______________________Basics of the Finite Element Method Applied in Civil Engineering

51


CHAPTER 5





THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD - BASIC PRINCIPLES

The main problems of applied physics encountered in civil engineering (the
stress and strain distribution in elastic continua, the thermal field problems
and the fluid flow through porous media), can be usually specified in one of
the following ways: the differential approach or the variational approach.

In the differential approach, the differential equations governing the
behavior of a typical, infinitesimal region are given.

The unknown function - which is the problems solution - is obtained by
direct integration of the partial differential equation (or system of equations)
which governs the phenomenon, taking into account the prescribed
boundary conditions. It is, for example, the case of the analytical solutions
found for Elasticity Theory problems. In a general form, to solve the
equations means to define an unknown function u that satisfies the system
of partial differential equations:

0 A =

=
) (
.
.
.
) (
) (
) (
2
1
u A
u A
u A
u
n
(5.1)

over a given region (or domain) D, taking into account the boundary
conditions on the contour of the domain,


Chapter 5 The FEM basic principles_________________________________________
52
0 B =

=
) (
.
.
.
) (
) (
) (
2
1
u B
u B
u B
u
n
(5.2)

A
1
(u), A
2
(u) ... A
n
(u) are partial differential equations. The unknown
function u can be a scalar value (as the temperature in a thermal field
problem) or a vector with several components (as the displacement along
the coordinate system axes in the stress analysis of elastic continua).

In the second approach - a variational extremum principle valid over the
whole region is postulated and the correct (exact) solution - the unknown
function - is the one minimizing or making stationary a quantity E which is
defined by suitable integration of the unknown function and its derivatives.
E is known as a functional. The functional is a scalar written in an integral
form:

=
D
d
x
u
u G dD
x
u
u F E ,...) , ( ,...) , ( (5.3)

where F and G are operators.

If E is the functional attached to the problem described by the partial
differential equation system A(u) = 0 and the boundary conditions system
B(u) = 0, then the stationary requirements for the functional E, for a very
small variation of the unknown function u can be expressed as

E = 0 or, in extended form 0 ) ( ) ( = + =

D
T T
d u u dD u u E B A

As u can by arbitrary chosen, the E = 0 requirement implies A(u) = 0 over
the domain D and B(u) = 0 on the contour , that means the differential
approach of the problem.


______________________Basics of the Finite Element Method Applied in Civil Engineering
53
It should be specified that not all the field problems do have a variational
approach. For such problems an alternative approach is available. However,
the approximate minimization of a functional is the most widely accepted
mean of arriving at a finite element representation.

Fortunately, the stress state in elastic continua, the thermal field and the
flow through porous media do have variational formulations. The associated
functionals have a well-defined physical meaning as the total potential
energy, the dissipated energy in the fluid flow etc.

It the case of variational formulation

0 = E ,

=
D
d
x
u
u G dD
x
u
u F E ,...) , ( ,...) , (

it is extremely difficult to find a function u, which satisfies the stationary
requirements E = 0 when the domain is complex (regarding its shape, its
up making, etc) and when the boundary conditions are prescribed on
complicated geometric contours. Due to these difficulties, an approximate
solution is sought for the unknown function u. This approximate solution
may have the following form:

=
= + + + =
n
i
i i n n a
a z y x N a z y x N a z y x N a z y x N u u
1
2 2 1 1
) , , ( ) , , ( ... ) , , ( ) , , (
(5.4)
where:

N
i
(x,y,z) - are approximate (or shape) functions
a
i
- are independent parameters.

The approximate (shape) functions N
i
are "appropriate" selected and
consequently are known. The parameters a
i
are unknown and must be
determined by fulfilling the stationary condition for the functional.

By replacing the approximate solution

=
i i a
a N u u ,


Chapter 5 The FEM basic principles_________________________________________
54
the functional E will be expressed only in terms of the parameters a
i
. The
condition of stationary leads to:

0 ...
2
2
1
1
=

+ +

=
n
n
a
a
E
a
a
E
a
a
E
E (5.5)

This condition is satisfied if and only if

0
.
.
.
2
1
=

n
a
E
a
E
a
E
E
a
(5.6)

This is a set of algebraic equations wherefrom the parameters a
i
can be
determined and the approximate solution is defined.

The procedure of defining an approximate solution is known as the
Rayleigh-Ritz method. It is simple, straightforward, but there is a very
restrictive constrain: the ability to define the adequate shape functions
N
i
(x,y,z) corresponding to the physical problem. These functions must fulfill
some requirements over the whole region, as it will be shown later.

The finite element method is based on the variational approach, following
the basic principles of the Rayleigh-Ritz procedure. In order to overcome
the main difficulty, i.e. to define the adequate shape functions, the domain
(the region) is separated by imaginary lines (or surfaces) into a number of m
sub-domains called finite elements. The elements are assumed to be
interconnected at a discrete number of nodal points situated on their
boundaries.


______________________Basics of the Finite Element Method Applied in Civil Engineering
55

Fig. 5.1 Discrete approach of the continuous domain

The functional

+ =
D
Gd FdD E , that is a scalar, is rewritten as a sum of
integrals on the elements domains, by virtue of the property of definite
integrals:

=
m
e
E E
1
(5.7)
where

+ =
De e
e
Gd FdD E (5.8)

The shape functions are chosen to define uniquely the unknown function
u within each finite element (over D
e
); this time the shape functions are
much easier to define due to the simple shape of the elements domain
D
e
.
The independent parameters a
i
are chosen (assigned) as the values of the
unknown function u corresponding to the nodal points; thus, they
become the nodal values u
i
:

=
=
n
i
i i a
u z y x N u u
1
) , , ( (5.9)

x
y
(D )
(De )
A(u) = 0
B(u) = 0
( )
(e)

Chapter 5 The FEM basic principles_________________________________________
56
If the functional E is "quadratic" (i.e. if the function u and its derivatives
occur in powers not exceeding 2) as those which are governing the main
problems listed in the beginning of the chapter, then, the functional E
e

(expressed on the element domain) reduces to a standard form for each
element:
r u u k u
T
e
T
e
E + =
2
1
(5.10)

where k
e
is a symmetric matrix of constants, a characteristic matrix of the
element, called the elemental stiffness matrix and r is the element load (or
force) vector; u are the nodal values of the unknown function corresponding
to the elements nodal points.

Note: The stress and strain distribution in elastic media, the thermal field,
the fluid flow in porous media are problems which do have "natural"
variational principles and their functionals are always quadratic.

The functional corresponding to the whole domain (region) is then defined
as

R u u K u r u u k u
T
e
T
m
T
e
T
m
e
E E + = + = =

2
1
)
2
1
(
1 1
(5.11)
where

=
m
e
1
k K is the characteristic, global (or master) stiffness
matrix of the domain D;

=
m
1
r R is the total load (or force) vector and
u is the vector of nodal values of the unknown function (so called
primary unknowns) and includes all the nodal values of the domain.

The process of finding stationarity with respect to a set of trial function
parameters u yields a set of equations


______________________Basics of the Finite Element Method Applied in Civil Engineering
57
0
.
.
.
2
1
=

n
u
E
u
E
u
E
E
u
(5.12)

The system of algebraic equations reduces to a standard linear form:

0 = + =

R Ku
u
E
(5.13)

The set of linear equations is symmetric, thus easy to solve. Returning to the
defined approximation, the unknown function and its derivatives can be
calculated in any point within the element by using the following
expressions:

; ; ;
1 1 1
i
n
i
i
n
i
n
i
i i
u
y
N
y
u
u
x
N
x
u
u N u

=
=
etc. (5.14)


CONCLUDING REMARKS

The advantages of the finite element approximation are due to its main
features:

the continuum is divided into a finite number of parts (elements); thus,
the behavior of each element is defined by a finite number of
parameters;

the solution of the complex physical system, taken into account as an
assembly of its parts (elements), follows precisely the same rules
applicable to standard discrete problems.

Chapter 5 The FEM basic principles_________________________________________
58

As compared with the Rayleyh-Ritz procedure, one can notice that:

In the Rayleyh-Ritz process the shape functions have expressions valid
throughout the whole region, thus leading to simultaneous equations
with a full coefficient matrix. In the finite element process the unknown
function is specified piecewise, each nodal value (parameter)
influencing only adjacent elements and thus, a sparse and banded matrix
of coefficients occur.

The complex, realistic regions, with no restrictions concerning the
geometrical shape or homogeneity can be assembled from relatively
simple elements (shapes).

The undetermined parameters of the Rayleyh-Ritz process are replaced
by nodal values (nodal displacement, nodal temperature, etc.). This
allows a simple physical interpretation which is very important to
engineering judgment.

The process can be easily implemented in a computer code due to the
standard procedure for defining the finite element characteristics.