Propagation of Light: Diffraction

One of the biggest things that most people do not quite understand
about light is its wave properties. The fact that it behaves as a wave and
is subjected to phenomenon known as diffraction can be hard to grasp.
Since light always seems to go straight its hard to imagine that it can
bend around corners or spread out upon reaching an obstacle or small
opening.
In this lab we studied the concept of beam divergence as a function
of distance then we collimated this beam to a point that we sent into a
series of diffraction gratings that split this beam into a different patterns
of intensities and such. We were able to measure the intensities as a
function of position and thus able to compare the graphs of the
intensities of certain gratings with each other. We also noted how these
patterns changed (if ever so slightly) upon changing the angle of
incidence on the gratings themselves and lastly we were able to
determine the spacing on an object like a CD that can be used as
diffraction grating.

Introduction:

The Experiment:

Preliminary Measurements

Signal Change as a Function of Resistance

Signal Voltage (mV)

450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1

10

100

1000

10000

Resistance (k)
Resistance ()
3
10
30
100
300
1000
3000
10000
30000
100000
300000

Voltage (mV)
0.529
1.76
5.47
17.51
52.55
174.28
355.8
385.6
392.25
393.03
393.53

Uncertainty (mV)
0.06
0.2
0.4
2.0
4.0
3.0
1.0
0.4
0.6
0.4
0.5
2

Vi/Vo
N/A
3.32703
3.1079
3.2011
3.00114
3.31646
2.04154
1.08375
1.01725
1.00199
1.00127

100000

1000000

Signal Voltage (mV)

Signal Voltage vs Resistance

400
380
360
340
320
300
1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

1.7

1.8

Resistance (k)

Resistance ()
Voltage (mV)
Uncertainty (mV)
2000
317.06 4.0
4000
368.96 4.0
6000
379.34 3.0
8000
384.04 1.0

Vi/Vo
N/A
1.16369
1.02813
1.01239

Signal Voltage (mV)

Signal Voltage vs Resistance

300
280
260
240
220
200
180
1

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

Resistance (k)

1.6

Resistance (k)

Voltage (mV)

1.05
1.1
1.15
1.2
1.25
1.3
1.35
1.4
1.45
1.5
1.55
1.6
1.65
1.7
1.75

Resistance (k)2

183.25
191.95
200.65
209.34
217.93
226.46
234.89
243.22
256.5
265.25
273.45
281.25
288.37
294.92
300.88

Calculated Ratio

1.05 N/A
1.1
1.15
1.2
1.25
1.3
1.35
1.4
1.45
1.5
1.55
1.6
1.65
1.7
1.75

Expected Ratio
N/A

1.04748
1.04532
1.04331
1.04103
1.03914
1.03723
1.03546
1.0546
1.03411
1.03091
1.02852
1.02532
1.02271
1.02021

1.04762
1.04545
1.04348
1.04167
1.04
1.03846
1.03704
1.03571
1.03448
1.0333
1.03226
1.03125
1.0303
1.02941

Ratio vs. Resistance

1.055

Ratio of V1/V2

1.05
1.045
Calculated Ratio

1.04
1.035
1.03

Expected Ratio

1.025
1.02
1

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

Resistance (k)

1.6

1.7

1.8

Modulating the Light Beam

- Resistance of 300
Polarizer Angle ()
0
28
44
50
56
65
70
76
77
80
84
86
90

Multimeter Voltage (mV)

Oscilloscope Voltage (mV)
17.321
36.2
13.061
28.2
9.03
19.4
7.088
15.8
5.099
11.5
3.044
7.4
2.061
4.3
1.034
3.3
0.824
1.7
0.549
1.24
0.261
0.765
0.134
0.419
0.094
0.198

Signal vs Polarizer Angle

35.1

Signal Voltage (mV)

Multimeter
Voltage
(mV)

30.1
25.1

Oscilloscope
Voltage
(mV)

20.1
15.1
10.1

cos()^2

5.1
0.1
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Polarizer Angle ()
Polarizer Angle ()

Multimeter Voltage (mV)

Oscilloscope Voltage (mV)
0
17.288
35.1
5

28
44
50
56
65
70
76
77
80
84
86
90

13.102
8.857
7.028
5.215
3.148
2.054
1.024
0.803
0.51
0.236
0.115
0.082

26.2
18.1
14.2
10.7
6.6
4.4
2.2
1.8
1.22
0.705
0.43
0.21

Signal vs Polarizer Angle

36

Signal Voltage (mV)

31

Multimeter
Voltage
(mV)

26
21
16

Oscilloscope
Voltage
(mV)

11
6
1
-4

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Polarizer Angle ()

- Multimeter Error
Voltage 1 (mV)
17.321
13.061
9.03
7.088
5.099

Voltage 2 (mV)

Percent Error

17.288
13.102
8.857
7.028
5.215

Uncertainty (mV)
0.190520178
0.313911645
1.915836102
0.846501129
2.274955874

0.03
0.04
0.17
0.06
0.12

90

3.044
2.061
1.034
0.824
0.549
0.261
0.134
0.094

3.148
2.054
1.024
0.803
0.51
0.236
0.115
0.082

3.416557162
0.339640951
0.967117988
2.548543689
7.103825137
9.578544061
0.372622083
12.76595745

0.10
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.04
0.03
0
0.01

3.038674033
7.092198582
6.701030928
10.12658228
6.956521739
10.81081081
2.325581395
33.33333333
5.882352941
1.612903226
7.843137255
2.625298329
6.060606061

Uncertainty (mV)
1.01
2.00
1.30
1.60
0.80
0.80
0.10
1.10
0.10
0.02
0.06
0.01
0.01

- Oscilloscope Error
Voltage 1 (mV)
Voltage 2 (mV) Percent Error
36.2
35.1
28.2
26.2
19.4
18.1
15.8
14.2
11.5
10.7
7.4
6.6
4.3
4.4
3.3
2.2
1.7
1.8
1.24
1.22
0.765
0.705
0.419
0.43
0.198
0.21

- Resistance of 2000

Signal vs Polarizer Angle

Signal Voltage (mV)

350
300
250

Voltage
Multi.
(mV)

200
150

Voltage
Oscil.(mV)

100
50
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Polarizer Angle ()

Angle ()
0
27
36
43
49
55
61
71
76
80
84
86
90

Voltage Multi. (mV)

162.8
140.14
120.06
100
80.06
60.03
40
20
9.82
5.04
2.44
1.25
0.84

Uncertainty (mV)
2.0
4.0
3.0
1.0
4.0
2.0
3.0
1.0
0.5
0.4
0.6
0.2
0.3

- Resistance 5000
8

Voltage Oscill.(mV)
328
284
244
202
164
124
82
41
20
11
5
3
1

Uncertainty (mV)2
4.0
2.0
3.0
2.0
4.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
1.0
0.7
0.8
0.1
0.3

Signal vs Polarizer Angle

Signal Voltage (mV)

400
350
300
250

Voltage
Multi. (mV)

200
150

Voltage
Oscill.(mV)

100
50
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Polarizer Angle ()
Polarizer Angle ()

Voltage Multi. (mV)

0
46
53
57
60
66
75
79
82
85
87
90

185.68
160
140.32
120.5
100.11
69.84
29.83
15.16
7.41
3.1
1.56
0.87

Uncertainty (mV)
3.0
1.0
3.0
2.0
2.0
1.0
1.0
0.7
0.8
0.2
0.25
0.05

Voltage Oscill.(mV)
372
325
284
254
205
144
63
33
16
7
4
2

Calibrating the Polarizing Attenuator

Uncertainty (mV)
2.0
3.0
3.0
1.0
2.0
1.0
1.0
0.8
0.5
0.2
0.1
0.05

- Resistance 300

Signal Voltage (mV)

Signal vs Polarizer Angle

256
128
64

Voltage
Multi.
(mV)

32
16
8

Voltage
Oscill.(mV)

4
2
1

-10

10

30

50

Polarizer Angle ()
Polarizer Angle ()
0
28
44
50
56
65
70
76
77
80
84
86
90

Voltage Multi. (mV)

Voltage Oscill.(mV)
136.02
374
179.03
369
166.17
330
155.03
306
132.23
262
83.41
171
54.5
113
26.92
52
22.37
48
13.29
28
4.95
11
2.34
6
0.88
2

Cos () ^2 vs Extinction Ratio

10

70

90

Cos () ^2 vs Extinction Ratio

Extinction Ratio (T/Tmax)

1
0.9
0.8
0.7

Extinction
Ratio 1

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3

Extinction
Ratio 2

0.2
0.1
0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Cos () ^2
cos()^2
1
0.779596
0.51745
0.413176
0.312697
0.178606
0.116978
0.058526
0.050603
0.030154
0.010926
0.04866
0

Voltage 1 (mV)
17.321
13.061
9.03
7.088
5.099
3.044
2.061
1.034
0.824
0.549
0.261
0.134
0.094

Extinction Ratio 1

Voltage 2 (mV)

1
0.75406
0.52133
0.40921
0.29438
0.17574
0.11899
0.0597
0.04757
0.0317
0.01507
0.00774
0.00543

17.288
13.102
8.857
7.028
5.215
3.148
2.054
1.024
0.803
0.51
0.236
0.115
0.082

11

Extinction Ratio 2
1
0.75787
0.51232
0.40652
0.30165
0.18209
0.11881
0.05923
0.04645
0.0295
0.01365
0.00665
0.00474

Cos () ^2 vs Extinction Ratio

Extinction Ratio (T/Tmax

1
0.9
0.8
0.7

Extinc
tion
Ratio
1

0.6
0.5

Extinc
tion
Ratio
2

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Cos () ^2
cos()^2
1
0.779596
0.51745
0.413176
0.312697
0.178606
0.116978
0.058526
0.050603
0.030154
0.010926
0.04866
0

Voltage 1 (mV)
36.2
28.2
19.4
15.8
11.5
7.4
4.3
3.3
1.7
1.24
0.765
0.419
0.198

Extinction Ratio
1

Voltage 2 (mV)

1
0.77901
0.53591
0.43646
0.31768
0.20442
0.11878
0.09116
0.04696
0.03425
0.02113
0.01157
0.00547

35.1
26.2
18.1
14.2
10.7
6.6
4.4
2.2
1.8
1.22
0.705
0.43
0.21

12

Extinction Ratio
2
1
0.74644
0.51567
0.40456
0.30484
0.18803
0.12536
0.06268
0.05128
0.03476
0.02009
0.01225
0.00598

Signal vs Resistance
Signal Voltage (mV)

125
25
5
1
Max. Intensity (mV)
0.2

Min. Intensity (mV)

Background (mV)

0.04
0.008
0.0016
0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

Resistance (k)
Resistance ()
Max. Intensity (mV)
Min. Intensity (mV)
Background (mV)
Extinction Ratio
100
17.77
0.021
0.0047
0.001182
200
35.62
0.046
0.014
0.001291
500
39
0.102
0.036
0.002615
800
142.3
0.18
0.06
0.001265
1000
177.16
0.19
0.15
0.001072

13