Science Resource Guide

SCIENCE
rESoURCE GUIDE
20112012
AN Introduction to
Physical Science
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2 USAD Science Resource Guide 20112012
Unauthorized Duplication is Prohibited Outside the Terms of Your License Agreement
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
SECTION I:
Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Science Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
The Scientific Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Scalars and Jectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Definition of Terms. Position, Displacement,
Jelocitv, Speed, and Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . 10
One-Dimensional Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Acceleration Due to Gravitv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Independence of Perpendicular Motion . . . . . . . 13
Two-Dimensional Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Profectile Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Newton`s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Newtons First Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Newtons Second Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Newtons Third Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
How Newtons Laws Work Together
to Solve Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Work and Energv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Definition of Terms. Work, Energv,
Kinetic Energv, and Potential Energv . . . . . . . . 18
Work-Energv Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Conservative Forces vs.
Non-Conservative Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Conservation of Energv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Impulse and Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Conservation of Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Using Energv and Momentum
Conservation Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Definition of Terms. Amplitude,
Period, and Frequencv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Hookes Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Period Dependence of
Different Tvpes of SHM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Circular Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Angular Analogies of Linear Motion . . . . . . . . . 24
Centripetal Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Torque and Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Conservation of Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . . 26
Section I Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
SECTION II:
Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Traveling Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Definition of Terms. Amplitude, Period,
Frequencv, Wavelength, and Wave Jelocitv . . . . 28
How the Source Affects
Subsequent Wave Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
How the Medium Affects
Subsequent Wave Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Transverse Waves. ExampleLight . . . . . . . . . . 30
Longitudinal Waves. ExampleSound . . . . . . . 30
Wave InterIerence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Definition of Terms. Constructive
Interference and Destructive Interference . . . . . 31
Wave Interference Due to Path Length
Difference. ExampleDouble Slit . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Wave Interference Due to Frequencv
Difference. ExampleBeats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Reflection and Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Wave Interference Due to Phase Shift.
ExampleThin Film Interference . . . . . . . . . . . 35
T abl e of cont e nt s
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Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Historical Context. Oersteds Discoverv . . . . . . 50
Magnetic Fields vs. Poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Magnetic Forces on a Moving Charge . . . . . . . 52
Magnetism inside a Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Electromagnetic Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
Historical Context. Faradavs Observations . . . 53
Magnetic Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Faradavs Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Len:s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Historical Context. Maxwells Contributions . . 56
Section III Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Glossary of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Simple Lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Section II Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
SECTION III:
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM . . 38
Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Definition of Electric Charge
and Charge Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Coulombs Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Electric Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Charges in Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Electric Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Capacitance and Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Definition of Terms. Current,
Resistance, and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Ohms Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
What Reallv Happens in a Circuit? . . . . . . . . . . 44
Equivalent Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Kirchhoff s Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
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P
hysics is one oI the basic sciences
that studies how the universe works.
Physicists study things that range Irom
subatomic quarks to distant galaxies. They study
things as complex as the electricity that powers
the human mind and as simple as a lone charged
particle moving through empty space.
In this resource guide, you will learn about stan-
dard physical systems that help describe the world
around us. You will learn about the subject oI
mechanics, which explains how ordinary objects
move. You will also learn about how waves inter-
act with us in our daily lives.
Finally, in keeping with the overall curricular
theme oI the age oI empire, we will consider
some key scientiIic developments that took place
during the nineteenth century. In Section III oI
this resource guide, you will learn how scientiIic
advancements made during the nineteenth century
have shaped our understanding oI electricity and
magnetism and continue to impact how we cur-
rently view this Iield oI study. Scientists studying
electricity and magnetism in the nineteenth centu-
ry made truly groundbreaking advances. In 1820,
the Danish physicist Hans Christian Oerstad Iound
that electric current could deIlect a magnetic com-
pass needle. In 1821, the English scientist Michael
Faraday discovered how to build devices that pro-
duced electromagnetic rotation, and a decade later
Faraday discovered electromagnetic inductiona
concept central to the development oI most electri-
cal machines. In the 1860s, the Scottish physicist
James MaxwelloIten reIerred to as the Iather oI
modern physicsmade tremendous advances in
the Iields oI electricity and magnetism.
As you read through each topic, please don`t treat
it as merely words on paper. I strongly encourage
you to test the diIIerent physical phenomena that
you encounter here (in a saIe manner with proper
supervision). Physics and other scientiIic Iields are
to be experienced as much as they are to be stud-
ied. So when you get to Newton`s laws oI motion,
don`t just memorize them; experience them. Come
up with physical tests oI those laws and carry them
out. Make predictions and either veriIy their verac-
ity or prove them to be Ialse.
I also encourage you to read about the experiments
made in the past that have shaped our understand-
ing oI the physical world today. Understanding
these experiments will help you to construct your
own experiments. In addition, the people behind
these experiments are oIten as interesting as the
results themselves.
I nt roduct i on
NOTE TO STUDENTS: Throughout the resource guide you will notice that some terms have been boldfaced. These boldfaced terms can be found in
the glossary of terms at the end of the guide.
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Science Basics
The Scientific Method
T
he scientific method is the process by
which science moves Iorward. It has
stood the test oI time and has been
around Ior hundreds oI years. The idea oI the
scientiIic method is to properly document human
knowledge and basic Iacts oI the universe.
The scientiIic method is usually thought oI as hav-
ing several steps associated with it. The Iirst step
is to state the problema problem in natureand
come up with a clear statement oI the problem.
This statement should have clear boundaries and
not be leIt open to interpretation.
The next step is observation and data collection.
In this step, patterns are established, discovered,
and/or examined. Many scientists attempt to use
this stage to develop a mathematical Iormulation
to explain the data patterns they have observed.
Using this inIormation, a scientist can generate
a hypothesis. In this step, an idea is Iormulated
about nature. This idea is born Irom examining the
data collected in the previous step. When Iormu-
lating a hypothesis, a scientist puts his or her idea
into a general Iorm so that it can broadly explain
the Iundamentals oI our physical universe.
The next step is the testing oI the hypothesis. The
scientist comes up with an experiment that can
test the limits oI the hypothesis. The experimental
design should try to mitigate outside Iactors so that
one may say something deIinite about the hypoth-
esis. The results oI the experiment are careIully
recorded and analyzed.
The Iinal step is to come up with a general con-
clusion about the hypothesis or to come up with
another experiment to Iurther test the hypothesis.
AIter Iurther testing, you might have to alter the
original hypothesis. This usually leads to Iurther
testing oI the modiIied hypothesis. The constant
reIinement and retesting oI hypotheses is what
leads to scientiIic advancement.
Following is an example oI the scientiIic method:
A student walks into my oIIice with a hypothesis.
She states that, 'Physics lectures are boring. She
has come up with this idea due to earlier experi-
ences that she has had with physics. She now
decides to come up with an experiment to test her
hypothesis. She decides to see how many people
Iall asleep in her physics lecture and compare this
number to the number oI people who Iall asleep in
SECTION I
Me chani cs
The scientific method can be illustrated as
an endless cycle of collecting observations
(data), identifying patterns and regularities
in the data, forming hypotheses, making
predictions, and collecting more observations.

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The power oI the SI is that it allows us to change
with great ease between diIIerent unit values with
the use oI common preIixes. For example, let`s say
you measured the distance between your home and
school and Iound it to be 24,500 meters. You can
now easily express that distance as 24.5 kilome-
ters. ('Kilo means a thousand, so a kilometer is
a thousand meters.) You should be aware oI com-
mon preIixes that are used with SI. A list oI these
preIixes is shown in TABLE 1.
TABLE 1: Common Prefixes
mega 1,000,000
kilo 1,000
deci divide by 10
centi divide by 100
milli divide by 1,000
micro divide by 1,000,000
The English System is another popular unit sys-
tem. The basic English unit oI length is the Ioot.
The basic English unit oI mass is the slug. The
basic English unit oI time is the second. The main
problem with the English unit system is that it can
be hard to convert internally between units. For
example, in SI units it is easy to recall that there
are 1,000 milliliters in one liter, but it is harder to
remember that are 4 gills in one pint. You should
know some basic conversions between the English
System and SI (such as the ones listed in TABLE 2).
TABLE 2: Basic Conversions
2.54 cm 1 inch
3 Ieet 1 yard
5,280 Ieet 1 mile
1,609 m 1 mile
14.59 kg 1 slug
her other classes. She then attends her lectures and
diligently records how many students Iall asleep
at any point during the various lectures. AIter she
observes the lectures and collects her data, she
tries to come up with a conclusion Irom the results.
At this point she may discover interesting patterns
in her data and modiIy her original hypothesis.
Let`s say that she Iinds that students mostly Iall
asleep in her science classes and hardly ever Iall
asleep in her non-science classes. This will lead
her to change her hypothesis to: 'Science lectures
are boring. She can now come up with a diIIerent
experiment to test her new hypothesis.
It is very rare Ior the conclusion oI this process to
be irreIutable and universally accepted. The more
common occurrence is Ior the conclusion to give
us some insight into nature but then the insight
suggests new questions that need to be answered in
a variety oI areas. Then, the entire process begins
anew. At the end oI several iterations, we will have
moved Iorward as a society and will have learned
something valuable about the universe. Please
keep the scientiIic method in mind as you read
through this resource guide.
Units
In order to reproduce things, such as someone
else`s experiments, it becomes important to have
standard units oI measurement that everyone can
agree upon. This topic has been debated Ior
centuries, but there is Iinally nearly worldwide
agreement on the International System of Units,
or SI (the abbreviation Ior its French name,
Svsteme International). The United States is one oI
a Iew holdout countries not using SI extensively.
There are three basic measurements that describe
nearly all physical variables: length, mass, and
time. The basic SI unit oI length is the meter. The
basic SI unit oI mass is the kilogram. The basic SI
unit oI time is the second. Most other variables can
be expressed as combinations oI these three. For
example, speed is distance divided by time such
that speed may be expressed as meters per second.
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Scalars and Vectors
When you are trying to classiIy things, a couple
oI important diIIerences pop up between diIIerent
types oI parameters. For example, iI I were going
jogging Ior exercise and I told you that I ran Iive
miles, then you would not really care iI those Iive
miles were on the beach or around a track or iI I
ran due north or due east. But, iI I were inviting
you to a party at my house and told you that I was
Iive miles away, now all oI a sudden you do care
which direction you have to go.
This example helps to illustrate the diIIerences
between scalars and vectors. Scalars are quanti-
ties that only have magnitude associated with
them. Examples oI scalars are temperature, time,
and speed. Your stopwatch tells you that you have
been running Ior Iorty-Iive seconds, but it does not
(nor can it) provide the direction in which you are
running.
Vectors, on the other hand, are quantities that need
both magnitude and direction to Iully describe
them. Examples oI vectors are velocity, Iorce, and
momentum. II you push a bobsled to try to get it
moving, you need to know how hard you are push-
ing it and also need to push in the right direction.
Vector mathematics becomes very important later
on in physics. In particular, vector addition is a
skill that pops up oIten. Let`s say that we have a
vector that we will label as A. We could represent
vector A mathematically or graphically. FIGURE 1
shows the graphical representation oI vector A.
U FIGURE 1 I
The length represents the magnitude oI vector A.
The arrow tip is called the head oI the vector and
points in the direction that vector A points. The
non-arrow tip part oI the vector is known as the tail
oI the vector. II you think oI a real arrow, then the
The key to converting between any two measure-
ment units is that multiplying any number by 1 will
not change that number in real value. For example,
let`s say, as beIore, that you live 24.5 kilometers
Irom school and that you want to express this
distance in inches Ior a project. You need to set
up a conversion between the two. We know Irom
TABLE 2 that 2.54 cm equals 1 inch. We also know
that 100 cm equals 1 meter and that 1,000 meters
equals 1 kilometer:
1 kilometer 1,000 meters
1 =
1,000 meters
1 kilometer
This means we can convert via the Iollowing
method:
24.5 km
1,000 m
1 km

100 cm
1 m

1 in
2.54 cm
Note that 1 meter divided by 1,000 km is just 1,
such that 24.5 km is multiplied by what equates to
1. This leaves the number unaltered with merely
the units changing.
Continuing with our calculation, we Iind the
Iollowing:
We have cancelled out the units that were both
in the numerator and denominator to leave our
answer in inches. Completing the calculation gives
us the Iollowing:
This is the saIest way to calculate any conversion.
Also, note that I expressed the answer with three
signiIicant Iigures since the original distance was
expressed with three signiIicant Iigures. (Look up
'signiIicant Iigures iI this term is unIamiliar to
you.)
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The negative sign has aIIected the direction in
which it points. It essentially changed its direction
by 180. II we were to look at this vector math-
ematically, we would Iind that vector 2A would
have a magnitude oI 4 and makes an angle oI 45
below the negative x-axis.
When it comes to adding vectors, you must not
only take magnitude into account, but also direc-
tion. Let`s say that we want to add two vectors,
which we will call vectors B and C. Vectors B and
C are shown in FIGURE 4.
U FIGURE 4 I
II we want to graphically add the vectors, then we
should have a starting point, which we will call
the origin, O, and place the tail oI one oI the vec-
tors there (vector B in our case). This is shown in
FIGURE 5.
U FIGURE 5 I
We then can add vector C to vector B by placing
vector C`s tail at the location oI vector B`s head.
This is known as the head-to-tail method oI vector
addition. The resulting additive vector starts at the
origin and ends at the head oI vector C. We will
call this vector B+C. (See FIGURE 6 and FIGURE 7.)

U FIGURE 6 I
tail is where the Ieathers would be. Mathematically
we can say that it has a magnitude oI 2 because
it has a length oI 2 units and makes a 45 angle
above the positive x-axis.
Now we can multiply vector A by any scalar that
we want. For example, we can multiply it by 2 to
get the new vector 2A. A positive scalar merely
aIIects the length oI the vector. FIGURE 2 graphi-
cally shows how the new vector will look.
U FIGURE 2 I
Note that the direction that the vector was point-
ing was not aIIected. II we were to look at this
vector mathematically, we would Iind that vector
2A would have a magnitude oI 4 and still makes
a 45 angle above the positive x-axis. II we return
to our running example Irom earlier, we note that
this change equates to doubling the distance run
but keeps the direction the same.
An interesting thing occurs iI we now multiply
vector A by a negative scalar. For example, let`s
say we multiply it by 2 to the get the new vector
2A. FIGURE 3 graphically shows how the new vec-
tor will look.
U FIGURE 3 I
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Estimation
Estimation is a very useIul skill to have. Many
times in the real world you will be asked to answer
questions with incomplete inIormation. A good
scientist can approximate this inIormation and
reasonably answer the question. For students, it is
a quick and easy way to tell the numerical answer
range oI a problem when complicated calculations
might make the best answer diIIicult and time-
consuming to obtain.
For example, let`s say that you are oIIered a job
by a bank to count one million dollars by hand.
They are testing the accuracy oI one oI their new
machines and need you to perIorm a redundancy
check. The bills are in denominations oI $20. They
oIIer to pay you $500 to perIorm this task and want
to know immediately iI you will do it. Should you
take the job or not?
First, you need to estimate how long it will take
you to count one bill and move on to the next.
One second per bill seems to be close to the right
answer (a tenth oI a second is way too small, and
ten seconds is way too long). Since every bill is
worth $20 dollars, you only have 50,000 bills to
count. This means that counting every bill will
take you somewhere around 50,000 seconds. Since
there are 3,600 seconds in every hour, this means
that counting will take you nearly 14 hours. But,
that will yield a pay rate oI $500 in 14 hours or
about $36 per hour. That is a pretty good hourly
wage; you should take the job although you might
have nightmares about counting money Ior weeks!
Estimations are meant to be quick and take as
many reasonable Iactors into account as possible.
Basic knowledge and common sense go a long
way when estimating.
U FIGURE 7 I
Vector addition is also commutative. This means
that you may add the vectors in whichever order
you choose. Mathematically this means that B+C
C+B. In FIGURE 8, vector B is added to vector C.
U FIGURE 8 I
Note how the result (FIGURE 9) is the same as our
previous attempt where vector C was added to
vector B.
U FIGURE 9 I
Sometimes you might have to perIorm vector
subtraction. For example, you may want to take
vectors B and C Irom the previous example
and subtract C Irom B. In this case, the preIer-
able method is to add the negative oI vector C.
Mathematically this becomes:
B - C B + (-C)
The graphical method oI this is shown in FIGURE
10.
U FIGURE 10 I
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have a positive value. Distance is a scalar quantity.
The value oI distance is independent oI where the
origin is located.
Velocity is deIined as displacement divided by the
time interval, At, between initial and Iinal posi-
tions. We will use the variable v to reIer to velocity.
In equation Iorm, velocity is expressed as Iollows:

v =
x
t
Velocity can be a positive or negative value.
Velocity is a vector quantity. The value oI velocity
is independent oI where the origin is located.
Speed is oIten conIused with velocity. Speed is the
absolute value oI velocity. This means that speed
can only have a positive value. Speed is a scalar
quantity. The value oI speed is independent oI
where the origin is located.
Acceleration is the Iinal variable that we will deIine
Ior our discussion oI kinematics. Acceleration
is deIined as the change in velocity divided by
the time interval, At, between initial and Iinal
positions. We will use the variable a to reIer to
acceleration. In equation Iorm, acceleration is
expressed as Iollows:
a =
v
t
Acceleration can be a positive or negative value.
Acceleration is a vector quantity. The value oI
acceleration is independent oI where the origin is
located.
One-Dimensional Motion
Now that we have the variables deIined, we can
move on to describe motion. Some common ques-
tions that we might need to answer are: 'How
Iar does something travel over a certain time at a
certain speed? Or, 'How long will it be until you
reach a given location while traveling a certain
speed? There are many clever ways to solve these
problems, but the standard approach is to turn to
Iour simple equations that help us answer a variety
oI questions.
Kinematics
Definition of Terms: Position,
Displacement, Velocity,
Speed, and Acceleration
Motion has always been where physics starts.
Kinematics is the description oI motion. But
beIore we delve into motion, we must Iirst deIine
some terms so that we keep things clear as we
move Iorward with kinematics.
The absolute Iirst thing you must do in any phys-
ics problem is deIine a coordinate system. This
is usually quite simple. For example, iI a problem
involves a car driving down the road, it would be
prudent to deIine the direction oI motion oI the
car as the positive x direction and state that the car
is at location zero when the problem begins. This
means as the car moves, it will move Iurther Irom
the origin. II all people involved with the problem
are aware oI this, we minimize conIusion.
We deIine position as the distance Irom the origin.
In most textbooks it is usually reIerred to as the
variable x. (It is italicized to show it is a variable
and not a unit.) In SI units, position is measured in
meters, m. II we consider position as a vector (with
a magnitude and direction), the value oI a position
quantity can be positive or negative, depending on
how the origin oI the coordinate system is chosen
and which way is chosen as positive.
As with the car example, your position can change
as time moves on. Because oI this, we deIine
displacement as the amount your position has
changed over a time period. Displacement will
be your Iinal position minus your initial position
(x
f
x
o
). We will use the variable Ax to reIer to
displacement. Displacement can be a positive or
negative value. Displacement is a vector quantity.
The value oI displacement is independent oI where
the origin is located.
Distance is an interesting variable that arises on
a Iew occasions. We will use the variable d to
reIer to distance. Distance is the absolute value oI
displacement. This means that distance can only
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Thus, the Iinal velocity would be 650 m/s in
the positive x-direction (the original direction oI
motion). Don`t Iorget that velocity is a vector
and needs both magnitude and direction to Iully
describe it.
There are three other kinematics equations, which
are included in the list oI kinematics equations
in TABLE 3. We will not derive them all Ior you
(although it is an excellent exercise Ior you to
derive them all). Recall that all these equations are
based upon the Iact that acceleration is constant
over the entire time interval in question.
TABLE 3: Four Kinematics Equations
The first kinematics
equation is:

v = v
o
+ at
The second kinematics
equation is:
t v v x
o

2
1
The third kinematics
equation is:

x = v
o
t +
1
2
at
2
The fourth kinematics
equation is:

v
2
= v
o
2
+2ax
In these Iour equations, t stands Ior the time inter-
val that you are examining; Ax is the displacement
oI the moving object over the interval t; v
o
is the
initial velocity oI the moving object; v is the veloc-
ity oI the object at time t; and a is the acceleration
oI the moving object. (Note that a must be constant
throughout the time interval, or these Iour equa-
tions are not valid.)
One subtle note to point out is that each equa-
tion uses Iour oI the Iive variables listed above.
Each equation is 'missing one oI these variables.
Knowing the inIormation that you are given and,
hence, which equation to use, is key here. In our
previous rocket ship example, the missing vari-
BeIore we move Iorward, it is important Ior us to
understand that the Iollowing Iormulas only come
about because we are setting acceleration constant
Ior the time interval in question. (Solving prob-
lems with a varying acceleration can be tough,
though not impossible.) Let`s start with the deIini-
tion oI acceleration:
a =
v
t
Since Av is merely the diIIerence oI two velocities
over a time period (v v
f
v
o
), we can rewrite this
equation as Iollows:

a =
v
f
v
o
t
Here, v
o
is the initial velocity, and we will replace
Iinal velocity, v
f
, with just v. We can also rearrange
the Iormula to get:

a t ( ) = v v
o

v = v
o
+ a t ( )
We call this Iormula the Iirst kinematics equation.
With this Iormula we can Iind the velocity at any
point in time iI we are given an initial velocity, v
o
;
acceleration, a; and the time interval, At.
For example, let`s say that you are in a rocket ship
that had an initial velocity oI 400 m/s. You note
that you are late Ior an appointment, so you accel-
erate the rocket ship at a constant rate oI 25 m/s
2
in
the Iorward direction. What would the velocity oI
the rocket ship be aIter 10 seconds oI acceleration?
First, let`s deIine a coordinate system. Choose
the initial direction oI motion as the positive
x-direction. This means that you have the Iollow-
ing variables: v
o
400 m/s, a 25 m/s
2
, and
At 10s. We can now input these variables into the
Iirst kinematics equation to get:

v = v
o
+ at
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tive y-direction (so down is positive here). Since
g points downward, this means that the value Ior
the acceleration oI the ball will be a positive value.
This means that you have the Iollowing variables:
v
o
0 m/s and a 9.8 m/s
2
, Ay 100 m. We can
now input these variables into the third kinematics
equation (as v is our missing variable) to get:

y = v
o
t +
1
2
at
2
2
2
1
8 . 9 0 100 t
+ =
Solving Ior t
2
we get:

t
2
=
2 100 ( )
9.8
= 20

t = 20 = 4.5 seconds
able was displacement, Ax. We were not given this
inIormation, and we were not asked Ior it; thus,
there is no reason to solve Ior it. This tells us that
the Iirst kinematics equation is the best choice
Ior solving this problem, as we are given three oI
the Iour variables in this equation and can easily
solve Ior the Iourth. So, it is very important that
you initially list all oI the variables Ior which you
know the values. This will make it easier Ior you to
choose the proper equation to solve Ior the variable
you are looking Ior.
Acceleration Due to Gravity
Galileo Galilei (15641642), the renowned physi-
cist, mathematician, and astronomer, theorized
that, in the absence oI air resistance, the rate at
which objects Iall is the same regardless oI the
size and mass oI the object. ScientiIic Iolklore has
it that Galileo supposedly proved this by drop-
ping objects oI diIIerent masses Irom the Tower
oI Pisa and measuring when they landed. From his
experiments, Galileo Iound that the rate at which
objects Iell (with air resistance being negligible)
was close to 9.80 m/s
2
(in English units this turns
out to be 32 It/s
2
). We call this the acceleration
due to gravity on Earth, and it is denoted by
the variable g, which is a vector. The acceleration
that something has under the inIluence oI gravity
points down toward the center oI the Earth.
This was a major discovery because most scholars
at the time believed that heavy objects Iell Iaster
than light objects. But these scholars used only
observations and neglected to Iactor in the eIIect
oI air resistance. We will explore the eIIects oI air
resistance on motion when we get to the section on
Newton`s laws.
The acceleration due to gravity Iits perIectly with
the one-dimensional motion that we studied in the
previous subsection. For example, let`s say that
you are standing on the top oI a building that is
100 meters in height and release a ball. How long
does it take Ior the ball to hit the ground?
First, let`s deIine a coordinate system. We will
choose the initial direction oI motion as the posi-
Portrait of Galileo Galilei (15641642).
Galileo theorized that, in the absence of
air resistance, the rate at which objects fall is
the same no matter what the size and mass of
the object, and he determined that the rate of
acceleration due to gravity was about 9.80 m/s
2
.

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during every step when perIorming the calcula-
tions. This is the power oI staying with base SI
units. II I keep everything in base SI units and go
through the calculations, then at the end the answer
should also be in base SI units. However, keeping
track oI all the units as you go along is a good way
to avoid errors and guide your thinking.
Another major concept to note in this example
is that the acceleration was constant throughout
the problem. (That is why we could use the kine-
matics equations.) Even though the ball changed
direction (Iirst it was moving up, it momentarily
paused at the top, and then it was moving down),
the acceleration was always 9.8 m/s
2
and pointed
down. The acceleration due to gravity doesn`t turn
oII when a ball reaches its highest point. Nor does
it change direction when a ball changes direction.
It will always point toward the center oI the Earth.
Independence of
Perpendicular Motion
II a gun is shot horizontally over level ground,
how long does the bullet stay in the air beIore hit-
ting the ground? It turns out that this question has
an easy answer. Just drop a bullet Irom the same
height and time it.
This is due to an amazing physical property: the
independence oI motion in perpendicular direc-
tions. When the gun is shot horizontally, the bullet
has horizontal motion as it leaves the nozzle. Yet it
does not have any vertical motion as it leaves the
gun. As the acceleration due to gravity moves it
toward the ground, the bullet is not aIIected in the
least by the perpendicular motion given to it by the
gun. So, this bullet will Iall vertically at the same
rate as iI it had just been dropped.
In FIGURE 11, we have an example oI two balls
dropped at the same time Irom the same height
(which we will deIine as y 0). The only diIIer-
ence between these two balls is that the ball on the
right is given an initial velocity oI 10 m/s in the
horizontal direction. We can see that aIter one sec-
Thus, it will take 4.5 seconds Ior the ball to reach
the ground.
This example was simple, as the motion was
always in one direction. Things can get quite tricky
when an object changes its motion. For example,
let`s say that you throw a ball straight up with a
velocity oI 50 m/s. How long will you have to wait
until the ball Ialls back into your hand?
First, let`s deIine a coordinate system. We will
choose the initial direction oI motion as the posi-
tive y-direction. Since g points downward, this
means that the value Ior the acceleration oI the
ball will be a negative value. We also know that
the ball starts at your hand and ends back at the
same location. So, the displacement oI the ball
during the entire time period in question is zero.
This means that you have the Iollowing variables:
v
o
50 m/s and a 9.8 m/s
2
, Ay 0. We can
now input these variables into the third kinematics
equation (as v is our missing variable) to get:

y = v
o
t +
1
2
at
2
0 50t
1
2
9.8 t
2
This is close to a quadratic Iormula; we should Iac-
tor out a t to get:

0 = t 50 4.9t ( )
II these two things multiply to be zero, there are
two possibilities: (1) that t equals zero, meaning
that the ball is in your hand beIore you let go oI it
(sometimes called the trivial solution); or (2) the
part in the parentheses equals zero, and that part
includes the time that we want to know. So, we
can set the part in parentheses equal to zero to get:

0 = 50 4.9t ( )

50 = 4.9t

t =
50
4.9

t =10 seconds
(1 signiIicant digit)
This means that the ball is in the air Ior about ten
seconds. You should note that I didn`t keep units
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Irom an airplane; 3) a ball thrown horizontally
Irom the top oI a tall building. The cannon that
shoots the cannonball only inIluences the cannon-
ball`s motion; it does not inIluence the cannonball
while it is in the air. So, when it comes to projectile
motion, there will always be acceleration in the
y-direction and no acceleration in the x-direction.
A rocket that has its own propulsion system would
not be considered a projectile. Neither would a
parachutist who jumps out oI an airplane, once
his or her chutes open. For neither oI these two
examples have only gravity aIIecting their in-Ilight
motion at the start.
Projectile motion problems are very similar to
kinematics problems. They can be very compli-
cated due to the two-dimensional motion. For
example, let`s say that we have a cannon that
shoots a cannonball at an angle oI 30 with respect
to a Ilat, horizontal piece oI land. The cannon
shoots the cannonball such that it has an initial
velocity oI 50 m/s in the vertical direction and
87 m/s in the horizontal direction. How Iar Irom
the cannon does the cannonball land (assume air
resistance is negligible)?
First, let`s deIine a coordinate system. We can
choose the initial horizontal direction oI motion oI
the cannonball as the positive x-direction, and the
upward direction (away Irom the Earth) will be the
positive y-direction. The land is Ilat, so when the
cannonball lands, it will be at the same height as
it was initially when it was Iirst shot. So, Ior the
y-direction, this means that we have the Iollowing
variables: v
ov
50 m/s and a 9.8 m/s
2
, Ay 0.
We need to Iind the time it takes to land (recall that
time is the link between the x and y directions).
Luckily we already solved this previously with
the same exact numbers. Thus, it takes 10 seconds
Ior the cannonball to drop. We can now input this
time in Ior the x-direction. We can use the third
kinematics equation with a 0 in the x-direction:

x = v
ox
t +
1
2
a
x
t
2

x = v
ox
t +0
x 87
m
s

10 s 870 meters
ond oI time they have both Iallen the same amount,
even though their paths are diIIerent.

U FIGURE 11 I
Two-Dimensional Motion
Since motions in two perpendicular directions are
independent oI one another, this means that it is
easiest to handle them separately. As we have seen
Irom the previous subsection, an acceleration in
the vertical y-direction did not have any eIIect on
a velocity in the horizontal x-direction. The Iour
kinematics equations in the x-direction can now
be used in the y-direction with merely a change oI
variables:

v
y
= v
oy
+ a
y
t

y =
1
2
v
oy
+v
y
( )
t

y = v
oy
t +
1
2
a
y
t
2

v
y
2
= v
oy
2
+2a
y
y
The important thing to note is that time is the one
variable that is the same in both the x and y direc-
tions. That is why time is the only variable without
a y subscript. Time is the link between the two sets
oI equations. It is standard procedure to solve Ior
time in one set oI equations (say the y-direction)
and input this time into the x-direction in order to
solve Ior what you are truly seeking to Iind.
Projectile Motion
A projectile is any object that has motion in both
vertical and horizontal directions and Ialls solely
under the inIluence oI gravity while in the air.
Examples oI projectile motion are: 1) a cannonball
shot Irom a cannon; 2) a care package released
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the object. The equation Ior the magnitude oI the
Iorce oI gravity due to Earth on an object oI mass,
m, is given by:

F = mg
This Iorce will be directed toward the center oI the
Earth. The Iorce oI gravity on a particular object
will stay constant as long as it is near the surIace
oI the Earth. (We can consider anything below the
peak oI Mount Everest as being near the surIace oI
the Earth.)
From this equation we can come up with the SI
unit oI Iorce. Mass is measured in kilograms, and
acceleration is measured in m/s
2
. Thus, Iorce is
measured in (kg) (m/s
2
). We deIine this unit to
be the newton (N) such that:
1 newton 1 (kg) (m/s
2
)
The cannonball lands 870 meters Irom the cannon.
It was in the air Ior ten seconds, which was the
same amount oI time as the ball in our previous
example. They were both given the same initial
velocity in the vertical direction and were under
the same inIluence oI gravity. It did not matter that
the cannonball moved horizontally while the ball
did not.
Newtons Laws
Newtons First Law
Up until this point we have been concerned only
with kinematics or, in other words, the motion
oI an object. Now we will Iocus on the causes oI
motion, or dynamics. Sir Isaac Newton was the
Iirst to Iormulate ideas about how to describe the
causes oI motion. He came up with three universal
laws about motion in his book titled Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica ('Mathematical
Principles oI Natural Philosophy), which is oIten
just called the Principia.
Newton`s Iirst law, in his own words, is stated:
'Every body preserves in its state oI being at rest,
or oI moving uniIormly straight Iorward, except
insoIar as it is compelled to change its state by
Iorce impressed. Essentially Newton is deIin-
ing the term force. He is stating that objects tend
to stay at rest or have constant velocity (with no
change in magnitude or direction) unless Iorces
change that motion. Newton purposeIully did not
deIine speciIic Iorces in his laws. He was not Iully
aware oI all the Iorces that were present in nature.
Luckily we have progressed since Newton`s time
and have learned many things about Iorces.
A Iorce is a vector because it has both magnitude
and direction. Many people think oI Iorces as only
pushes or pulls Irom someone aIIecting another
moveable object. But, there are many Iorces in the
universe that may be categorized and classiIied by
their attributes. Let`s start our discussion oI spe-
ciIic Iorces with the force of gravity. The Iorce
oI gravity is the Iorce responsible Ior accelerating
objects at 9.8 m/s
2
near the Earth`s surIace. But the
Iorce that gravity exerts depends on the mass oI
Portrait of Sir Isaac Newton (16431727).
Newton was the first to formulate ideas
about how to describe the causes of motion.

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Newtons Second Law
Newton`s second law is stated in the Principia as
Iollows: 'The alteration oI motion is ever propor-
tional to the motive Iorce impressed; and is made
in the direction oI the right line in which that Iorce
is impressed. This law is used to Iind a numerical
answer to how a Iorce aIIects an object. It is usu-
ally written in equation Iorm as:

F
net
= ma
Here F
net
stands Ior the net Iorce impressed on an
object, m is the mass oI the object, and a is the
resulting acceleration oI the object. The net Iorce
will point in the direction oI acceleration. This
equation Iorms a bridge between Iorces and kine-
matics. It basically states that in order to Iind out
how much oI an acceleration an object gets, we
must look at the entire sum oI Iorces on the object.
It also states that the more massive the object, the
harder it will be to accelerate.
Since we are looking Ior the vector sum oI Iorces
in order to predict resulting motion, it is nice to
have a diagram to keep track oI all oI the Iorces on
an object. This leads us to the force diagram. This
diagram is used when multiple Iorces are involved
in a problem. For example, let`s assume that you
are pushing a 20.0 kg crate to the right across a
horizontal Iloor with a Iorce oI 20.0 N. II the Iorce
oI kinetic Iriction on the crate is 15.0 N, what is the
acceleration oI the crate?
First, let`s deIine a coordinate system. We choose
the initial direction oI motion oI the crate as
the positive x-direction and up as the positive
y-direction. Now, let`s draw a Iorce diagram Ior the
crate. The diagram in FIGURE 12 shows our Iorce
diagram Ior this situation. We have Iour Iorces
in this situation (two in the x-direction and two
in the y-direction). We note that since the crate is
only moving horizontally, only the Iorces in the
x-direction matter when calculating acceleration.
(The normal Iorce and the gravitational Iorce will
sum to zero in this case.)
Another Iorce is the normal force. The normal
Iorce is the contact Iorce that arises when two
objects are impressed against each other. The
magnitude oI the normal Iorce varies greatly, but
its direction is always perpendicular to the surIace
oI an object. For example, when I stand on the
ground, the ground pushes back up on me. II you
give me more and more books to hold, then the
magnitude oI the normal Iorce increases to support
my extra mass, but the direction always stays the
same (perpendicular to the Ilat ground).
Another Iorce is the Iorce due to friction. Friction
comes about when two objects rub against each
other. This Iorce comes in two varieties: 1) the
Iorce oI static friction that attempts to keep some-
thing stationary; and 2) the Iorce oI kinetic friction
that attempts to slow down moving objects. The
Iorce oI static Iriction can vary depending on how
hard you are attempting to move the object. But,
there is a limit to how high the value oI static
Iriction can go beIore the object breaks Iree and
begins to move. (When we move something, like
a soIa, we are overcoming the maximum value oI
static Iriction.) Static Iriction will always oppose
the direction in which you are attempting to move
the object. Smooth objects tend to have less static
Iriction than rough objects.
When something is in actual motion, the opposing
Iorce is kinetic Iriction. Kinetic Iriction will have
a constant value and will oppose the direction oI
motion oI the object. Smooth objects tend to have
less kinetic Iriction than rough objects. Air resis-
tance is related to kinetic Iriction. Air resistance
is the Iorce due to the relative motion between air
molecules rubbing against the object.
As we move on in the Iield oI physics, we will
add more specialized Iorces to our list. Just recall
that all Iorces must have vector properties (mag-
nitude and direction) and will interact with other
Iorces that are attempting to aIIect the motion oI
an object.
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Newtons Third Law
In the Principia, Newton`s third law is stated as
Iollows: 'To every action there is always opposed
an equal reaction: or the mutual actions oI two
bodies upon each other are always equal, and
directed to contrary parts. This law is the one
most oIten misconstrued by those learning physics
Ior the Iirst time. Newton is saying that you need
to have two objects to have a Iorce. One to pro-
vide the action (say me pushing a wall) and one to
provide the reaction to this Iorce (the wall pushing
back at me). These action and reaction Iorces will
be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction,
and also these Iorces will act on diIIerent objects
(never both on the same object).
For example, let`s say you run across a balloon
Iloating in the air as you walk through the park.
Due to your childhood Iear oI balloons, you decide
to punch it with all oI your might. According
to Newton`s third law, iI you give the balloon
100 newtons oI Iorce, then it will give the same
amount back to you. Does this make sense?
It is very easy to conIuse Newton`s third law.
The short answer is yes. II you give the balloon
100 newtons oI Iorce, then it will give you the
same back again such that the action Iorce, F
you
on balloon
, is equal to the reaction Iorce, F
balloon on you
.
However, this law doesn`t predict anything about
your resulting motion or the balloon`s resulting
motion. II we want to know about the balloon`s
resulting motion, we should draw a Iorce diagram
Ior the balloon and look at all oI the Iorces that act
on the balloon.
The key to understanding Newton`s third law is to
realize that the action and reaction Iorces act on
two diIIerent objects. They will not cancel each
other out because they will never both go into
the same second law equation (or same Iorce dia-
gram). In the case oI the balloon, you would Iind
that the balloon would break, or accelerate out oI
reach, long beIore you would be able to reach a
Iorce level oI 100 newtons, so this experiment is
impossible to actually perIorm.
U FIGURE 12 I
According to our diagram, the Iorce oI the push
and the Iorce due to Iriction oppose each other.
This means that our net Iorce will be 20.0 N minus
15.0 N, which equals 5.0 N. Turning to Newton`s
second law, the acceleration will be the net Iorce
divided by the object`s mass, which becomes:

F
net
= ma ~

a =
F
net
m

a =
5.0 N
20.0 kg
= 0.25
m
s
2
The acceleration oI the crate has a magnitude oI
0.25 m/s
2
and is directed in the direction oI the net
Iorce (which is to the right in our Iorce diagram).
There are some important things to note about the
Iorce diagram shown in FIGURE 12. First, note how
each Iorce is labeled both with the type oI Iorce it
is and also with the thing that is causing the Iorce
on the crate. This is important recordkeeping Ior
when such problems become more complicated.
Next, note that the normal Iorce points straight up
because we are on horizontal groundiI we had
been on an inclined ramp, then the normal Iorce
would be perpendicular to that ramp. Also, note
that the lengths oI the Iorce vectors in the diagram
correspond to their relative magnitudes. Finally,
every Iorce ends with 'on crate because we are
not interested in any Iorce that does not act on the
crate. For example, there is a gravitational Iorce on
you during this problem, but we do not include it
in the Iorce diagram because we are only interested
in the Iorces on the crate.
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more energy without outside inIluences. Energy is
a scalar value.
One Iorm oI energy is kinetic energy. Kinetic
energy is the energy an object has due to physical-
ly moving. Kinetic energy can be zero or greater,
but it can never be negative. At a given speed, the
more massive an object is, the more kinetic energy
it has. We use the Iollowing equation to deIine
kinetic energy:

KE =
1
2
mv
2
The units oI energy are (kg) (m/s)
2
. We will
deIine this as a joule such that:
1 joule 1 (kg) (m
2
/s
2
).
A joule is also a newton times a meter (N-m).
Potential energy is energy that is stored Ior later
use. Your breakIast is your potential energy Ior
the day. You ate it in the morning, and it can be
converted later to other Iorms oI energy, such as
energy used Ior moving or heating your body.
There are various types oI potential energy. The
Iirst one that we will learn about is gravitational
potential energy. This is potential energy that is
associated with how Iar you are above the Earth`s
surIace. As with all energy, gravitational poten-
tial energy can be converted into other Iorms oI
energy, such as kinetic energy. Potential energy
proportionally depends on how Iar you are above
the ground (this is also called height, h), your
mass, and the acceleration due to gravity. In equa-
tion Iorm, this becomes the Iollowing:

PE = mgh
When you apply a Iorce on an object, you are
attempting to move it. II you change its velocity,
then this is called work. This can be tricky. II I
push a wall and it does not move, then I have not
changed its velocity and thus, have not perIormed
any work. However, iI I push a crate across the
Iloor that was initially at rest, then I have per-
Iormed work on that crate. You need both parts to
How Newtons Laws Work
Together to Solve Problems
Newton`s laws can be tough to understand and even
tougher to use to solve complex physics problems.
Nevertheless, they can be very cleverly used in
combination so that they work together. Newton`s
Iirst law describes how to make one object move.
It states that a net Iorce Irom external sources
(i.e., other objects) can make one object change its
motion. This is how Newton deIined what Iorces
do. II there is no net Iorce on the object, then it
will continue on with its original motion without
change (this includes remaining at rest).
Newton`s second law then quantiIies this idea into
numerical Iorm. It does this by stating how much
oI a change in motion (acceleration) you will get
Ior applying a net external Iorce on an object. It
also brings in the Iact that the mass oI the object
will work against the acceleration you are trying
to produce.
Newton`s third law then discusses how objects
interact with each other. II I give another object a
Iorce, it will give the same magnitude Iorce back
on me. Note that this reaction Iorce that arises due
to Newton`s third law does not aIIect the motion oI
the original object I am trying to move. Newton`s
Iirst and second laws care speciIically about the
Iorces on that object and not what Iorce is com-
ing back to me. Also note that Newton`s third law
does not predict the motion oI the object, only one
particular Iorce between two things.
Work and Energy
Definition of Terms: Work,
Energy, Kinetic Energy,
and Potential Energy
Energy is a quantity that an object possesses and
is related to its ability to do something. Energy can
be given, stored, or used by the object. The one
thing the object cannot do to its energy is destroy
it, even though the object can pass its energy along
to another object. Also, an object cannot create
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FIGURE 15 shows an applied Iorce acting perpen-
dicular to the displacement oI the crate. In this
case, there is zero work done by the applied Iorce.
Ax
U FIGURE 15 I
Work-Energy Theorem
When you perIorm work on an object, you are
changing the energy oI that object. Depending on
how your Iorce points in relation to the object`s
direction oI motion, you may be putting energy
into the object, or you may be removing energy
Irom the object. The work-energy theorem states
where that energy will go. It states that the energy
will go into changing the kinetic energy oI the
object. This theorem can be written in equation
Iorm as Iollows:

W = KE
Conservative Forces vs. Non-
Conservative Forces
Let`s examine how the Iorce oI gravity works on a
ball dropped Irom a tall building. Just beIore I drop
the ball, the ball has quite a bit oI gravitational
potential energy and zero kinetic energy. So, we
can say that all oI the ball`s mechanical energy is
in its gravitational potential energy. As I let go oI
the ball, it starts to Iall and gain velocity. Energy
is not being lost Irom the ball, but rather is merely
transIerred Irom the gravitational potential energy
oI the ball to the kinetic energy oI the ball. The rea-
son Ior this is that gravity is a conservative force.
have done work: to apply a net Iorce on an object
and to actually move that object. This leads to the
Iollowing equation Ior work:

W = F d
W stands Ior work, F is the Iorce, and d stands Ior
distance moved. Work is a scalar value. II a Iorce
and the direction that the object moved point in
the same direction, then the work perIormed by
that Iorce is positive. II a Iorce and the direction
that the object moved are opposite in direction,
then the work perIormed by that Iorce is negative.
II a Iorce and the direction that the object moved
are perpendicular, then the work perIormed by that
Iorce is zero.
Consider an applied Iorce acting on a crate that is
moving in a speciIic direction. The direction oI the
applied Iorce compared to the displacement oI the
crate will dictate the sign oI the work done by the
applied Iorce. FIGURE 13 shows an applied Iorce
acting in the same direction as the displacement oI
the crate. In this case, the work done by the applied
Iorce is positive.
Ax
U FIGURE 13 I
FIGURE 14 shows an applied Iorce acting in the
opposite direction as the displacement oI the crate.
In this case, the work done by the applied Iorce is
negative.
Ax
U FIGURE 14 I
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speed oI 10.0 m/s. What is the speed oI the ball just
beIore it hits the ground?
First, let`s measure all heights with respect to the
ground and consider down as the positive y-direc-
tion. We will consider the point in time when you
let go oI the ball as the initial point in time and the
Iinal point in time is the point just beIore it hits the
ground (when the height oI the ball is zero). This
leads to the Iollowing equation:

E
i
= E
f

KE
i
+ PE
i
= KE
f
+ PE
f

1
2
mv
o
2
+ mgh =
1
2
mv
f
2
+0
We can multiply both sides oI the equation by 2
and divide both sides oI the equation by m to arrive
at the Iollowing equation:

v
f
2
= v
o
2
+2gh
Inputting known values gives us:
v
f
2
10.0
m
s

2
2 9.80
m
s
2

150 m

v
f
2
= 100
m
2
s
2
+ 2940
m
2
s
2
= 3040
m
2
s
2
We can then take a square root oI both sides to get:

v
f
= 55
m
s
The Iinal speed oI the ball will be 55 m/s. Note that
we did not have to use any kinematics in the x or y
directions. This makes the math much easier; since
this problem involved the ball hitting the ground
at an angle, we could have solved it using vectors
oI velocity in the x and y directions, but to do so
would have been much more diIIicult.
II there are non-conservative Iorces present in
the system, then we will have to know how much
energy they have put into or extracted Irom the
system. Then, we can add this amount to the
It will only move energy between systems inside
that ball. Examples oI conservative Iorces include
the Iorce due to gravity, spring Iorces (or elastic
Iorces), and electric Iorces.
A non-conservative force is a Iorce that changes
the energy oI an object. II a crate sits at rest on
a horizontal Iloor and I come and push it, then I
have input energy into the system. This changes
the amount oI energy in that crate. Friction is
another example oI a non-conservative Iorce. In
the ball example Irom the previous paragraph, iI
the ball was replaced with a piece oI paper, then
air resistance might take energy away Irom the
piece oI paper as it Ialls down to Earth. Examples
oI non-conservative Iorces include kinetic Iriction
and air resistance.
Conservation of Energy
Whether or not energy is indeed conserved in a
system depends upon which type oI Iorces are
perIorming work on the system. II the only Iorces
acting on a system are conservative Iorces, then
energy will be conserved Ior that object Irom one
moment to the next. We call this conservation of
energy. This means that the total energy oI the sys-
tem will not change, but the values oI the types oI
energies may change within the systems. So, when
energy is conserved, Ior any two points in time, we
can state that:

E
i
= E
f

KE
i
+ PE
i
= KE
f
+ PE
f
Here E
i
stands Ior initial energy, and E
f
stands Ior
Iinal energy. II the potential energy oI a system is
decreasing, then its kinetic energy must increase in
order to compensate. The prerequisite is that only
conservative Iorces are acting on the object during
the time periods in question.
For example, let`s say that you are standing at
the top oI a building that is 150 meters high. You
then throw a 2.0 kilogram ball horizontally with a
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p = mv
Momentum is also a vector. The direction oI
the object`s velocity is also the direction oI the
momentum.
Impulse and momentum are related by the impulse-
momentum theorem. This theorem states that
the amount oI impulse delivered by a Iorce will
change the momentum oI the object experiencing
the Iorce by the same amount. Or, written as an
equation, this is expressed as Iollows:

J = mv ( )
Basically this theorem links two points oI view.
The thing supplying the Iorce is concerned with
the magnitude oI Iorce and the time over which
it interacts. The object experiencing the Iorce is
concerned with how much its motion has changed.
Even though they approach Irom diIIerent points
oI view, the resulting numerical answers will be
equivalent.
Conservation of Momentum
Newton`s third law has a very interesting conse-
quence. Since any two objects that interact will
have equal but opposite Iorces, we may careIully
deIine a system so that there will be no net Iorces
acting on the system.
For example, let`s say that we have a cue ball that
hits a billiard ball on a Ilat, Irictionless surIace.
(We will assume that both balls have the same
mass.) As that cue ball comes in and hits the bil-
liard ball, Iorces are imparted and the motions oI
both balls change. In order to calculate the change
in motion oI the cue ball and the billiard ball, we
will have to draw separate Iorce diagrams Ior each
ball and perIorm calculations with Newton`s laws
oI motion. Or, we can deIine the cue ball and bil-
liard ball to be one system (one object, iI you will).
The two Iorces between them now act on the same
system and can sum to zerothe motion oI the
system is constant the entire time although diIIer-
ent parts oI the system may change their motion as
appropriate side oI the conservation oI energy
equation. In the last example, iI we knew that air
resistance removed 5 joules oI energy Irom the ball
while it was in the air, then we could rewrite the
initial equation as:

E
i
= E
f
+5 J

KE
i
+ PE
i
= KE
f
+ PE
f
+5 J

1
2
mv
o
2
+ mgh =
1
2
mv
f
2
+5 J
This makes the problem slightly harder to do, but
we just have to know how much energy is taken
out and where to account Ior it in the equation.
Momentum
Impulse and Momentum
When we try to aIIect the motion oI an object, we
can attempt to do so by applying a Iorce over a
long time period or over a short time period. Both
oI these quantities (Iorce and time) are important
in understanding how much we are changing the
motion oI the object. We quantiIy this by the vari-
able we call impulse, J. Impulse is calculated by
the Iollowing equation:

J = F t ( )
Impulse is a vector quantity. The direction that
you apply the Iorce is the direction oI the impulse.
II you are involved in a car crash, you experience
an impulse as you are stopped Irom some given
speed. Your seatbelt attempts to minimize the Iorce
exerted on your body by maximizing the time over
which the impulse is drawn out (air bags work on
similar principles).
When we consider how an object is aIIected by
having a Iorce impressed upon it, we look at how
its velocity has changed. We also have to take the
object`s mass into account. We call the resulting
value momentum, p. It is calculated by the Iol-
lowing equation:
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throw your shoe, you will be giving it momentum.
When you give the shoe momentum, momentum
will be imparted to you in the opposite direction.
This must be true so that the momentum oI the sys-
tem may be conserved (you and the shoe are one
system). This will send you to the opposite shore
without any Iriction opposing you (and with only
one shoe, unIortunately).
Using Energy and Momentum
Conservation Together
One oI the most powerIul things you can do in
physics is to use both conservation oI momen-
tum and conservation oI energy simultaneously
to solve problems. In Iact, the two questions that
most physicists Iirst ask themselves when they
are solving mechanics problems are: 'Is energy
conserved? and 'Is momentum conserved? The
answers do not always have to be the same. Many
times only one is conserved and not the other.
One oI the more curious examples oI this Iact is a
Newton`s cradle such as the one shown in FIGURE
16. With a Newton`s cradle, you raise a ball Irom
a certain height on one end oI the cradle, and then
you let it go. That ball hits the rest oI the balls, and
one ball rises to the same height on the other side.
II you perIorm the same experiment raising two
balls (instead oI one), then you get two balls rising
on the other side. (You can keep on goingthree
gives you three, Iour gives you Iour, and so on.)
U FIGURE 16 I
events unIold. This is the idea behind the conser-
vation oI momentum.
A consequence oI Newton`s laws is that iI the
net external Iorce on a system is zero, then the
momentum oI a system is conserved. For the case
oI the cue ball and the billiard ball, this can be
calculated as Iollows:

p
i
= p
f

m
cue
v
i,c
+ m
bill
v
i,b
= m
cue
v
f ,c
+ m
bill
v
f ,b
Typically, when we are given problems related to
conservation, several oI the parameters indicated
are given, and we then need to proceed to Iind the
others. Many diIIerent variations are possible, but
the groundwork is set to calculate them as well as
more complicated systems.
In the case oI the cue ball colliding with the bil-
liard ball, momentum was conserved, and energy
was also conserved because there were only
conservative Iorces at play on the system. (The
collision Iorces were again internal and did not
aIIect the energy oI the two-ball system.) This is
known as an elastic collision. An elastic collision
is a collision in which momentum and energy are
both conserved.
But, this is not always the case. Many times energy
will not be conserved in a collision. For example,
consider a car moving and crashing into a truck
such that they stick together aIterward. In this
example, energy went into deIorming the vehicles
and that deIormation energy was taken away Irom
the kinetic and potential energies oI the system.
This is known as an inelastic collision. An inelas-
tic collision is a collision in which momentum is
conserved, but energy is not conserved.
Momentum can also be conserved in cases without
a collision. For example, there is a classic physics
question that asks about how to get oII oI a Irozen
lake when there is no Iriction at all. You can`t walk
because there is no traction to help you move.
How do you get oII oI the Irozen lake? One oI the
more creative answers to this question is to take
oII your shoe and throw it horizontally. When you
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The distance Irom the peak to equilibrium is
known as the amplitude, A. The amplitude can be
measured in various units depending on the sys-
tem. For a mass on a spring, amplitude is measured
in terms oI length.
The period oI oscillation, T, is deIined as how
long it takes the object to repeat its motion. It is
easy to Iind the period by looking at a graph and
measuring Irom peak to peak or trough to trough.
The period is typically measured in seconds.
The frequency, f, reIers to how oIten the object
passes by a certain point, moving in the same
direction. The Irequency is the inverse oI the
period:

f =
1
T
The unit oI Irequency is Hz or 1/second.
Hookes Law
There is always a restoring Iorce that governs
SHM. As stated earlier, this Iorce attempts to
restore the object back to equilibrium. Hooke`s law
states the conditions Ior this Iorce:
F
Hooke' s
constant displacement
The negative sign points out that the Iorce is in
the opposite direction oI the displacement oI the
object. II I pull downward on a mass on a spring,
then the restoring Iorce will attempt to pull upward
to oppose my Iorce. The restoring Iorce will
always point toward equilibrium. For the speciIic
case oI a mass on a spring, Hooke`s law becomes
the Iollowing:

F
Hooke' s
= k x ( )
Here k is known as the spring constant, which
quantiIies the strength oI the spring, and x is the
displacement Irom equilibrium. The unIortunate
eIIect oI Hooke`s law is that the Iorce oI the spring
increases linearly the Iarther away the mass is
Irom equilibrium. Since Iorce and acceleration
will not be constant throughout SHM, this means
II you approach this Irom the conservation oI
momentum standpoint only, you will say that
when you raise two balls, it is equally possible Ior
you to get two balls with equal velocities at the
Iar end or one ball with double the velocity at the
Iar end. But, iI you couple conservation oI energy
with conservation oI momentum, this conIines the
answer so that it must be two balls exiting the Iar
end. This is because we have to satisIy two sets oI
equations:

E
i
= E
f
~

1
2
mv
o
2
=
1
2
mv
f
2

p
i
= p
f
~

mv
o
= mv
f
The only way that both equations can be satisIied
is iI the situation is symmetric, such that what
goes in one end oI the Newton`s cradle (two balls,
Ior example) has to come out the Iar end (again
two balls). Any other non-symmetric solution
will never work. That is the beauty oI using both
conservation laws together. When you approach
problems knowing how to use both oI these impor-
tant conservation laws, there will be Iew that you
can`t solve.
Simple Harmonic
Motion (SHM)
Definition of Terms: Amplitude,
Period, and Frequency
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) is periodic
motion that arises Irom a restoring Iorce. This
restoring Iorce attempts to restore the object back
to equilibrium. This motion may be a mass on a
spring or a pendulum. The resulting motion will
look like a sinusoidal curve, as is shown in FIGURE
17. An object exhibiting SHM will oscillate on
both sides oI some equilibrium value.
U FIGURE 17 I
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We can experiment by changing various param-
eters (you are again strongly encouraged to do
this on your own). We Iind that the period oI a
pendulum depends on the length oI string, L, and
the acceleration due to gravity, g. In equation Iorm
this turns out to be the Iollowing:

T
pendulum
= 2
L
g
Circular Motion
Angular Analogies of
Linear Motion
As we start to examine the motion oI things under
circular motion and rotation, we move away Irom
an idealized point particle and have to realisti-
cally consider the shape oI things. These diIIerent
shapes can aIIect the resulting circular motion.
Mass, Ior example, is no longer detailed enough
to help us describe rotating motion. We have to
consider how the mass is distributed throughout
an object to get a clear idea oI how something will
rotate. We thus introduce the moment of inertia, I.
The moment oI inertia takes into account not only
how much mass is present, but also how that mass
is distributed.
For example, iI I had two books in my hands and
put them at my sides, then my moment oI inertia
would be relatively small iI I decided to sit on a
swivel chair and start spinning around. But iI I
decided to put the books out to the side as Iar as
my arms can stretch, then my moment oI inertia
would increase, and it would be much harder Ior
me to start spinning around. The books and I have
the same mass value in both instances, but how my
mass is distributed is signiIicantly diIIerent.
Another angular variable that needs to be intro-
duced is torque, :. Torque is analogous to Iorce
when it comes to circular motion. Torque is a
vector quantity. With torque you are not only cal-
culating how much Iorce you exert on something,
but also how Iar away Irom the axis oI rotation you
are. In equation Iorm, this is calculated as Iollows:
that the kinematics equations are not valid Ior
simple harmonic motion. It is much easier to turn
to conservation oI energy to examine the resulting
motion oI a mass on a spring.
A mass on a spring will have a potential energy
associated with it. This potential energy is given
by the Iollowing equation:

PE
spring
=
1
2
k x ( )
2
You can easily input this into the conservation
oI energy equation. Note that iI you double the
displacement oI a mass on a spring, then you qua-
druple the energy stored in the spring.
Period Dependence of
Different Types of SHM
Once you have established SHM, the next question
that usually arises is how to change the period oI
the motion. The easiest way to test Ior this is by
trial and error. For the mass on the spring example,
you could measure the period while changing the
amplitude or try varying the amount oI mass. (You
are strongly encouraged to attempt all experiments
that you can think oI on your own until you are
certain oI the way that period depends upon the
mass oI the object on the spring.)
It turns out that the period oI a mass on a spring
depends on the value oI the mass, m, and the spring
strength, k. In equation Iorm, this becomes:

T
spring
= 2
m
k
Next, we will consider a pendulum. A pendulum is
a mass on a string that moves back and Iorth under
the inIluence oI gravity. A diagram oI a pendulum
is shown in FIGURE 18.
U FIGURE 18 I
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a
cent
=
v
2
r
The direction oI the centripetal acceleration is
always toward the center (as the name implies). We
can easily input this equation back into Newton`s
second law to arrive at the Iollowing:

F
net
= ma
cent
=
mv
2
r
This is a very interesting result. Let`s say that you
round a circular curve in your car at 15 m/s every
day and have no problem staying on the road. One
day you Ieel adventurous and want to take the
curve at 30 m/s (doubling your original speed).
This means that the Iorce provided by static Iric-
tion would have to quadruple to keep you on the
road.
Torque and Equilibrium
When people make bridges or climb on ladders,
they want them to stay still and not move. This is
called equilibrium. The conditions Ior equilibrium
require the net Iorce on the object to be zero and
net torque on the object to be zero as well. We have
to take into account the vector sum oI the Iorces
involved and also where those Iorces act on the
object.
For example, in the diagram in FIGURE 19, we have
two equivalent Iorces (F
1
and F
2
) acting on an iron
bar.
U FIGURE 19 I
The two Iorces are equal in magnitude, so the net
Iorce on the bar is zero. But, the resulting motion
oI the bar will be to spin around its center because

= r ( ) F ( )
Here r is the distance Irom where the rotation
occurs to where the Iorce, F, is applied. (Note that
we are assuming that r and F are perpendicular
here.) For example, when you open a door, you
are maximizing the torque value on the door with-
out knowing it. Door handles are placed Iar away
Irom the hinges in order to increase r. Try opening
a door by exerting a Iorce closer to the hingesit
is very diIIicult because you now have to increase
your Iorce in order to get the same torque value
and open the door.
Angular velocity, c, is another angular variable
that needs to be introduced. Angular velocity is
how Iast an object is either rotating or moving
around a center. The Iaster your angular veloc-
ity, the Iaster you complete a circuit oI rotation.
Angular momentum, L, is a measure oI how hard
it will be to stop something Irom spinning. It is
analogous to linear momentum (p mv). We Iind
angular momentum to be given by the Iollowing
equation:

L = I
Angular momentum depends on how Iast the
object is spinning, how much mass the object has,
and how that mass is distributed within the object.
When any oI those values are large, it becomes
very hard to stop the circular motion.
Centripetal Acceleration
When an object is moving in circular motion, it has
a net Iorce acting on it. Newton`s Iirst law tells us
that an object that has a net Iorce oI zero will move
in a straight line, or stand still. The moon is an
excellent example oI this. It moves with essentially
constant speed, but its velocity vector is constantly
changing. This is because the Iorce oI gravity Irom
the Earth keeps pulling on it. The acceleration that
an object has because oI circular motion is called
centripetal acceleration. Centripetal is a Greek
word that means 'center seeking. We can calcu-
late the magnitude oI centripetal acceleration using
the Iollowing equation:
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ence. Scalars need only magnitude to Iully
describe them. Vectors need both magnitude
and direction.
\ The Iour kinematics equations can be used to
calculate various aspects oI motion. They are:

v = v
o
+ at

x =
1
2
v
o
+v ( )t

x = v
o
t +
1
2
at
2

v
2
= v
o
2
+2ax
\ Motions in the vertical and horizontal directions
are independent oI one another. This means that
we can separate those directions and easily cal-
culate variables.
\ Newton`s Iirst law oI motion states that an
object without a net Iorce on it will stay at rest
or continue moving in a straight line at a con-
stant velocity.
\ Newton`s second law oI motion states that the
net Iorce on an object is proportional to its mass
and the resulting acceleration, or: F
net
=ma.
\ Newton`s third law oI motion states that an
action Iorce Irom object 1 on object 2 will result
in a reaction Iorce Irom object 2 on object 1.
This reaction Iorce will be equal in magnitude
to the action Iorce and opposite in direction.
\ Energy is a property oI an object that is con-
served iI conservative Iorces are the only Iorces
present.
\ Kinetic energy is the amount oI energy an
object has related to motion.
\ Potential energy quantiIies the amount oI stored
energy an object has.
\ The momentum oI a system is conserved when
the net external Iorce on the system is equal to
zero.
the two Iorces are on opposite sides oI the center
oI the bar. We can say that this iron bar is not in
equilibrium.
II the Iorces were both concentrated on the same
spot, like in FIGURE 20, then the torques Irom the
two Iorces will sum to zero.
U FIGURE 20 I
We can say that the iron bar is in equilibrium
because not only is the net Iorce on the iron bar
zero, but the net torque on the iron bar is also zero.
Conservation of Angular Momentum
Linear momentum is conserved when the external
net Iorce is zero. Angular momentum is conserved
iI the external net torque is zero. This is evident
when you look at ice skaters perIorming a spin. We
can say that the net torque is zero on ice skaters as
the skaters reach their initial spinning rate. Then,
the skaters slowly bring their hands and legs in to
reduce their moment oI inertia. When the skaters
do this, their angular velocity increases to com-
pensate, keeping the angular momentum constant.
When the skaters are ready to slow down, they put
their hands and legs out to increase their moment
oI inertia and reduce their angular velocity, again
keeping the angular momentum constant.
Section I Summary
\ Scientists use the scientiIic method to advance
human understanding oI our universe.
\ Scalars and vectors are two diIIerent types
oI quantities that are used throughout sci-
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the length oI the string and the acceleration due
to gravity.
\ When describing circular motion and Iorces,
it is necessary to understand where Iorces act
upon an object and how an object`s mass is
distributed.
\ Simple harmonic motion is a special type oI
periodic motion that is governed by a restoring
Iorce that is proportional to displacement.
\ The period oI a mass on a spring depends on
the value oI the mass and the strength oI the
spring. The period oI a pendulum depends on
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Traveling Waves
Definition of Terms: Amplitude,
Period, Frequency, Wavelength,
and Wave Velocity
A
traveling wave is a Iluctuation travel-
ing in some type oI matter, also known
as a medium. A medium is a substance
that has a tendency to return to equilibrium when
displaced (very similar to the restoring Iorce in
Simple Harmonic Motion). Traveling waves deliv-
er energy Irom one location to another. A medium
may be a solid, liquid, or gas. Waves may be single
pulses through a medium (such as a kid perIorm-
ing a cannonball jump into a backyard pool).
Waves may also be harmonic waves due to a SHM
device. The resulting harmonic wave motion will
look like a sinusoidal curve, as shown in FIGURE 21
Ior a speciIic instant oI time.
() - displacement versus position
wavelength I
[m]
+
-
0
U FIGURE 21 I
The distance Irom the peak or trough to equilib-
rium is known as the amplitude, A. It can have
various units depending on the type oI traveling
wave. For an ocean wave, amplitude will most
likely be measured in meters. When the displace-
ment oI the wave is at A, this is known as the
peak oI the wave. When the displacement oI the
wave is at A, this is known as the trough oI the
wave.
For a harmonic wave, the distance required Ior a
wave to repeat its motion is known as the wave-
length, , as illustrated in FIGURE 21. Wavelength
is usually measured Irom peak to peak or Irom
trough to trough on a displacement vs. position
graph.
The period, T, is deIined by how long it takes a
point at a Iixed location on a wave to repeat its
motion. It is easy to Iind the period when looking
at a displacement vs. time graph by measuring
Irom peak to peak or Irom trough to trough. The
period is usually measured in seconds.
() - displacement versus time
period T
[s]
+
-
0
U FIGURE 22 I
Frequency, f, reIers to how oIten a certain wave
displacement, such as a peak, passes by an observ-
er at a Iixed location. The Irequency is the inverse
oI the period: f =
1
T
. The unit oI Irequency is Hz or
cycles per second.
The wave velocity oI the traveling wave can be
calculated by multiplying the wavelength and
Irequency oI the wave, or by using the Iollowing
equation: v f. This represents the speed at which
the wave is propagating through the medium. It
does not represent the speed oI any given particle
in the medium. For example, it does not represent
SECTION II
Wave s
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the up and down speed oI a ship caught in a strong
ocean wave.
How the Source Affects
Subsequent Wave Motion
Understanding how waves behave requires much
more thought than just looking at the equations.
For example, the velocity equation in the previ-
ous section that relates wave velocity, wavelength,
and Irequency doesn`t provide us with the whole
picture. It takes some eIIort to understand which
variables in the equation are independent and
which ones are dependent. The key is to physically
understand what is going on with the equation.
Let`s say that I am sitting in a small pool oI water
on a hot day, and I decide to make waves by
splashing my hands up and down in the water. This
makes me the wave source. As the wave source, I
can increase or decrease how oIten peaks are cre-
ated by splashing my hands Iaster or slower. The
water does not aIIect how Iast I splashonly I do.
ThereIore, the Irequency oI the waves depends on
the wave source.
As the wave source, I can also increase or decrease
the amplitude oI the peaks by splashing my hands
with more Iorce or with less Iorce. Now, the medi-
um in which the wave travels also plays a role in
the amplitude. II we replaced the water in the pool
with wet concrete, I would not be able to create the
same amplitude that I could with the water.
How the Medium Affects
Subsequent Wave Motion
Let's give Iurther thought to which variables in
the equation are independent and which ones are
dependent by considering another example. Let`s
say that an ocean wave is traveling in one direc-
tion with a wavelength oI 15 m and a Irequency oI
0.50 Hz. What is the speed (in m/s) oI this ocean
wave? Then, iI the source oI the wave suddenly
doubles its Irequency, how do the wave velocity
and wavelength subsequently change values?
The Iirst part oI this question can be answered
using the wave velocity equation:

v = f = 15 m ( ) 0.50 Hz ( ) = 7. 5
m
s
The second situation is Iar more interesting. The
source is changing the Irequency somehow. How
does this aIIect the rest oI the variables? As it
turns out, the wave velocity is dependent on the
medium; this means that the only way to change
the velocity oI the ocean wave is to change the
medium. But, just because the source increased
the Irequency, this doesn`t mean that the ocean
has changed. The medium has remained the same
and, hence, the wave velocity will remain 7.5 m/s.
But, iI that velocity equation must still hold true,
then something has to change. The variable that
will change is the wavelength. It is a dependent
variable that will adjust to make the wave velocity
equation correct. So, iI the Irequency doubles to
1.0 Hz, then the wavelength will have to decrease
by a Iactor oI two to 7.5 m to compensate. (This
keeps the wave velocity at a constant 7.5 m/s.)
Thus, when we re-examine the wave velocity
equation, here is what we Iind:
U FIGURE 23 I
This inIormation will be crucial as we move on to
examples oI how waves interact.
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TABLE 4: Indices of Refraction
Vacuum 1
Air nearly 1
Water 1.33
Diamond 2.4
Longitudinal Waves:
ExampleSound
A longitudinal wave is a wave where the displace-
ment takes place in the same direction that the
wave is traveling. Physically, longitudinal waves
are a compression oI particles that propagates
through the medium.
Sound is an example oI a longitudinal wave. Sound
is a Iluctuation oI density or pressure in a given
medium. (This medium can again be either solid,
liquid, or gas.) In air, Ior example, a source will
compress the air particles to Iorm a higher pressure
region and then will allow that pressure region to
travel through the medium (air), even though the
air particles end up where they started. The wave
speed oI the sound wave will be determined by the
properties oI the medium. The more the particles
in the medium interact, the Iaster the wave speed.
Hence, a low-density material, like air, will have a
slower sound wave speed than a denser material,
like water. The speed oI sound in air, under normal
conditions, is about 340 m/s. The speed oI sound
in water is about 1,100 m/s.
The source will determine the Irequency oI the
sound wave. Humans can hear sounds between
20 Hz and 20,000 Hz. Any sound that has a
Irequency above 20,000 Hz is reIerred to as
ultrasonic. Small animals, such as cats, can hear
ultrasonic waves. Any sound that has a Irequency
below 20 Hz is known as inIrasonic. Large ani-
mals, such as elephants, can hear inIrasonic waves.
Transverse Waves:
ExampleLight
A transverse wave is likely the type oI wave you
think oI when you picture waves in your head. For
a transverse wave, the displacement oI the wave
medium is perpendicular to the direction oI travel
oI the wave. II you go deeper into wave studies,
you will learn that ocean waves are not transverse
waves, not exactly.
Light is an example oI a true transverse wave. All
waves carry energy Irom one location to another.
Light carries energy Irom one location to another.
Transverse vibrations oI electric charges create
light waves. (Visible light waves are part oI the
electromagnetic spectrum, which will be dis-
cussed in Section III oI this guide.) The source oI
the light wave determines its Irequency. The Ire-
quency oI light that is visible to humans is between
4 10
14
Hz and 7 10
14
Hz. In air, these light waves
correspond to wavelengths oI 700 nanometers (red
light) and 400 nanometers (violet light). Human
eyes are most sensitive to light with a wavelength
oI 560 nanometers (yellow-green light).
Light waves are a special type oI wave that can
propagate through a medium but can also propa-
gate through a vacuum. The wave speed oI light in
a vacuum is a constant 3.0 10
8
m/s. (This special
constant is denoted by the letter c.) As light moves
Irom a vacuum to any other type oI medium, it
will slow down. The index of refraction, n, relates
how much slower something travels in a given
medium compared to how it moves in a vacuum.
In equation Iorm this becomes:

n =
speed of light in a vacuum
speed of light in a medium
=
c
v
The index oI reIraction is a unit-less, or dimension-
less, ratio. The index oI reIraction oI any medium
will be greater than one. TABLE 4 shows the indices
oI reIraction Ior some common media.
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and B) connected to the same stereo. They will
both output the same sound wave (i.e., they will
both output peaks and troughs the same way and
at the same Irequency and amplitude). We will say
that the sound wave will have a wavelength, l. II
you are listening to the combination oI the two
sound waves at point X, what you hear depends
on how Iar the sound wave Irom speaker A has to
travel (r
A
) compared to how Iar the sound wave
Irom speaker B has to travel (r
B
). We call the diI-
Ierence between those two lengths the path length
diIIerence, Ar, where Ar = r
B
r
A
.
U FIGURE 25 I
II the path length diIIerence between these two
speakers is a whole integer multiple oI the wave-
length oI the sound wave, then you will hear
constructive interIerence at point X. This is because
the peaks and the troughs oI the two sound waves
will still correspond at point X. Thus, the condition
Ior constructive interIerence is:

r = m, where m
is any integer (m 0, 1, 2.).
But, iI the path length diIIerence between these
two speakers is a halI integer oI the wavelength
oI the sound wave, then you will hear destruc-
tive interIerence at point X. This is because the
peaks oI speaker A will now correspond to the
troughs oI speaker B at point X, and vice versa.
Thus, the condition Ior destructive interIerence
is r m
1
2

where, again, m is any integer
(m 0, 1, 2.).
An interesting example oI this phenomenon that
involves light waves is the double slit experiment,
Wave Interference
Definition of Terms:
Constructive Interference and
Destructive Interference
Now that we have properly described waves, we
can answer the Iollowing question: What happens
iI two waves are in the same place at the same
time? Superposition is the answer to this question.
Superposition is the addition oI the amplitudes
oI the two waves. This is also known as wave
interference.
II the two waves (each oI amplitude A) overlap
such that their peaks are at the same position at
the same time, then their amplitudes superpose to
make an amplitude oI 2A. This is called construc-
tive interference.
II the two waves (each oI amplitude A) overlap
such that the peak oI one wave is at the same posi-
tion as the trough oI the other wave at the same
time, then their amplitudes superpose to make
an amplitude oI zero. This is called destructive
interference.
Two waves in phase
(Constructive Interference)
Wave 1
Wave 2
Combined
Wave
Two waves out of phase
(Destructive Interference)
U FIGURE 24 I
Wave Interference Due to
Path Length Difference:
ExampleDouble Slit
Constructive and destructive interIerence may
occur Irom the same source. This may occur due
to the path length difference between two waves.
For example, assume you have two speakers (A
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This phenomenon is known as beats. How oIten
one hears this constructive/destructive cycle is
known as the beat Irequency. You can calculate
the beat Irequency Irom two diIIerent Irequency
sources (f
1
and f
2
) with the Iollowing equation

f
beats
= f
2
f
1
.
The absolute value is used here
only to eliminate a meaningless negative answer
Ior the beat Irequency.
For example, imagine that you Iind two tuning
Iorks that are out oI tune. The beat Irequency that
you observe is 3 Hz. You know Ior a Iact that one
tuning Iork has a Irequency oI 350 Hz. What pos-
sible Irequency value(s) could the other tuning
Iork have?
Using the beat Irequency equation, we note that:

f
beats
= f
2
f
1

3Hz = 350Hz f
1
Thus, the other tuning Iork could possibly have a
higher Irequency (353 Hz) or a lower Irequency
(347 Hz). We have no way oI knowing via the beat
Irequency. These are the two possible values.
Musicians use beats to tune musical instruments.
Piano tuners examine the beat Irequency between
adjacent notes in order to tune them properly.
Reflection and Refraction
Even though light is a wave, when it moves
through a medium (such as air), it will move in a
straight line. Complicated transverse light waves
may also be represented by what we call light
rays. These light rays travel in straight lines when
they are in a given medium. Given some object is
the source oI light rays, the light will originate on
the object and move out in all directions. Our eyes
will then Iocus a diverging bundle oI light rays
in order to see an object and estimate how Iar the
object is Irom our eyes.
also known as Young`s experiment. In this experi-
ment, light is shined through two closely spaced
slits, making the one light act as two sources. (See
FIGURE 26.)
U FIGURE 26 I
The resulting path length diIIerences will make
an interesting pattern oI alternating bright and
dark spots on a screen. The bright spots are due
to the points on the screen where the path length
diIIerence leads to constructive interIerence (i.e.,
Ar ml). The dark spots are due to the points on
the screen where the path length diIIerence leads
to destructive interIerence (i.e., Ar (m 1/2)l).
Wave Interference Due
to Frequency Difference:
ExampleBeats
Constructive and destructive interIerence may also
occur Irom two sources that have slightly diIIer-
ent Irequencies. In such cases, the two peaks and
troughs will never exactly line up at any given
time. Sometimes their peaks will overlap to cause
constructive interIerence, and sometimes peaks
will overlap with troughs to cause destructive
interIerence. For this type oI wave addition, the
resulting interIerence will depend on the time
when you are observing it at some Iixed point.
For the case oI sound waves, when the two Ire-
quencies are close enough, one can hear the sound
wave alternating very rapidly Irom loud (construc-
tive interIerence) to soIt (destructive interIerence).
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An interesting thing to note about reIlection is that
the light wave will change some oI its properties
iI it is reIlected back as it tries to enter a medium
with a higher index oI reIraction (e.g., iI it is ini-
tially in air and reIlects back Irom a boundary with
water). One interesting property in particular is
that the light wave will change phase. This means
that iI it is at a peak in its motion, it will auto-
matically become a trough (as iI it moved |1/2|
instantaneously). This eIIect only occurs Ior a
transverse wave and only iI the wave is entering a
medium with a higher index oI reIraction.
In addition to some oI the energy oI the incident
light ray being reIlected back into the original
medium, some oI the energy will be transmitted
into the new medium. As this light ray enters the
new medium, it will bend and change direction.
This is known as refraction.
To explain reIraction, let`s turn to an analo-
gy involving a car driving on solid pavement
approaching a boundary oI mud at a certain angle.
(See FIGURE 29.)
U FIGURE 29 I
As one tire moves on the mud it will slow down,
while the other tire will continue to move at a Iast
speed. The car axle links the two tires and Iorces
the car to change its angle to bend toward the
normal. As you move Irom a medium with a Iast
speed to a medium with a slow speed, you will
bend toward the normal.
U FIGURE 27 I
A light ray can theoretically travel Iorever unless it
interacts with some Iorm oI matter (such as being
absorbed by a gas). Two diIIerent light rays can
cross without interacting with each other or being
aIIected in any way.
Some interesting things occur when a light ray
encounters the boundary to a new medium (with a
diIIerent index oI reIraction). Some oI the energy
Irom the incident light ray hitting the new surIace
can be reIlected back into the original medium. For
a smooth surIace, the angle oI the reIlected ray, 0
r
,
is equal to the angle oI the incident ray, 0
i
(0
i
0
r
).
This is known as the law oI reIlection. Note that
all angles are taken with respect to a line perpen-
dicular to the interIace that is known as the normal.
0
U FIGURE 28 I
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Thus, the light ray will pass into the water at an
angle oI 22.1 with respect to the normal.
What would the reIracted angle be iI instead oI
going Irom air to water with an incident angle
oI 30.0 with respect to the normal, the incident
ray went Irom water to air with the same incident
angle?
Again, we use Snell`s law:

n
1
sin
1
= n
2
sin
2

sin
2
=
n
1
n
2
sin
1

sin
2
=
1.33
1
sin30.0

sin
2
= 0.665

2
= sin
1
0.665 ( ) = 41.7
Thus, the light ray will enter the air at an angle oI
41.7 with respect to the normal. This means that
the light bent away Irom the normal compared to
the incident light ray.
What would happen to the reIracted light ray iI in
the last example the incident light ray in water was
60.0 with respect to the normal instead oI 30.0?
Again, we use Snell`s law:

n
1
sin
1
= n
2
sin
2

sin
2
=
n
1
n
2
sin
1

sin
2
=
1.33
1
sin60.0

sin
2
=1.152

2
= sin
1
1.152 ( ) = ?????
Here the reIracted angle doesn`t exist. The angle
was reIracted so much that the incident ray was
directed back into the original medium. This is
known as Total Internal ReIlection (TIR). TIR can
only occur iI you move Irom a slow medium to
a Iast medium such that the reIracted ray is bent
away Irom the normal compared to the incident
II we take this car analogy and extend it to nature,
the two tires can represent two light rays. These
two light rays sense each other`s presence (because
they are also waves). The light ray that moves into
the medium with the higher index oI reIraction will
slow down, causing the neighboring light ray to
bend in order to accommodate. II you were to go
Irom a slow material into a Iast material instead,
you would get the opposite result, namely a bend-
ing away Irom the normal. It is important to note
that all oI the bending that takes place occurs at the
interIace between the two media.
The degree oI the bending oI the light ray will
depend on the angle in the initial medium, 0
i
, and
the diIIerences in the indices oI reIraction oI the two
media (n
1
and n
2
). We call the equation that relates
these variables Snell`s law:

n
1
sin
1
= n
2
sin
2
II we are moving Irom a Iast medium to a slow
medium (such that n
1
n
2
), then 0
2
will have to be
smaller than 0
i
according to Snell`s law.
For example, light, initially in air, is incident on a
pool oI water at an angle oI 30.0 with respect to
the normal (as shown in FIGURE 30). At what angle
will the reIracted light ray enter the pool oI water?
U FIGURE 30 I
To solve this problem, we use Snell`s law:

n
1
sin
1
= n
2
sin
2

sin
2
=
n
1
n
2
sin
1

sin
2
=
1
1.33
sin30.0

sin
2
= 0.376

2
= sin
1
0.376 ( ) = 22.1
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Simple Lenses
Using the ideas oI reIlection and reIraction, we
can manipulate light rays and aim them where we
want them. The Iirst thing we can attempt to do is
to Iocus parallel light rays (such as those Irom the
Sun). We can attempt to do this by using a simple
glass triangular prism (n 1.5), as shown in FIGURE
32. We can assume that air surrounds the prism. As
an incident ray hits one oI the sides oI the prism, it
will be bent toward the normal.
U FIGURE 32 I
The light ray will continue through the prism and
will exit the Iar side. At this boundary it will be
moving Irom a medium with a higher index oI
reIraction into a medium with a lower index oI
reIraction. At that point, the light ray will bend
away Irom the normal and will move at a down-
ward angle, as is shown in FIGURE 33. Thus, by
using the geometry oI a transparent object, we
have altered the direction oI the incident ray.
U FIGURE 33 I
ray. Fiber optics use TIR to transport data in the
Iorm oI light between two locations.
Wave Interference Due to
Phase Shift: Example
Thin Film Interference
Constructive and destructive interIerence Irom one
source can also occur because oI reIlection oII oI
a diIIerent medium. This occurs when you have a
thin Iilm in which you will have both reIlection
and reIraction. Imagine a light ray incident on a
surIace between air and oil.
eye
(=1.45)
U FIGURE 31 I
A portion oI the light ray (in black) will be ini-
tially reIlected at this surIace. (It will also have
an accompanying phase shiIt because the index oI
reIraction Ior oil is greater.) The other portion oI
the light ray (in gray) will be reIracted into the oil.
As the reIracted portion oI the light ray reaches
the bottom oI the oil, it will be reIlected and will
eventually meet up with the other light ray at your
eye. The combination oI the phase shiIt due to the
reIlected ray and the extra path traveled by the
reIracted ray will lead to interIerence. II the two
light rays arrive at the eye such that their peaks
and troughs line up, then you will observe con-
structive interIerence. II the two light rays arrive
such that the peak oI one overlaps with the trough
oI the other, then you will observe destructive
interIerence.
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outside to Iocus the image oI some Iar away object
(such as a building or a tree) on some type oI white
screen (a blank piece oI paper will do nicely). You
should start by putting the converging lens very
close to the screen and then slowly move it away
Irom the screen until you see an image. What
interesting characteristics do you notice about the
image?
In addition to Iocusing parallel light rays, you can
also deIocus parallel light rays or cause them to
diverge. FIGURE 36 shows one way you can deIocus
parallel light rays. This type oI lens is known as
a diverging lens. To an observer on the opposite
side oI the lens, it will appear that these light rays
diverged Irom an object that is closer than it actu-
ally is.
incident rays
U FIGURE 36 I
Section II Summary
\ A traveling wave is a Iluctuation traveling in a
medium.
\ Traveling waves deliver energy Irom one loca-
tion to another.
\ The wave velocity oI a traveling wave is cal-
culated by multiplying the wavelength and
Irequency oI the wave, or:

v = f .
What iI we Ilip the prism, so that the apex is Iac-
ing downward? Then, the opposite will occur. The
light ray that exits the glass prism will move at an
upward angle compared to its initial direction, as
is shown in FIGURE 34.
U FIGURE 34 I
Now, we can surmise that in order to Iocus paral-
lel light rays, we should use a combination oI the
two trianglesone triangle that will bend the light
rays down and one triangle that will bend the light
rays up.
FIGURE 35 shows one way we can Iocus parallel
light rays to a single point. This type oI lens is
known as a converging lens. The point where all
the light rays come together is known as the Iocal
point.
incident rays
focal
point
U FIGURE 35 I
These types oI lenses are used to Iocus an image
on a screen (such as with a slide projector). A great
activity to perIorm on your own is to get a con-
verging lens (such as a magniIying glass) and go
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\ A path length diIIerence between two identical
waves can lead to constructive or destructive
interIerence, as is seen in experiments Ieatur-
ing a double slit apparatus. The path length
diIIerence Ior two identical waves that travel
separately can be calculated with the Iollowing
equation: Ar = r
B
r
A.
.
\ A Irequency diIIerence between two waves can
lead to alternating constructive and destructive
interIerence as time passes. Sound beats that
results Irom tuning Iorks oI slightly diIIer-
ent Irequencies are an example oI this type oI
interIerence. The beat Irequency equation is:

f
beats
= f
2
f
1
.
\ When a light ray approaches a new medium, it
may reIlect back into the original medium or
reIract into the new medium, or do both.
\ The amount oI reIraction Ior a light ray moving
into a new medium can be calculated via Snell`s
law:

n
1
sin
1
= n
2
sin
2
.
\ A phase shiIt diIIerence, which occurs on
reIlection in certain instances, can lead to
constructive or destructive interIerence. Thin
Iilm interIerence is an example oI this type oI
interIerence.
\ Simple lenses can be constructed by using diI-
Ierent geometric shapes. Parallel light rays may
be Iocused (converging lenses) or deIocused
(diverging lenses) by these diIIerent geometric
shapes.
\ The source oI the wave will create a certain
Irequency and amplitude.
\ The properties oI the medium in which the
wave is traveling will determine its wave speed.
\ Wavelength will be dependent on the source
and the properties oI the medium.
\ Transverse waves are waves that create dis-
placement in the medium that is perpendicular
to the direction oI motion. Light is an example
oI a transverse wave.
\ Longitudinal waves are waves that create dis-
placement in the medium that is in the same
direction as the direction oI motion. Sound is an
example oI a longitudinal wave.
\ When two waves converge at the same place at
the same time, the net amplitude at each point
is the sum oI the amplitudes oI the individual
waves.
\ II two waves line up such that one wave peak
overlaps with the other wave peak, then con-
structive interIerence will occur, resulting in a
maximum amplitude oI the combined waves.
\ II two waves do not line up but rather have one
wave peak overlapping with the other wave
trough, then destructive interIerence will occur,
resulting in a minimal amplitude oI the com-
bined waves.
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Electrostatics
Definition of Electric Charge
and Charge Conservation
M
ass is a very interesting measurement.
Most oI us know what mass is, but it is
usually very hard to explain it to some-
one who has never heard the term beIore. Most
people will say that mass measures how big some-
thing is or how much stuII is in something. When
prodded Ior Iurther explanation, thoughtIul people
will say that mass measures how much weight or
Iorce due to gravity an object has. This is a pretty
accurate statement because in order to change the
weight oI an object here on Earth, you are going
to have to change its mass. The key thing to learn
Irom this discussion is that mass is an inherent
measure oI an object. II I am to change the mass
oI something, I will have to drastically change that
object.
Electric charge, q, has some similar qualities
associated with it. The SI unit Ior the electric
charge is a coulomb (C). Electric charge is an
inherent measure oI an object (just like the mass
oI an object). Objects can carry electric charge.
Charges don`t exist on their own in spacethey
have to be associated with a particular object. This
can be conIusing Ior someone learning electrostat-
ics because sometimes instructors make statements
like: 'a charge oI 6.7 coulombs is at rest. This
instructor is being rather lazy with words, and
this may lead to some misconceptions. What the
instructor means to say is that 'a particle that car-
ries a charge oI 6.7 coulombs is at rest. Mass
cannot exist on its own outside oI an object; charge
likewise cannot exist without an object.
There are two types oI charges in nature: positive
and negative. These names were just randomly
assigned. There is no deep reason why one type
oI charge was given the positive designation and
the other was given a negative designation, except
that early electrical experimenters thought that the
positive charges were moving toward the nega-
tive 'holes. We observe that positive charges will
attract negative charges and that positive charges
will repel other positive charges. We also observe
SECTION III
E l e ct ri ci t y and Magne t i sm
Robert Millikan (18681953), an American
physicist, performed an oil drop experiment
that demonstrated that all charges are a
multiple of a fundamental unit of charge.

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Iorce between two or more electric charges. In the
late eighteenth century, Coulomb determined that
Ior two electric charges (q
1
and q
2
) separated by a
center-to-center distance r, the magnitude oI the
Iorce, F
electric
, between them is given by:

F
electric
= k
e
q
1
q
2
r
2
Here k
e
is the electrical constant (not to be conIused
with the spring constant k Irom Section II). The elec-
trical constant, k
e
, has a value oI 8.99 10
9
Nm
2
/
C
2
. This mathematical relationship is known as
Coulomb`s law. The electric Iorce is similar to
the gravitational Iorce in that it acts at a distance
and Iollows the inverse square law. One diIIerence
between these two Iorces is that the coulomb Iorce is
10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,00
0,000 times stronger than the gravitational Iorce.
that negative charges will attract positive charges
and that negative charges will repel other negative
charges.
In the early twentieth century, the experimental
physicist Robert Millikan (18681953) perIormed
an oil drop experiment which demonstrated that
all charges are a multiple oI a Iundamental unit
oI charge. The Iundamental unit oI charge was
the amount oI charge held by a single elec-
tron. That charge was ultimately Iound to be
1.602 10
19
coulombs. We designate this Iun-
damental charge held by one electron with the
symbol e. All charges that we observe will come in
integer multiples oI this Iundamental charge. For
example, objects can have charge values oI 5e or
5,000e but cannot have charge values oI 3.5e. As
it turns out, there is one known exception to this
rule, which was discovered long aIter the oil drop
experiment; quarks have either a charge oI (1/3)e
or (2/3)e. But, Ior historical reasons, we keep the
Iundamental unit oI charge as e, even though there
exist smaller units oI charge.
Subatomic particles will carry a charge. Protons
carry a net charge oI e. Electrons carry a net
charge oI e. Neutrons carry a net charge oI zero.
Other subatomic particles (such as pions or muons)
can carry either a net positive or negative charge.
One oI the most astounding Iacts is that the net
charge oI the universe never changes. This phe-
nomenon is known as charge conservation. There
are many interesting consequences that come
Irom this Iact. For example, when a neutral par-
ticlesuch as a neutrondecays, it decays into
something that has a positive charge and some-
thing with an equivalent negative unit oI charge. In
the case oI the neutron, it will decay into a proton
and an electron. I can never create nor destroy one
lone charged particle; every process that I perIorm
must result in a zero net change oI charge in the
universe.
Coulombs Law
French physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb
(17361806) was the Iirst person to quantiIy the
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (17361806),
a French physicist, was the first
person to quantify the force between
two or more electric charges.

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Consider q as a source charge that puts out such an
electric Iield. This electric Iield will then exert a
Iorce on nearby charges (such as q
o
). The electric
Iield is a vector quantity that will depend on the
sign oI the source charge and how Iar you are Irom
it. Mathematically we deIine it as:

F = q
o

E
II the charged particle experiencing the Iorce due
to the electric Iield is positive, then the electric
Iorce and the electric Iield point in the same
direction. II the charged particle experiencing the
Iorce due to the electric Iield is negative, then the
electric Iield and the electric Iorce will point in
opposite directions.
II we assume that the source charge is a point par-
ticle (or a small sphere oI charge), then we can use
Coulomb`s law to Iind the electric Iield at various
locations. We Iind that the electric Iield due to a
charged point particle will be

E = k
q
r
2
.
II the charged particle that is the source oI the
electric Iield is positive, then the electric Iield
will point away Irom the source charge. FIGURE
37 shows possible diIIerent vector directions Ior
the electric Iield caused by a positively charged
particle. Note that all the vectors point directly
away Irom the positive source charge. A positive
test charge placed close to this source charge will
be repelled Irom it.
U FIGURE 37 I
The two charged objects 'Ieel the electric Iorce
even though they are not touching.
The direction oI the electric Iorce will depend on
the signs oI the two charges involved. II the two
charged objects have the same signs (either both
positively charged or both negatively charged),
then the electric Iorce between these two charged
objects will be repulsive, along a line that joins
them. II the two charged objects have opposite
signs (one positively charged and one negatively
charged), then the electric Iorce between the two
charged objects will be attractive, along a line that
joins them.
It is usually simple to calculate the electric Iorce
between two charged objects. Calculating the
electric Iorce is more complicated when you have
multiple charges present. In such cases, one should
calculate each Iorce between two charges sepa-
rately and then add them together using the rules
oI vector superposition.
One caution regarding the use oI Coulomb`s law
is that it is meant to be used Ior either two point
particles or two small spherical objects. Any calcu-
lation using other shapes, sizes, or types oI objects
will not be valid. For example, Coulomb`s law is
not meant to be used to Iind the Iorce between a
point particle and a charged plate. While this other
kind oI calculation is not impossible, it is very
complicated. One would have to break the charged
plate into smaller parts and sum the electric Iorces
individually.
Electric Fields
Let`s say there is a charged particle, q, sitting
at rest. II another charged particle, q
o
, suddenly
appears near q, then we can say that it would
instantly 'Ieel a Iorce Irom q. This means that
even beIore q
o
appears, there is something that q
is putting out that has the ability to aIIect nearby
charges. We will call this 'thing the electric field,
E. This is similar to the way that Earth puts out a
gravitational Iield that aIIects nearby masses.
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distribute themselves over the entire exterior sur-
Iace oI the material.
Insulators are objects that oppose the movement
oI electrons, making their movement very diI-
Iicult. Glass, rubber, and wood are examples oI
insulators. II you place an excess oI electrons on
a small region oI an insulator, the electrons will
tend to remain in that region. For your saIety you
should know that no insulator can totally stop the
Ilow oI electrons when there is suIIicient voltage;
Ior example, rubber dishwashing gloves will not
protect you Irom high voltage electricity.
Both insulators and conductors can become posi-
tively or negatively charged depending on whether
you add extra electrons to the object or remove
electrons Irom the object. One way that you can
do this is by rubbing electrons oII oI one thing and
onto another. For example, try rubbing a small,
inIlated balloon against a Iuzzy sweater. This usu-
ally will leave the balloon with a net charge. You
can test this by trying to pick up small pieces oI
paper or strands oI your hair by putting the balloon
close to these objects.
In addition to adding or removing electrons, you
can rearrange the electrons present within an
object. This is known as induction oI charge. II
you place a strong positively charged object near
a neutral object, the protons in the neutral object
will be repulsed and the electrons in the neutral
object will be attracted. As the separation distance
changes, this will lead to an overall attraction
between the neutral object and the positively
charged object. You can test this out by combing
your hair and placing the now-charged comb next
to a very light stream oI water coming out oI the
Iaucet (place the comb close to the water without
touching). The stream oI water should become
attracted to the comb and deIlect toward it. This
happens even though the water is neutral.
Electric Potential
Energy conservation is one oI the most important
concepts in all oI science. When dealing with
charged particles, it becomes necessary to slightly
II the charged particle that is the source oI the
electric Iield is negative, then the electric Iield will
point toward the source charge. FIGURE 38 shows
possible diIIerent vector directions Ior the electric
Iield caused by a negatively charged particle. Note
that all the vectors point directly inward toward
the negative source charge. A positive test charge
placed close to this source charge will be attracted
to it.
U FIGURE 38 I
The electric Iield is a useIul tool Ior calculating
what would happen to a charge iI it were placed in
a certain location. It is Iar easier to use this Iield
concept than to use the cumbersome electric Iorce
calculation.
Charges in Materials
Normal everyday objects are composed oI billions
and billions oI protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Most objects that we encounter have balanced
numbers oI electrons and protons, and so these
objects are electrically neutral. II you want to
make a neutral object into an electrically charged
object, you need to add electrons or remove them.
(Note that since protons are heavier than electrons
and are deep within the atoms, protons are almost
impossible to move).
Conductors are materials that allow electrons to
move Ireely. Most metals are considered to be
conductors. II you place an excess oI electrons on
a small region oI a conductor, the electrons will
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As with all energy, the true useIulness comes in
examining how voltage changes as you change
your location. Thus, we normally calculate the
voltage diIIerence, AV, between two spatial loca-
tions. This voltage diIIerence will tell you iI you
are moving with, against, or perpendicular to the
electric Iield, the Iield due to the source charges.
For example, iI we measure some unmapped
electric Iield and Iind that the voltage diIIerence
between two locations is negative, then we can
conclude that we are moving with the electric Iield.
But, iI we were to measure two diIIerent locations
and Iind the voltage diIIerence to be zero, then we
can conclude that we have moved perpendicular to
the electric Iield.
This means that we have two very diIIerent ways
to explain how charged particles move. We can
say that they move with or against an electric
Iield (depending on their sign) or we can say that
we create a voltage diIIerence that causes these
charged particles to move in order to minimize
their electric potential (like a ball Ialling toward
the ground in order to minimize its gravitational
potential energy). When we explain how charges
move, we choose the way that is the most con-
venienteither vectors (electric Iield) or scalars
(voltage).
Capacitance and Capacitors
As you create an electric potential diIIerence
across diIIerent parts oI a material, you can get a
buildup oI excess charge (most likely electrons in
some parts oI that material). Capacitance reIers to
an object`s ability to hold a stationary charge. The
higher the capacitance oI an object, the more net
charge it can hold Ior a given voltage diIIerence.
Mathematically we deIine capacitance to be:

C =
Q
V
Here Q is the magnitude oI charge stored on each
plate, and AJ is the change in voltage applied to
the plates. Capacitance is measured in Iarads (F).
One Iarad is one coulomb divided by a volt.
redeIine energy to make it easier to use. This is
where the concept oI electric potential, V, came
Irom. You may know electrical potential as volt-
age, and you will see why shortly.
Consider two positively charged particles placed
next to each other. They will repel one another and
start to move away Irom each other. Initially, when
they were close to each other, they had electrical
potential energy, PE
elec
. As they move away Irom
each other, their electrical potential energy is con-
verted into kinetic energy, KE. The closer together
these two positively charged particles start out,
the higher their electrical potential energies. Also,
the signs oI the charges are important because
opposite charges will attract one another. We Iind
the electrical potential energy between two point
charges (q
o
and q
1
) to be:

PE
elec
= k
q
o
q
1
r
Electrical potential energy is a scalar quantity and
will have the SI unit oI the joule (just like the other
energy quantities).
OItentimes we want to know how a charged par-
ticle might potentially react in an electric Iield
created by some unknown charge conIiguration.
We deIine electric potential as:
o
elec
q
PE
V
Electric potential is a scalar quantity, and it has
the SI unit oI the volt, V. One volt is equal to one
joule per coulomb. Many people conIuse electrical
potential energy and electric potential (in hindsight
it is a poor choice oI words Ior two closely related
variables). We will attempt to distinguish the two
by reIerring to electric potential as voltage when-
ever possible.
Using voltage eliminates the energy dependence
on the test charge that is experiencing the Iorce due
to an electric Iield. Electric potential will tell you
where you are in the electric Iield oI some source
charge (much like a mile marker tells you where
you are on a highway).
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Energy =
1
2
C V ( )
2
Capacitors are very common in electronics. For
example, many computer keyboards have plates
connected to the bottom oI the keys (and another
Iixed plate under that). As you strike a key, you
decrease the distance between those two plates
and increase the capacitance, thus creating an elec-
tronic signal that the computer recognizes.
Current
Definition of Terms: Current,
Resistance, and Power
Up to this point we have only been concerned
with electrostatics or electric charges that do not
move. Now we will Iocus on what happens when
charges move. II you create an electric potential
diIIerence across a material, then you can get elec-
trons to move in that material. We deIine electric
current, I, to be the amount oI electric charge that
passes by a speciIic point in a certain time period.
Mathematically, this is:

I =
q
t
The SI unit Ior electric current is the ampere (A).
One ampere is equivalent to one coulomb per
second.
As electrons attempt to move through a mate-
rial, they will encounter resistance, R, that arises
between the electrons that are moving among the
electrons that are Iixed in the atoms. The SI unit
Ior resistance is the ohm (O). Conductors will have
a low resistance because electrons move quite
easily inside oI them. Insulators will have a high
resistance because electrons will have a hard time
moving around inside oI them.
Electric power is a useIul thing to calculate
when using circuits. As a current moves through
an object, it can transIer energy to perIorm some
kind oI task (such as a light bulb creating light).
For a current, I, moving through a device due to a
voltage diIIerence, AV, we can calculate the power
used by that device as:
A capacitor is a device that is designed to store
energy in the Iorm oI an electric Iield. This is
another way oI saying that it will have a voltage
diIIerence across it.
The simplest capacitor is a parallel plate capaci-
tor. This device has two separate plates that are
oppositely charged and are placed next to one
another, as shown in FIGURE 39. An electric Iield
is established pointing Irom the positive charges
and directed toward the negative charges. In turn,
a voltage diIIerence is also established between the
two plates.
U FIGURE 39 I
The only thing that limits the amount oI charge you
can place on the parallel plate capacitor (and thus
how much energy you can store) is the geometry oI
the capacitor. II you increase the area oI the plates,
then you increase how much charge you can store.
II you decrease the distance between the plates,
then you increase the strength oI the electric Iield
inside the capacitor. For a parallel plate capacitor,
we say that the capacitance can be calculated by:

C =
o
A
d
Here A is the area oI one oI the plates; d is the
separation distance between the two plates; and c
0
is a constant called the permittivity of free space.
The value oI c
0
is 8.85 10
12
C
2
/(Nm
2
).
The energy stored in a capacitor will be given by:
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in the circuit), you establish a positively charged
current that will move in the circuit. This leads to
a conceptual problem because it is the negatively
charged electrons that are actually Ilowing in the
circuit. This conIusion is a direct result oI charges
being randomly assigned positive and negative
values when they were Iirst discoveredbasi-
cally the wrong choice was made when it came to
current.
Current is deIined as positive charges moving in
a certain direction, as shown in FIGURE 40. Since
negative charges are actually moving, we have to
alter how we view this.
U FIGURE 40 I
So, iI negative charges are actually moving, then
the current is deIined as moving opposite to the
direction oI motion oI the negative charges, as is
shown in FIGURE 41.
U FIGURE 41 I
It is merely Ior historical reasons that we desig-
nate current as measuring the Ilow oI positive
charges. This deIinition oI current is oIten called
'conventional current. All the math oI electricity
uses conventional current, making any changes
rather diIIicult and inconvenient at this late date
because all the books and soItware would have to
be revised.
The individual electrons that move in the wire will
not move very Iast at all. A typical electron will
move with a speed oI 0.5 mm/s when it is in a
wire. This seems counterintuitive since lights and
other appliances turn on instantly aIter we Ilip the
switch. The thing to note here is that the electron at

P = I V ( )
The power used by the device is measured in watts
(just as beIore).
Ohms Law
As we try to create current in devices, we Iind a
direct relationship between the current through
a device and the voltage diIIerence across that
device:

V = IR
This relationship is known as Ohm`s law. This rela-
tionship doesn`t work Ior all materials. Materials
Ior which Ohm`s law holds are called ohmic mate-
rials. Any material Ior which Ohm`s law doesn`t
hold is called a non-ohmic material. From Ohm`s
law we Iind that one ohm (O) is equal to one volt
per one ampere.
Ohm`s law isn`t really a law as much as it is a
relationship. Basically, Ior certain materials (metal
conductors, Ior example) there will be linear rela-
tionship between voltage diIIerence and current.
Thus, to double the current in a given material
requires doubling the voltage diIIerence across that
material.
Ohm`s law also gives us some Ilexibility in consid-
ering power. From beIore we have the Iollowing
equation:

P = I V ( )
Substituting Ohm`s law, we get two other interest-
ing ways to calculate the power used by a device:

P = I
2
R

P =
V ( )
2
R
Both oI these equations will be useIul when we
turn to circuit elements and want to learn how
much power they utilize.
What Really Happens in a Circuit ?
When you establish an electric potential diIIer-
ence across a circuit (usually by putting a battery
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and (b) be part oI a closed loop so that an electric
Iield may be established. II your power source is a
battery, then we calculate variables assuming that
positively charged current Ilows Irom the positive
side oI the terminal, through the circuit element,
and eventually reaches the negative side oI the
terminal, as shown in FIGURE 44. Note that in this
Iigure current isn`t 'used up aIter it encounters
the resistor. The same amount oI current is present
everywhere throughout this circuit.
U FIGURE 44 I
Equivalent Resistance
Most electronic circuits that you will encounter
will have more than one resistive element in them.
A typical thing to do is to solve Ior various param-
eters in these circuits (such as power, current, or
voltage drop across parts oI the circuit). Ohm`s
law, however, really only works Ior one voltage
source and one resistor. One way to rectiIy this
diIIiculty is to take these complicated circuits and
break them down to the simplest circuit (and then
use Ohm`s law on that). This technique is known
as equivalent resistance.
One conIiguration that you might potentially
encounter in a complicated circuit is two resistors
in series (such that current encounters one resistor
and then another). The simplest example oI this is
the switch isn`t the one that will power the lights.
When you Ilip the light switch, you are establish-
ing an electric Iield in that wire. The electrons that
are loosely bound in the wire will move to power
the light. In order Ior those electrons to experience
this electric Iield, the circuit must be a closed loop.
II the circuit is open, then there will be no electric
Iield and no current loop.
We need to use some symbols when dealing with
circuits. We can represent a wire that has zero
resistance as a straight line. We can represent a
battery with two parallel lines (one oI the parallel
lines is longer than the other).
U FIGURE 42 I
The longer line represents the positive terminal
oI the battery (where conventional positive cur-
rent emerges), and the shorter line represents the
negative terminal oI the battery. A battery will
establish a voltage diIIerence across various circuit
elements. Sometimes the voltage diIIerence Irom
a battery is called an emf (ElectroMotive Force)
and is represented by c. This is an archaic term (it
is measured in volts not newtons) but is still used
in some instances.
A resistor can be represented by a choppy line in a
circuit. As long as current moves through a resis-
tor, it will have potential diIIerence across it.
U FIGURE 43 I
Thus, we say that any circuit that has current Ilow-
ing, providing power to a circuit element, will have
to (a) have an electric potential diIIerence source
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We can substitute in the earlier relationship between
AV
bat
and AV
1
and AV
2
to get:

R
eq
=
V
1
+ V
2
I
Breaking up this denominator into two parts yields:

R
eq
=
V
1
I
+
V
2
I
Substituting Ohm`s law Ior resistor 1 and resistor
2 Iinally gives us:

R
eq
= R
1
+ R
2
We Iind that the equivalent resistance Ior two resis-
tors in series is the sum oI the individual resistance
values. This means we can say, Ior example, that
the equivalent resistance oI eight resistors in series
is merely the sum oI the eight resistance values.
The other simple conIiguration that we might see
is two resistors in parallel (such that current is split
between two diIIerent resistors), as is shown in
FIGURE 46.
U FIGURE 45 I
A current, I, is established in this circuit aIter it is
hooked up. This current will be split and will not
be the same in either resistor. The voltage drop
across either resistor will be the same; that drop
will be equivalent to the voltage drop across the
battery. So, we can say that in terms oI voltage
drop:
two resistors hooked up in series to a battery, as is
shown in FIGURE 45.
U FIGURE 45 I
A current, I, is established in this circuit aIter it is
hooked up. This current will not be split and will
be the same in either resistor. In order to calculate
the voltage drop across each resistor, we Iind that:

V
1
= IR
1

V
2
= IR
2
Here AV
1
is the voltage drop across resistor 1, and
AV
2
is the voltage drop across resistor 2. Since
the energy given by the battery is equivalent to
the energy that the two resistors use, we can say
that the voltage provided by the battery is equal to
the sum oI the voltage drops across the resistors.
Mathematically this becomes:

V
bat
= V
1
+ V
2
Using equivalent resistance, we can replace those
two resistors with an equivalent resistor, R
eq
,
oI unknown resistance. (The rest oI the circuit
will behave normally, as iI there are still two
resistors present.) This one equivalent resistor
still has the same voltage drop Irom the battery.
Mathematically, we can then say:

V
bat
= IR
eq
Solving Ior the equivalent resistance yields:

R
eq
=
V
bat
I
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sum oI the currents leaving that junction. Think
oI the junction rule as applying to nearly anything
that is Iluid and moving. For example, water Ilow-
ing through a pipe hits a junction; the water that
enters that junction is the same amount oI water
that leaves the junction. In terms oI positive cur-
rent Ilow, we can say that the current entering must
equal the current leaving with respect to a junction.
I
U FIGURE 47 I
To describe FIGURE 46 mathematically, we could
write the Iollowing:

I
in
= I
1
+ I
2
The second oI KirchhoII`s rules is the loop rule.
This rule is a statement oI conservation oI energy.
The loop rule states that the sum oI the voltage diI-
Ierences across all the elements around any closed
circuit must be zero. The loop rule is a reminder
that returning to the same location in the electric
Iield will return you to the same voltage value. II
we create a loop in a circuit that has Iour circuit
elements in it, mathematically the loop rule gives
us:

V
loop
= V
1
+ V
2
+ V
3
+ V
4
= 0
Some oI the circuit elements will give us voltage
gains, and other circuit elements will give us volt-
age drops. Figuring out which are which is the key
to using the loop rule eIIectively.
When you choose a closed loop Ior the loop rule,
you must Iirst choose a direction Ior the loop
(usually the choices are clockwise and counter-
clockwise). Let`s look at the simple circuit shown
in FIGURE 48 in which we have chosen the loop
direction to be clockwise.

V
bat
= V
1
= V
2
Using the same techniques as we used with the
conIiguration oI two resistors in series (an excel-
lent exercise Ior you to perIorm on your own), we
Iind that the equivalent resistance Ior two resistors
in parallel is given by:

1
R
eq
=
1
R
1
+
1
R
2
We Iind that the inverse oI the equivalent resis-
tance Ior two resistors in parallel is the sum oI the
inverses oI the individual resistance values. This
means that a number oI resistors in parallel has
an equivalent resistance that is the inverse oI the
sum oI the inverses oI all those resistance values.
Mathematically, we can say:

1
R
eq
=
1
R
1
+
1
R
2
+
1
R
3
+
1
R
4
+
Take special note that adding the inverse oI values
is very diIIerent Irom merely adding the values
themselves. Two resistors in parallel have less
resistance than either one resistor alone. In lay-
men`s terms, giving the current two paths to Iollow
creates an easier passage and thus less resistance.
To sum it all up, the equivalent resistance Ior resis-
tors in series is greater than that Ior any individual
resistor in that series conIiguration, whereas the
equivalent resistance Ior resistors in parallel will
be less than that Ior any individual resistor in that
parallel conIiguration.
Kirchhoff s Rules
Another way to solve problems involving com-
plicated circuits is to use KirchhoII`s rules. These
rules are speciIically designed ways to apply con-
servation oI energy and conservation oI charge to
circuits.
The Iirst oI KirchhoII`s rules is the junction rule.
The junction rule is a statement oI conservation
oI charge. The junction rule states that the sum oI
the currents entering any junction must equal the
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Circuits
When given a circuit, the goal is to be able to solve
Ior various things in that circuit. For example, let`s
say you are given the circuit shown in FIGURE 49.
U FIGURE 49 I
A typical question might be: 'What is the current
through the 10O resistor? We should use equiva-
lent resistance to answer this question. First we
can combine the 15O and the 10O resistors since
they are in parallel. Using the Iormula developed
earlier, we Iind that:

1
R
eq
=
1
10
+
1
15
We should now Iind a common denominator Ior
these two Iractions. 30O will work here. This gives
us:

1
R
eq
=
3
30
+
2
30

1
R
eq
=
5
30
Next, we need to invert to solve Ior the value that
we want (R
eq
):

R
eq
=
30
5
= 6
We have reduced the original circuit to the one
shown in FIGURE 50. (Note that the current through
U FIGURE 48 I
Since the loop direction is in the same direction
as the current through the resistor, we can say that
the voltage change through the resistor will be a
decrease, and we will get a voltage drop across the
resistor. But, iI the loop had a counterclockwise
direction (with the current still in the same direc-
tion), then we would say that the loop will oppose
the direction oI the current, and the voltage change
through the resistor would be an increase and we
would get a voltage gain across the resistor.
When we examine the battery, we Iind that a
clockwise loop will be in the same direction as
current through the battery (i.e., the loop starts at
the negative end and then exits the positive end).
In this case, we get a voltage gain Irom the battery.
II the loop had a counterclockwise direction (with
the battery still oriented the same way), then the
loop would oppose the battery direction and there
would be a voltage drop across the battery.
The most common thing to do is to choose the
direction oI the loop such that it is the same direc-
tion as the current Ilow (although this is not always
possible). This results in batteries yielding voltage
gains and resistors yielding voltage drops. Keeping
this convention will help you to avoid mistakes in
the addition and subtraction oI voltage calculations
when using batteries and resistors.
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At this point, we have to go back to the origi-
nal circuit to move Iorward. We can perIorm a
KirchhoII`s loop rule around the outside oI the
loop that moves in a clockwise Iashion, as is
shown in FIGURE 52.
U FIGURE 52 I
We will have a voltage gain by the battery and
two voltage drops by the 4O and 10O resistors.
Mathematically this gives us:

V
bat
IR
4
I
2
R
10
= 0
Substituting in the values that we know, we get the
Iollowing:

5V 0.5A ( )4 I
2
10 ( ) = 0

5V 2V I
2
10 ( ) = 0

3V = I
2
10 ( )

I
2
=
3V
10
= 0.3A
Thus, the current through the 10O resistor (I
2
) will
be 0.3A.
Another question that we might ask is: 'What is
the current through the 15O resistor? We note
that the 0.5A current will go through the 4O resis-
the 4 O resistor will be equal to the current through
the 6O resistor because they are in series.)
U FIGURE 50 I
Now we can reduce this circuit even Iurther by
using equivalent resistance Ior the two resistors
in series. The total resistance will be the sum oI
the two resistors (4O and 6O), so we have a total
resistance oI 10O Ior those two resistors.
Thus we now have a simple circuit oI one voltage
source and one equivalent resistor, as is shown in
FIGURE 51.
U FIGURE 51 I
Now we can apply Ohm`s law to solve Ior the cur-
rent, I, that will emerge Irom the battery.

I =
V
R

I =
5V
10
= 0.5A
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much easier. We didn`t have to start the prob-
lem anew when we were looking Ior the voltage
changes across an element or the power dissipated
by an element. Anytime you have a complicated
circuit, you are going to be conIronted with many
choices (how to use equivalent resistance and/or
KirchhoII`s rules eIIectively), but it is best to try
to solve current Iirst and then solve Ior other things
later.
Magnetism
Historical Context:
Oersted s Discovery
In 1820, the Danish physicist and chemist Hans
Christian Oersted (17771851) Iound that electric
tor but then will split as it encounters the junction.
According to KirchhoII`s junction law, these cur-
rents will be broken up by the Iollowing equation:

I = I
1
+ I
2

0.5A = I
1
+0.3A

I
1
= 0.5A 0.3A = 0.2A
Thus, the current through the 15O resistor (I
1
) will
be 0.2A.
Another question that we could ask is: 'What is
the voltage drop across the 10O resistor? Here we
can apply Ohm`s law to get:

V
10
= I
2
R
10

V
10
= 0.3A ( )10

V
10
= 3V
Thus, the voltage drop across the 10O resistor
(AV
10O
) will be 3V.
We could also ask: 'How much power is dissipated
by the 10O resistor? Here we can apply the power
equation to get:

P
10
= I
2
( )
2
R
10

P
10
= 0.3A ( )
2
10
P
10
0.09A
2

10

P
10
= 0.9W
Thus, the power dissipated by the 10O resistor
(P
10O
) will be 0.9W.
There are many interesting things to learn Irom
the discussion oI circuits presented here. The most
important may be that Iinding the current through
all the circuit elements made the other calculations
Daguerreotype of Hans Christian Oersted
(17771851), the Danish physicist
who discovered that electric currents
create magnetic fields.

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poles is a source oI conIusion. This idea isn`t nec-
essarily incorrect, but it is oIten misunderstood.
When a magnet is allowed to Ireely rotate, such
as iI it is hung Irom a string, one end will end up
pointing toward the geographical North Pole oI the
Earth. This Ireely rotating magnet is called a com-
pass. It points toward a speciIic direction because
the Earth has a magnetic Iield surrounding it.
Magnets are very similar to electric charges. Like
charges (or poles) repel each other, while opposite
charges (or poles) attract each other. Magnets and
charges both come in two types ( and or North
and South), and magnets and charges both can
move objects at a distance. There is, however, one
major diIIerence between magnets and charges.
We can separate a positive charge Irom a negative
charge, but we cannot separate North poles Irom
South poles. This will ultimately be an important
clue in understanding the origins oI magnetism.
Magnetic poles oIIer an important way oI explain-
ing the direction oI magnetic Iields. FIGURE 54
shows a typical bar magnet.
U FIGURE 54 I
Magnetic Iield lines emanate Irom the North Pole,
and they enter into the South Pole when you are
current could deIlect a magnetic compass needle.
1

This was the Iirst time that electric charges and
the idea oI magnetism were ever linked. Up until
this time, magnetism and its eIIects were thought
to be limited to certain types oI rocks. There are
very Iew experiments that have had the impact that
Oersted`s discovery has had.
This experiment also determined the direction
associated with the magnetic fields (B in FIGURE
53) that were emanating Irom the wires.
U FIGURE 53 I
With a magnetic compass, Oersted determined that
the magnetic Iields were moving in circles around
the current-carrying wire. We can determine the
direction oI the magnetic Iield Irom a current-car-
rying wire by what is known as Right Hand Rule
1 (RHR1). With RHR1, iI you put your thumb in
the direction oI current Ilow while grasping the
wire with your right hand, then your Iingers curl in
the direction oI the magnetic Iield. The magnetic
Iields will Iorm concentric circles around the wire.
The magnitude oI the magnetic Iield, B, at a dis-
tance, r, Irom a wire that carries a current, I, is
Iound with the Iollowing equation:
Here n
0
is a constant called the permeability of
free space. The value oI n
0
is 1.26 10
6
(Tm)/A.
The SI unit oI the magnetic Iield is the tesla, T.
Magnetic Fields vs. Poles
Magnetism has been around longer than the sci-
entiIic method, and there are misconceptions
regarding magnetism that have survived Ior centu-
ries. The idea oI magnets having North and South
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U FIGURE 55 I
To Iind the magnitude oI the magnetic Iorce on a
charge, q, moving with velocity, v, in an external
magnetic Iield, B, we use the Iollowing equation:

F = qvBsin
Here 0 is the angle between the velocity and the
magnetic Iield vectors.
Let`s say that we have a proton moving up (in the
plane oI this paper) into an external magnetic Iield
that is directed into the paper. (See FIGURE 56.)
Which direction will the magnetic Iorce be on the
moving proton?
U FIGURE 56 I
Let`s use RHR2: put your thumb in the direction
oI motion oI the proton (up), put your IoreIinger in
the direction oI the magnetic Iield (into the paper).
The resulting middle Iinger points to the leIt. This
means that the initial Iorce on this proton will be to
the leIt. As this proton starts to move in that direc-
outside the magnet. Inside the magnet, the mag-
netic Iield lines point Irom South to North. These
Iield lines show the direction oI the Iorce that
would be Ielt by an imaginary N monopole.
The North side oI a magnetic compass points in the
direction oI the magnetic Iield lines. So, it points
away Irom the North Pole oI a magnet and toward
the South Pole oI a magnet. This leads to an inter-
esting question: which pole does the compass you
use point to? According to our discussion, it points
to the magnetic South Pole oI the Earth. But, Ior
historical reasons, we call the magnetic South Pole
oI the Earth the geographical North Pole (it was
assumed at the time that the North Pole pointed to
the North).
Because oI the many misconceptions that are
associated with the poles, it is best to stick with
magnetic Iields when trying to answer questions.
II you have to use poles, then immediately draw
magnetic Iield lines to help guide you.
Magnetic Forces
on a Moving Charge
One oI the biggest misconceptions in all oI phys-
ics is that charged particles move in the direction
oI magnetic Iield lines. This is absolutely Ialse!
The Iorce on a moving charge in an external mag-
netic Iield is perpendicular to both its velocity
and the external magnetic Iield. The direction is
given by Right Hand Rule 2. With RHR2, you
put your thumb in the direction oI the velocity, v,
oI the positive moving charge, your IoreIinger in
the direction oI the external magnetic Iield, B, and
the resulting middle Iinger points in the direction
oI the magnetic Iorce. FIGURE 55 shows how you
should arrange your right hand. Note that this only
works Ior a moving positive charge. II the charge
is negative, you need to Ilip the direction oI the
resulting Iorce by 180. II the charge is not mov-
ing, then there is no magnetic Iorce on it.
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work led to the basic electric motor that we rely on
heavily today.
2
In 1831, with Iurther experimentation, Faraday
discovered that a changing electrical current in a
wire led to a changing magnetic Iield, and pos-
sibly an induced current in a separate conductor.
3

These two key experiments laid the Ioundation Ior
electromagnetic induction and ushered in many
twentieth-century advances.
Magnetic Flux
Flux is the amount oI something that Ilows through
a given area. Magnetic flux, 4
B
, measures the
amount oI magnetic Iield lines that pass through a
given area. Let`s look at the situation oI a constant
tion, the direction oI the Iorce will change as well.
II the velocity oI the proton and the magnetic Iield
are perpendicular to one another, then this result-
ing motion will be a circle (as long as the Iield area
is large enough to contain the path oI the proton).
Magnetism Inside a Material
The real value oI Oersted`s discovery was that
it ultimately explained the phenomenon oI what
causes magnetism. As it turns out, all magnetism is
Iundamentally caused by moving charges.
The current-carrying wire is just a macroscopic
example oI what is happening at a much smaller
level in materials such as iron and nickel. As elec-
trons attached to atoms move through materials,
they create tiny magnetic Iields. In certain types
oI materials (called Ierromagnetic materials), the
conIigurations oI the atoms cause the magnetic
Iields to combine in a macroscopic way that cre-
ates noticeable eIIects in the world.
The circular motion oI each electron in an atom
creates a magnetic Iield that gives the appearance
oI North and South poles. The atoms appear to
be tiny magnets. In certain materials these atoms
line up to give a large net eIIect. This is why you
cannot separate the North and South parts oI a
magnet. You cannot split that moving electron. In
most materials, the atoms are not able to line up
and create a large net eIIect. These materials can-
not be magnetized even in the presence oI a strong
external magnetic Iield.
Electromagnetic
Induction
Historical Context:
Faradays Observations
In 1821, the English chemist and physicist Michael
Faraday (17911867) made a rather exciting dis-
covery. He Iound that when he put an electrical
current through a wire, it would move around a
Iixed magnet in a circle. This signiIicant piece oI
Portrait of Michael Faraday
(17911867), an English physicist and
chemist, who made tremendous contributions
to the field of electromagnetism.

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observed. This is known as Faraday`s law, which
states that the induced emI, c, in a closed wire is
equal to the time rate oI change oI the magnetic
Ilux, 4
B
. Mathematically this becomes:

=
B
t
Faraday not only explained this phenomenon, but
also calculated how much oI an emI would be cre-
ated. II you are given a resistance value, you can
easily Iind how much current would be Ilowing
through the conductor.
An excellent question to ask at this point is: Does
Faraday`s law violate energy conservation? It
seems as though we are getting something Ior
nothinga current through a wire that can power
a light bulb. It only appears, however, that this
current is coming Irom nowhere. We have to think
about the diIIerent ways that you can change the
magnetic Ilux oI an object. II I am increasing or
decreasing the external magnetic Iield, then I am
expending energy in that process. II I am adjust-
ing the aIIected area oI the conductor by removing
portions oI it Irom an external magnetic Iield, then
I am expending energy in that process (the con-
ductor will oppose my taking it out oI the Iield,
so I will need to apply Iorces). II I am changing
the angle 0 by manually rotating the conductor
through the magnetic Iield, then I am expending
energy in that process.
Lenzs Law
Lenz`s law explains the negative sign in Faraday`s
law. Lenz`s law states that, 'an induced emI, c,
always gives rise to a current whose magnetic
Iield opposes the original change in magnetic
Ilux. Lenz`s law essentially tells us which way the
polarity oI the emI will be (and hence the direction
oI the current Ilow).
The tricky part oI Lenz`s law is that there are two
magnetic Iields to consider when using it. The Iirst
is the external magnetic Iield, which is inducing
the current in the conducting loop (this magnetic
Iield may or may not be changing). The second
magnetic Iield, B, moving through a rectangular
area, A. (See FIGURE 57).
U FIGURE 57 I
The amount oI magnetic Ilux will depend on how
strong the magnetic Iield is, how big the area is,
and the angle, 0, between the area and the mag-
netic Iield lines. Mathematically we can say that:

B
= BAcos
The SI unit Ior magnetic Ilux is the weber. One
weber is equal to one Teslameter
2
. Please note
that the angle 0 is the angle taken between the
direction oI the magnetic Iield lines and the normal
to the rectangular area. This means that when the
Iield lines hit directly on the plane oI the area, like
arrows hitting the target, 0 0. The magnetic Ilux
will be at a maximum when the magnetic Iield lines
and the normal to the rectangular area are either
parallel or anti-parallel. The magnetic Ilux will be
zero when these two values are perpendicular.
Faradays Law
Faraday observed that a closed conductor physi-
cally reacts to a changing magnetic Ilux and
opposes the change by inducing a current in the
conductor (by creating an electromotive Iorce
or voltage diIIerence, c). Faraday summarized
his Iindings into a law that described what he
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U FIGURE 59 I
You can use RHR1 to Iind the direction oI the
induced current that will induce a magnetic Iield
that points to the right. Putting your thumb in the
direction oI the induced magnetic Iield gives you
Iingers that curl in the clockwise direction Irom
the point oI view oI the magnet. Thus, a clockwise
current will be induced in the conductor as a result
oI the magnet moving to the leIt.
FIGURE 60 shows the end result Irom the point oI
view oI the bar magnet (as the bar magnet is mov-
ing away Irom the circular conductor). From this
point oI view, the induced magnetic Iield is into the
paper, and the induced current will be clockwise.
U FIGURE 60 I
is the induced magnetic Iield produced by the
induced current in the loop. These two magnetic
Iields may or may not point in the same direction
(it really depends on the situation).
For example, let`s take the case oI the North Pole
oI a bar magnet being placed next to a circular
conductor, as shown in FIGURE 58. (Note that the
bar magnet is in the plane oI this paper while the
circular conductor is perpendicular to the plane oI
the paper.)
U FIGURE 58 I
II the magnet were moved to the leIt, away Irom
the conductor, in which direction would a current
be induced in the conductor? As we move the
magnet away Irom the conductor, this will result
in less magnetic Iield lines going through the
conductor and a smaller magnetic Ilux. According
to Faraday`s law, this will result in an induced
current in the conductor. Lenz`s law tells us that
the direction oI the induced current will create an
induced magnetic Iield that opposes the change in
magnetic Ilux. Since there is less magnetic Ilux
going through the conductor, the induced current
will have to create an induced magnetic Iield that
points in the same direction that the Iield lines
were pointing (to the right in this case). This is
shown in FIGURE 59.
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in such a way that a change in one would give rise
to a change in the other. He also showed that light
was an electromagnetic wave where the electric
and magnetic Iields varied as the wave propa-
gated through space. As Maxwell stated, '.light
itselI.is an electromagnetic disturbance in the
Iorm oI waves propagated through the electromag-
netic Iield.
5
This understanding may be one oI the
greatest advances in science.
Probably the most amazing thing is that Irom
the two constants already in use in the Iields oI
electricity and magnetism, Maxwell was able
to predict the speed oI light. Maxwell Iound the
speed oI light embedded in constants. His calcula-
tions worked out that:

c =
1
o
c
1
1.26 10
6

T m
A

8.85 10
12

C
2
Nm
2
c 2.995 10
8
m
s
Maxwell's contributions cannot be overstated. He
took the greatest mysteries oI his time and turned
them into a uniIied theory.
Section III Summary
\ Electric charge (like mass) is an inherent mea-
sure oI an object.
\ No process can change the net charge oI the
universe. This is known as charge conservation.
\ Coulomb`s law measures the Iorce between
two charges that are separated by a distance,
r:

F
electric
= k
e
q
1
q
2
r
2
. Here k
e
has a value oI
8.99 10
9
Nm
2
/C
2
.
\ An electric Iield is an invented concept that
explains how a source charge aIIects a test
charge, q
o
. We can relate the electric Iorce via
the electric Iield with the Iollowing equation:

F = q
o

E .
Historical Context:
Maxwell s Contributions
Even with all oI the work done in electricity and
magnetism prior to 1862, it took a special genius
like the Scottish physicist and mathematician
James Maxwell (183179) to put it all together.
Maxwell ruminated over how a changing mag-
netic Iield could give rise to an electric current.
Maxwell's work led to many breakthroughs relat-
ing electric Iields to magnetic Iields.
In 1864, Maxwell published A Dvnamical Theorv
of the Electromagnetic Field. This work neatly
wrapped up electricity and magnetism in Iour
simple equations.
4
In this work, Maxwell showed
that the electric and magnetic Iields were related
The Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell
(183179) developed classical electromagnetic
theory. Maxwell took the greatest mysteries of
his time and turned them into a unified theory.

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\ KirchhoII`s loop rule states that the sum
oI the voltage diIIerence across all the ele-
ments around any closed circuit must be zero:

V
loop
= V
1
+ V
2
+ V
3
+ V
4
= 0.
\ An electric current will give rise to a magnetic
Iield. The direction oI this magnetic Iield may
be Iound using Right Hand Rule 1.
\ A magnetic Iield will exert a Iorce on a mov-
ing charge. The direction oI this magnetic Iorce
may be Iound using Right Hand Rule 2.
\ Faraday`s law states that the induced emI in a
closed wire is equal to the time rate oI change
oI the magnetic Ilux.
\ Lenz`s law states that an induced emI always
gives rise to a current whose magnetic Iield
opposes the original change in magnetic Ilux.
\ James Maxwell Iound that light was actually
an electromagnetic wave where the electric and
magnetic Iields are varying as the wave propa-
gates through space.
\ Conductors are materials that allow electrons
to Ireely move. Insulators are materials through
which electrons move only with diIIiculty.
\ Capacitance is the ability oI an object to hold
charge. Capacitors are devices designed to store
energy in the Iorm oI electric Iields.
\ Ohm`s law is a relationship between the cur-
rent through a device and the voltage diIIerence
across that device:

V = IR.
\ The equivalent resistance Ior two resistors in
series is the sum oI the resistances:

R
eq
= R
1
+ R
2

.
\ The inverse oI the equivalent resistance Ior two
resistors in parallel is the sum oI the inverse oI
the resistances:

1
R
eq
=
1
R
1
+
1
R
2
\ KirchhoII`s junction rule states that the sum oI
the currents entering any junction must equal
the sum oI the currents leaving that junction:

I
in
= I
1
+ I
2
.
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T
hrough your reading oI this resource
guide, you have been introduced to many
physical concepts. It would be nearly
impossible Ior you to grasp all oI their nuances in
just one sitting. II you need Iurther explanation oI
the concepts, I encourage you to look up alternate
explanations in either a textbook or on the Internet.
In our discussion oI mechanics, we examined some
very important principles oI motion. We described
the scientiIic method. We learned how Newton`s
laws oI motion deIine Iorces and describe the
motion oI everyday objects due to Iorces. Energy
and momentum conservation oIIer alternate expla-
nations about how things move.
On the subject oI waves, you learned about the
multitude oI waves that interact with us. Laser
light, with various path length diIIerences, makes
interesting patterns when set up in a double slit
apparatus. Sound waves oI diIIerent Irequencies
interIere with each other to make beats. Light
waves encountering a phase shiIt diIIerence can
make interesting color patterns in thin Iilms. We
also saw how the geometry oI simple lenses allows
light to be manipulated.
On the subject oI electricity and magnetism, you
learned how historical discoveries shaped the Iield.
We discussed how electrically charged particles
interact with one another, and we observed how
electrical current works in circuits. We learned
how magnetism is caused by the motion oI electri-
cally charged particles, and we saw how Faraday`s
experiment led to the exciting discovery oI electro-
magnetic induction. We also learned how Maxwell
made important advances in the Iield oI electricity
and magnetism, as he explained light as an electro-
magnetic wave.
I hope that this resource guide has provided you
with a useIul primer on physical science. You can
get Iar by understanding how theory and experi-
ment go hand-in-hand to help explain the mysteries
oI the universe. Most importantly, never lose your
curiosity about how things work. Many wonderIul
things have been discovered just because someone
asked the simple question: Why?
Concl usi on
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Acceleration the amount an object`s velocity
has changed divided by the time period over which
that change took place; acceleration is a vector
quantity
Acceleration due to gravity on Earth the time
rate oI change in velocity Ior an object that Ialls
down toward the Earth, iI resistance is considered
to be negligible; the value near the surIace oI the
earth is 9.80 m/s
2
Amplitude in a wave or a sine curve that repre-
sents simple harmonic motion, the distance Irom
equilibrium to the peak (or Irom equilibrium to the
trough)
Angular momentum a value that measures
how much spinning inertia (or mass in motion) an
object has; angular momentum can be thought oI
as a measure oI how hard it would be to stop an
object Irom spinning around a central axis
Angular velocity a value that measures how
Iast an object is either rotating or moving around
a central axis
Battery a device that will supply energy to a
circuit by establishing a potential diIIerence
Capacitance the ability an object has to hold
charge when it is subjected to a potential diIIerence
Capacitor a device that is designed to store
energy in the Iorm oI an electric Iield by holding
charge
Centripetal acceleration an acceleration toward
the center oI an object that is moving circularly
around a central point; centripetal comes Irom the
Greek word that means 'center seeking; this vec-
tor is directed toward the center oI the circular path
Conductors materials through which electrons
can move somewhat Ireely
Conservation of energy reIers to the Iact that a
closed system with only conservative Iorces acting
on it will never change its total energy value
Conservative force a Iorce that merely transIers
energy between diIIerent internal energy systems
Ior an object; a conservative Iorce will not add
energy or take energy away Irom an object
Constructive interference the addition oI two
wave amplitudes that results in an overall greater
displacement Ior the resulting wave
Converging lens a lens that will attempt to Iocus
light rays to a speciIic point due to its geometry
Coordinate system a measuring system where
an origin is deIined and the directions oI positive
and negative are chosen; a perpendicular coordi-
nate system is oIten chosen
Coulomb`s law the mathematical relationship
that measures how much Iorce will be Ielt between
two charged objects at a certain distance Irom one
another
Destructive interference the addition oI
two wave amplitudes that results in less net
displacement
Displacement the change in position oI an
object regardless oI the path taken to make the
change; displacement is a vector quantity
Distance the magnitude oI displacement that
takes into account the path taken to make the
change; distance is a scalar quantity
Diverging lens a lens that, due to its geometry,
will deIocus light rays as iI they came Irom a spe-
ciIic point
Gl ossary of T e rms
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Force diagram a diagram used to visually keep
track oI all the Iorces acting on an object; all Iorces
should be written with reasonable approximations
oI their magnitudes and directions
Force of gravity the Iorce oI attraction between
two objects that have mass; the Iorce oI gravity
between you and the Earth keeps you Irom Iloating
oII oI the Earth
Frequency in a wave or a sine curve that rep-
resents simple harmonic motion, Irequency is the
number oI complete wave oscillations the wave
makes in a second; Irequency is the inverse oI
period
Friction a resistive Iorce that arises when two
objects rub against each other
Hypothesis an idea, usually based upon ear-
lier experiments or an observation oI a physical
phenomenon; an important step in the scientiIic
method
Impulse the amount oI Iorce that is imparted by
an object over a time period while it is trying to
change the momentum oI another object; impulse
is the change in momentum and is a vector quantity
Incident light ray an initial light ray that is
moving through one medium and then encounters
another medium
Index of refraction a ratio that measures how
much slower light travels in a given medium com-
pared to the speed oI light in a vacuum
Induction the process by which you rearrange
the electrons present in a material in order to
attract it to a charged object
Inelastic collision a collision in which momen-
tum is conserved but kinetic energy is not conserved
Insulators materials in which electrons will Ieel
a signiIicant resistance when they attempt to move
through
International System of Units (SI) a system
oI units that utilizes meters, kilograms, and sec-
onds as its base units Ior length, mass, and time
(respectively)
Elastic collision a collision in which both
momentum and kinetic energy are conserved
Electric charge an inherent measure oI an object
caused by the imbalance oI positive and negative
charges on the object
Electric current the amount oI electric charge
that passes by a point in a certain time period
Electric field a construct used to quantiIy how
much electric Iorce a test charge would Ieel when
placed next to a source charge; electric Iield is a
vector quantity
Electric potential the electrical potential energy
associated with an electric Iield divided by the
charge in that Iield; electrical potential is common-
ly reIerred to as voltage; batteries are measured in
terms oI electric potential; electric potential is a
scalar term
Electrical potential energy the energy associ-
ated with the Iorce between closely situated elec-
tric charges
Electric power the measurement oI how much
electric energy a circuit element is using in a given
time period
Electromotive force (EMF) an archaic term Ior
the potential diIIerence value Ior a battery
Energy an internal quantity that is stored in an
object that may be used Ior motion or work or may
be transIerred to another object; energy is a scalar
quantity
Equivalent resistance the resistance Iound
when a circuit is broken down by combining cir-
cuit elements to create a new equivalent circuit
Estimation an educated guess or calculation oI a
value that is usually perIormed quickly so that you
get a general idea oI the range oI that value
Force an interaction between two objects that
may or may not aIIect the subsequent motion oI
either object; Newton`s laws oI motion detail how
Iorces aIIect the motion oI an object; Iorce is a
vector quantity
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Normal force the contact Iorce that arises when
two objects are contacting each other; the direction
oI this Iorce vector will be perpendicular to the
contact surIace
Ohm`s law the relationship between potential
diIIerence, electric current, and resistance Ior a
given circuit element; Ohm`s law does not apply
Ior all materials
Path length difference the diIIerence in length
between the paths oI two waves that will result in
wave interIerence
Peak the highest point that a wave is displaced
Irom equilibrium
Period in a wave or a sine curve that represents
simple harmonic motion, the period is the time that
it takes Ior the motion to repeat
Permeability of free space a universal constant
that is used in magnetic Iorce calculations; repre-
sented by the symbol
o
Permittivity of free space a universal constant
that is used in electrical Iorce calculations; repre-
sented by the symbol c
o
Phase the state oI the displacement oI a wave
at a particular time; iI the phase changes, then its
displacement will automatically change
Position how Iar and in what direction an object
is Irom the origin in a coordinate system; position
is a vector quantity
Potential energy a Iorm oI energy that is stored
Ior later use; potential energy may either be trans-
Ierred to another energy Iorm, such as kinetic
energy, or transIerred to another object in the Iorm
oI work
Projectile an object that has motion in both the
vertical and horizontal directions and Ialls solely
under the inIluence oI gravity while in the air
Reflected light ray the light ray that results
when an incident light encounters another medium
and bounces back into its original medium
1unction rule the KirchhoII rule that states that
the sum oI the currents entering any junction must
equal the sum oI the currents leaving that junction;
it is a statement oI conservation oI charge
Kinematics the study oI the motion oI objects
Kinetic energy a Iorm oI energy that quantita-
tively measures how much motion an object has
Kinetic friction a Iorce between two objects in
contact with one another as one object is moving
over the other; the Iorce resists the motion and
attempts to slow down the moving object
Light rays rays that emanate Irom an object and
move in a straight line away Irom the object
Longitudinal wave a wave in which the dis-
placement oI the medium is in the same direction
as the motion oI the traveling wave
Loop Rule the KirchhoII rule that states that the
sum oI the voltage diIIerences across all the ele-
ments around any closed circuit must be zero; it is
a statement oI conservation oI energy
Magnetic fields a construct used to quantiIy
how much magnetic Iorce a current can exert on a
separate moving charge
Magnetic flux the amount oI magnetic Iield
lines that pass through a given area
Mechanics the study oI what causes the motion
oI an object to occur
Medium a substance that has a tendency to
return to equilibrium when displaced; a traveling
wave will propagate through a medium
Moment of inertia quantitatively measures how
much eIIort it will take to change an object`s angu-
lar motion
Momentum the amount oI motion an object
has that is represented by the multiplication oI the
object`s mass times its velocity; momentum is a
vector quantity
Non-conservative force a Iorce that changes
the total energy oI an object when it acts over a
distance and thus perIorms work on it
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Superposition the resulting addition oI two
waves interacting at the same place at the same
time
Torque the quantitative measure oI how much
eIIective Iorce is being exerted in trying to rotate
something around an axis; torque is a vector
quantity
Transverse wave a wave in which the displace-
ment oI the medium is perpendicular to the direc-
tion oI motion oI the wave
Traveling wave a wave that propagates through
some type oI matter thereby transIerring ener-
gy and momentum Irom one spatial location to
another
Trough the lowest point a wave is displaced
Irom equilibrium
Vectors quantities that need both a numerical
value and a direction to Iully describe them
Velocity the displacement oI an object divided
by the time period over which it took place; veloc-
ity is a vector quantity
Wave interference the result when two or more
waves get together at the same location and at the
same time
Wavelength in a wave, the distance between
adjacent peaks or adjacent troughs
Wave source the thing that creates a wave in a
medium
Wave velocity the speed at which a wave is
propagating through a medium
Work the transIer oI energy to an object due
to a Iorce acting over a distance; work is a scalar
quantity
Refraction the bending oI a light ray that will
occur as an incident light ray moves into a diIIer-
ent medium
Resistance the ability oI a material to slow the
conduction oI electrons through it
Right Hand Rule 1 (RHR1) the rule that allows
you to Iind the direction oI the magnetic Iield that
emanates Irom a current; iI you put your thumb
in the direction oI current Ilow while grasping the
wire, then your Iingers will curl in the direction oI
the resulting magnetic Iield
Right Hand Rule 2 (RHR2) the rule that allows
you to Iind the direction oI the Iorce that results
Irom a charge moving in a magnetic Iield; iI you
put your thumb in the direction oI the velocity oI
the positive moving charge, and your IoreIinger in
the direction oI the external magnetic Iield, then
the resulting middle Iinger will point in the direc-
tion oI the magnetic Iorce
Scalars quantities that only need a numerical
value to Iully describe them
Scientific method a method used to advance
humankind`s knowledge by analyzing Iacts and
data in order to Iind out more about the universe
Simple harmonic motion (SHM) periodic
motion that arises Irom a restoring Iorce acting
on a system; the resulting motion will oscillate on
either side oI an equilibrium value and resemble a
sinusoidal curve
Speed the magnitude oI velocity; speed is a sca-
lar quantity
Static friction a Iorce between two objects in
contact with one another that attempts to keep the
two objects in stationary contact by resisting the
attempted motion oI one oI the objects
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1. John Gribbin, Science: A History 15432001 (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 2002) 416.
2. Ibid., 417.
3. Ibid., 420.
4. Basil Mahon, The Man Who Changed Everything: The LiIe oI James Clerk Maxwell (West Sussex:
John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 2003) 126.
5. John Gribbin, Science: A History 15432001 (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 2002) 432.
Not e s
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Gribbin, John. Science: A History 15432001. London: Penguin Books Ltd., 2002.
Mahon, Basil. The Man Who Changed Everything: The LiIe oI James Clerk Maxwell. West Sussex: John
Wiley & Sons Ltd., 2003.
Bi bl i ography
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