be
performed in the stator reference frame, and no dq reference frame fixed to the rotor is required.
Now, we may conclude that in this case, the control of an asynchronous would be easier than the
control of synchronous machines; however, the answer is quite the opposite. When aiming at a high-
quality control, in the case of asynchronous machines, the difficulty lies in the fact that the
estimation of the rotation speed is an extremely challenging task. Synchronous machines rotate at
least always in synchronism, if the control is otherwise under control.

Figure 11.36 illustrates the implementation of the DTC at the HW level. The optimum switching
logic is implemented in the ABB ACS600 motor control system by ASIC circuits. The logic selects
always the best switch position based on the computed needs for change in the torque and flux
linkage. The calculation interval between the switchings, 25 s, is in practice faster than the electric
time constants of the motor; consequently, a very fast torque control is achieved. The rated torque
response is typically reached in 23 ms. Thus, the DTC reacts ten times faster than the best present
AC and DC drives.
S1,S2,S3
U
DC
S1, S2, S3
flux linkage,
+
act
torque,
T
act
speed, O
act
frequency, f
act
motor model
actual values
calculation
motor parameter
estimation
torque and flux
linkage
hysteresis
control
T
ref
hysteresis ref.
ASICs
optimal
switching
logic
torque bits
fluxl. bits
control
i
1
, i
2
+
ref
M

Figure 11.36 Schematic diagram of the DTC. The core of the DTC includes a torque control, a flux linkage control, a
motor model, and an optimum switching logic. The core of the DTC is implemented by a DS processor. The operation
of the processor is divided into different time levels so that at the fastest time level 25 s, the control of the switches is

11.41
determined from the motor model by computing. Other time levels are for instance the time levels of 100 s, 200 s,
500 s, 1ms, etc. at which tasks are placed in the priority order. For instance, the rotor speed estimate is computed at
the intervals of 1 ms. The two motor phase currents are measured for instance by current measurement sensors based on
Hall sensor technology. After the A/D conversion, the signal is offered to the DSP. The DSP takes care of the switch
overload protection with the motor model; however, the actual short-circuit protection is implemented by the ASIC
circuits (Application Specified Integrated Circuit) alongside the switch. In data transfer, outside the processor card,
optical fibres are widely used due to an environment with disturbances and the requirements of galvanic separation.
11.9.5 Motor Model in a DTC Drive

Since the DFLC cannot operate completely independently, similarly as for the DTC of a
synchronous machine, a current model is required for the DTC of an asynchronous machine also.
The model generates estimates for the flux linkage vectors and the torque for the hysteresis control
of the flux linkage and torque. Furthermore, the estimates for rotation speed and frequency are
obtained for the needs of other DTC blocks. The estimation in the motor model is based on the
identification of the motor parameters and on the current measurement. In a normal drive, the
currents of two motor phases and the voltage of the DC link are measured and the state of the
inverter switches is investigated. The accuracy of the motor model is essential for a successful
control, since there is not necessarily any feedback from the shaft of the machine. The motor model
identifies the most important motor parameters and then computes the stator flux linkage of the
motor. The motor model also includes a temperature compensation model, which is essential for the
static speed accuracy.

The motor model also computes the motor shaft speed from the derivative of the rotor flux linkage.
It is not necessary to measure the speed by a tachometer, if a static accuracy of 0.5 % is sufficient, as
is the case for most industrial applications.

When compared with the model based on nameplate values, the accuracy of the motor model is
improved considerably by the results obtained in the identification run during commissioning. The
most important parameters determined in the identification run are the stator resistance R
s
, the stator
leakage inductance L
o
, and the magnetizing inductance L
m
. The accuracy of the motor model can
also be improved by taking the possible saturation of the machine into account. The current feedback
notably improves the stator flux linkage estimate particularly at low speeds. A high starting torque is
achieved, and the torque becomes linear in the entire speed range.

After a well-accomplished stator flux linkage estimation, the torque estimation is a simple task. The
motor model computes estimates also for the shaft speed and the electric frequency. The
determination of the electric frequency of the rotor is based on the knowledge on the rotor flux
linkage vector. It is computed every millisecond, and thus rotor speeds up to 400 Hz can be
estimated.

In practice, the current model has to be determined by the identification run. The first task is to
determine the transient inductance of the asynchronous machine, the corresponding equivalent
circuit of which is illustrated in Figure 11.37.

L
s
o
L
r
o
L
s
'
L
m


11.42
Figure 11.37 The equivalent circuit corresponding to the transient inductance of an asynchronous machine.

According to the illustration, the transient inductance is

L L
L L
L L
s s
r m
r m
'
= +
+
o
o
o
. (11.49)

By adding and subtracting L
m
we obtain

L L L
L L
L L
L L
L
s s m
r m
r m
r m
r
'
= + +
+

o
o
o
,

( )
L L
L L
L
L L L
L
s s
r m
r
r m m
r
'
= +
+
o
o
,

which leads to the conventional representation for transient inductance

L L
L
L
s s
m
2
r
'
= . (11.50)

Transient inductance characterizes the inductance experienced by a fast pulse fed to the stator. In
other words, the rotor manages to react to a fast pulse only by its leakage inductance. Hardly any
current flows through the magnetizing inductance. The transient inductance can be determined by
employing the short pulse obtained from the inverter as shown in Figure 11.38. When a voltage
pulse is fed to the machine, a rapid change can be caused in the machine current.

u
sd
t
2
t
1
t
4
t
3
i
sd
-u
sd

Figure 11.38 The behaviour of the direct stator current component and the voltage in a transient inductance test.

The hysteresis state of the machine impacts on the determination of the dynamic inductance, and
therefore the effect of hysteresis should be eliminated from the measured parameters by selecting

11.43
the information at an appropriate position. The measurement can be carried out by using only one
pulse, if a suitable data acquisition period can be selected, Figure 11.39.

A
t
1
i
sd
80 %
25 %
A
t
2
u
sd

Figure 11.39 The measurement of the stator transient inductance can be performed also by one pulse, in which case the
excitation state of the machine before the measurement pulse has to be taken into account. The shape of the first part of
the current curve depends on the hysteresis state of the machine. When the change in current is for instance between 25
% and 80 %, we obtain a measurement result almost independent of the hysteresis.

We may write for the transient inductance

L
u
i t
s
sd
sd
d d
'
/
= . (11.51)

Here u
sd
is the d-axis component of the stator voltage vector. By substituting the instantaneous
voltages to the definition of the voltage vector in a situation where the phase a is in series with the
parallel connection of the two other phases during the voltage pulse, we may determine

( )
u a a a a
s s1 s2 s3 d d d d
= + + = + +
|
\
|
.
|
=
2
3
2
3
2
3
1
3
1
3
2
3
2 2
u u u U U U U . (11.52)

We may now write the transient inductance according to Figure 11.38

L U
t t
i
s d
sd
'
=
2
3
4 3
A
. (11.53)

A corresponding expression can be written for the test of Figure 11.39. It has been shown
empirically that we can now estimate the stator leakage inductance to be about 70 % of the
transient inductance. If there are closed slots in the rotor, during the measurement of transient
inductance, the saturation of the slot wedge (slot closure) and the saturation discharge cause
interesting phenomena in the region where the current declines, Figure 11.40.

11.44
saturation discharge
u
sd
i
0
0 t

Figure 11.40 The effect of the saturation discharge of the slot wedge of a closed rotor slot on the current decline.

The magnetizing inductance of the machine is the next important parameter, the value of which has
to be determined. Unfortunately, the measurement at no-load does not give a correct picture of the
behaviour of the magnetizing inductance, since the inductance saturates not only as a function of
voltage, but also as a function of torque. This can be explained easily by investigating the behaviour
of the flux of the machine under load. The flux stretches in the air gap and flows increasingly also
across the slots, which can be observed as the saturation of the magnetizing inductance. The
behaviour of the magnetizing inductance can be modelled both as a function of voltage and torque
as shown in Figure 11.41.

T
L
m
u
m
L
m

Figure 11.41 Magnetizing inductance as a function of air gap voltage and torque.

Stator resistance is also an essential parameter, which can be determined easily by the DTC
inverter.
11.9.6 Flux Linkage Correction in the Induction Machine DTC

Determination of the stator flux linkage vector is based chiefly on the voltage integral. However,
the integration of the flux linkage includes some error, as was shown in the previous discussion on
the synchronous machines. Let us next investigate the possibilities to correct the error in the flux
linkage integral in the case of an asynchronous machine. The vector diagram of an asynchronous
machine is repeated in Figure 11.42.


11.45
u
s
i
m
i
r
i
s
L
s
o
i
s
r
L
r
o
i
r

Figure 11.42 Vector diagram of an asynchronous machine.

The figure shows that the rotor current vector should be perpendicular to the rotor flux linkage; the
correction method for the stator flux linkage can be based on this information. Next, we determine
the rotor current vector. According to the figure, we may write

r r s s s r
i i
o o
+ = L L , (11.54)

( )
s s s m r
r
m
s s s
= +
=
L L
L
L
i i
i i
1 . (11.55)

Since the rotor current vector should be perpendicular to the rotor flux linkage, we can calculate the
correction term from the perpendicularity condition

( ) ( ) c =
s s s est r,
i L . (11.56)

When the cross product is low-pass filtered before supplying to the controller, ripple caused by the
noise of the current measurement and the errors of the flux linkage can be filtered. Constant
corrections (k
d
+jk
q
) are then made to the stator flux linkage; these corrections keep the cross
product of Eq. (11.56) zero

( )
old est s, q d old est s, new est s,
j k k + + = c .
(11.57)

The perpendicularity conditions do not hold for transients; however, the equation can be applied to
also during a transient by adding an extra term to the cross product

k
t
t
r
r
d
d
. (11.58)

11.46

The result has to be zero also after summing the additional term. The task itself is difficult, since the
rotor time constant is not constant.

Another possibility is to construct a curve (Figure 11.43) based on the nameplate values, the
determined stator resistance, stator leakage inductance, as well as the magnetizing inductance, the
selected rotation speed and the voltage. This curve illustrates the ratio of the current and the torque
of the machine.

0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0
20
40
60
80
100
T
I
rated flux
field weakening
s

Figure 11.43 Torque production of an asynchronous machine as a function of stator current.

We have now two tools for correcting the instantaneous value of the flux linkage. Since the rotor
current vector and the excitation flux linkage are actually always perpendicular to each other in the
steady state, this yields us the first condition for the correction of the stator flux linkage. Further,
we know the torque/current curve of the electrical machine, which can be used to compare the
torque obtained by equation t i
e s s
=
3
2
from the measured stator current vector and the
integrated stator flux linkage vector. If the result does not fit the current-torque curve of Figure
11.43, the stator flux linkage has to be corrected.

The operator determines the rated current I
n
, the rated voltage U
n
, the rated frequency f
n
, the rated
rotation speed n
n
, and the power factor cos
n
in the initial starting of the motor. The stator
resistance R
s
is identified in the starting, and thus the operator does not have to manually determine
a suitable value for IR compensation. The change in the stator resistance during the temperature rise
of the machine is estimated by the thermal model of the machine.
11.9.7 The Outer Control Systems of the DTC

The core of the DTC efficiently produces the torque estimate and the motor parameter. A DTC-
controlled inverter unit requires several auxiliary controllers. Figure 11.44 illustrates the total DTC
motor control system of an asynchronous machine.


11.47
PID
M
n
ref
n
act
speed
controller
torque
ref.
flux linkage
reference
switching
frequency ref.
torque ref.
limiting
s,ref
t
ref
s,ref
hysteresis
limits
S
A
,
S
B
,
S
C
DTC core
current mod.
S
A
, S
B
, S
C
DC-voltage
i
A
, i
B
DC
AC
hyst. contr.
flux linkage
limitation
sw. freq.
control
f
sw
( ) t R d
s s s s
}
= i u
m r s s s
L L i i + =

Figure 11.44 Schematic diagram of the DTC motor control system.
11.9.8 Torque Control

The reference for the torque control is either the torque reference from the speed controller or an
external torque reference. Torque reference is limited in order not to exceed the peak torque of the
motor and consequently the permitted currents for the inverter. Limiting the torque reference is
important also in braking the motor so as not exceed the permitted DC link voltage.

Speed control

In many applications, the speed control is the most important task of the inverter. The quality of the
controlled process often depends on the accuracy of the rotation speed control. In the DTC, the
output of the speed controller acts directly as an external reference to the torque controller. This
makes it possible to take several requirements of the process into account in the rotation speed
control. The basic algorithm of the speed controller is a PID control algorithm. The controller also
includes an acceleration compensator; this provides special advantages when it is necessary to
minimize control deviations in the acceleration and deceleration of the inertial masses. When the
mechanical time constant of the drive has been identified, the PID speed controlled can be tuned to
act more as a load compensator.

Flux linkage reference

The magnitude of the stator flux linkage can be given as a reference value to the DTC block. The
control block of the stator flux linkage reference is capable of controlling and modifying the
reference value for the stator flux linkage. This block enables the implementation of several
functions of the inverter. For instance, the flux linkage reference control is applied to flux linkage
optimization and field weakening control. The optimization of the flux linkage also yields a good
energy economy in drives, in which the flux of the machine can be weakened in the normal speed
range; such drives are for instance pump and blower drives.


11.48
Switching frequency reference

The control of switching frequency can be implemented by the hysteresis control of the flux linkage
and torque. The method is based on the modification of the hysteresis parameters. With the present
IGBT power modules, the switching frequency can be regulated between 1.5 and 3.5 kHz.

Performance of an induction motor DTC

The dynamic behaviour of the DTC drives allows the application of AC drives to duties that
traditionally have required DC machines (such as cranes, lifts, presses, and reel-ups) A speed
sensorless DTC drive can in certain cases be applied instead of flux-oriented vector controls.

Torque response and the control accuracy

The DTC provides quite a rapid torque response. When operating at a rated flux, the rise time of
torque response is typically below 2 ms for a non-pulse-encoder control. The torque step rise time is
about 20 ms for the present DC drives and PWM AC drives equipped with a tachometer; for the non-
pulse-encoder vector controls, the torque response can be hundreds of milliseconds.

The performance of the DTC is illustrated by Figure 11.45, which shows the estimated step response
of a 15 kW induction machine for a 70 % torque step without pulse encoder feedback. It is difficult
to get the response time any shorter, since the leakage inductances of the motor constitute a limiting
factor for the required current changes.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0
20
40
60
80
100
T/%
t/ms

Figure 11.45 Estimated torque step in 70 % torque change at 25 Hz without a pulse encoder [5].

The DTC guarantees a linear and fast torque control also at very low speeds. Figure 11.46 depicts
the motor phase current during the fast reversing with 20 % load torque.


11.49
20
40
60
80
100
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 t/ms
i [%]

Figure 11.46 The measured phase current during fast reversing at 20 % torque, in the absence of a pulse encoder [5].

Figure 11.47 illustrates the shaft torque at 80 % torque level during the slow reversing. The linearity
of the torque control is rather good for a drive without a pulse encoder.

20
40
60
80
100
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 40 20 t [s]
[%]
calculated torque
rotational speed

Figure 11.47 Measured shaft speed in slow reversal with 80 % torque [5].

Figure 11.48 represents the slow torque ramp at zero speed. The actual shaft torque is measured and
the linearity error is below 10 %.


11.50
20 40 60
100
0
-100
t [s]
T [%]
0

Figure 11.48 Measured shaft torque during the torque reference ramp at zero speed in the absence of pulse encoder [5].

Accuracy of the speed control

The accuracy of the shaft speed estimate is very good in the whole speed range. The static speed
accuracy of the DTC is 10 % of the rated slip of the motor, being typically between +0.1 and 0.5 %
of the rated speed. This accuracy usually suffices for industrial drives, to which tacho-based vector
control has conventionally been applied. Should this accuracy be insufficient, a pulse encoder
feedback can be employed instead of the speed estimate, in which case the speed accuracy depends
on the encoder characteristics.

Since the DTC is capable of quite fast torque response, the speed fluctuation in a sudden load change
is notably smaller than in the traditional open-loop control drives. The gain of the speed controller
can also be increased considerably from the previous values.

Starting characteristics

With the DTC, a motor can be started fast in all electromagnetic states. A machine at rest and de-
energized is started by first exciting it with direct current. If the shaft is rotating, the synchronous
speed is determined in less than 5 ms, after which the DTC is synchronized immediately. Also when
the rotor flux has already disappeared, the starting can be performed very rapidly.

Braking characteristics

The DTC braking includes a so-called flux braking method. In this braking method, the magnitude of
the stator flux linkage of an electrical machine is increased from the rated value, and as a result, the
copper and iron losses are increased in the machine. In the flux braking, braking is as effective as in
the DC braking; however, in this case, the drive is controlled normally. In both braking methods, the
losses in the motor are increased; in the flux braking, however, the losses occur chiefly in the stator,
and thus the motor temperature rise can better be controlled than in the DC braking, in which the
rotor warms up considerably.

Flux optimization


11.51
The DTC motor model can rapidly compute the optimum excitation level according to the load
situation of the machine. This improves the total efficiency of the motor drive. At small loads, the
losses of the machine can be reduced even by 60 % by suitably modifying the flux density. The flux
optimization also reduces the motor noise.

Management of power failure

In case of a power supply failure, the DTC keeps the voltage level in the intermediate DC link within
permitted limits. When the line voltage is restored, the motor can be loaded immediately, since the
motor is kept excited for the duration of a short power failure. The power failure may, depending on
the kinetic energy, vary from one second to minutes.
11.10 Summary

An induction motor DTC is a general-purpose, in principle quite simple motor control method,
which can be applied to any induction motor applications from static pump and blower drives to
extremely demanding drives. The DTC is notably more accurate and substantially faster control, yet
it is easier to use, since for instance the IR compensation does not have to be tuned. The new or
improved properties offered by the DTC are for instance automatic starting, improved braking
characteristics, improved reliability, faster DC voltage control, fast current measurement, avoidance
of overcurrent releases, extremely fast reaction to sudden impacts on the load side, and the
improved operation during power failures of the line side.

Table 11.7 compares the performance of different drives. The performance of the DTC is rather
good when compared with the traditional motor control techniques.

Table 11.7. Performance comparison with typical parameters [8].

TORQUE
CONTROL
Speed
sensorless
scalar
controlled
PWM
Vector
controlled
PWM + speed
sensor
DC drive and
a digital speed
sensor
Speed
sensorless
DTC
DTC + speed
sensor
linearity 12 % 4 % 3 % 4 % 3 %
repeatability 4 % 1 % - 1 % 1 %
response time 150 ms 10 ... 20 ms 10 ... 20 ms 1 ... 2 ms 1 ... 2 ms

SPEED CONTROL

Static accuracy 1 ... 3 % 0.01 % 0.01 % 0.1 ... 0.5 % 0.01 %
Dynamic accuracy 3 %s 0.3 %s 0.3 %s 0.4 %s 0.1 %s

References

Aaltonen, M., Heikkil, S., Lalu, J., and Tiitinen, P. 1995. Direct Torque Control (DTC)
Shk&Tele 68 (1995) 1, pp. 3338.

ABB TTT Teknisi tietoja ja taulukoita 2000.


11.52
Blaschke, F. 1971. Das Prinzip der Feldorientierung, die Grundlage fr die Transvector-Regelung
von Drehfeldmaschinen. Siemens-Zeitschrift 45, Heft 10, pp. 757760. (1)

Depenbrock, M. 1985. Direckte Selbstregelung (DSR) fr hochdynamische Drehfeldantriebe mit
Stromrichterspeisung. Etz Archiv BD 7, H.7, pp. 211218. (2)

Merentie, T. 1995. Tulevaisuuden AC-moottorien stteknologia ja sill saavutettavat edut. Lecture
at the ABB Technical Symposium '95 (in Finnish). (8)

Pohjalainen P. 1987. Vuon ja vntmomentin kaksipistestihin perustuva invertterin vlitn
ohjaus oikosulkumoottorikytss (in Finnish). Master's thesis, Helsinki University of Technology.
(3)

Pohjalainen P., Tiitinen P., and Lalu J. 1994. The Next Generation Motor Control Method - Direct
Torque Control, DTC. EPE Chapter Symposium, Lausanne. (4)

Saastamoinen, S. (1994). Kotimaisen shkmoottoriteollisuuden kilpailukyky (in Finnish). ETLA,
Keskustelunaiheita 475. (6)

Tiitinen, P. 1994. Uudet AC-kytt. In Pyrhnen J. and Partanen J. (eds.), Tehokas shkn kytt.
EN C-72. Lappeenranta University of Technology, Department of Energy Technology. (in Finnish)
(7)

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Electrical Drives Juha Pyrhnen, LUT, Department of Electrical Engineering

e O ) can be presented in the rotor reference frame in

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