Courses Uploads Attachment 258

AER 101 Introduction to Aeronautics
Instructor : Prof. Dr. Galal Bahgat Salem g

Textbook : John D. Anderson, Jr,
Introduction to Flight , 4
th
Edition ,
2000 .
Term Work : 25 +25 = 50 Marks
Final Exam: 50 +50 = 100 Marks Final Exam: 50 +50 = 100 Marks
Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem
Aerospace Dept., Cairo University
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AER 101 A Introduction to Aeronautics ( 2 + 1 ) AER 101 A Introduction to Aeronautics ( 2 1 )
History of Flight
N t f A d i F Nature of Aerodynamic Forces
Airplane components and Configurations
Scope of Aeronautical Engineering p g g
Fluid Properties and Characteristics
Atmosphere
Basic Aerodynamics : Kinematics Continuity and Basic Aerodynamics : Kinematics, Continuity and
Bernoullis Equations, Boundary Layer Concept, Skin
Friction, Pressure Drag, Flow Separation, Streamlining
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AER 101B Introduction to Aeronautics ( 2 + 1 ) ( )
Geometric and Aerodynamic Characteristics of Airfoils y
Dimensional Analysis and Aerodynamic Force
Coefficients
Elements of Airplane Performance: Drag-Speed Curve,
Cruising Flight Performance, Climbing Performance,
Gliding Performance Gliding Performance
Elements of Propulsion: Propellers, Piston Engines,
Reaction Principle, Jet Engines, Rocket Motors
Elements of Airplane Stability and Control
3
Chapter 1
History Of Flight History Of Flight
What is Flight ?
Flight is a motion in air free from ground Flight is a motion in air free from ground
topography
It is a high speed motion through a low It is a high-speed motion through a low-
resistance ( low density ) medium which is air
N B Compare flight in air having a density of N.B. Compare flight in air, having a density of
1.225 Kg/m
3
, with shipping in water of density
1000 Kg/m
3
g
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Short History of Flight
1 I it ti Bi d 1. Imitating Birds
People attempting to fly by using artificial wings p p g y y g g
strapped to their arms and-or legs
The flapping of wings generate lift
The Greek myth of Daedalus and his son Icarus
imprisoned on the island of Crete in the
Mediterranean Sea illustrates mans flight Mediterranean Sea illustrates man s flight
The idea of strapping a pair of wings to arms fell
out of favor out o a o
It was replaced by concept of wings flapped up
and down by various mechanical devices,
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Powered by human arm, leg, or body movement
These are called Ornithopters
Ornithopters first designed by Leonardo da
Vinci ( 1452-1519 )
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Leonardo da Vinci Leonardo da Vinci
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Why Dont Ornithopters Work?
G. A. Borelli (1680 ) realized the fact that (
power/weight) ratio of a man is much less
than that of bird
Hence man will never be able to fly like a
bird, by his own power only
2. Lighter-than-Air Balloons[Unpowered Flight] g [ p g ]
Firstly hot air balloons discovered by the
Montgolfier Brothers in France (1783)
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Later on gas balloons of Hydrogen/Helium were Later on gas balloons of Hydrogen/Helium were
used by Charles
Charles found that ballooning is based on Charles found that ballooning is based on
Archimedes principle of buoyancy
Unmanned Balloon
Manned Balloon
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3. Lighter-than-Air Dirigibles (Airships)[Powered]
Firstly invented by Count von Zeppelin in
Germany (1900)
They are more rigid (the first airframe) than They are more rigid (the first airframe) than
balloons, controlled and directed (using
stabilizing surfaces) and propeller droved g ) p p
Large bags of gas inside the rigid airframe
Count von Zeppelin (1929), flew around the world
in 21 days
Hydrogen fired in Hindenburg dirigible in 1937
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4.Sir George Cayley (1799)
First pioneered the concept for the modern airplane p p p
configuration in 1799
- Fixed wings, tail, fuselage
Separate mechanism for propulsion - Separate mechanism for propulsion
separation of lift and propulsion
Recognized that the function of thrust was to overcome g
aerodynamic drag
Drew the first lift-drag vector diagram in the history
N B Before this time flapping wings were supposed to N.B. Before this time flapping wings were supposed to
provide both lift and propulsion
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Lift Resultant Aerodynamic
Force
Drag Thrust
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5.Heavier-than-Air Unpowered Gliders (Sailplanes)
Gliders first designed and flew by Otto Lilienthal,
a German mechanical engineer in 1891 a German mechanical engineer, in 1891
Lilienthal is known as the gliders man
Gliders characterized by un sustained flight Gliders characterized by un-sustained flight
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He died in 1896, after stalling a glider he was flying
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6 Heavier than Air Powered Airplanes 6.Heavier-than-Air Powered Airplanes
Samuel P. Langley was contracted to build a flying
machine for the U.S. government
Began a series of aerodynamic experiments in 1887
S f l i fl i l ll l d Successful in flying several small scale, unmanned,
powered aircraft, which he called aerodromes
These were the first steam-powered, heavier-than-air ese e e e s s ea po e ed, ea e a a
machines to successfully fly
Langleys attempt to build a manned aerodrome failed
Lunched and crashed on Oct. 7 and December 8, 1903
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Langleys aerodrome shortly after launch
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The Wright Brothers
Wright brothers (Orville&Wilbur) were the
inventors of the first practical manned flight on inventors of the first practical manned flight on
17 Dec.,1903 (Flyer I )
It was a strut-and-wire biplane configuration It was a strut and wire biplane configuration
Propulsion was achieved by a four-cylinder in-
line engine designed and built by Orville Wright
It produced close to 12 hp and weighed 140 Ibs
It drove two propellers via a bicycle-like chain
lloop
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The control feature of Wright flyer is one of the basic g y
reasons for its success
Flyer I had a wing span of 12 m , flew a distance of 256
d l ti 59 m, and lasting 59 sec
Wright Flyer Engine g y g
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Wright Flyer engine
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Hydrostatics of Lighter-than-Air Flight
The lifting force is the buoyancy force The lifting force is the buoyancy force
The basic laws of hydrostatics (fluid at rest) are:
a- fluid pressure p is uniform in horizontal a- fluid pressure p is uniform in horizontal
planes, as well as the density
b p varies only with height z according to the b- p varies only with height z according to the
Hydrostatic equation z
datum
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dp/dz = g dp/dz = -g
Integrating, in case of constant density:
p + g z = constant p + g z = constant
This is the hydrostatic equation
p
non-uniform
p distribution
p
p distribution
on a body immersed
in a fluid at rest
z
p + g z B
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The resultant fluid-pressure force is called the
b f B ti ti ll d d buoyancy force B, acting vertically upward, and
equals to the weight of the displaced fluid
B V B = g V
where density of fluid
g acceleration of gravity
V volume of immersed body
N.B. The basis of Heavier-than-air Flight will
discussed later
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Anatomy OF THE AIRPLANE
The Main Components of the Airplane
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The basic airplane components include: The basic airplane components include:
fuselage, wing, tail assembly, control surfaces,
landing gear, and power plant(s) g g , p p ( )
1.The Fuselage
It carries the payload. It carries the payload.
It is the central structural member of the
airframe to which other members are attached airframe to which other members are attached.
It is generally streamlined to reduce drag.
Designs vary with the mission to be performed Designs vary with the mission to be performed,
as illustrated in figure
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2.The Wing
It generates the lift force It generates the lift force.
It includes the flaps for lift augmentation during
landing and takeoff and ailerons for banking landing and takeoff, and ailerons for banking
the airplane during turning.
The wing cross-section is called Airfoil The wing cross section is called Airfoil
The airfoil shape, wing planform shape, and
placement of the wing on the fuselage depend placement of the wing on the fuselage depend
upon the airplane mission.
The figure illustrates wing shapes and g g p
placements
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3 Tail Assembly and Control Surfaces 3.Tail Assembly and Control Surfaces
The tail assembly (empennage) represents the
collection of structures at the rear of the airplane
The tail assembly consists of:
1- The vertical stabilizer (fin) and rudder which
provide directional stability in yaw
2-The horizontal stabilizer and elevator which
provide longitudinal stability in pitch p g y p
The figure illustrates different forms of tail
assembly
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4.Landing Gear g
The landing gear (undercarriage) supports the
airplane while it is at rest on the ground and airplane while it is at rest on the ground and
during the takeoff and landing
The gear may be fixed or retractable The gear may be fixed or retractable
The wheels are attached to shock-absorbing
struts that use oil or air to cushion the blow of st uts t at use o o a to cus o t e b o o
landing
Special types of landing gear include skids for p yp g g
snow and floats for water
For carrier landings, arrester hooks are used
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4.Power Plants
Power plants used to produce the thrust force Power plants used to produce the thrust force
necessary to propel the airplane to overcome
the drag the drag
The power plant consists of the engine (and
propeller, if present) and accessories propeller, if present) and accessories
The main engine types are:
-Reciprocating (or piston type) Reciprocating (or piston type)
-Reaction engines such as turbojet, turbofan,
turboprop, ram jet, pulse jet, and rocket engine turboprop, ram jet, pulse jet, and rocket engine
The figure shows several some of engine
placements
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p
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The Aircraft Structure The Aircraft Structure
The figure shows a cutaway drawing of an
aircraft structure aircraft structure
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Basic Elements of Aircraft Structure as c e e ts o c a t St uctu e
The wing
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Wing structure basically same in all aircraft
types types
Modern aircrafts have all metal and composite
material wings but many older had wood and material wings but many older had wood and
fabric wings
The wing is a framework composed of spars The wing is a framework composed of spars,
ribs and (possibly) stringers (see figure)
Spars are the main members of the wing. They Spars are the main members of the wing. They
extended lengthwise of the wing (crosswise of
fuselage)
Most wing structures have two spars, the front
spar and the rear spar
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Front spar near the leading edge, while
the rear spar at about two-thirds the
distance to the trailing edge
The ribs are the parts of the wing which p g
support the covering and provide the airfoil
shape p
A skin covers the wing framework
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The Fuselage
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The fuselage structural elements are: g
1-Bulkheads, which form the cross-sectional
shape of the fuselage
2-Longerons, which are heavy strips that run
the length of the fuselage and are attached to
the outer edge of the bulkheads
3-Fuselage skin, which is attached to the
llongerons
N.B. Keelson is a strong beam placed at the
b tt f th f l Th k l i f tl bottom of the fuselage. The keelson is frequently
used in military fighter aircrafts
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Aerodynamic Basis of Heavier-than-Air Flight e ody a c as s o ea e t a g t
This is the real flight
It needs a lifting force to balance the weight; It needs a lifting force to balance the weight;
since the buoyancy force is not sufficient
The source of the lifting force is the fact that The source of the lifting force is the fact that
when a fluid is in motion, its pressure varies not
only with height, as in the case of rest, but also o y t e g t, as t e case o est, but a so
with its velocity
The relation between p, V, and z is expressed by p, , p y
Bernoulli equation (1738) :
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p + (1/2) V
2
+ gz = constant
Where p static pressure
(1/2) V
2
dynamic pressure
(1/2) V
2
dynamic pressure
g z head pressure
The shape of an airplane ing cross section The shape of an airplane-wing cross section
(known as aerofoil or airfoil) was evolved from
the Venturi tube as shown : the Venturi tube, as shown :
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When a fluid flows over a body (or a surface), or
h b d i f d t th h fl id when a body is forced to move through a fluid,
the fluid velocity relative to the body surface may
be increased or decreased (depending on be increased or decreased (depending on
surface shape and altitude)
And consequently the fluid pressure p may And consequently the fluid pressure p may
decrease or increase according to Bernoullis
equation
The resultant will be a net fluid force F acting
on the body which is completely different than
the Buoyancy force (and may be many times
greater than it)
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How does an Airplane fly?
Th k h i f lif i h i ll The key to the generation of lift is the specially-
designed streamlined body, called the wing,
and characterized by a special cross section and characterized by a special cross-section,
called airfoil
When the wing is propelled through air at a When the wing is propelled through air at a
suitable angle of attack, and with a relatively-
high speed, the air flowing around its surface is g p , g
accelerated and/or decelerated according to
Bernoullis equation
The integration of the air-pressure distribution
over the surface of the wing results in a resultant
d i f F
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aerodynamic force F
The component of R perpendicular to flight
direction (direction of relative motion) is called direction (direction of relative motion) is called
the Lift L
The component of R opposite to flight direction The component of R opposite to flight direction
is called drag D
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Forces on an Airplane Forces on an Airplane
Basically, the four forces acting on an airplane are
weight, thrust, lift, and drag weight, thrust, lift, and drag
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Weight: The weight includes the airplane itself,
th l d d th f l Si th f l i the payload, and the fuel. Since the fuel is
consumed as the airplane flies, the weight
decreases. Weight acts in a direction towards decreases. Weight acts in a direction towards
the center of the Earth.
Thrust: The driving force of whatever propulsive
system is used, engine driven propeller, jet
engine, rocket engine, and so forth, is the thrust.
It may be taken to act along the longitudinal axis It may be taken to act along the longitudinal axis
of the airplane.
Lift: This force is generated by the flow of air
around the airplane, the major portion resulting
from the wing. It represents the component of
the resultant aerodynamic force normal to the
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the resultant aerodynamic force normal to the
flight direction.
Drag: This force arises from the flow of air
around the airplane and is the component of the p p
resultant aerodynamic force opposite to the flight
direction
For un-accelerated (Steady) level flight:
L = W
T = D T = D
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Scope of Aerospace Engineering Scope of Aerospace Engineering
Aerospace engineering means airplane, missiles p g g p ,
(Rockets), and satellite design, manufacturing,
testing, maintaining, repairing, overhauling, and
performance analysis performance analysis
The Main Topics A.E. are:
(1) Aerodynamics (1) Aerodynamics
(2) Airframe Design
(3) Propulsion (3) Propulsion
(4) Flight Mechanics & Control
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The Associated Topics are:
Flight navigation Flight navigation
Electronics ( + Flight navigation = Avionics )
Meteorology gy
Metallurgy
Production Engineering
Fluid-power engineering (pneumatic,
hydraulic, pressurization, and air-conditioning
systems) systems)
Instrumentation
Chemical & fuel engineering Chemical & fuel engineering
Flight regulations & Airworthiness
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The Associated Topics are:
Flight navigation Flight navigation
Electronics ( + Flight navigation = Avionics )
Meteorology gy
Metallurgy
Production Engineering
Fluid-power engineering (pneumatic,
hydraulic, pressurization, and air-conditioning
systems) systems)
Instrumentation
Chemical & fuel engineering Chemical & fuel engineering
Flight regulations & Airworthiness
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Aerodynamics
Aerodynamic design of the flight vehicle/space
vehicle for:
Maximum lift production
Minimum drag
Max. available space for structure and payload
Determination of the aerodynamic forces on the
designed configuration at the different flight designed configuration at the different flight
conditions (speed, attitude, and a altitude)
Wind-tunnel testing Wind tunnel testing
Flight testing
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Propulsion Propulsion
Power-plant design & construction for: Power plant design & construction for:
Max. thrust/weight of engine
Max thrust/drag of engine Max. thrust/drag of engine
Min. specific fuel consumption (sfc)
Good performance at different altitudes and Good performance at different altitudes and
speeds of flight
Power-plant manufacturing Power-plant manufacturing
Power-plant testing
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Airframe Design Airframe Design
Structural analysis
Airframe design & construction for:
sufficient strength and with less weight
Airframe manufacturing techniques
Airframe testing techniques Airframe testing techniques
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Flight Mechanics & Control Flight Mechanics & Control
Stabilizing and control surfaces design Stabilizing and control surfaces design
Control surfaces operation and
performance performance
Aircraft stability analysis
Maneuverability considerations
Airplane systems and instrumentation p y
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AER 101 Introduction to Aeronautics

Instructor : Prof. Dr. Galal Bahgat Salem g

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