AQA Core 1 Algebra

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Section 3 : Quadratic functions and their graphs

Notes and Examples

These notes contain subsections on
Factorising quadratic expressions
Graphs of quadratic functions
Solving quadratic equations by factorisation
The turning point of a quadratic graph
Completing the square
Solving quadratic equations using the formula


In this section of work you will be studying quadratic functions and their
graphs. You probably already know something about this topic, but you will
now be taking it a little further.


Factorising quadratic expressions

This should be revision of GCSE work. It is essential that you are confident in
factorisation.

The textbook shows factorising by inspection trying various combinations
until the right one is found.

An alternative approach is as follows:
For the quadratic
2
ax bx c , first work out the value of ac .
You need to find two numbers which add together to make b, and
multiply together to make ac.
Write the middle term as the sum of these two numbers.
Factorise in pairs. You should then have a common factor (in a
bracket) which you can take out.


Example 1
Factorise the expressions
(i) x + 4x + 3 (ii) x 4x 12 (iii) 2x 7x + 6

Solution
(i)
2 2
4 3 3 3
( 1) 3( 1)
( 1)( 3)



x x x x x
x x x
x x

(ii)
2 2
4 12 6 2 12
( 6) 2( 6)
( 6)( 2)



x x x x x
x x x
x x



The value of ac is 3. You need two
numbers whose sum is 4 and whose
product is 3. These are +1 and +3.
The value of ac is 12. You need two
numbers whose sum is 4 and whose
product is 12. These are 6 and +2.
(x + 1) is now a common
factor in this expression.
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(iii)
2 2
2 7 6 2 3 4 6
(2 3) 2(2 3)
(2 3)( 2)



x x x x x
x x x
x x







You should choose the approach that you find easiest.

You can see step-by-step examples of factorising quadratics in this
PowerPoint presentation. You can also look at the Factorising quadratics
video.

For practice in examples like the ones above, try the interactive questions
Factorising quadratics. You can also test yourself using the Flash resource
Factorising.


Graphs of quadratic functions

Factorising a quadratic expression gives you information about the graph of a
quadratic function. Do not think of this work as just algebraic manipulation,
think about it also in terms of the graph of the function. Linking algebra and
graphs is a very important mathematical skill; the good news is that being
able to consider problems both algebraically and graphically usually makes
them easier! A graphic calculator or computer package will be very useful.

You may already be familiar with the graph of the simplest quadratic function,
y = x.


All other quadratic graphs have basically the same shape, but they may be
stretched, squashed, shifted or inverted.

y = x
The curve given by graphs of
quadratics is called a parabola.
Notice that all quadratic graphs
have reflection symmetry. The
mirror line is always a vertical
line through the turning point
or vertex of the curve (shown in
yellow on these graphs).
The value of ac is 12. You need two
numbers whose sum is -7 and whose
product is 12. These are -3 and -4.
Use a negative here to make sure
that both factors are the same.
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Notice that the graphs of functions with a negative x term are inverted
(upside down).


Solving quadratic equations by factorisation

Solving quadratic equations is important not just from the algebraic point of
view, but because it gives you information about the graph of a quadratic
function. The solutions of the equation ax + bx + c = 0 tells you where the
graph of the function y = ax + bx + c crosses the x-axis, since these are the
points where y = 0.

Some quadratic equations can be solved by factorising.


Example 2
Solve these quadratic equations by factorising.
(a) x + 2x 8 = 0 (b) 2x + 11x + 12 = 0

Solution
(a) x + 2x 8 = 0
(x + 4)(x 2) = 0
x + 4 = 0 or x 2 = 0
x = 4 or 2

(b) 2x + 11x + 12 = 0
(2x + 3)(x + 4) = 0
2x + 3 = 0 or x + 4 = 0
x =
2
3
or 4

y = x x 2
y = 3 2x x
For this expression to be
zero, one or other of the
factors must be zero.
Factorise the equations of these graphs. What is the
relationship between the factorised form and the
graph? Can you explain this?
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You can see further examples using the Flash resources Quadratic
equations 1 (in which the coefficient of x is always 1) and Quadratic
equations 2 (in which the coefficient of x is greater than 1).


For practice in examples like the ones above, try the interactive questions
Solving quadratics by factorisation.


The turning point of a quadratic graph

A quadratic function is usually written in the form
2
y ax bx c , where a, b
and c are constants. However, writing quadratic functions in different forms
can sometimes give you additional information about the function.

You have already seen that writing a quadratic function in factorised form
gives you some useful information about the graph of the function. It tells you
where the graph crosses the x-axis. This also applies to other polynomial
functions.

However, sometimes you may not be interested in where the graph cuts the
axes, but you may want to know the coordinates of the maximum or minimum
point of the graph (often called the vertex). There are several ways in which
you can find this point. This section looks at writing quadratic equations in the
form
2
( ) y a x p q (the completed square form).

The first thing to notice about the completed square form is that the
expression
2
( ) x p is always positive or zero.

So if a is positive, then the first term is always positive. The smallest possible
value of y therefore occurs when the first term of the expression is zero, i.e.
when x = p. In this case the value of y is q. The minimum point of the graph is
therefore (p, q), and the line x = p is the line of symmetry of the graph.

If a is negative, then the first term is always negative. The largest possible
value of y therefore occurs when the first term of the expression is zero, i.e.
when x = p. In this case the value of y is q. The maximum point of the graph is
therefore (p, q), and the line x = p is the line of symmetry of the graph.

To help you to visualise this, have a look at the interactive spreadsheet.
Select either parabola 2,
2
( ) y a x p q , or parabola 4,
2
( ) y a x p q .
Experiment with different values of p and q and notice the coordinates of the
turning point in each case.


Example 3
For each of the following quadratic graphs, write down the equation of the line of
symmetry of the graph and the coordinates of the vertex (turning point), and hence
sketch the graph.
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(i)
2
3 2 y x
(ii)
2
(2 1) 5 y x
(iii)
2
1 ( 2) y x

Solution
(i)
2
3 2 y x
Line of symmetry is x = 3.
Minimum point is (3, 2).








(ii)
2
(2 1) 5 y x
Line of symmetry is
1
2
x .
Minimum point is (
1
2
, -5).









(iii)
2
1 ( 2) y x
Line of symmetry is x = -2.
Maximum point is (-2, 1).








You can look at further examples using the Flash resources Completed
square form, Completed square form (2) and Negative completed square
form.


Example 4
Find the equations of quadratic graphs with the given turning points. Give the
equations in the form
2
y ax bx c .
(i) Minimum point (1, -2)
Notice that this time the vertex
is a maximum point.

(3, 2)

(
1
2
, -5)


(-2, 1)
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(ii) Minimum point (-3, 1)
(iii) Maximum point (4, 3)

Solution
(i) The equation of the graph is
2
2
2
( 1) 2
2 1 2
2 1
y x
x x
x x




(ii) The equation of the graph is
2
2
2
( 3) 1
6 9 1
6 10
y x
x x
x x




(iii) The equation of the graph is

2
2
2
2
3 ( 4)
3 8 16
3 8 16
8 13
y x
x x
x x
x x







Completing the square

You have seen from Example 3 how writing a quadratic function in the form
2
( ) y a x p q gives you important information about the graph of the
function. You now need to know how to go about expressing a quadratic
function in the completed square form.

To start with, have another look at the interactive spreadsheet. This time,
select parabola 3,
2
y ax bx c and
2
( ) y a x p q , or parabola 5,
2
y ax bx c and
2
( ) y a x p q .
Leave a as 1 for now and choose values of b and c to give a quadratic
function of the form
2
y ax bx c (shown in blue).
Now look at the completed square form (shown in red). Make sure that
the value of a is 1, and then vary the values of p and q until the two
functions coincide.
Compare the two equations and make sure that you can see
algebraically why they represent the same function.
Think about how you might find the completed square form from the
form
2
y ax bx c .
Try a different quadratic function. Predict the value of p which you will
need for the completed square form. When you have got the idea, try
predicting the value of q as well. Then you could try varying the value
of a.

The examples below demonstrate the technique of completing the square.

You may also find it helpful to look at the Flash resources on completing the
square (one in which the coefficient of x is 1, one in which the coefficient
of x is 2, and one in which the coefficient of x is -1). You may also find the
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Geogebra resource Completing the square useful this uses area to show
what is happening when you complete the square.

You can also look at the PowerPoint presentation Completing the square,
which is a step-by-step demonstration of some similar examples.


Example 5
Write the expression 7 4 x x in the completed square form.
Hence sketch the graph of 7 4 x x y , showing the coordinates of its turning
point.

Solution








4 4 ) 2 ( x x x

3 ) 2 (
3 4 4 7 4


x
x x x x






From the completed square form, you can see that the graph has a minimum
point at (-2, 3).




There are several different approaches to writing out the working. They are all
basically the same, so if you have learnt a different way which suits you, then
stick to it.


2
2 x is the square
The +3 completes the square
This is why the technique is
called completing the square.
To find where the
graph cuts the y-axis,
substitute x = 0 into
the equation.
First you need to find a quadratic expression which is a perfect
square and which begins with x + 4x.
You do this by looking at the coefficient of x, in this case 4, and
halving it. In this case you get 2.
This tells you that the perfect square you need is (x + 2).
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The next example shows a situation where the coefficient of x is not 1.


Example 6
Write the expression 2x 6x + 1 in the completed square form.

Solution
) 3 ( 2 1 6 2
2
1
x x x x










4
9
2
3
3 x x x


4
7
2
3
2
1
4
9
2
3
2
1
4
9
4
9
2
1
) (
) (
3 3



x
x
x x x x



2
7
2
3
4
7
2
3
) ( 2
] ) [( 2 1 6 2


x
x x x




In the next example, the coefficient of x is negative, so that the graph is the
other way up. This can be dealt with by taking out a factor 1.


Example 7
Write the expression 5 + x x in the completed square form.
Hence sketch the graph of y = 5 + x x, showing the coordinates of its turning point.

Solution
) 5 ( 5 x x x x






4
1
2
1
) ( x x x

4
21
2
1
4
1
2
1
4
1
4
1
) (
5 ) (
5 5



x
x
x x x x

Start by taking out the coefficient
of x, in this case 2, as a factor.
Now look at the expression inside the bracket. You need to find a
quadratic expression which is a perfect square and starts with x 3x.
Take the coefficient of x, which is 3, and halve it to get
3
2
. The
perfect square you need is therefore

3
2
x .

Start by taking out 1 as a factor.

Now you need a quadratic expression
which is a perfect square and starts with
x x. Half the coefficient of x is
1
2
, so
the perfect square you need is
1
2
( ) x .
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4
21
2
1
4
21
2
1
) (
] ) [( 5


x
x x x


This expression takes its maximum value when
2
1
x , and this maximum value is
4
21
.
So the graph has a maximum point at
4
21
2
1
, .



You may also like to look at the Completing the square (max/min) video.

For practice in examples like the ones above, try the interactive questions
Completing the square.


Solving quadratic equations using the formula

It is possible to solve quadratic equations using the method of completing the
square.

To help you understand this technique, you can look at the Flash resource
Quadratic equations 4, and the Completing the square video.

However, you should understand that completing the square is not normally
used to solve a quadratic equation (unless you already have a quadratic
expression in the completed square form). The technique of completing the
square can be generalised to give a formula for solving quadratic equations
(this is shown on pages 61 62 of the textbook). The quadratic formula is
quicker and easier to use than completing the square.

The quadratic formula for the solutions of the equation 0 ax bx c is

4
2
b b ac
x
a

.
You need to learn this formula. It is not given in your formula book.
The expression 4 b ac is called the discriminant. This is very important as
it tells you something about the nature of the solutions.

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In each case the solution(s) correspond to the points where the graph meets
the x-axis.
If the discriminant is positive, then there are two real solutions. (If the
discriminant is a positive square number, then the two real solutions
are rational and it is possible to solve the equation by factorisation;
otherwise the solutions are irrational and you must use the quadratic
formula.)






If the discriminant is zero, then the quadratic is a perfect square and
there is one real solution, which can be found by factorisation.


If the discriminant is negative, then there are no real solutions.

When you need to solve a quadratic equation, it is useful to quickly work out
the discriminant before you start, so that you know whether there are real
solutions, and whether the equation can be solved by factorisation.
y = x + 2x 3
Discriminant = 16
Two rational solutions
y = x + x 3
Discriminant = 13
Two real, irrational solutions
y = x + 2x + 1
Discriminant = 0
One real solution
y = x + 2x + 2
Discriminant = -4
No real solutions
As the graph does not
meet the x-axis, there
cannot be any real
solutions.
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You can look at the relationship between the discriminant of a quadratic
equation and the number of roots using the Flash resource The
discriminant.

Note: if you go on to study Further Maths, you will learn about complex
numbers, which allow you to work with the square root of negative numbers.
Quadratic equations which have no real roots do have two complex roots.
This is why we talk about a quadratic equation having no real roots, or no
real solution, rather than just no roots or no solution.

Since C1 is a non-calculator paper, when you use the quadratic formula you
will be giving your answers in terms of square roots. Remember that it may be
possible to express a square root in terms of a simpler square root (e.g.
8 2 2 ), which may mean that you can cancel down you should always
do this if you can.


Example 8
For each of the following quadratic equations, find the discriminant and solve the
equation, where possible, by a suitable method
(i) 2 4 1 0 x x (ii) 0 10 11 6 x x
(iii) 0 4 2 3 x x (iv) 0 9 12 4 x x

Solution
(i) a = 2, b = -4, c = 1
Discriminant = ( 4) 4 2 1 16 8 8
Since the discriminant is positive, there are two real solutions. As it is not a
square number, the equation must be solved using the quadratic formula.

4
2
4 8
2 2
4 2 2
4
2 2
2
b b ac
x
a

(ii) a = 6, b = 11, c = -10
Discriminant = 361 240 121 10 6 4 11
Since the discriminant is positive, there are two real solutions. As it is a square
number (19), the equation can be solved by factorisation.

2
5
3
2
or
0 ) 5 2 )( 2 3 (
0 10 11 6



x x
x x
x x


(iii) a = 3, b = -2, c = 4
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Discriminant = 44 48 4 4 3 4 ) 2 (
Since the discriminant is negative, there are no real solutions.

(iv) a = 4, b = 12, c = 9
Discriminant = 0 144 144 9 4 4 12
Since the discriminant is zero, there is one solution and the equation can be
solved by factorisation into a perfect square.

2
3
0 ) 3 2 (
0 9 12 4



x
x
x x



You can also see examples of solving quadratic equations using the formula
in the Flash resource Quadratic equations 3.

The Solving quadratics video looks at solving quadratics by all the methods
covered.

You can test yourself using the interactive questions Forming and solving
quadratics, in which you can use any appropriate method to solve the
quadratic equation.

Try the Quadratics puzzle, either on your own or with one or two others. Cut
out all the pieces and match up each equation with its solution. The pieces
will form a large hexagon.


For a further challenge, try the extension activity Sandcastles on Quadratic
Island.