1

SUBSTATION EQUIPMENT AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

[Based on Smart Grid: Technology and Applications by Janaka Ekanayake, ithsiri
!iyanage, Jian"hong #$, Akihiko %okoyama, &ick Jenkins, #iley, '()'*
Introduction
Modern electric power systems are supplied by large central generators that feed power into a
high voltage interconnected transmission network. The power, often transmitted over long
distances, is then passed down through a series of distribution transformers to final circuits for
delivery to customers (Figure 6.1.
!peration of the generation and transmission systems is monitored and controlled by
"upervisory #ontrol $nd %ata $c&uisition ("#$%$ systems. These link the various elements
through communication networks (e.g. microwave and fibre optic circuits and connect the
transmission substations and generators to a manned control centre that maintains system
security and facilitates integrated operation. 'n larger power systems, regional control centres
serve an area, with communication links to ad(acent area control centres. 'n addition to this
central control, all the generators use automatic local governor and e)citation control. *ocal
controllers are also used in some transmission circuits for voltage control and power flow
control e.g. using phase shifters (sometimes known as &uadrature boosters.
Central
Generation
Transmission
lines
Distribution
lines
Substation
Control
centre
Consumers

Figure 1: Typical power system components
Traditionally, the distribution network has been passive with limited communication between
elements. "ome local automation functions are used such as on+load tap changers and shunt
capacitors for voltage control and circuit breakers or auto+reclosers for fault management.
These controllers operate with only local measurements and wide+area coordinated control is
not used.
!ver the past decade, automation of the distribution system has increased in order to improve
&uality of supply and allow connection of more distributed generation. The connection and
management of distributed generation is accelerating the shift from passive to active
management of the distribution network. ,etwork voltage changes and fault levels are
increasing due to the connection of distributed generation -1.. /ithout active management of
the network, the cost of connection of distributed generation will rise and the connection of
additional distributed generation may be limited -0..
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The connection of large intermittent energy sources and plug+in electric vehicles will lead to an
increase in the use of %emand "ide 'ntegration and distribution system automation.
Substation automation equipment
The components of a typical legacy substation automation system are shown in Figure 0.
Traditionally, the secondary circuits of the circuit breakers, isolators, current and voltage
transformers and power transformers were hardwired to relays. 4elays were connected with
multi+drop serial links to the station computer for monitoring and to allow remote
interrogation. 5owever, the real+time operation of the protection and voltage control systems
was through hard wired connections.
Station
computer
Hard wired
Relay
Relay
Trip and
larm
circuit
!ocal
control
"ulti#drop
serial cable
$us
inter%ace
SCD gateway
H"I
Figure & Substation components '() *+
The configuration of a modern substation automation system is illustrated in Figure 6. Two
possible connections (marked by bo)es of the substation e&uipment are shown in the figure.
$lthough it may vary from design to design, generally it comprises three levels of7
The station level includes the substation computer, the substation human machine
interface (which displays the station layout and the status of station e&uipment and the
gateway to the control centre.
The bay level includes all the controllers and intelligent electronic devices (which
provide protection of various network components and a real time assessment of the
distribution network.
The process level consists of switchgear control and monitoring, current transformers
(#Ts, voltage transformers (8Ts and other sensors.
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6
Station computer)
SCD and
gateway
Hard wired
,rocess bus
$ay
Controller
Relay
I-D
$ay
Controller
Relay
I-D
Station bus
-t.ernet
switc.
-t.ernet
switc.
-t.ernet
switc.
Inter%acing
unit
Relay
I-D
-t.ernet
switc.
RT/
Coms to %ield
RT/
,rocess bus
0optical ring1
Connection 1: Secondary circuits of field
equipment are hard wired to relay IEDs and
bay controller.The process bus is ring
cnnected
Connection : Secondary circuits of field
equipment are hard wired to interfacing
unit. The process bus is star connected
!nalogue"status signal
Digital signal
#ptical
CT
Figure ( modern substation '() +
'n connection 1, analogue signals are received from #Ts and 8Ts (1 $ or 9 $ and 113 8 as
well as status information and are digitised at the bay controller and ':%s. 'n connection 0,
analogue and digital signals
1
received from #Ts and 8Ts are digitised by the interfacing unit.
The process bus and station bus take these digital signals to multiple receiving units, such as
':%s, displays, and the station computer that are connected to the :thernet network. To
increase reliability, normally two parallel process buses are used (only one process bus is
shown in Figure 6 -..
The station bus operates in a peer+to+peer mode. This bus is a *$, formed by connecting
various :thernet switches through a fibre optic circuit. The data collected from the ':%s is
processed for control and maintenance by "#$%$ software that resides in the station
computer.
1
!ptical #Ts and 8Ts provide digital signals whereas conventional #Ts and 8Ts provide analogue signal (see
section 6.0.1 and 6.0.0.
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The hardwiring of traditional substations re&uired several kilometres of secondary wiring in
ducts and on cable trays. This not only increased the cost but also made the design infle)ible.
'n modern substations as inter+device communications are through :thernet and use the same
communication protocol, ':#61193, the cost and physical footprint of the substation are
reduced.
Current trans%ormers 0CT1
The normal load current of transmission and distribution circuits varies between hundreds and
thousands of amperes. /hen a short circuit fault occurs, the current may increase to more than
03 times the normal load current. Thus, current transformers are used to transform the primary
current to a lower value (typically 1 or 9 $ ma)imum suitable for use by the intelligent
electronic devices and displays.
The selection of a #T is determined by its application. 'nstrument current transformers are used
to drive ammeters and power meters. They provide accurate measurements at up to 103< of
their rated current. 'n contrast, protection current transformers provide a less accurate
measurement of the fault current and their accuracy for load current is generally not important.
The ma(ority of current transformers, which are in service, are iron cored with a secondary
winding on the core. The primary is often the circuit conductor forming a single turn. =rimary
current of a #T contains two components7 (a e)citation current > magnetising current and the
current representing the core losses and (b a component of current due to the secondary
current (transformed current -, , . as shown in Figure ;. The iron core of these transformers
introduced inaccuracies in the measurements due to the presence of magnetising current (which
only appears on the primary, flu) leakage and eddy current heating. 'n order to minimise their
measurement errors, the design is optimised for the specific application.
sec
1
sec
ondary
ondary primary
n
+
+ n
=
1 primary e,ec
+ + + = +
Figure * ,.asor diagram o% t.e CT
The measurement transformers are recognised by accuracy classes 3.1, 3.0, 3.9 and 1 in
':#633;;. $t 133< of the rated current and 103< of the rated current their percentage current
error should be less than or e&ual to their accuracy class.
$ccuracy classes which are typically using for protection current transformers are 9= and 13=.
':# 633;; specifies the accuracy of a #T as ?13 8$ #lass 13= 03@. The first term (13 8$ is
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'
mag
'
core
'
e)ec
'
secondary
'
1
'
primary
9
the rated burden on the #T that can have a value of 0.9, 9, 13, 19 or 63 8$. The last term (03
is the accuracy limit or saturation factor (the primary current up to which the #T is re&uired to
maintain its specified accuracy with rated burden connected that can have a value of 9, 13, 03
or 63. The accuracy class (13= defines the specified accuracy.
#lass 13= is designated in $,"'2'::: #9A.16 as class # where the current transformer is
classified by ?#@ followed by a number. This number indicates the secondary terminal voltage
that the transformer can deliver to a standard burden at 03 times the rated current without
e)ceeding an accuracy of 13<.
There are other classes of current transformers such as #lass T and B of '::: #9A.16, #lasses
6 and 9 of ':# 633;;, and #lass =B of ':# 633;;. More details about these transformers can
be found in the respective standards -, ..
2or3ed -4ample
$ part of a distribution circuit is shown in the following figure. The #T used is a 13 8$ #lass
13= 03 which is having a secondary resistance of 3.0 and magnetising reactance of (93 .
Csing the e&uivalent circuit of the #T -, ., obtain the percentage current error and phase
displacement error for the rated current and for the current at the accuracy limit when the rated
burden is connected to the secondary.
'n modern substation and distribution automation systems, the current measurements from a
#T are digitised and made available to the process bus and used by a number of devices.
Multiple use of the same digitised measurement re&uires high accuracy current transformers to
measure both load and fault currents.
/hile iron cored current transformers and hybrid current transformers (iron cored #T with an
optical transmitter remain the widely used #T in the power system, high accuracy designs
such as 4ogowski coil formed on a printed circuit board and optical current transformers -, , .
are now emerging.
4ogowski coil current transformers are used in gas insulated substations (D'". The secondary
winding of the coil is a multi+layer printed circuit board with the upper and lower tracks of
each layer connected by metal vias (thus forming a rectangular coil. The voltage induced on
the secondary windings due to primary current (see bo) 1 for the operation of the 4ogowski
coil is integrated by the sensor electronics to obtain the value of the primary current.
The optical current transformers are based on the Faraday effect (see bo) 0 where the plane of
polarisation of a light beam when sub(ected to a magnetic field, is rotated through an angle.
This angle of rotation is proportional to the magnetic field thus to the primary current. Figure 9
shows this type of #T in its simplest form. The opto+electronics compares the polarisation of
the light beam entered into the optical fiber and that collected after sub(ected to the circular
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03329
66211 k8
6.11 M/
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magnetic field. The angle of deflection is used to generate digital signals proportional to the
line current.
Eo) 17 4ogowski coil7
The 4ogowski coil detects the magnetic field created by
the change in conductor current and generates a voltage
(v proportional to it.
ln
0
&! a di
-
b dt

=
where , is number of turns, * is thickness of the printed
circuit board (multi+layers are used, and
di
dt
is the
change in primary current.
Figure 5 simple optical CT
"ome other designs that are being developed based on the Faraday effect are utilising an
optically active material where light path travels only ones around the conductor -, , ..
Eo) 07 Faraday effect7
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$ wire wound on a non magnetic
core
#urrent
b a
#ircularly
polarised light
beam enters
!ptical fiber
#urrent
Magnetic
field
%eflected light
beam collects
58 terminal
4eactor
"tep+down
transformer
F
burden
A
The Faraday effect describes an interaction between light and magnetic field in a medium. $
polariGed light beam rotates when sub(ected to a magnetic field. The rotation of the plane of
polarisation is proportional to the intensity of the magnetic field in the direction of the beam of
light.
The angle of rotation in radians is given by
d = $
where E is the magnetic flu) density
(in T, d is the length of the path (in m and

8erdet constant for the material.

6oltage trans%ormers
't is necessary to transform the power system voltage down to a lower voltage suitable for
intelligent electronic devices and metering. The secondary voltage used is 1138. $t primary
voltages up to 66 k8 electromagnetic voltage transformers (similar to a power transformer with
much lower output rating are used but at 160 k8 and above it is common to use capacitor
voltage transformers (#8T.
$s the accuracy of voltage measurements may be important during a fault, protection and
measuring e&uipment are often fed from the same voltage transformer. ':#633;;+0 and
$,"'2'::: #9A.16 define the accuracy classes of voltage transformers. $ccuracy classes such
as 3.1, 3.0, 3.9, 1.3 and 6.3 are commonly available.
The basic arrangement of a high voltage #8T is a capacitor divider, a series reactor (to
compensate for the phase shift introduced by the capacitor divider and a step down
transformer (for reducing the voltage from 58 to 113 8, the capacitors have to be very large
and therefore the voltage is first stepped down to a higher value by the capacitor divider and
further reduced by the transformer as shown in Figure 6 -, , ..
Figure 7 .ig. 8oltage C6T
For applications upto 11 k8, optical #8T are now employed. %ue to the lower voltage
involved the inductor and transformer (in Figure 6 are replaced by an opto+electronic circuit
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:
d

*ight beam
=lane of
polarisation
1
mounted on the base tank (see Figure A. 'n this arrangement as there are no *+# components
to resonate, there are no oscillations, overvoltages and ferroresonances.
"ome voltage transformers use a similar techni&ue as optical current transformers. 'n this case
an optical fiber situated inside the insulator running from top to bottom is fed by a circular
polarised light signal. %ue to the magnetic field between the 58 terminal and the base tank,
the polarisation of the light signal changes and that deflection is used to obtain the 58 terminal
voltage.








Stac% of
Capacitors
C
C1
&orcelain or
composite
insulator
#pto'
electronic
circuit
Digital
output to
an optical
fiber
Solidly earthed base
tan%
() terminal
Figure 9 $asic circuit o% an optical C6T
Intelligent -lectronic De8ices
The name intelligent electronic device (':% describes a range of devices that performs one or
more of functions such as protection, measurements, fault recording and control. $n ':%
consists of a signal processing unit, a microprocessor with input and output devices, and a
communication interface.
=rotection ':%
Modern protection relays combine a number of different protection functions with
measurement, recording and monitoring. For e)ample the relay shown in Figure 1 has the
following protection elements7
Three+phase instantaneous + Type 93 (':::2$,"' designation
Three+phase time+delayed over+current ('%MT + Type 91
Three+phase voltage controlled or voltage restrained instantaneous or time+delayed
over+current + Types 938 and 918
:arth fault instantaneous or time+delayed over+current + Types 93, and 91,
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H
M
e
a
s
u
r
e
m
e
n
t
s
Protection
interface
Communication
interface
*ocal
meaurements
+emote setting"
measurements
Commands
50/51
50N/
51N
50V/
51V
Protection
Monitoring
C$ status
Recording
E,ents
-aults
Disturbance
(ard wired
signal
.trip contacts "
interloc%s/
Keypad inputs
0anual inputs
Figure :: Typical con%iguration o% a relay I-D
The local measurements are first processed and made available to all the processors within the
protection ':%. %igitised local measurements can also be able to read through a small *:%
display as shown in Figure 1. Further a keypad is available to input settings or override
commands.
Figure ;: Relay I-D
8arious algorithms for different protection functions are stored in a 4!M. For e)ample, the
algorithm corresponds to Type 93 continuously checks the local current measurements against
a set value (which can be set by the user or can be remotely set to determine whether there is
an over+current on the feeder to which the circuit breaker is connected. 'f the current is greater
than the setting, a tripping command is generated and communicated to the circuit breaker. 'n
some intelligent electronic devices, a relay contact is hard wired (in series with the #E
tripping circuit and the tripping commend basically complete the circuit thus opening the #E.
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13
Meter ':%
$ meter ':% provides a comprehensive range of functions and features for measuring three
phase and single phase parameters. $ typical meter ':% could measure voltage, current, power,
power factor, energy over a period, ma)imum demand, ma)imum and minimum values, total
harmonic distortion and harmonic components. #ommunication interfaces such as 4"06024"
;16, :ithernet, Modbus and %,=6 are available in many intelligent electronic devices.
4ecording ':%
:ven though meter and protection ':% provides different parameters (some also has a storage
capability, separate recording intelligent electronic devices are utilised to monitor and record
status changes in the substation and outgoing feeders.
#ontinuous event recording up to a resolution of 1 ms is available in some intelligent electronic
devices. These records are sometimes interrogated by an e)pert to analyse a past event. The
fault recorder basically records the pre+fault and fault values for currents and voltages. The
disturbance records sometimes used to understand the system behaviour and performance of
related primary and secondary e&uipment during and after a disturbance.
$ay Controller
Eay controllers are employed for control and monitoring of switchgear, transformers and other
bay e&uipment. There is a separate bay controller unit for each bay. The bay controller
facilitates the remote control actions (from the control centre or from an on+site substation
control point and local control actions (at a point closer to the plant.
Figure 1<: Relay I-D (#ourtesy of Toshiba
The functionalities available in a bay controller can vary, but typically include7
#ircuit breaker (#E control
"witchgear interlock check
Transformer tap change control
=rogrammable automatic se&uence control
Remote Terminal /nits
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The distribution "#$%$ system ac&uires data (measurements and states via remote terminal
units (4TC. This data ac&uisition is achieved by a 4TC situated in the substation (referred to
here as the station 4TC, which communicates with the remote terminal units situated in other
parts of the network (referred to here as the remote 4TC.
The remote 4TC acts as the interface between sensors in the field and the station 4TC. The
main functions of the remote 4TC are to7 monitor both the analogue and digital sensor signals
(measurements and actuator signals (status, and convert the analogue signals coming from the
sensors and actuators to digital form. The station 4TC ac&uires the data from the remote 4TC
at a predefined interval by polling. 5owever, any status changes are reported by the remote
4TC whenever they occur.
Modern remote terminal units, which are microprocessor based, are capable of performing
control functions in addition to data processing and communication. The software stored in the
microprocessor sets the monitoring parameters and sample timeI e)ecutes control lawsI sends
the control actions to final circuitsI calling alarms and assists communications functions. "ome
modern remote terminal units have the capability to time+stamp events down to millisecond
resolution.
7=* Re%erences
1. ,. Jenkins, J.E. :kanayake, D. "trbac, K%istributed DenerationL, ':T, 0313.
0. =. %(apic, #. 4amsay, %. =ud(ianto, D. "trabac, J. Mutale, ,. Jenkins, 4. $llan, KTaking an
active approachL, '::: =ower and :nergy MagaGine, July2$ug 033A, pp 61 > AA.
6. ,etwork protection and automation guide, 1st :dition, 0330, $reva TM% *td.
;. "ubstation automation tutorial, '::: =ower :ngineering society, %ocument ,o7 36T=166,
March 033;.
9. N.=. Erand, #. Erunner, /. /immer, K%esign of ':# 61193 based substation automation
systems according to customer re&uirements, #'D4: session 033;.
6. E.M. /eedy, E.J. #ory, K:lectric =ower "ystemsL, John /iley, 033;.
A. =.M. $nderson, K=ower system protectionL, '::: and Mc Draw 5ill, 1HHH.
1. ,etwork protection and automation guide, 1st :dition, 0330, $reva TM% *td.
9. $,"'2'::: #9A.167 '::: "tandard 4e&uirements for 'nstrument Transformers, 0331.
10. ':# 633;; (:, 633;; and E"633;;7 'nstrument transformers + =art 17 #urrent
transformers, and =art 07 'nductive voltage transformers, 0336.
11. J.*. Elackburn M T.J. %omin, K=rotective relaying7 principles and applicationsL, #4#
=ress, 033A.
12. ,on+conventional instrument transformer solutions, $reva T M %, http://www.areva-
td.com/solutions/liblocal/docs/NCI/NCI!"#en!1$20.pd%, $ccess on 1623920313
1&. !ptical #Ts and 8Ts, ,BT=5$":,
http://www.n'tphase.com/pd%s/N't(hase!)ptical!Instrument!rans%ormers.pd%, $ccess on
1623920313.
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