The Diversity of Life On Earth Ebook by Sylvain Richer de Forges

The Diversity of Life on Earth
from Heritage to Extinction

e-book version
by Sylvain Richer de Forges
Sylvain Richer de Forges
2010 Sylvain Richer de Forges. All rights reserved. Visit the program
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The Diversity Of Life On Earth
2010 Sylvain Richer de Forges. All rights reserved.
2
This book aims to address the
dramatic issue of extinction of
species on Earth.

In its unique format, it navigates
through key issues surrounding the
concept of biodiversity:

-What do we know
-The diversity of life forms on Earth
-Where most life forms are found
-The human impacts
-The current status of extinction
-The potential of preserving
biodiversity and its implication for
human civilizations
-What should be tried to preserve
the diversity of life on Earth

This book was written in 2010 to
celebrate the international year on
biodiversity and with a purpose of
raising awareness on the issue.
Prologue
Prologue
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This e-book is a simplified adaptation
from the book of the same name which
can be purchased through main book
sale channels ISBN 978-981-07-3457-2

3
Introduction
of knowledge is contained within species whether it is for
engineering applications, agriculture or to develop new
medicines.

We also know that our lives, as the human species, is highly
related to those of other species upon which we depend
should it be for maintaining the stability of Earth ecosystems,
our food supplies or our health.

Every organism has its role to play in the complex Earth
ecosystems which have reached equilibrium over millions of
years. Many of these ecosystems are on the verge of collapse
with often unknown consequences for humans.

We however now know what the pressures are and therefore
could do something to try to preserve the diversity of life on
Earth by limiting or suppressing these pressures.

This book intends to provide an overview of the diversity of
life, what is at stake, the major pressures on life forms and
what could be done to avoid what many experts predict will
be the fifth massive extinction.

We must keep in mind that : Extinction is forever
With 2010 being the international year of biodiversity, this
book comes at a good time to make an overview of the state
of our knowledge on biodiversity and what is at stake.

Biodiversity is still, even in the 21
st
century following the
legacy of the work of great scientists and breakthrough
discoveries, not well understood by the general public and
decision makers. Indeed, we still do not seem to have
understood the incredible heritage that we have as a result
of more than 3.5 billion years of natural history, neither the
very serious threats and devastating changes to biodiversity
that are occurring at present as a consequence of human
activities.

Biodiversity is the most valuable resource of our planet and
we are on the verge of losing most of it. During the 21
st

century as a result of a combine impact of pressures from
pollutions, human disturbances and climate change, most
experts have warned that we could lose half of all the
species inhabiting our planet by the end of this century.

Species are disappearing at an alarming rate and much faster
than they are studied. We know that a tremendous amount
Introduction
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Table of Content (1)
Chapter II: The Diversity of Life on Earth

Introduction Chapter II 34

II.1 Definition of Biodiversity 35
II.2 Levels of Biodiversity 37
II.3 Biodiversity: What Do We Know? 38
II.4 Taxonomy Vs Molecular phylogeny 42
II.5 Speciation & Adaptation 44
II.6 The Tree of Life 47
II.7 Archea 48
II.8 Bacteria 49
II.9 Eucaryotes 50
II.10 Plants 52
II.11 Fungus 53
II.12 Animals 55
II.13 Insects 57
II.14 Mammals 61
II.15 Reptiles 63

Conclusion Chapter II 65
Chapter I: A Brief History of Natural Diversity

Introduction Chapter I 11

I.1 Succession of Life Forms Overtime 12
I.2 Ancient Life 13
I.3 Fossils: an Historical Record 14
I.4 Rise of Natural history: Buffon 16
I.5 Nomenclature System: Linneaus 17
I.6 Naming Species 18
I.7 Taxonomy Vs Phylogeny 19
I.8 Natural Selection: Darwin & Wallace 21
I.9 The Rise of the Microscope 23
I.10 Micro-organisms: Pasteur 24
I.11 Commerce and Biodiversity: Spice Trade 25
I.12 The Era of Great Explorers 26
I.13 Origin of Genetics: Gregor Mendel 29
I.14 The Discovery of DNA 30
I.15 The Modern Concept of Biodiversity 31

Conclusion Chapter I 32
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Chapter III: Main Biodiversity Rich Ecosystems

Introduction Chapter III 67

III.1 Rainforests 68
III.2 Coral Reefs 69
III.3 Mangroves 71
III.4 Isolated Ecosystems 72
III.5 Abyssal Environments 74
III.6 Sea Grass Beds 77

Conclusion Chapter III 78
Chapter IV: Anthropic Impacts and Biodiversity

Introduction Chapter IV 80

IV.1 Deforestation 81
IV.2 Mining 84
IV.3 Over Fishing 86
IV.4 Illegal Trading of Species 92
IV.5 Agriculture 93
IV.6 Bio-engineering 96
IV.7 Industrialization & Associated Wastes 97
IV.8 Pollution & Biodiversity 98
IV.9 Climate Change & Biodiversity 101
IV.10 Human Disturbances / Overpopulation 107
IV.11 Mass Tourism 110
IV.12 Forest Fires 112
IV.13 Fragmentation of Habitats 114
IV.14 Genetic Resources 116
IV.15 Introduction of Species 118

Conclusion Chapter IV 120
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Chapter V: A Few Case Studies of Biodiversity
Degradation

Introduction Chapter V 122

V.1 Case Study: Oil Spills 123
V.2 Case Study: Mining 127
V.3 Case Study: Acid Rains 128
V.4 Case Study: Chernobyl 129
V.5 Introduction of Species 130
V.6 Biodiversity & Climate Change 132
V.7 Global Biodiversity Loss 133

Conclusion Chapter V 136
Chapter VI: Global State of Biodiversity

Introduction Chapter VI 138

VI.1 The Global Living Planet Index 139
VI.2 The Terrestrial Living Planet Index 140
VI.3 The Marine Living Planet Index 141
VI.4 The Freshwater Living Planet Index 142
VI.5 The World Biocapacity 144
VI.6 State of Biodiversity 145

Conclusion Chapter VI 146
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Chapter VII: Biodiversity Hotspots and
Conservation Priorities

Introduction Chapter VII 148

VII.1 What is a Biodiversity Hotspot? 149
VII.2 Case Study: Madagascar 151
VII.3 Case Study: Philippines 152
VII.4 Case Study: Borneo 154
VII.5 Case Study: Barrier reefs 155
VII.6 Case Study: The Galapagos 157

Conclusion Chapter VII 158
Chapter VIII: Singapore, an Interesting Case Study

Introduction Chapter VIII 160

VIII.1 The Singapore Context 161
VIII.2 Impacts of Urban Development on
Biodiversity 163
VIII.3 Vision of a Green City 165
VIII.4 Preserving & Restoring Biodiversity in
Singapore 168
VIII.5 Singapore Remaining Bio-Diverse
Locations 169
VIII.6 Biodiversity in the City 173
VIII.7 Compromises between Development &
Conservation 177

Conclusion Chapter VIII 178
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Chapter IX: The Importance of Biodiversity
Preservation for Human Beings

Introduction Chapter IX 180

IX.1 Biodiversity and Pharmacology 181
IX.2 Biodiversity and Agriculture 185
IX.3 Biodiversity and the Arts 188
IX.4 Socio Biology 190
IX.5 Biomimetics 191
IX.6 A Guide to Biomimetics 194
IX.7 We Have A Lot to Learn by Studying
Nature 199

Conclusion Chapter IX 206
Chapter X: What Can be Done to Preserve
Biodiversity?

Introduction Chapter X 208

X.1 What Can Individuals Do? 209
X.2 What Can Corporates Do? 213
X.3 What Can Governments Do? 216
X.4 Education and Biodiversity 223
X.5 The Concept of Sustainable Development 226
X.6 The Concept of Dead Zones 227
X.7 Vertical Farms 228
X.8 City Biodiversity Index 229
X.9 Sustainable Urban Design 230
X.10 Greening Cities 232
X.11 Eco Tourism 234

Conclusion Chapter X 237
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Chapter XI: Common Misunderstandings about
Biodiversity

XI.1 Questions and Answers 239
XI.2 A Common Interest: Biodiversity and
Religions 246

General Conclusion 248
Annex

Bibliography 250
Acknowledgments 261
About the Author 262
Table of Content
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A living fossil: Gymnocrinus richeri
Chapter I
A Brief History of
Natural Diversity
How a few key persons and
discoveries have changed our
vision of life on Earth
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Our knowledge of biology and the diversity of life on Earth
has significantly improved over the past century.

This chapter intends to highlight the key elements in the
discovery of species and our understanding of the living
world.

Some key findings such as the process of natural selection;
the discovery of DNA or the Linnaeous nomenclature
system have permitted remarkable breakthrough in our
understanding of the living world.

Today, many key findings have led to entire new disciplines
of biology such as evolutionary biology, molecular biology,
behavioral biology, ecology or zoology.
Introduction Chapter I:
A Brief History of Natural Diversity
In this chapter you will learn about key historical dates and
discoveries which have led to the current understanding of
life forms on Earth.

Biology in general is a complex field. Many breakthrough
discoveries that have occurred in the past where made by
accident while investigating other aspects. It is likely that
further breakthrough will be made in a similar way.
Therefore the importance of persevering in scientific
research efforts.

The problem with scientific research is that it works on
funding basis. However, in any real fundamental research we
do not really know what it is that we are searching for,
despite that there is certainly something to be found.
Because funds are allocated on specific targets basis,
fundamental research is disappearing and at the same time
the chances of making real breakthrough discoveries.
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I.1 Succession of Life Forms
Over Time
Life forms have evolved over time.

Numerous factors have played a role in the history of
the successions of life forms on Earth.

Major geological eras have been identified.

Many of them mark a mass species extinction event or
the apparition of new life forms.

The succession of life forms in the fossil record have in
fact served to define geological eras (zoic).

From fossil observations made in the geological record
we know that life on Earth has existed for at least 3.5
billion years and that many successions of life forms
have occurred throughout time.
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Life originated on Earth between 3.5 and 4 billion
years ago.

4 billion years ago the Earth was very different than it
is today. The atmosphere contained no oxygen. It was a
mixture of nitrogen and carbon dioxide with traces of
other gases such as methane and ammonia. Under such
conditions, there were probably no life.

The earliest fossils of living organisms are dated (using
carbon isotopes) at 3.5 billion years old from Western
Australia. They resemble present day cyanobacteria
and were probably photosynthetic.

Very early on (about 3 billion years ago), life
diversified into two major domains, Bacteria and
Archea. A third domain, the Eukarya originated 1.3
billion years later.

Life has evolved overtime through a series of steps.
The steps can be very briefly summarized as follows:

- The apparition of simple cells
- Cells became more complex
- RNA then DNA developed as the support of the
genome
- Complication and differentiation of species
overtime through natural selection

This long natural history which started about 3.5
billion years ago has resulted in the incredible
diversity of life that we observe today.

However, we are only observing today a small
fraction of all the life forms that have existed on
Earth as most species have become extinct over
time through natural events and during critical
periods which have led to mass extinctions.

Many scientists agree that we are now experiencing
a new era of mass species extinction which is for
the first time in history almost entirely the result
of one single species (humans).
I.2 Ancient Life
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Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of
animals, plants, and other organisms from the
remote past.

Fossils are formed when animal remains are
deposited on sedimentary substrates (e.g. mud).

Fossils range in age from the youngest at the start
of the Holocene Epoch to the oldest from
the Archaean Eon several billion years old.

Fossils vary in size from microscopic, such as single
bacterial cells only one micrometer in diameter, to
gigantic, such as dinosaurs and trees.

Most of the knowledge that we have of ancient life
that has inhabited the planet results from the
study of fossils.
I.3 (a) Fossils: an
Historical Record of
Succession of Life Forms
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I.3 (b)
The fossil record provides a snapshot of the types
and successions of life forms that inhabited the
planet millions of years ago throughout the
geological eras. The oldest fossils found can be
dated at 3.5 billion years old.
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Buffon is considered to be one of the main precursors in
the field of natural history.

Georges- Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (7 September
1707-16 April 1788) was a French naturalist,
mathematician, biologist, cosmologist and a writer. His
theories have influenced two generations of naturalists
among whom Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck and Charles
Darwin.

Buffon is mostly known for his major work which was
published in 36 volumes from 1749 to 1789. He included
all the knowledge of the time in the field of natural
sciences. In this publication, he revealed a resemblance
between man and apes and the possibility of a common
genealogy.

Buffon is also considered to be one of the precursors of
comparative anatomy.
I.4 The Field of Natural
History: George Louis
Leclerc, comte de Buffon
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Carl Linnaeus (23
rd
May 1707- 10 Jan 1778) was a
Swedish naturalist who has set the basis for the modern
system of binomial nomenclature. He his referred to as
the father of modern Taxonomy

Linnaeus has put into place his system of binomial
nomenclature which allows referring with precision to
all species of animal and vegetal

The system is based on a combination of 2 Latin names
which comprises of:

A name for the Genus
A specific character which often relates to a
characteristic of the species.

This nomenclature system is still widely used and
accepted today by Taxonomists.
I.5 Linnaeus & the Origin
of Species Nomenclature
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I.6 Naming Species
Nomenclature is very important. All species
need to have a name in order to be referred to.
The naming of species has become a very useful
and reliable process with the implementation of
the Linnaeous nomenclature.

Each species name is formed out of Latin and
has two parts: the genus name and
the species name.

For example, Homo sapiens is the name of the
human species.

Names are often derived from ancient
Greek word roots, or words from numerous
other languages. Frequently species names are
based on the surname of a person, such as a
well-regarded scientist, or are a Latinized
version of a relevant place name.
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Taxonomy: Taxonomy is the science of species
classification within their evolutionary history.

Phylogenetics: Today, the alternative to the
traditional rank-based biological classification
is phylogenetic systematics, which is
postulating phylogenetic trees, rather than
focusing on taxa to delimit.

Taxonomy is based on the principle that we
need to study species in order to understand
how they have evolved overtime and how all
species are connected to one another.
I.7 (a) Taxonomy and
Phylogeny
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I.7 (b)
Studying species requires to keep specimens in alcohol
so that their anatomy and key features can be
preserved, looked into and serve as reference over time
for comparison purposes.
Collections of the British Museum preserved rare specimens, some
of them from the private Charles Darwins collections. Sylvain Richer de Forges
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Charles Darwin (12 feb 1809-19 april 1882) was an
English naturalist whos work on the evolution of
living species. He has revolutionized the field of
biology.

Darwin was famous by the scientific community of
his time for his field work and his researches. He
has formulated the hypothesis that all living
species have evolved over time from common
ancestors through a process referred to as natural
selection.

His theory on natural selection had to wait until
the 1930s for it to become generally accepted as
the driving mechanisms of the evolution process.

Darwins scientific discovery remains the
foundation of modern biology as it explains in a
logical and unified way the diversity of life on
Earth.
I.8 (a) Natural Selection:
Charles Darwin
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Alfred Russel Wallace (8 Jan 1823-7 Nov 1913) was a
naturalist, geographer, explorer, anthropologist and
a British biologist. He is the co-discoverer of the
evolution theory by natural selection along with
Charles Darwin.

Wallace is mostly known to have proposed a theory
on natural selection which has pushed Darwin to
publish his own theory. Wallace was also one of the
main evolutionary thinkers of the 19
th
century which
has contributed to the evolution theory mostly on
the basis of colour displays in animals.

Wallace was also considered as an expert in the field
of geographic repartition of animal species and is
referred to as the father of biogeography.
I.8 (b) Natural Selection:
Alfred Russel Wallace
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The first microscope to be developed was the optical microscope,
although the original inventor is not easy to identify. An early
microscope was made in 1590 in Middelburg, Netherlands.

The greatest contribution which has led to modern day microscopes
came from Antoine van Leeuwenhoek.

Van Leeuwenhoek is mostly known for the ameliorations he made to
the microscope and is one of the precursors of modern cell biology and
microbiology. Throughout his life, he made a number of significant
observations with his home-made microscopes which he reported to the
London Royal Society.

One of his earlier observations was on moulds and bee darts. Among
others he first observed and discovered Bacteria, Spermatozoids, flow
of blood in capillaries and muscle fibres.

Many of his observations and deductions at the time where
controversial as they went against the general belief of Spontaneous
Generation.

=> The use of the microscope has been a revolution in significantly
broadening our vision of the natural world and our understanding of
the biodiversity of life on Earth. Species of the macro level could
now be observed.
I.9 The Rise of the Microscope
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I.10 Pasteur and
Micro-Organisms
Louis Pasteur (27 December 1822-28 September 1895)
was a French scientist, chemist and physicist by
formation who then became a pioneer of microbiology.

He has achieved remarkable breakthroughs in the causes
and preventions of diseases such as puerperal fever, and
he created the first vaccine for rabies and anthrax. His
experiments supported the germ theory of disease.

He has investigated a method to stop milk and wine from
causing sickness, a process that came to be
called pasteurization. Pasteur also made many
discoveries in the field of chemistry, most notably the
molecular basis for the asymmetry of certain crystals.

=>The discoveries of Pasteur further enhanced our
understanding and discovery of how bio-diverse the micro
world is but also how the observation of nature can lead
to remarkable breakthroughs and applications that can
benefit humans, a field now referred to as biomimetics.
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The commercial value of biodiversity came apparent
during the period of great explorations.

The commerce of exotic spices as well as the trade of
exotic animals where major commerce trades at the time
(and still remain).

During that time it became rapidly apparent that trading
species would play a major part of the world economy.
This is still valid today, the trade of species account for
one of the largest economical trades worldwide.

=> At the time, the amount of trade was manageable.
However, as the trade expended (beyond spices) and the
world population grew, the trade of species is today a
major drive of species extinction as these exploitations
go much beyond the populations regeneration rates.
I.11 Spice Trade and the
Commercial Value of
Biodiversity
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During the 19
th
century, the quest for
exploration and knowledge of the
natural world through observations
and field studies has led to numerous
breakthroughs in our understanding
of nature.

Field studies remain of crucial
importance and should not be
replaced by other disciplines.
I.12 (a) The Era of
Great Explorers
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The expedition of the Challenger was the first great
oceanographic worldwide mission. It was realized
aboard the HMS Challenger between December 1872
and May 1876.

The ship travelled more than 120 000 km around
the world. The main goal of the mission was to
study marine animals and to understand the
circulation of currents.

The mission resulted in a major report. One of the
outcomes was the discovery of 4000 unknown
species of animals. The challenger expedition was a
remarkable breakthrough in the discovery of
species.

=> Such expedition model demonstrated that a lot
of knowledge can be gained at once if the resources
and efforts are allocated for this purpose.
I.12 (b) The Expedition
of the Challenger
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I.12 (c)
The great explorations of
the 17
th
and 18
th
century
have brought an incredible
amount of knowledge. As a
result of these explorations
we came to realize how
bio-diverse the world is.

As a consequence the world
also came to realize the
commercial benefits of
exploiting biodiversity.
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Johann Gregor Mendel (22 July 1822-6 January
1884) was a monk and a Tchek Botanist. He his
renown as the father of modern genetics. Today a
law has been named after him the Mendel Law
that defines the way genes are being transmitted
from generation to generation.

Most of the discoveries of Mendel where made on
observations and logical deductions by studying
reproduction patterns in peas.

=> The discovery of genetic principles have led
the path to a greater understanding of evolution
and a mechanism conducting to the diversity of
life on Earth.

However a clearer understanding of genetic
principles really came with the discovery of DNA in
the 20
th
century.

I.13 Origins of Genetics:
Gregor Mendel
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Desoxyribonucleic acid (or DNA) is a molecule present
in all living cells that contains all information
necessary for the development and function of a
given organism.

It is also the support for heredity as it is transmitted
during reproduction. DNA holds the genetic code and
constitute the genome of living organisms.

DNA was discovered by James D. Watson and Francis
Crick in 1953. By using x-ray diffraction data they
were able to propose the double helix or spiral
staircase structure of the DNA molecule.

=> The discovery of DNA led to remarkable
breakthrough in our understanding of genetics
which also provides a mechanism for the
transmission of genes and therefore the diversity of
life.

I.14 The Discovery of DNA
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The expression biological diversity was first
introduced by Thomas Lovejoy in 1980 while the
word biodiversity itself was invented by
Walter G.Rosen in 1985 while preparing the
National Forum on Biological Diversity organized
by the National Research Council in 1986; the
word biodiversity first appeared in a
publication in 1988 when American Entomologist
E.O Wilson accounted for this forum.

Edward Osborne Wilson is a current entomologist
and biologist renown for his work on evolution
and socio-biology.

Wilson is the world expert on ants and in
particular their utilisation of pheromones as a
mean for communication. He has also studied
the massive extinctions of the 20
th
century and
their relations with modern society.

Edward.O.Wilson. Photo from Jim Harrison 2003
I.15 The Modern
Concept of Biodiversity
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As highlighted in this first chapter, a few key
persons and great explorations have led the
way to the modern knowledge and on-going
researches to gain a better understanding of
the natural world that surrounds us.

We have come a long way since these early
days key discoveries. Despite that great
achievements have been realized, the more
we study nature, the more we come to
understand that we have only just started to
learn and exploit the potential that is within
the living environment.

Despite that many have the misconception
that we have already discovered all there is to
know, the amount of useful information still
remaining to be explored is unmatched and
virtually infinite.

Overall, it is very apparent that we still know
very little about the living environment
Conclusion Chapter I
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Chapter II
The Diversity of Life
on Earth
How incredibly diverse are life
forms on Earth
34
Introduction Chapter II:
The Diversity of Life on Earth
This chapter aims to expose how bio-diverse is the world
we live in.

We, human beings, have inherited a planet which is
currently inhabited by an incredible array of life forms
resulting from 3.5 billion years of natural history and
adaptations. Life forms inhabiting the planet range from
large species such as mammals to microscopic organisms
such as bacteria.

The more we study species the more we discover that we
have so far only touched the tip of the iceberg in terms
of how complex and bio-diverse is our planet.

We are still making remarkable discoveries, for instance
finding species in places that we never thought species
could survive or discovering links between species which
have led to new paths of understanding of the history of
life on Earth.
The reality is that there is still a lot to be discovered in
biology. However, fields of biology such as taxonomy, the
science of classifying species within their evolutionary
history are disappearing. As species are disappearing at a
much greater rate then they are studied, funding for
research is now prioritized in conservation.

The fact that current species are no longer studied also
means that we are losing a tremendous amount of
knowledge and potential new ground breaking discoveries,
some of which could have direct benefits to humans.

An important fact that we have discovered by studying life
on Earth is that species are remarkably linked to one
another in a complex interaction of food networks and
ecosystems. All species play an important role in making the
stable yet fragile ecosystems that we observe today.
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Biodiversity is the variation of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome, or for the
entire Earth. Biodiversity is often used as a measure of the health of biological systems.
The biodiversity found on Earth today consist of many millions of distinct biological
species, which are the product of nearly 3.5 billion years of evolution.
II.1(a): Definition of Biodiversity
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II.1 (b)
Biodiversity is like a web. Living organisms on the planet are connected and interrelated.
Every organism has a role to play in a complex network of ecosystems.
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II.2 Levels of
Biodiversity
There are different levels at
which biodiversity can be found:

-At the ecosystem level
-At the species level
-At the genes level

=> Species are interconnected in
space and time

=> The vast majority of all
species that have inhabited our
planet have become extinct
overtime
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II.3 (a) Biodiversity:
what do we know?
There are relatively only very few people worldwide who are
doing scientific studies on species.

Taxonomy: The science of species classification requires a high
level of expertise which is in decline worldwide (Each group of
species requires experts to study and understand them).

Species are in fact disappearing at a much faster rate then they
are studied.

We are losing hundreds if not hundreds of thousands of species
each year. Species that we never had the chance to study and
understand. Most of these are small or micro organisms.

=>The public knowledge of biodiversity loss is not understood as
most institutions which classify biodiversity loss tend to focus on
the well known mega fauna (tigers, elephants, rhinos) but
barely mention the much smaller organisms which often have a
much greater role to play in ecosystems equilibrium.
Well known mega fauna
Poorly known or unknown small and
micro fauna
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II.3 (b)
Most species on Earth are very small in
size for us humans. One has to look and
search closely to find them.

When comparing ourselves to all living
species on Earth, humans are truly
giants.

Despite that most attention is on
emblematic species (tigers,
elephants) the hidden macro world of
biodiversity has a very important role
to play and remains largely unknown.

=> Biodiversity mostly concerns the
macro level in terms of species
number.
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II.3 (c) Biodiversity: what
do we know?
Another trend in the study of nature is that there is an
apparent disequilibrium between the knowledge that
we have on different groups of species.

Some species with a broader interest from the general
public have been well studied such as butterflies,
shells, fish, birds, large mammals

While others, usually smaller species, such as bacteria
remain largely unknown.

Some groups such as insects, fungus or bacteria are also
much broader than other groups.

The more we study species and try to get a broader
view of the diversity of life on Earth, the more we
realize that we know in fact very little about the
variation of life forms on our planet.

Some groups are well studied
Others are not
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41
II.3 (d)
While most conservationists focus on the preservation of
emblematic species, thousands of unknown species are
disappearing every year without being noticed.
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42
The discovery of DNA and the genetic revolution of the 20
th
century
has driven a drastic change in how species are studied.

Taxonomy tends to be replaced by so called bar coding of particular
genes within species. Each species having its own Bar code allows
the buildup of a global database of species on Earth based on their
genetic code.

However, there is a downturn to this process. The species bar code
would work well if species were studied and identified at the same
rhythm as they are scanned. However, this is not the case and we are
now building-up large databases of species which we do not know
about for the simple reason that they have not been scientifically
studied to date (the possession of part of a species genome does
not replace studying them).

Even more of concern, species are becoming extinct at a much
greater rate then they are actually studied, which implies that many
of the coded species are likely to be extinct before they have been
studied.

Studying species implies looking into their anatomy, classifying them
within their evolutionary history, studying how they interact with the
environmentthere is a lot to learn in doing such studies and
potential applications which could benefit human beings.

II.4 (a) Taxonomy Vs
Molecular Phylogeny
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43
II.4 (b)
In fact, one of the few things that we do
know about biodiversity on Earth is that we
still know very little
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44
II.5 (a) Speciation and
Adaptation
Species on the planet have evolved over hundreds of
millions of years in response to environmental pressures
through the process of evolution by natural selection

As such, every species on the planet are marvels of
adaptation to given conditions and surrounding
environments (they have managed to survive over a very
long time due to the fact that adaptations that they
have developed has giving them survival advantages)

Each species is unique with specific adaptation
attributes from which a lot of knowledge and
applications for human civilizations could be gained

As such, any species becoming extinct results in
irreplaceable loss in potential solutions/remedies

Furthermore, biodiversity is an important aspect of the
beauty of this planet. Lets imagine a world with only a
few species left including our own. Such scenario would
be devastating for future generations
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II.5 (b)
Due to natural pressures species have evolved to be
adapted to their surrounding environment.
In this picture a small species of
crab from Loyalty Islands (New
Caledonia) has camouflaged itself
to match the species of algae on
which it lives on. This common
adaptation gives species the
advantage of not being easily
noticed by predators.
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46
II.5 (c)
Pressures for survival drives long term adaptation in species.
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II.6
The tree of life. All species on Earth are interrelated.
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48
II.7 Archaea
The Archaea: are a group of single-celled
micro-organisms. They have no cell nucleus
or any other organelles within their cells.

Three main branches of evolutionary descent
are the Archaea, Eukarya and Bacteria.

Archaea are further divided into four
recognized phyla, but many more phyla may
exist.

Classifying the Archaea is still difficult, since
the vast majority have never been studied in
the laboratory and have only been detected
by analysis of their nucleic acids in samples
from the environment.
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49
The bacteria are a large group of unicellular
microorganisms.

Bacteria are found in every habitat on Earth, growing in
soil, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, water, and
deep in the Earth's crust, as well as in organic matter
and the live bodies of plants and animals.

There are typically 40 million bacterial cells in a gram of
soil and a million bacterial cells in a millilitre of fresh
water; in all, there are approximately five nonillion
bacteria on Earth, forming much of the world's biomass.

Bacteria are vital in recycling nutrients, with many steps
in nutrient cycles depending on these organisms, such as
the fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere and
putrefaction. However, most bacteria have not been
characterized, and only about half of the phyla of
bacteria have species that can be grown in the
laboratory.

=> We still know very little about bacteria.
II.8 Bacteria
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50
II.9 (a) Eukaryotes
(Plants, Fungi, Animals)
A eukaryote is an organism whose cells contain
complex structures protected by membranes. The
defining membrane-bound structure that sets
eukaryotic cells apart from prokaryotic cells is the
nucleus, or nuclear envelope, within which the
genetic material is carried. Most eukaryotic cells also
contain other membrane-bound organelles such as
mitochondria, chloroplasts and the Golgi apparatus.

Almost all species of large organisms are eukaryotes,
including animals, plants and fungi, although most
species of eukaryotic protists are micro-organisms.

Cell division in eukaryotes is different from that in
organisms without a nucleus (prokaryotes). It
involves separating the duplicated chromosomes.

There are two types of division processes. Mitosis,
one cell divides to produce two genetically identical
cells. And Meiosis, which is required in sexual
reproduction.
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51
II.9 (b)
Biodiversity is the most valuable
resource on the planet and yet the
least understood
As species are highly adapted to their
surrounding environments, each
species would require an in depth
study to understand the processes
involved. Even if every person on the
planet was to study one species, we
would still have far from a complete
understanding of how diverse and
complex the living world is. Yet, only a
handful of people are making such
studies

=> There is so much more to discover
and yet so little allocated resources
to do so
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II.10 Plants
Belonging to the kingdom Plantae, they include familiar
organisms such as trees, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns,
mosses. The scientific study of plants, known as botany, has
identified about 350,000 extant species of plants, defined as
seed plants, bryophytes, ferns and fern allies. As of 2004,
some 287,655 species had been identified, of which 258,650
are flowering and 18,000 bryophytes.

Green plants obtain most of their energy from sunlight
via a process called photosynthesis

Aristotle divided all living things between plants (which
generally do not move), and animals (which often are mobile
to catch their food). In Linnaeus' system, these became the
Kingdoms Vegetabilia (later Metaphyta or Plantae) and
Animalia (also called Metazoa).

Since then, it has become clear that the Plantae as originally
defined included several unrelated groups, and the fungi and
several groups of algae were removed to new kingdoms
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53
II.11 (a) Fungus
A fungus is a member of a large group of
eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms
such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more
familiar mushrooms. The Fungi are classified as a
kingdom that is separate from plants, animals and
bacteria.

One major difference is that fungal cells have cell
walls that contain chitin, unlike the cell walls of
plants, which contain cellulose.

Abundant worldwide, most fungi are inconspicuous
because of the small size of their structures, and
their cryptic lifestyles in soil, on dead matter, and
as symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi.
They may become noticeable when fruiting, either
as mushrooms or molds.

Fungi perform an essential role in the
decomposition of organic matter and have
fundamental roles in nutrient cycling and
exchange.
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54
Species are closely interrelated.
For instance certain species of
insects are only found on one
species of plant. If this plant
disappears, so will the insect
species. Such principle applies to
all living organism, the more we
study species the more we learn
that numerous other species live
on or in dependence to one single
species.

=> parasitology is a particular
case of these interactions.
II.11 (b)
The disappearance of only one
species can result in the
disappearance of many others
which depend on it to survive
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55
II.12 (a) Animals
Animals are a major group of mostly multicellular,
eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa.
Their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop,
although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later in
their life. Most animals are motile, meaning they can move
spontaneously and independently. All animals are also
heterotrophs, meaning they must ingest other organisms
for sustenance.

Most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as
marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542
million years ago.

Animals have several characteristics that set them apart
from other living things. Most animals are eukaryotic and
are multicellular, which separates them from bacteria and
most protists. They are heterotrophic. Generally digesting
food in an internal chamber, which separates them from
plants and algae. They are also distinguished from plants,
algae, and fungi by lacking rigid cell walls. All animals are
motile. In most animals, embryos pass through a blastula
stage, which is a characteristic exclusive to animals.
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II.12 (b)
Isolated ecosystems such as caves hold some of the most
remarkably adapted species. There is still a lot to be
discovered in remote ecosystems
Remote ecosystems can be defined as places which have
become isolated from their surrounding environments and
which possesses unique environments. Even in the 21
st

century, many of such ecosystems on Earth, remain
virtually unexplored for their inhabiting biodiversity.
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57
II.13 (a) Insects
Insects are a class within the arthropods that
have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body
(head, thorax, and abdomen), three pairs of
jointed legs, compound eyes, and two antennae.
They are among the most diverse group of
animals on the planet, include more than a
million described species and represent more
than half of all known living organisms.

The number of extant species is estimated at
between six and ten million and potentially
represent over 90% of the differing life forms on
Earth. Insects may be found in nearly all
environments, although only a small number of
species occur in the oceans, a habitat dominated
by another arthropod group, the crustaceans.

The life cycles of insects vary but most hatch
from eggs. Insect growth is constrained by the
inelastic exoskeleton and development involves
a series of molts.
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II.13 (b)
Many insects are considered pests by humans. However, we must keep in mind that insects are vital to
maintaining healthy ecosystems necessary for humans well being.
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59
II. 13 (c) Insects
Insects that undergo incomplete
metamorphosis lack a pupal stage and
adults develop through a series of
nymphal stages.

The higher level relationship of the
hexapoda is unclear. Fossilized insects of
enormous size have been found from the
Paleozoic Era, including giant dragonflies
with wingspans of 55 to 70 cm.

The most diverse insect groups have
coevolved with flowering plants.
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60
I.13 (d)
Insects represent the largest and most diverse animal group on the planet.
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61
Mammals (formally Mammalia) are a class of vertebrate, air-
breathing animals whose females are characterized by the
possession of mammary glands while both males and females
are characterized by sweat glands, hair and/or fur, three
middle ear bones used in hearing, and a neocortex region in
the brain.

Mammals are divided into three main infraclass taxa depending
how they are born. These taxa are: monotremes, marsupials
and placentals. Except for the five species of monotremes
(which lay eggs), all mammal species give birth to live young.
Most mammals also possess specialized teeth, and the largest
group of mammals, the placentals, use a placenta during
gestation.

There are approximately 5,400 species of mammals,
distributed in about 1,200 genera, 153 families, and 29 orders.

Mammals range in size from the 3040 millimeter (1- to 1.5-
inch) Bumblebee Bat to the 33-meter (108-foot) Blue Whale.
II.14 (a) Mammals
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62
II.14 (b)
Mammals have developed
some of the most complex
behaviors in the animal
kingdom.
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63
II.15 (a) Reptiles
Reptiles, or members of the (Linnaean) class Reptilia,
are air-breathing, generally "cold-blooded".

Their skin is usually covered in scales or scutes. They are
tetrapods (either having four limbs or being descended
from four-limbed ancestors) and lay amniotic eggs, in
which the embryo is surrounded by a membrane called
the amnion. Modern reptiles inhabit every continent
with the exception of Antarctica.

Four living orders are currently recognized: Crocodilia,
Sphenodontia, Squamata and Chelonia.

The majority of reptile species are oviparous (egg-
laying), although certain species of squamates are
capable of giving live birth. This is achieved by either
ovoviviparity (egg retention) or viviparity (birth of
offspring without the development of calcified eggs).

Many of the viviparous species feed their fetuses through
various forms of placenta analogous to those of
mammals, with some providing initial care for their
hatchlings.
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II.15 (b)
Reptiles have adapted remarkably to the
most hostile environments.
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65
As presented in this chapter, species on Earth are
incredibly diverse.

However, despite that main types of life forms
have been identified and can be recognized,
most of the diversity occurs between species.

Despite that individual species within a group
have common features, they also possess very
different traits and adaptations which accounts
for the diversity.
While we are now starting to get a good
understanding of the common traits in groups of
species, adaptations at the species level
remains virtually unknown.

=> Every species is unique.
Conclusion Chapter II
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Chapter III
Main Biodiversity
Rich Ecosystems
How the vast majority of the
diversity of life on Earth is found
in only a few ecosystems
67
Introduction Chapter III:
Main Biodiversity Rich Ecosystems
This chapter aims to highlight the fact that most
biodiversity on the planet is present within a few
ecosystems.

Despite that diverse forms of life can be found in
almost any environment on the planet, the vast
majority of the species are concentrated within specific
ecosystems and also in specific locations of the planet
which are known to inhabit more species.

Oceans where life originated in the first place remain
one of the most bio-diverse environments on the
planet. However, surprisingly we still know relatively
very little about the life in our oceans, especially at
greater depths as these environments remain almost
unexplored to date.

The second mega bio-diverse environment are tropical
rainforests which inhabit a remarkable diversity of
species, much of which remains totally un-accounted
for.
There is however a concerning aspect relative to the
fact that most of biodiversity on Earth is concentrated
within these two ecosystems: both are in critical state as
a result of anthropic pressures from aspects such as
deforestation, over-exploitation and climate change.

The important point here is that we need to preserve
ecosystems in order to preserve species. If forests and
marine ecosystems collapse, this will result in enormous
losses of biodiversity. At the current rate of
deforestation, there will be little left of natural forests
by as soon as 2030.

We also know that most biodiversity in the oceans is
concentrated within shallow waters. However, as global
warming is taking its toll, we also know that it is likely
that surface temperatures will increase by at least 2
degrees by the end of the century. Under such scenario,
most coral reefs will not survive.
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III.1 Rainforests
Rainforests are one of the main
biodiversity rich ecosystems of the planet.

Rainforests are mostly found in tropical
and subtropical regions.

The largest rainforests include the Amazon
in South America as well as in the island of
Borneo in South East Asia. Both of these
examples are critically threatened from
massive deforestation which has reached
alarming rates.

At the current rate of deforestation, these
rainforests which hold most of the worlds
biodiversity could be gone as soon as 2030.
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III.2 (a) Coral Reefs
Reefs are one of the most bio-diverse ecosystems on the
planet.

They are mostly found in tropical and subtropical regions.

Reefs are critical to the equilibrium of oceanic life as they
hold many of the food supplies for other marine life.

Reefs are facing a rising amount of pressures mostly from
anthropic origins as a result of overfishing, global
warming, sea and land based pollution as well as
development.

A collapse of reef ecosystems would have dramatic
consequences on the rest of marine ecosystems which rely
on coral reefs to survive.

Reef remain a primary source of food and an ecosystem
upon many human civilizations rely on for their survival.
The loss of coral reefs will also result in major social
issues.
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III.2 (b)
Under current climate change negotiations, it is very likely that average global temperatures will exceed
2 degrees Celcius by 2100.
Accepting a 2 degree warmer world is accepting that we have already scarified most coral reefs around
the world which will not be able to cope with such a rapid change
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71
III.3 Mangroves
Mangroves are another bio-diverse ecosystem mostly
found in tropical and subtropical regions.

Mangroves play an important role as a feeding ground
for migratory birds.

Due to the salty or semi-salty conditions found in
mangroves, a very specific flora has adapted to such
conditions. To this particular flora and environment,
very specific and diverse life forms have also adapted
making mangroves an important feeding ground for
many species.

In addition, mangroves play a critical role in coastal
health by providing a filtering and physical barrier to
coastal erosion.

Mangroves are disappearing around the world as a
combination of deforestation, coastal development
and global warming. They are also under threat from
overfishing.
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Because they have become isolated at some point in time
over the last few million years, many ecosystems on the
planet have developed a biodiversity which is unique from
its surounding environment.

Such examples of biodiverse isolated ecosystems include
small island states like the Galapagos or New Caledonia as
well as isolated areas within continents such as an isolated
mountain top, a lake or any other area which for some
reason has become isolated from its surrounding.

Such ecosystems can be different from their surrounding
for reasons such as a micro-climate, a particular soil/flora
or a unique feature.

=>The surrounding environment often shapes the diversity
of the species inhabiting within.
III.4 (a) Isolated Ecosystems
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Isolated ecosystems, case study: seamounts

Seamounts are mountains found under the sea. The study of these mounts shows that they are very rich in biodiversity
especially in tropical and sub-tropical areas. Studies also show that these mounts are often isolated ecosystems as the
fauna found on one seamount can be very different than another seamount even when located nearby one another.
III.4 (b)
Seamounts are isolated ecosystems
rich in biodiversity.
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III.5 (a) The Abyss
The abyss refers to the deep sea at depth
below 2000 m.

We know very little about the abyss for the
reason that it is very difficult to reach due to
physical constraints.

However, some remarkable isolated
ecosystems have been found at great dephts
such as hydrothermal vents around which very
biodiverse and unique life forms have adapted.

The difficullty to reach these depths is an
obstacle to our exploration. The more we will
have access to the abyss, the more we will
discover.
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III.5 (b)
We know more about our solar system then we do about life in
the deep oceans of our own planet!
Our knowledge of life in the deeper
parts of the oceans remains largely
unknown to date. The main reason is the
extreme technological difficulties of
reaching these depths which is
comparable to going into outer space.

The other reason is that many deep sea
species are likely to be very shy and
sensitive to light sources. Therefore,
most of the life is likely to be scared
away by the powerful lights of
submersibles. It is likely that we have
yet not seen even the tip of the iceberg
of the diversity of deep sea life.
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III.5 (c) Deep Water
Thermal Vents
For long it was believed that all life forms on Earth
derived their energy from photosynthesis by utilizing
energy from the Sun.

However, the discovery of deep sea vents and the
understanding of the life forms living around them
shows that organisms in these ecosystems are relying
on Sulphur chemistry and thermal energy from the
core of the earth rather than direct sun energy.

Such discovery also gives hope that life forms on other
planets may exist.

Such life forms are another example of how life can
evolve and adapt to very hostile and particular
conditions.
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III.6 Seagrass Beds
Seagrasses form extensive beds or meadows
and can be either made up of one species or
be multispecific.

In temperate areas, usually one or a few
species dominate, whereas tropical beds
usually are more diverse, with up to thirtheen
species recorded in the Philippines.

Seagrass beds are highly diverse and
productive ecosystems, and can harbor
hundreds of associated species from all phyla.

Seagrass herbivory is a highly important link in
the food chain, with hundreds of species
feeding on seagrasses worldwide, including
green turtles, dugongs, manatees, fish, geese,
swans, sea urchins and crabs.
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Conclusion Chapter III
As presented in this chapter, most of the
diversity of life forms on Earth can be found in
only a few mega diverse locations.

Most of these locations are located in the
tropic and sub-tropic regions. Furthermore,
among all ecosystems on Earth, rainforests and
barrier reefs are by far the most diverse
environments in terms of biodiversity.

Sadly, both of the latest ecosystems are
amongst the most threatened from human
activities. While rainforest are disappearing at
alarming rates through deforestation and
reconversion of lands, climate change is
expected to take an heavy toll on reefs around
the world throughout the century.
However, despite that the vast majority of life
on Earth can be found in these few
ecosystems, species can surprisingly be found
in almost any environments on the planet
ranging from hot springs to the coldest places.
Micro-organisms are especially incredibly
diverse in almost any given environments.

Often species which are found in isolated and
poor ecosystems in terms of biodiversity have
been able to survive through unique
adaptations which have provided these species
highly competitive advantages over other
species which for most have not survived.

If the objective is to save as many species as
possible, then most of conservation efforts
should be focused on tropical and subtropical
regions and in particular rainforests.
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Chapter IV
Anthropic Impacts
and Biodiversity
How humans have drastically
changed the balance of life on
Earth
80
Introduction Chapter IV:
Anthropic Impacts and Biodiversity
This chapter aims to focus on the pressures exerted on
biodiversity as a direct impact of human influences.

Humans have a tremendous impact on other species on the
planet should it be from direct impacts (e.g. Human food
consumption) or indirect impacts as a result of our
activities (e.g. mining, industrialization, pollutions).

As the human population rapidly grows, the pressures
imposed on natural ecosystems and species are enormous
and resulting in numerous species extinctions. It is
estimated that species are disappearing at least 1000 times
the natural rate.

While some of the impacts are only felt locally where the
disturbance occurs, a more concerning trend now becoming
a reality is that, as a result of intense pollution worldwide,
ecosystems are becoming saturated on a global scale which
could well lead to massive extinctions in a near future.
Pollution of oceans is one example of such large scale
disturbance. Plastic residues for instance are now found in
almost any location on the planet even in the most remote
areas. Such residues are incorporated into food chains and
can even be monitored in species themselves.

The most significant impact that humans are causing to
global biodiversity will be a consequence of global warming
as a result of industrialization and the addition of
greenhouse gases to the atmosphere from the burning of
fossil fuels.

Under current climate negotiations the rise in temperature
alone will with certainty cause a wave of massive
biodiversity loss onto which pollution issues will add on.
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IV.1 (a) Deforestation
Deforestation is one of the major threats to
biodiversity.

Forests and especially rainforests of equatorial
and subtropical regions hold some of the Earth
richest ecosystems.

Deforestation has however been increasing
significantly over the past decades to the point
where it has now reached alarming rates and
associated species loss.

The island of Borneo forests as well as the
Amazon are losing tremendous superficies of
forest each year due to logging activities mostly
for the construction and paper industry.
Significant deforestation has also been rising in
recent years in relation to agriculture and the
plantation of monocultures for biofuels.

Deforestation has devastating effects on the rich
biodiversity that these ecosystems hold by
destroying habitats of numerous species and
destabilizing the food chains resulting in the
collapse of the ecosystems.
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Forests are vanishing around the world at an alarming rate. Forests provide habitats for numerous species.
As forests disappear so is the biodiversity that inhabits within.
IV.1 (b)
There are very few primary forests
left in the world and most of them are
critically endangered.

Most of these forests are only present
in national parks and in areas where
human development has not
intensified.

Once destroyed, a forest is either lost
or will take thousands of years to
recover.
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Many still have the misconception
that because land is covered by
green vegetation such as common
grass species, we are preserving
biodiversity.

This concept is wrong, if one species
disappears so are many other
species which depend on it to
survive.

=> Preserving a diversity of plant
species is crucial for preserving
biodiversity of other life forms.
IV.1 (c)
Replacing natural forests with planted monocultures is a major threat to biodiversity
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IV.2 (a) Mining
Mining activities are rapidly expending around the world
due to the rising demand in metals and other resources.

The sole activity of mining can have devastating effects
on biodiversity, especially in isolated ecosystems and bio-
diverse areas.

Examples of mining activities which are putting severe
pressures on the biodiversity and ecosystems can be
found in areas such as Indonesia, Madagascar or New
Caledonia which are all classified as biodiversity hotspots.

Terrestrial biodiversity is most concentrated in the top
upper layer of the soil. Mining activities which completely
wipe out the top part of the soil destroys whichever life
form and habitats are present. The soil once exposed is
easily eroded and carried out to sea impacting reef
formations and marine life as well.

Mining activities have devastating impacts on the
environment and biodiversity in particular, especially in
bio-diverse locations.
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IV.2 (b)
Mining is one of the most environmental destructive and unsustainable practices. Especially in biodiversity
rich areas.
Many mines are located in biodiversity
sensitive areas including biodiversity
hotspots like Madagascar. These mines
have devastating impacts resulting from
the installation of the mine (from large
scale deforestation to the operation and
after life of the mine).

The impacts of these mines often extend
much beyond the mining area as they
require the cutting of roads, heavy
machinery and reject numerous toxic
compounds into the environment affecting
the surrounding environment on a large
scale.
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Many nations depend almost entirely on resources
from the oceans as a primary food supply.

Most of the oceans resources are however harvested
extensively by only a few industrialized nations.

Fish stocks and other marine resources are harvested
far beyond their regeneration ability.

At the current rate of fishing, most fish stocks will be
extinct by mid-century.

Adoption of sustainable fishing practices respectful of
species reproductive rate is crucial in order to avoid
the collapse of most marine ecosystems.

Fish should be harvested from farming rather than the
oceans. However the current aquaculture practices
are far from sustainable.
IV.3 (a) Over Fishing
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The replacement of traditional local fishing with international industrial fishing has devastating effects on
the worlds marine species. At the current rate It is estimated that most large commercial fish species will
be extinct by 2040.
IV.3 (b)
Traditional fishing methods have been replaced by industrialized and more productive fishing practices.
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IV.3 (C)
As industrial fishing deplates the worlds ocean resources and marine biodiversity, it also creates social
problems by depleting the stocks which are no longer available for local communities to feed on
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89
As the top predator in the oceans, Sharks play a very important
role in maintaining ecosystems stability.

Worldwide, populations of sharks are seriously pressured from
anthropic activities.

Most species of sharks are now at serious risks of extinction as a
result of overfishing.

The process of shark finning is having devastating impacts on shark
populations but also on entire ecosystems.

Shark fins are mostly collected to be sold as shark fin soup which is
considered a delicacy in Asian countries.

Sharks have a very slow reproductive rate and only have a few
young's in their life time.

At the current rate sharks are collected, numerous species of
sharks could become extinct within the next 10-20 years.

The disappearance or drastic diminution of sharks in the oceans
will have devastating effects on the entire marine ecosystem.
IV.3 (d) Case study: Sharks,
a Critical Problem
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All Shark species must become protected or
they will face extinction within a few
decades only

Shark finning is a threat to shark
populations worldwide with serious
implications for marine ecosystems stability.

Shark finning is a very unsustainable
practice which should become banned or at
least strictly regulated.
IV.3 (e) Shark Finning
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We do not know the full extent or consequences that a sharp diminution or even disappearance of sharks will have
on marine ecosystems. We however know that they play a critical role.
IV.3 (f)
Sharks have been mediatized
as a human killing machine.
It has now been clearly
established that such
statement is false. Sharks as a
top predator play a critical
role in maintaining oceans
ecosystem stability.
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92
IV.4 Illegal Trading
of Species
Illegal trading of endangered species is a growing
problem.

As species become more and more under threat
and on the verge of extinction, the price of such
species on the black market keeps on rising.

Illegal killing and selling of endangered species
has a serious impact on the stability of these
fragile populations which in many instances
pushes these species to extinction.

Examples of species which are valued include
tigers, parrots and fish mostly originating from
tropical and subtropical regions.

while some endangered species are traded as
living organisms others such as elephants are
killed for the sole purpose of extracting parts of
the animals (e.g. Ivory, tiger powder).
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93
IV.5 (a) Agriculture
Over the past century agriculture has increased dramatically in
response to the exponentially growing human population and the
need to feed them.

In addition to its fast expansion, agriculture has drifted away from
traditional practices to highly industrialized and optimized processes.

In order to cope with such demand, agriculture has become
increasingly dependent on fertilizers and pesticides.

The use of genetically engineered plantations is also a rising threat to
biodiversity. Species genetically modified, when introduced into the
environment, compete with natural species.

Agriculture by its nature is also a major threat to biodiversity by
spreading monocultures.

In order to find the ever increasing space required for agriculture,
tremendous spaces of land initially occupied by primary forests and
other ecosystems are destroyed removing in the process the diversity
of species which in many instances were only found in these specific
locations.

A growing problem is also the rise of lands used for monoculture
plantations destined for biofuel production. This new usage has for
consequence to even put more pressure and increase the need for
further agricultural lands.

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94
In order to preserve
biodiversity we must find
and shift to new food
production methods not
requiring such extensive
land use (e.g. vertical
farms?)
IV.5 (b)
Agriculture is one of the main threats to biodiversity. Worldwide, entire ecosystems are wiped out
(such as forests) and reconverted for agricultural purposes which has major implications for
biodiversity and has resulted in the loss of numerous species. Today this trend is even pushed further
with the need for biofuel crops.
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95
IV.5 (c)
Pesticides used in agriculture can affect animal reproduction adding further pressures on biodiversity.
In addition to monocultures
land conversion. A very
significant amount of
pesticides and fertilizers are
added to industrial crops.
These two elements kill
numerous species resulting
in significant biodiversity
loss going much beyond the
crop areas as the substances
are transmitted through food
chains
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96
IV.6 Bio-Engineering
Genetically modified organisms (GMO) are a
threat to natural species in the environment.

The genes within GMO enter in competition with
natural genes occurring in the environment.

We are uncertain of the impacts that such GMO
will have on other species.

However, it has been proven that GMO lead to
monocultures and mutations within natural
species.

By introducing GMO into the environment we are
risking the loss of naturally occurring species in
favor of genetically modified ones.

=> GMO are a major threat to global
biodiversity.
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97
IV.7 Industrialisation and
Associated Waste
Since the industrial revolution, the rise of industries of all
forms and sectors have been taking place in most nations.

This rapid change of activities has driven the rise of very
diverse environmental pressures including the generation
of very large amounts of chemical wastes and other
disturbances such as noise and atmospheric emissions.

Pollution generated by all nations has now far exceeded
local impacts and effects on a global scale are starting to
arise. For instance trace amounts of certain pollutants such
as residues of hydrocarbons (e.g. plastic bags) can now be
found in any given place on Earth.

Such background pollution is putting further pressure on
ecosystems around the world which are struggling to adapt
and cope with the change in surrounding environment.
Usually under natural conditions such changes in the
chemistry of the environment occurs over millions of years
which permits adaptive changes, however species are
unable to adopt to such a rapid change now occurring over
several decades only.

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IV.8 (a) Pollution and
Biodiversity
Pollution is a human created vision of the state of our
environment.

Without a human vision of the world in which we live, the
concept of pollution would simply not exist.

Pollution can be seen as an unusual level of a substance which
disturbs the surrounding environment and especially
biodiversity.

Due to industrialization pollution has become one of the
greatest threat to global biodiversity.

Many species cannot cope with the rapid changes in physical
parameters which are occurring to our environment.

High levels of pollution results in toxicity. All substances are
toxic it all depends on the level of occurrence and to which
capacity organisms can tolerate the substance.

=> We are releasing substances in the environment to such a
level that they are becoming toxic to many organisms.
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IV.8 (b)
While some substances require
large amounts to be toxic to
organisms, numerous human
made substances have significant
impacts on organisms even in
very low concentrations.
While some substances only stay in the environment for short periods of times, others stay very long. These are
the most concerning pollutants as they do not deteriorate and end up entering food chains.
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100
Eutrophication (or algal bloom) is an increase in the
concentration of nutrient content to an extent that
it increases the primary productivity of the water
body. In other terms, it is the "bloom or great
increase of phytoplankton in a water body.

Negative environmental effects include
particularly anoxia, or loss of oxygen in the water
with severe reductions in fish and other animal
populations. Other species may experience an
increase in population that negatively affects other
species in the local ecosystem.

As pollution (Nitrates & Phosphates) from sources
such as agriculture increases, more and more water
bodies are experiencing eutrophication which is
putting pressure on the biodiversity of these
ecosystems.
IV.8 (c) Case Study:
Eutrophication
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101
IV.9 (a) Climate Change
and Biodiversity
Since the industrial revolution, human activities have
added tremendous amounts of green house gases into
the atmosphere. By doing so we are changing the
composition of the atmosphere which results into the
Earth becoming warmer through the action of the
greenhouse effect being amplified in the process.

One of the consequences of global warming will be to
affect biodiversity.

Numerous species of plants and animals are already
responding to warmer temperatures by moving to
higher altitudes or latitudes. Many species unable to
adapt or migrate fast enough will however become at
increased risk of extinction.

Scientists estimate that we could lose half of all
species present on the planet today through the
impacts of climate change alone by the end of the
century.
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IV.9 (b)
Climate Change and Biodiversity loss:

It is here important to highlight and emphasize on
the link between climate change and biodiversity
loss.

It has taken millions of years for species to adapt to
their given ecosystems. During this time numerous
changes in the climate system have occurred.
However, climate change that we observe today is
occurring very fast (as opposed to most geological
climate shifts) and is the result of mainly anthropic
activities (and therefore could be slowed down)

Most species on Earth happen to have adapted to be
very sensitive to even slight variations in outside
parameters such as air pressure, or ambient
temperature. Most scientists have agreed that
numerous species will simply not be able to cope
with the rise in atmospheric and oceanic
temperatures which are predicted under various
scenarios (including the most optimistic ones).
To further confirm the above, numerous studies on
fossils and geological observations have concluded
that rapid climate shifts have always resulted in
massive species extinction events.

If temperatures were to rise by 2 degrees
centigrade by 2100 (as predicted under most
scenarios) this alone will without doubt result in
the loss of a very significant portion of all species
present on the Earth today (most still unknown).

It makes little sense to act to preserve biodiversity
in given ecosystems today but on the other hand
to ignore the much greater threat that climate
change will have on biodiversity and these
ecosystems in the short to medium term.

Thus acting to limit the worse impacts of climate
change by reducing GHG emissions will also help in
preserving species on Earth..

=> Maintaining the Earth Climate and preserving
biodiversity cannot go without one another.
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103
The impact of global warming on the oceans biodiversity will be disastrous. As sea level rises and oceans become
more acidic due to the absorption of CO
2
, biodiversity in shallow marine ecosystems will sharply decrease.
IV.9 (c)
Most experts agree that coral reefs
around the world will not be able to
survive a 2 degree Celcius rise in
atmospheric temperatures.
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IV.9 (d)
Coastal ecosystems and their inhabiting biodiversity will be greatly affected as a result of global sea
level rise.
As sea level rises, large coastal areas will become permanently
flooded. In addition, the salty waters will infiltrate further and
further inland. Many species of plants and animals will not be
able to cope with this change in soil salinity. Sea level rise
alone will result in species extinctions
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IV.9 (e)
The thought of the scale of species extinctions through climate change alone is disturbing. If predictions by the
scientific community are correct, almost half of all species present on Earth today will become extinct by 2100 as a
sole consequence of increased global temperatures. We must however keep in mind that in addition, there are many
other factors which will drive even further species extinctions such as global pollution, habitat destruction.
We could loose half of the world total biodiversity from the impacts of climate change alone by the end of the century.
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IV.9 (f)
Climate Change is the most serious threat to global biodiversity loss.
At the current rate of warming, the loss of biodiversity as a result
of climate change will be disastrous
Despite that deforestation
and other threats have
already alone very significant
and disastrous consequences
on biodiversity, climate
change will continue to affect
all the planet ecosystems at
increasing pressures
proportional to the rise in
ambient temperatures.
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107
IV.10 (a) Human
Disturbances /
Population Growth
Human population is a major threat to biodiversity.

With a current population of near 7 billion people,
humans are the main cause of environmental
disturbance on the planet which includes major
impacts on biodiversity.

A control over the growth of the worlds population is
inevitable if we want to preserve the diversity of
species present on Earth today.
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108
IV.10 (b) World
Population Predictions
World population is expected to exceed 9 billion
by 2050.

In order to feed a rapidly growing population,
agricultural fields are expending exponentially
with major impacts on biodiversity.

In order to keep up with the demand more land
needs to be cultivated, more pollution occurs.
This results in more and more pressures put on
ecosystems.

Humans and human related activities are
already the greatest threat to biodiversity.
Source: UNEP
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IV.10 (c)
The environment will always be there, preserving our environment is not about preserving the
Earth but whether we and future generations want to live in an environment that has suffered the
impacts of human activities
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110
Despite that ecotourism can have beneficial impacts
on biodiversity conservation, if not well managed the
impacts of mass tourisms can be disastrous.

Examples of the impacts of the tourisms industry on
biodiversity ranges from the impacts of constructing
an hotel in a remote location to massive arrival of
tourists from a cruise ship on a beach.

In a rapidly changing world where population
movements are rapidly increasing, bio-diverse areas
must increasingly be protected to preserve this
biodiversity.

The best way to protect biodiversity rich areas is to
limit the number of people at one time in these sites
with access granted on a permit basis.
IV.11 (a) Mass Tourisms
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IV.11 (b)
Mass tourisms can have high impacts
on biodiversity. While a small group
of people may cause little
disturbance, a few hundred or
thousands in one biodiverse
sensitive place at the same time can
be a major disturbance.
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112
IV.12 (a) Forest Fires
Forest fires are a rising threat to biodiversity.
Despite being a natural cycle in some ecosystems
where wildlife has adapted to cope (e.g. Australian
bush), in many areas fires are occurring in places
where they are not meant to occur frequently (e.g.
Amazon).

Every year large superficies of native forests are
completely destroyed by fires which are of natural or
most often unnatural causes.

When forests are burnt, the diversity of species that
they hold and cannot manage to escape fast enough
also disappears.

Many unknown species become extinct in fire events
every year. The vast majority are small animals and
plants.
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Forest fires are part of natural
cycles. They have occurred for a very
long time and are actually necessary
in many cases to regulate population
numbers and even for species to
spread in certain cases (e.g.
Australian bush).

However, the concerning trend is
that most fires occurring today are of
unnatural sources. These fires are
propagated by humans for various
reasons (clearing of forest for farm
use, pest control.). These fires are
destroying forests around the world
including biodiversity sensitive areas
such as the amazon.
IV.12 (b)
Each year fires are devastating large forest surfaces. In biodiversity rich areas such as in
South America, such fires are responsible for a large number of species becoming extinct.
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IV.13 (a) Fragmentation
of Habitats
Ecosystems are very fragile in a sense that it does
not take much for these systems to collapse.

Small variations in environmental parameters or
even a fragmentation can trigger such disturbance.

Fragmentation of habitats is a threat to
biodiversity. Such fragmentation usually occurs
when continuous ecosystems are cut into various
sections for instance by a road or a track.

Plants are especially vulnerable to fragmentation.
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IV.13 (b)
Fragmentation of habitats is an important threat to Biodiversity.
With the industrial revolution and a
growing population also came roads. Road
infrastructures around the world have the
effect of fragmenting habitats which
isolates certain populations and makes
them more vulnerable to extinction.
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116
IV.14 (a) Genetic
Resources
Access to genetic resources is a rising threat
to biodiversity.

Many large corporations are in a constant
search of rare active compounds within
species in order to develop new medicines,
perfumes or for other purposes.

Often the discovery of such compounds
leads to an unsustainable harvesting of the
resource.

An ongoing debate is with the ownership of
genetic resources. Often these compounds
are discovered because the plants and
animals they are derived from have been
used by local communities for centuries.
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IV.14 (b)
As numbers of individuals within species decrease..
..so is the genetic pool. This makes species
even more vulnerable to extinction.
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118
IV.15 (a) Alien Species
The transfer of species between countries and
regions is a major threat to biodiversity.

As the world nations became more and more
connected through international and national
import/export trades, species are now been
transferred between locations at alarming rates.

These transfers result in some species ending up
in places they are not meant to be (outside of
their natural habitats).

As a result, more dominant species start
competing for resources with endemic species
often resulting in alien species taking over.

=> The spread of alien species results in the
extinction of local species.
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Despite measures taken by custom authorities, species are increasingly being transferred as a result
of rapidly expending human transportation and goods (shipping and air transport).
IV.15 (b)
In the 21
st
Century, transportation has taken such proportion that ecosystems that have long been
isolated from one another are now vulnerable to cross contaminations.
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Conclusion Chapter IV
As highlighted in this chapter, life on Earth is
seriously endangered mostly as a result of the
action of mankind.

Probably the greatest pressure of all relies in human
over-population. As the world population keeps on
increasing at exponential rates, the amount of
pressures put on the worlds ecosystems are simply
much beyond their capacity to recover.

Species on Earth are now struggling to survive
through an unprecedented accumulation of
pressures which most have been enumerated
throughout this chapter.

While global pollution is becoming a major issue, it
usually dilutes overtime into the environment and
species may be able to recover, should we limit our
emissions of pollutants.
However, the main global threat to biodiversity is
climate change. The impacts have started to occur
and will severely intensify throughout the century
leading to the disappearance of an unprecedented
amount of species in recent Earth history.

Unless significant progress in global negotiations to
mitigate greenhouse gas emissions are made, the
rise in global temperatures will indeed result by
itself in a massive species extinction event.

Time for action on climate change to save the
diversity of life on Earth is now and time is running
out very fast for any measures taken to significantly
prevent such species loss.
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Chapter V
A Few Case Studies
of Biodiversity
Degradation
How the situation has dramatically
shifted from only isolated events
to a global biodiversity loss
122
Introduction Chapter V:
A Few Case Studies of Biodiversity Degradation
This chapter presents a few case studies of biodiversity
degradation.

While it is often said that humans learn from past mistakes,
this statement does not seem to apply to the conservation of
biodiversity. There are multitude of specific examples of
anthropic activities which have resulted in severe impacts on
wildlife and biodiversity, yet we have still not understood the
lessons especially when it comes to the extinction of species.

Despite that a few adjustments and precautions have been
taken following punctual events, still major and much more
spread devastation is occurring today on a global scale as a
result of overexploitation of resources and pollution. Climate
change being on the top of the agenda when it comes to
massive extinction of species.
Despite high level negotiations which have been adopted for
more than 3 decades now (e.g. Agenda 21). Biodiversity
conservation policies remain global failures.

Deforestation is still going on at alarming rates and the rate
has actually worsen. Global warming negotiations are
struggling to even tackle basic requirements,
overexploitation of natural resources is at its worse and the
list goes on.

Often the concept of sustainable development first
introduced during the Brundtland Commission and suggesting
that developments must take equally into consideration
environmental, social and economical issues is misused and
environmental irreversible degradations still result as a
consequence of current development models.

If we are to preserve biodiversity, such perception and the
way we deal with our environment must change.
Chapter V: A Few Case Studies of Biodiversity Degradation
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V.1 (a) Case Study 1:
Oil Spill, Exxon Valdez
& Deepwater Horizon
The Exxon Valdez oil spill occurred in the Prince William Sound,
Alaska, on March 23, 1989. It is considered one of the most devastating
human-caused environmental disasters ever to occur at sea.

The region was a habitat for salmon, sea otters, seals and seabirds. The
vessel spilled about 40 million litres of crude oil into the sea, and the
oil eventually covered 3,400 km
2
of ocean. Thousands of animals died
immediately; the best estimates include 250,000 to as many as 500,000
seabirds, at least 1,000 sea otters, approximately 12 river otters, 300
harbor seals, 250 bald eagles, and 22 orcas, as well as the destruction
of billions of salmon and herring eggs. The effects of the spill continue
to be felt today.

Deepwater horizon: On April 20, 2010, the pressure in a well in the
Gulf of Mexico blew its top. The result was an explosion and the
collapse of the oil rig into the bottom of the ocean. At least 84,000
barrels equivalent of oil were spewing into the water daily.

Despite the previous oil spill of the Exxon Valdez, this event which has
been described as one of the worse environmental disasters in US
history is a reminder of the threat of the oil industry on biodiversity.
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V.1 (b)
With the constantly growing number of large ships and the aging of the worlds
shipping fleets, the threat of oil spills is rapidly growing.
Despite the strengthening of
international shipping regulations
requiring oil tankers to have a
double layer for their oil
containers, many aging ships still
to date do not meet this
preventive requirement.
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V.1 (c)
Oil spills have long term devastating effects on marine life, seabirds and coastal species.
Oil drilling in the sea beds is becoming
a major threat to sea life. As oil
reserves are depleting, oil companies
need to search for oil in areas that
are difficult to access: the deep sea
beds. However, the current
technology to do such drilling remains
inappropriate and very risky for the
surrounding environment. As recent
events demonstrate when a problem
arises at these depths, there is little
control we can have on the
proliferation of the oil in the oceans.

Even in the 21
st
century, our
knowledge of life in the deep oceans
remains virtually unknown. If we
destroy this life through such
contaminations, we will never know
what was lost
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V.1 (d)
Coastal ecosystems are very vulnerable to oil spills
and other contaminants.
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V.2 Case Study: Mining in
New Caledonia
New Caledonia, a French island located in the Southern Pacific, is
classified as one of the worlds 18 biodiversity hotspots. Due to its
isolation and uniqueness of its lateritic soil, New Caledonia has
developed over millions of years of a very unique fauna and flora which
is more than 80% endemic to the island (i.e. these species are found no
where else in the world).

The destruction: Since the past few decades, large mining companies
are exploiting the island for its rich soils in Nickel and other minerals. In
addition to the mining process itself that literally clears all the top part
of the soil (over hundreds of km
2
), numerous fires are set on regular
basis to prospect for new mining sites.

The impacts: The direct impact is the total destruction of habitats and
the likely disappearance of thousands of unknown species which have
very restricted repartition areas coinciding with the mining sites (these
include plants, reptiles and insects, only found in these specific sites).

In addition to the terrestrial destruction, tremendous quantities of
contaminants and soil are dumped into the worlds largest lagoon
impacting coral reef ecosystems over unprecedented surfaces.

=> Mining in New Caledonia is a good example of un-sustainable
development on a large scale.

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V.3 Case Study: Acid Rains
Acid rain is rain or any other form of precipitation that is
unusually acidic, i.e. elevated levels of hydrogen ions
(low pH)

It can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic animals,
and infrastructure through the process of wet deposition.
Acid rain is caused by emissions of compounds of
ammonium, carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur which react with
the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids

Governments have made efforts since the 1970s to
reduce the production of sulfuric oxides into the Earth's
atmosphere with positive results. However, it can also be
caused naturally by the splitting of nitrogen compounds
by the energy produced by lightning strikes, or the
release of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere by volcano
eruptions.

Acid rains have a negative impact on biodiversity over
large surface areas by disturbing the pH of sensitive
environments such as forest soil
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V.4 Case Study: Chernobyl
The Chernobyl disaster was a nuclear accident that
occurred on 26 April 1986 at the Chernobyl Nuclear
Power Plant in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist
Republic. It is considered to be the worst nuclear
power plant disaster in history.

After the disaster, four square kilometers of pine
forest in the immediate vicinity of the reactor turned
brown and died, earning the name of the "Red
Forest". Some animals in the worst-hit areas also
died or stopped reproducing. Most domestic animals
were evacuated from the exclusion zone, but horses
left on an island in the Pripyat River 6 km from the
power plant died when their thyroid glands were
destroyed by high radiation doses.

Some cattle on the same island died and those that
survived were stunted because of thyroid damage.
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Rabbits were first introduced in Australia in 1859.
Their effect on Australian ecology has since been
devastating. Rabbits are one of the most
significant factors in species loss in this country.

Rabbit population spread at alarming rates after
their introduction and became a serious
disturbance to the natural ecology.

Rabbits often kill young trees in the wild by eating
the roots. As such, they are responsible for the
loss of numerous plant species.

They are also responsible for serious erosion
problems as they eat native plants leaving the soil
exposed.

Even to date 100 of millions of dollars are spent
each year to deal with the rabbit problem.
Rabbits around a water hole at Wardang Island Australia in 1938
V.5 (a) Case Study:
Introduction of Rabbits
in Australia
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The red fire ant (Solenopsis Invicta) originates from South
America. It can however now be commonly found in places
such as the United States, Australia, Taiwan and south of
China.

These ants were accidentally introduced in these countries
by plane or shipping.

Red fire ants are excellent natural predators and
responsible for serious damage to cultures such as sugar
canes, various fruits. They feed on small insects and small
mammals, reptiles and birds.

They are known to be highly aggressive and competitive
with other species. These ants cause million of dollars of
damage and are driving many native species to extinction.
V.5 (b) Introduction of
Invasive Species. Case Study:
the Red Fire Ant
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V.6 Biodiversity and
Climate Change
There is a close relationship between climate change
and biodiversity.

Case study: due to the rising temperatures and the
prolongation of warmer periods, North American
forests are increasingly affected by a species of Beatle
that destroys the wood and kills the trees.

As the temperatures no longer get cold long enough to
kill the Beatles, these have proliferated in recent
years resulting in very large amounts of trees to be
left to rot.

Such losses also directly translate to significant
economical loss in several regions such as British
Columbia in Canada where the timber industry had
been a major source of revenues for decades.
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V.7 (a) Global
Biodiversity Loss
We are no longer faced with individual or isolated
cases of species extinction.

What we are facing today is a global biodiversity
loss which is occurring at increasing rate.

The living environment is now reacting not to one
threat but to an accumulation of pressures from
anthropic activities. These pressures are driving
species extinction many thousand of times the
natural rate of extinction.

Species are disappearing every day. Most people
just do not know about it.

The worst part is that we do not even know how
many species are disappearing as we still to date
only know a small portion of all the species on
Earth. Most species have never been studied,
described and for this matter given a name or an
identity.
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V.7 (b)
Despite punctual degradation of the living environment, we must remember that the main threat to biodiversity
is resulting globally as a combination of all anthropic pressures that we human beings have been and are
continuing to put (at increasing rates) on the world ecosystems.
Biodiversity loss has become critical and the situation
has shifted form isolated and accidental impacts to a
global crisis. Throughout the 21
st
century every
ecosystem in any location on the planet will be
impacted by human induced environmental pressures
which will inevitably lead to species extinctions. At
the top of the list are climate change. global diluted
pollution and rainforests deforestation.
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135
V.7 (c)
Today we are no longer faced with isolated extinction events but with a global loss of species on Earth as a result
of a combine effect of anthropic pressures
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136
Conclusion Chapter V
As highlighted in this chapter, punctual
degradations of our environment are taking
place around the world at increasing rates and
have significant impacts on biodiversity.

However, the real concern is that we have now
clearly shifted from isolated extinction events to
a global loss of species on Earth as a combine
effect of all human related influences.

The most concerning threats to global diversity
are climate change, pollution and deforestation.
At the current rate of warming of the climate
system and deforestation, we will face very
significant species loss throughout the century.
By 2100 half of all the species present on Earth
today could have become extinct.
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Chapter VI
Global State of
Biodiversity
How species are rapidly becoming
extinct
138
Assessing the state of biodiversity on the
planet is a near impossible task. However,
the more we try to assess the diversity of
life on Earth and how it evolves over
time, the more we clarify the already
known fact that species are disappearing
from the planet at alarming rates.

We cannot assess all the biodiversity on
Earth. First, too few people are making
studies on biodiversity and secondly the
diversity of life on Earth is simply
tremendous even without taking into
consideration smaller organisms at the
bacterial level.
However, by making an assessment
based on already known species which
involves evaluating numbers of
individuals within given populations and
repeating this exercise overtime, we can
get a clearer picture of the health of
populations and ecosystems on Earth.

The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)
has been publishing a report on the state
of the environment and the living world
for many years now.

The graphics presented in this section
originate from the latest 2010 report.
Introduction Chapter VI:
The State of Biodiversity on the Planet
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VI.1 The Global Living Planet Index
The Living Planet Index (LPI) reflects changes in the health of the planets ecosystems by tracking trends in
nearly 8,000 populations of vertebrate species.

The latest global LPI shows a decline of about 30 percent between 1970 and 2007. This is based on trends in
7,953 populations of 2,544 mammal, bird, reptile, amphibian and fish species, many more than in previous
Living Planet Reports.
Source: WWF,
Living Planet
Report 2010
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VI.2 The Terrestrial Living Planet index
The Terrestrial Living Planet Index includes 3,180 populations from 1,341 species of birds, mammals,
amphibians and reptiles found in a broad range of temperate and tropical habitats, including forests,
grasslands and dry-lands.

Overall the terrestrial LPI has declined by 25 per cent. The tropical terrestrial LPI has declined by almost 50
per cent since 1970, while the temperate terrestrial LPI has increased by about 5 per cent.
Source: WWF,
Living Planet Report 2010
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VI.3 Marine Living Planet Index
The Marine Living Planet Index tracks changes in 2,023 populations of 636 species of fish, seabirds, marine
turtles and marine mammals found in temperate and tropical marine ecosystems.

Approximately half the species in this index are commercially used. Overall the marine LPI has declined by 24
percent. Marine ecosystems show the largest discrepancy between tropical and temperate species: the
tropical marine LPI has declined by around 60 percent while the temperate marine LPI has increased by
around 50 per cent.
Source: WWF,
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VI.4 (a) Freshwater Living Planet Index
The Freshwater Living Planet Index tracks changes in 2,750 populations of 714 species of fish, birds, reptiles,
amphibians and mammals found in temperate and tropical freshwater ecosystems. The global freshwater LPI has
declined by 35 per cent between 1970 and 2007, more than either the global marine or terrestrial LPIs.

The tropical freshwater LPI has declined by almost 70 per cent, the largest fall of any of the biome-based LPIs,
while the temperate freshwater LPI has increased by 36 per cent.
Source: WWF,
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VI.4 (b)
The signs are very clear and it has been so for a
long time:

Species are becoming extinct (at increasing rates)
around the world and across ecosystems
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The human demand on the biosphere more than doubled between 1961 and 2007.
VI.5 World Biocapacity
Source: WWF,
Living Planet
Report 2010
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The results provided in the WWF State of the
Planet Report are very clear and concerning:

Species are globally declining at alarming rates
Decline and extinction of species is more marked in
the tropic and subtropics areas (where most of the
world biodiversity is concentrated).

We are exploiting resources at a much greater rate
then the capacity of the planet to regenerate
them.

We must significantly reduce our ecological
footprint.

Failure to do so will result in catastrophic
consequences including massive biodiversity loss
throughout the century.
VI.6 State of Biodiversity
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Conclusion Chapter VI
As highlighted in this chapter, a few key
indicators have been developed to tract
how species populations and ecosystems
evolve over time.

The results are very concerning and all
point to the same conclusion that overall
species on Earth are diminishing rapidly.

It also appears clearly that most
biodiversity losses occur in areas that
have the most diversity, in the tropical
and sub-tropical areas.
The fact that all sensitive ecosystems
seem to be affected in a similar way,
further confirms the global trend of
species loss rather than isolated events.

Another concerning fact is that the more
species disappear, the more species will
disappear. Indeed, as all species on Earth
are interconnected, the loss of a single
species results in the loss of many others
which depend on it to survive. We can
therefore expect species loss to increase
at an exponential rate as the losses will
intensify throughout the century.
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Chapter VII
Biodiversity Hotspots
and Conservation
Priorities
Why conservation efforts should be
prioritized to certain zones
148
Introduction Chapter VII:
Biodiversity Hotspot and Conservation Priorities
Despite that biodiversity losses are occurring everywhere on
Earth, some areas which are both extraordinarily rich in life
forms and particularly threatened from a number of sources
have been identified.

As a general trend, equatorial and tropical zones have a
particularly rich biodiversity when compared to the rest of
the word. The colder it gets, the less bio-diverse the
ecosystems tend to be.

Examples of biodiversity hotspots include the rainforest of
Borneo and as a matter of fact most of the forests of
Indonesia and Malaysia, Reef environments across tropical
zones and many others.

18 principal biodiversity hotspots where conservation should
be prioritized have been identified.
The principal behind the concept of biodiversity hotspot
comes from the fact that despite that all ecosystems on
Earth should be preserved, only limited funds are available
worldwide to undertake such needed actions.

As such, it is necessary, in order to preserve as much
biodiversity as possible, to focus on areas which are the
most at risk and where the efforts will result in the greatest
number of species saved.

Often, loss of biodiversity arise from rapid deterioration of
the environment in the pursue of the extraction of
resources for immediate profit. One must however
understand that such models are not sustainable.

Once extinct, species have disappeared forever from the
planet.
Chapter VII: Biodiversity Hotspots and Conservation Priorities
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VII.1 (a) What is a
Biodiversity Hotspot?
A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region with a
significant reservoir of biodiversity that is threatened
with destruction.

The concept of biodiversity hotspots was originated by
Dr. Norman Myers. The hotspots idea was also
promoted by Russell Mittermeier in the popular book
Hotspots Revisited (2004).

To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot on Myers 2000
edition of the hotspot-map, a region must meet two
strict criteria: it must contain at least 0.5% or 1,500
species of vascular plants as endemics, and it has to
have lost at least 70% of its primary vegetation.

Around the world, at least 25 areas qualify under this
definition, with nine others possible candidates. These
sites support nearly 60% of the world's plant, bird,
mammal, reptile, and amphibian species, with a very
high share of endemic species.

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VII.1 (b)
The above map shows the principal biodiversity hotspots which have been identified around the world. The above map
shows that most biodiversity rich regions are in tropical and subtropical areas. South East Asia has numerous hotspots.
Source: Conservation International
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VII.2 Case Study:
Madagascar
Madagascar, is the fourth-largest island in the world,
and is home to 5% of the world's plant and animal
species, of which more than 80% are endemic.

Emblematic species includes the lemur, the
carnivorous fossa, three bird families and six baobab
species.

Madagascar's long isolation from the neighboring
continents has resulted in a unique mix of plants and
animals, many found nowhere else in the world.

Of the10,000 known plants native to Madagascar, 90%
are found nowhere else in the world.

Madagascar's varied fauna and flora are endangered
by human activity, as a third of its native vegetation
has disappeared since the 1970s, and only 18%
remains intact. Since the arrival of humans 2000
years ago, Madagascar has lost more than 90% of its
original forest.
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VII.3 (a) Case Study:
Philippines
The Philippines is one of the ten most biologically mega-
diverse countries and is at or near the top in terms of
biodiversity per unit area. Around 1,100 land vertebrate
species can be found in the Philippines including over 100
mammal species and 170 bird species not thought to exist
elsewhere.

With an estimated 13,500 plant species in the country, 3,200
of which are unique to the islands, Philippine rainforests
boast an array of flora, including many rare types of orchids
and Rafflesia. Philippine territorial waters encompass as
much as 1.67 million square kilometers producing unique and
diverse marine life and is an important part of the Coral
Triangle.

Deforestation, often the result of illegal logging, is an acute
problem in the Philippines. Forest cover declined from 70%
of the country's total land area in 1900 to about 18.3% in
1999. Many species are endangered and scientists say that
South East Asia, which the Philippines is part of, faces a
catastrophic extinction rate. According to Conservation
International, the country is one of the few nations that is,
in its entirety, both a hotspot and a megadiversity
country, placing it among the top priority hotspots for
global conservation.
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VII.3 (b)
The Philippines is suffering from severe degradation of its biodiversity. Most of this occurs as a result
of deforestation, trading of animal species and overexploitation of resources
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VII.4 Case Study:
Borneo
Borneo is very rich in biodiversity compared
to many other areas. There are about
15,000 species of flowering plants with
3,000 species of trees, 221 species of
terrestrial mammals and 420 species of
resident birds in Borneo. It is also the
centre of evolution and radiation of many
endemic species of plants and animals. The
remaining Borneo rainforest is the only
natural habitat for the endangered Bornean
Orang-outang. It is also an important refuge
for many endemic forest species, as the
Asian Elephant, the Sumatran Rhinoceros,
the Bornean Clouded Leopard, and the
Dayak Fruit Bat.

It is one of the most biodiverse places on
earth. The World Wildlife Fund has stated
that 361 animal and plant species have
been discovered in Borneo since 1996,
underscoring its unparalleled biodiversity.
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VII.5 (a) Case Study:
Barrier Reefs
The Australian Great Barrier Reef is the world's largest
coral reef system

composed of over 2,900 individual reefs

and 900
islands stretching for over 2,600 kilometres over an area of
approximately 344,400 square kilometres. The reef is located in the
Coral Sea, off the coast of Queensland in north-east Australia.

The Great Barrier Reef supports a diversity of life, including
many vulnerable or endangered species, some of which are
endemic to the reef system.

The Great Barrier Reef has been classified as one of the great
wonders of the world and is therefore a focus of attention. However,
most reef ecosystems around the world and especially in the South
Pacific are extremely rich in biodiversity.

Such ecosystems are at risk from overexploitation, pollution and
climate change.

The loss of coral reefs would result in enormous biodiversity loss and
potential destabilization of entire marine ecosystems. The
preservation of coral reefs should be a high priority along with forest
ecosystems to preserve the biodiversity of life on Earth.
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Barrier reefs around the world
contain an incredible amount
of biodiversity of which most
remains unknown to date.

As we know that these
ecosystems will be greatly
affected by climate change and
anthropic disturbances across
the century and will suffer
from massive biodiversity
losses, efforts to study their
biodiversity should be
intensified while we still can.
VII 5 (b)
Coral reefs are amongst the most biodiverse ecosystems on Earth, yet some of the
most threatened.
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157
The Galapagos islands are an archipelago located on
the equator in the eastern Pacific ocean. They are
composed of about 40 islands of volcanic origin. On
these islands can be found the National Park of the
Galapagos and a marine reserve which has been
classified as a UNESCO world heritage site.

In 1835 Charles Darwin studied its species diversity
which inspire his famous study on evolution and
natural selection in 1859.

The islands are very rich in flora and fauna. The
archipelago inhabits 58 species of birds among 28 are
endemic and unique reptiles such as the iguana and
giant turtles. The marine fauna is also very rich with
over 300 species of fish and small mammals.

The islands hold a variety of plant species which vary
in accordance to different microclimates. Of the 875
known plant species, 228 are endemic.
VII.6 Case Study:
The Galapagos
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Conclusion Chapter VII
As highlighted in this chapter, because some
areas are much richer in biodiversity than
others; some are more threatened and
resources for conservation efforts are limited,
the concept of biodiversity hotspots has been
introduced.

At least 18 such zones have been classified as
biodiversity hotspots of which most of South
East Asia and would therefore require much
conservation efforts. However, all of these
zones, despite their classification are still
experiencing serious environmental pressures.
If we are to succeed in preserving the
biodiversity of life on Earth, our efforts should
focus on these hotspots as a start.

However, such efforts need to be done in
parallel to global negotiation issues such as
climate change and trade of illegal timber if
significant benefits are to remain in the long
term.

Conservation is both a local and
international issue.
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Chapter VIII
Singapore, an
Interesting Case
Study
Singapore, an interesting case
study
160
Introduction Chapter VIII:
Biodiversity in the Singapore Context
This chapter aims to provide an insight on the state
of biodiversity in Singapore.

Singapore is an interesting case study of biodiversity.
Singapore over the last 30 years has experienced a
major transformation from a third world country to a
highly developed nation. This development has been
at the expense of severe damage to the original
biodiversity.

Much of the species found in Singapore a century ago
are no longer found on the island.

Another particularity of Singapore is that it is an
Island nation of relatively small size. Most of the
islands land has now been sacrified for development
purposes should it be industrial or residential.
However, in its late history, Singapore is trying to
preserve what is left of its original biodiversity by
implementing a number of measures.

About 5% of the land in Singapore has been
dedicated to serve as natural parks. Only a few
parks hold original ecosystems. However the city is
also making efforts to incorporate the natural
environment into the city scape itself. Such
initiative will not bring back the original
biodiversity but at least brings some degree of
biodiversity back to the city.

Such concepts could well be inspirational for cities
of the future around the world. As 80% of the world
population will be living in cities by 2050, it is
important to design cities by integrating natural
features.
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The environmental issues that Singapore
faces today are characteristic of highly-
urbanized cities.

These issues pertain to preventing pollution
from industrialization and urbanization,
preventing marine pollution in its highly-
traversed waters and the protection of
nature areas.
VIII.1 (a) The
Singapore Context
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Singapore is a good case study of the fact that maintaining a few localized biodiverse spots within a
city is not sufficient to prevent important species loss.
VIII.1 (b)
At the expense of intense development, Singapore has already lost most of its original biodiversity.
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163
Singapore holds many bio-diverse ecosystems due
to its suitable location near the equator.

However, Singapore has already lost most of its
natural environment and biodiversity due to rapid
development in the last 30 years.

A study published in May 2010, Evaluating the
Relative Environmental Impact of Countries,
ranks Singapore as the highest in relative
environmental impact. This research was
conducted by the University of Adelaides
Environment Institute, National University of
Singapore and Princeton University.

This study shows that relative to its land size,
development in Singapore has significantly
contributed to its forest loss, natural habitat
conversion, marine captures, carbon emissions and
biodiversity.
VIII.2 (a) Impacts of
Urban Development on
Biodiversity
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VIII.2 (b) Impacts of
Urban Development on
Biodiversity
Singapore has lost 90 percent of its forest, 67 per
cent of its birds, about 40 per cent of its mammals
and 5 per cent of its amphibians and reptiles. Of
the original mangroves, less than 5% is left. 39% of
all native coastal plants are extinct.

A large proportion of the remaining species are
endangered and their habitats are threatened by
urban development and land reclamation.

Singapore continues to be challenged with pressures
of modernization, limited land availability and a
mandate to preserve the well-being of its
environment and of its citizens.

In order to overcome these challenges, the
Singapore government and urban planners have
designed and implemented strategies in the last 30
years to make Singapore a city garden.
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VIII.3 (a) Vision for a
Green City
Today Singapore is one of the few cities in the
world which has managed to incorporate green
spaces and parks within its urban environment.

Over 13% of Singapores land area is dedicated
to greening the urban landscape and maintaining
a healthy ecosystem; this includes parks, park
connectors, green spaces and nature reserves.

There is a significant percentage of land
allocated for non-residential and non-
commercial use for a country as small as
Singapore.

Furthermore, in the next 10-15 years, the Urban
Redevelopment Authority (URA) plans to add
new parks and park connectors to Singapores.
In URA's Concept Plan and Master Plan, URA aims
to eventually link up the whole island in a 150
km round island route.
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To promote green building technologies and designs,
Singapore introduced a Green Mark Scheme for
Buildings. A number of buildings have been Green
Mark certified under this initiative since it was
implemented in 2005.

The National Parks Board has created rooftop
gardens in commercial and residential buildings
which have both aesthetic and environmental
benefits including a positive impact on biodiversity
should green roofs be implemented on large scale.

Green vertical walls have also been built at sites
such as Changi Airport. Such initiatives are only
starting to appear in the city environment in
Singapore and around the world as case studies.
Large scale implementation would however be
required to make a significant difference on
biodiversity in cities.
VIII.3 (b) Vision for a
Green City
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A key objective to Singapores greening initiatives is
to raise awareness and educate its citizens; and to
engender in Singaporeans a sense of love and
respect for nature.

The everyday practices of individuals can pose a
threat to Southeast Asias ecosystems.

Urban lifestyle habits such as excessive consumption
and waste, inadequate recycling, and the demand
for exotic animal products are just a few of the
ways that Singaporeans have a negative impact on
the environment.

Changing these harmful lifestyles and habits start
with changing the mindsets of Singaporeans.
VIII.3 (c) Vision for a
Green City
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One of the biggest criticisms to Singapore's city greening
effort is that it is superficial, too high-maintenance and,
ultimately, not ecologically sustainable.

Priority has been given to man-made greening of highways,
streets and residential areas and not enough effort has been
invested conversing and restoring the little natural areas left
in Singapore.

In recent years to preserve its heritage, Singapore has
retained several restricted nature reserve sites where land
development is inhibited and the inherent ecosystems are
protected.

The reserves are utilized for research in preserving and
revitalizing biodiversity in Singapore and educating the public.
However, more can still be done to implement legal
legislature and define land boundaries to protect Singapores
nature reserves.
VIII.4 Preserving and
Restoring Biodiversity in
Singapore
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Pulau Ubins vegetation was once cleared for the cultivation
of rubber and crops like coffee, pineapple, coconut and
jasmine.

Today, it is one of the last rural areas in Singapore having
been preserved from urban development, concrete buildings
and tarmac roads. Pulau Ubin contains an abundance of
natural flora and fauna.

Chek Jawa is a 5,000 year old coral reef on Pulau Ubin.
Relatively well preserved ecosystems such as wetlands can
still be found on Chek Jawa.

In 2009, the mouse-deer, which has been thought to be
extinct for over 80 years, was discovered on Pulau Ubin.
Scientists speculate that preservation of nature in Pulau Ubin
has allowed for this creature to spread again.

Recovering species is a positive sign that over long periods of
preservations, wild life and eco-systems can be repopulated
to some extent.
VIII.5 (a) Singapore
Remaining Biodiverse
Locations: Case Study
Pulau Ubin
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Pulau Tekong is known for being exclusively
used for military training. Less known is that
Pulau Tekong has one of the largest remaining
mangrove forests in Singapore.

Coastal erosion is putting this 92 hectares of
mangroves in danger. Erosion is being caused by
the movement of ships and strong sea waves.

In 2010, the National Parks Board is undertaking
a project to restore and stabilize the coast line.
8,000 mangrove saplings will be planted to help
deflect sea waves and increase the biodiversity
on the island.

The work being done by the National Parks
Board is a prime example of how Singapore is
protecting its remaining biodiverse areas.
VIII.5 (b) Case Study:
Pulau Tekong
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Sunggei Buloh holds extensive mangrove
environments with their associated rich
biodiversity.

This site is of global importance as it has a high
variety of bird species which include migratory
birds that stop over from as far as Siberia on their
way to Australia.

Other reserves of interest in Singapore include the
MacRitchie reservoir, Singapores oldest reservoir,
as well as Bukit Timah reserve which has a dense
tropical rainforest.
VIII.5 (c) Singapores
Remaining Biodiverse
Locations: Case study
Sunggei Buloh
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VIII.5 (d)
A lot can still be done in Singapore in the pursue of becoming one of the worlds first city in a garden.
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VIII.6 (a) Biodiversity in the City
Singapore is one of the few cities in the world which has managed
to incorporate green spaces and parks within the urban
environment. Examples include the popular Singapore Botanic
Gardens, busy East Coast Park and tranquil Mount Fabor.

There are more opportunities for Singapore to incorporate natural
features within its urban environment. For example, there is
potential in the implementation of large scale vertical green walls
and to expand the connection of parks and waterways.

To this point, in the next 10-15 years, the Urban Redevelopment
Authority (URA) plans to add new parks and park connectors to
Singapores North-East, East and North Regions.

In Singapores North Region, the URA also plans to enhance
nature-oriented leisure attractions at Mandai and Kranji.
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VIII.6 (b)
Singapore extensive network of water reservoirs help to maintain some bio-diverse ecosystems.
However, the creation of new reservoirs such as the Marina Bay reservoir are also controversial when it
comes to biodiversity disturbance.
The marina bay reservoir
despite having some
advantages for flood
control and water
management will have
significant negative
impacts on biodiversity.
As the water within the
bay will slowly change
from salty to fresh
water, many species
which inhabited the bay
wont be able to adapt to
the salinity sudden
change.
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VIII.6 (c)
Most of the species found in Singapore are not endemic to the
Island but have been introduced from neighboring countries.
Due to its proximity
to Malaysia, most
species found in
Singapore are also
found in Malaysia.
There is therefore
only few real
endemic species in
Singapore itself.
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Invasive species is a big problem in Singapore.
VIII.6 (d)
As a major transport transit
platform for South East Asia,
numerous indigenous species are
regularly introduced to Singapore.
The pet and trade industry is also
a big contributor as these species
are regularly released into the
environment (reservoirs, parks).
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Singapore has a few good examples to illustrate that industrial development can be made by not entirely compromising the surrounding
ecosystems.

In Singapore most of the waste is incinerated and the remains from this process are disposed on an artificial landfill. On the other side
of this landfill however lies a nature reserve with extensive sea grass, coral reefs and mangroves. This is a very good (and unique)
example of how a bio-diverse environment can co-exist to some extent with industrial installations.
VIII.7 Compromise between Development & Environment Preservation
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As highlighted in this chapter, Singapore is a
very good case study to illustrate the
dilemma faced by urban areas and
biodiversity conservation.

Singapore has already sacrified most of its
biodiversity for development purposes. Only
a few isolated parks and natural spaces are
left in the island city.

However, when compared to other cities
around the world, Singapore is actually a
good example of how intense development
and high population densities can be done in
such a way to minimize biodiversity losses
and/or bring biodiversity back to city
environments to some extent.
Conclusion Chapter VIII
Singapore has an ambitious plan to become
the worlds first true city in a garden.
Numerous initiatives such as improving
existing parks, interconnecting these parks
through green pathways and the development
of roof-top gardens and vertical walls are
under development.

Since most of the world population will be
living in cities in a few decades, Singapore is
a good case study of how cities around the
world should develop by incorporating natural
features into their design.
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Chapter IX
The Importance of
Biodiversity
Preservation for
Human Beings
How preserving biodiversity is
crucially important for the
sustainability of human
civilizations
180
Introduction Chapter IX:
The Importance of Biodiversity Preservation for
Human Beings
This chapter aims to highlight the fact that
preserving biodiversity is not just about preserving
species for the beauty of it but also because by
losing species we are also in the process losing
invaluable knowledge and putting the very survival
of our own species at risk.

When we start to analyze how much our civilization
relies on other species for our very basic needs, it
becomes apparent that the disappearance of
biodiversity is a major concern.

Indeed, all our agriculture relies on the interaction
of a multitude of species to be sustained (e.g. bees
for pollination of crops, micro organisms to sustain
the growth and health of crops).
Furthermore, all our medicines are extracted From
natural compounds found in species. All the new
discoveries in medicine are directly derived from
either the study of species or the study of substances
within species.

We must understand that we will never be able to
discover such properties in the laboratory alone.
Considering the economy and wealth derived from the
health/medicine industry, biodiversity is truly the
greatest resource on Earth, yet we are destroying it!

As life forms on Earth are all remarkably adapted to
almost perfection to their surrounding environment as
a result of millions of years of adaptation and
selection it is only starting to surface that the
solution to our greatest challenges are right before
our eyes. All we need is to study from species
surrounding us. However, we cannot study if species
no longer exist!
Chapter IX: The Importance of Biodiversity Preservation for Human Beings
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Biodiversity has a great value for humans for a range of
reasons.

All species on the planet are interrelated and humans are
no exception. We need other species in order to survive
should it be for the stability of our food supplies or for our
own health.

We also derive all of our medicines from plants or animals.
Losing biodiversity will therefore also mean that we will
lose potential remedies to cure diseases.

Due to the complexity of the compounds used in medicines,
it is highly unlikely that we will ever be able to make such
medicines ourselves without having initial studies and
samples from rare plants and animals. Plants and animals
which have evolved over millions of years are marvels of
adaptation to specific environments and hold the key to
many cures.

Last but not least biodiversity has a lot of value in terms of
trading and play an important role in the world economy.
IX. 1 (a) Biodiversity and
Pharmacology
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IX.1 (b)
All of our medicines are derived from molecules originally found in plants and animals.
Losing biodiversity also means losing these potential molecules forever
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Ironically, the pharmaceutical industry is entirely
dependent on biodiversity, yet this industry has
significant impacts on species loss.

Molecules to make new medicines are often found in
rare plants and animals. When found, these species
are often overexploited from the wild in order to
provide sufficient stocks to make the medicines.

It usually takes many years for natural compounds to
be synthetized in the laboratory. Often, the molecules
are simply too complex to be reproduced artificially
and need to be extracted from nature.
IX.1 (c) Biodiversity and
Pharmacology
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184
IX.1 (d)
The amount of active compounds contained in plant and animal species is to date virtually un-
exploited. However, as these species disappear, so will these potential substances from which powerful
medicines could have been derived.
We must understand that species
have taken millions of years to
adapt to their current environments
and that as a result, they have
developed mechanisms including
complex chemical processes to deal
with their external conditions.
These adaptations and derived
chemical compounds are invaluable
and irreplaceable.

=> Once a species disappears so is
our chance to get to study and
potentially use this knowledge for
our own human benefits.
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IX.2 (a) Biodiversity and
Agriculture
Agriculture is one of the main threats to biodiversity
by replacing biodiverse areas (such as forests) with
monocultures.

Yet ironically, agriculture needs diverse species to
work.

For instance the quality of soils which affects diseases
control and productivity is dependent on micro-
organisms. Furthermore, all the crops are still today
highly dependent on natural pollination which is done
by insects.

=> As insects and micro-organisms come to decline,
agriculture will be severely affected.
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IX.2 (b)
Biodiversity is crucial for a sustainable agriculture.
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IX.2 (C)
Insects play a critical role in maintaining a
sustainable agriculture as they are the mean of
pollination. As insects population decrease, so
is the efficiency of crop pollination.
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The diversity of life forms and structures
within life forms has always been a great
source of inspiration for many artists.

Many great artists have derived their
inspiration from nature, rare species of
plant and animals.

=> Losing biodiversity will also result in
losing this source of inspiration.
IX.3 (a) The Use of
Biodiversity as an
Inspiration for Arts
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IX.3 (b)
Biodiversity is a source of inspiration for the arts.
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IX.4 Socio-Biology
A lot can also be learnt about our own human
societies by studying animal behaviors.

For instance many social insects such as
certain species of ants have very complex
social structures. Despite that often such
social structure may not be suitable for
human civilizations, ideas can be analyzed.

Most interesting is how species have adapted
to their surrounding environment by
developing remarkable behavioral
adaptations.

While some behaviors are imprinted within
the genetic code, other behaviors are
transmitted from generation to generation
(just like knowledge in humans).

We still have a lot to learn by studying species
behavior.
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IX.5 (a) Biomimetics
Instead of destroying biodiversity through the
development and industrial activities, we
should take a different approach by taking
advantage of nature in order to learn from it.

Biomimetics is the field of studying life forms
and nature to learn from it in order to
optimize designs and processes.

The fact that life forms have evolved over
millions of years to specific conditions, makes
them marvels of adaptations. As such the
optimization process to given conditions can
already be found in nature.

Such examples of biomimicry include side
wings on planes to optimize fuel efficiency
mimicking similar features in birds such as the
eagle.
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IX.5 (b) Examples of Nature
Optimal Design
There is a multitude of specific examples of leading technologies
which were inspired from nature.

The more we study natural design, the more we find that there is
an unlimited supply of solutions to technological optimisation
which is at our finger tips.

However, species are disappearing fast. If we do not act to
preserve them, we will not only lose the species but also the
incredible amount of knowledge and solutions which lies within
them.

Only a few companies worldwide have yet understood the potential
of design inspired by nature. As this awareness spreads, so will the
awareness on the need to preserve biodiversity.
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IX.5 (c)
Remarkable solutions and inspiration can be derived from the study of species adaptations to specific
environmental pressures/conditions.
Case Study: Lotus leaves have
developed adaptations which
prevents the accumulation of
water on their surface.

=> Species adaptations can
inspire applications that can
benefit humans.
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IX.6 A Mini-Guide to Biomimetics
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IX.6 (a) A Guide to
Biomimetics:

Every engineering problem/challenge that we face can
find its solution through the study of nature. Such
statement relies on simple facts and logical deductions:

There are millions of species on the planet.

Species are found in almost any given type of
environments.

Each environment requires very specific adaptations
for species to have survived over time.

Each species is a marvel of adaptation (optimal
design) as a result of millions of years of adaptation
to such environments.

=> Wherever we want to find optimal adaptation,
optimal efficiency in the design, we should search for it
in nature. The odds are that somewhere a/some species
already provide the ultimate solution/adaptation.
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IX.6 (b) A Guide to
Biomimetics:

Whenever looking into applying biomimetic principles to a
problematic, the following simple methodology could be
applied:

1) What is the problematic? (i.e. what problem do we intend to
solve? E.g. maximize the efficiency of flight/ find the best
shape to maximize energy and strength output

2) Which species in nature have to deal with an environment
which might require similar problem resolution through
adaptation?

3) Study of the selected species and identification of the traits
which provide a solution to the problematic.

4) Selection of the species which provide the most interesting
adaptation/trait that allows to resolve the problematic
practically.

5) Apply the natural trait by artificially mimicking it (e.g.
engineering/pharmacology).
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IX.6 (c) A Guide to
Biomimetics:

Biomimetic studies in order to work, require
multidisciplinary teams:

Field Biologists (to identify and study species traits
and adaptations).

Engineers (to take the idea inspired from nature
natural design to engineering/chemical applications).

Chemists/pharmacologists(to analyze and replicate
biological processes).

Planners/managers: to manage communications
between different fields of expertise and coordinate
the work.

To date biomimetic does not work well for the simple
reason that biologists are rarely included and this
type of work is mostly conducted by engineers.
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IX.6 (d) A Guide to
Biomimetics:

Like nanotechnology, biomimetics could lead
to the next industrial revolution.

We are however destroying the knowledge
bank necessary for this revolution to happen
at alarming rates.

If only governments and corporations around
the world could realize the potential there is
to gain in preserving biodiversity for
biomimetics, they would certainly act to
preserve the diversity of life on Earth and
treat biodiversity as an asset, an investment
or perhaps a global data bank!

There is still hope that such realization could
happen, time is however running out fast!
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Case Study: Submersibles

Many of the principals of modern submersibles are
derived from the species of nautilus pressure
compartments systems.

Nautilus have developed a system of pressure
compartments which allows them to move between
great depths and shallow waters.
IX.7 (a) We Have A Lot to
Learn by Studying Nature
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IX.7 (b)
Case Study: Robotics and Biodiversity
Many fundamental break through In modern robotics have
been inspired from studying simple life forms such as
insects.
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201
IX.7 (c) Case Study:
Biomimetics
and Construction
The study of termite has led to remarkable discoveries
on how buildings can be designed to optimize cooling
and energy efficiency.

For instance, the Eastgate center in Zimbabwe was
conceived with the design of a termite mound.

Termite mounds were found to have a remarkably
efficient cooling potential.

The design structured around a central chimney and
vents allows for a constant flow of air naturally cooling
the structure.

This basic concept was applied to the construction of
the Eastgate center. As a result, the building which uses
natural cooling is one of the most energy efficient
buildings in the world!
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The company Festo is experimenting on a number
of biomimetics projects.

One of these initiatives involved the creation of
the first ever flying machine using a type of motion
inspired by a jellyfish.
IX.7 (d) Case Study:
Biomimetics
and Engineering
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IX.7 (e) Case Study:
Biomimetics and Sports
In Olympic swimming competitions, 1/100th of a
second can make the difference between winning
and losing. Because the resistive drag opposing the
motion of swimmers bodies is of great importance,
many swimmers choose newly-designed swimsuits
that reduce the drag.

The suits are designed to mimic the shark, one of
the fastest aquatic creature even more closely.

Scanning electron microscope studies have revealed
that tiny teeth cover the surface of a sharks
skin that produce vertical vortices or spirals of
water, keeping the water closer to the sharks body
and thus reducing friction. This phenomenon is
known as the Riblet Effect, and research into shark
skin is ongoing at NASA Langley Research Center.
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Other Examples of Biomimetism
Inspired Species Derived Application
Seeds of Arctium lapa Velcro attachment system
Hydro dynamism of fish and dolphins Submarine torpedoes
Mucus of fish or penguin fur Amelioration of sliding effect
Cephalopods (e.g. squids) propulsion
principle
Early submersibles propulsion
Shapes of mussels and clams Improvement of roof tiles resistance
Structure of palm trees Improve roofs structures
Silice based micro-organisms Dome structures in architecture
Hexagonal structure of wasp nest

Used in aeronautics to maximise
weight/strength ratio
.
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IX.7 (f)
We have only started to touch the tip of the iceberg in what can be achieved
in innovative design through studying nature
As biodiversity disappears, so is
the potential for innovation
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Conclusion Chapter IX
As highlighted in this chapter, preserving
biodiversity is crucial to maintain our current way
of life and insure a sustainable and secure future
for generations to come.

As all our medicines are derived from compounds
found in species, preserving these species is a
priority.

Furthermore, the study of species holds an
unlimited pool of solutions to problematic that we
face in our continuous development of human
civilizations.

Losing species relates to losing an incredible
amount of knowledge.

As an analogy we are simple burning away the
worlds greatest library while most of it hasnt
even been read yet
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Chapter X
What Can Be Done to
Preserve
Biodiversity?
How individuals, corporations and
governments can act together to
preserve the diversity of life on
Earth
208
Introduction Chapter X:
What Can Be Done to Preserve Biodiversity
While biodiversity resources are rapidly deteriorating,
little time is left for any measures to have a
significant impact in slowing down the trend.

If we are to succeed in slowing down the loss of
species, actions must start to occur at three levels:
government, corporate and individual.

There are many meaningful yet small actions that can
be applied by all parties that would result in
significant changes and positive impacts on
biodiversity.

This chapter intends to provide solutions that could
help for conservation purposes and significantly
reduce the loss of species on Earth.
Chapter X: What Can Be Done to Preserve Biodiversity
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X.1 (a) What Can
Individuals Do?
Make donations to programmes and organisations
which are acting in biodiversity conservation
(e.g. WWF, Conservation International).

Respect the environment by not litering
whenever doing outdoor activities.

Learn about biodiversity issues and spread the
message of the importance of conservation to
other individuals and groups of people. The more
people are getting concerned and aware, the
more conservation initiatives will start to
happen

Vote for political leaders who care for
environmental issues especially biodiversity
conservation.
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Purchase products which have lesser impacts on biodiversity
resources (e.g. wood products which originate from sustainable or
recycled source/ low toxicity products). There are now a number
of reliable eco-labels on the market which help consumers identify
such products.

Consumers have a lot of influence on the market trends. If
consumers ask for products which have limited impacts on
biodiversity resources, manufacturers will have to change their
practices to meet the consumers demand.

Choose to go to places (restaurants, hotels) which respect the
environment. Eco hotels are a rapidly growing trend worldwide. If
more and more people are asking for these types of services, the
hotel industry in general will develop with a more sustainable
approach in mind.

=> Such principles also apply for all other sectors. Consumers have
an important role to play in driving a change to minimize impacts
on the natural environment.
X.1 (b) What Can Individuals Do?
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Planting own gardens:

Agriculture worldwide has a major impact on the
environment and particularly on biodiversity.

As the world population grows, so will the demand for
food production. Such demand will require to destroy
more natural land for agricultural purposes.

Such a global impact could be significantly reduced if
individuals where producing their own fruits and
vegetables from their own backyards.

Small crops are known to be a lot more productive then
industrial scale ones.

Such crops would be organic and not require the high
amounts of pesticides and fertilizers used broadly in
modern agriculture.

The proliferation of individual gardens on a large scale
will also result in biodiversity going back to the city
areas.
X.1 (c) What Can
Individuals Do?
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X.1 (d)
If gardens and a variety of plants are
brought back to the cities, animal
species will also come back.

The combined large scale
implementation of roof top gardens,
vertical green walls on buildings as
well as individual house gardens would
certainly have significant benefits in
bringing biodiversity back to city
areas.

Such initiatives could work well should
governments and town councils
support such vision.
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X.2 (a) What Can
Corporates Do?
Corporations have an important role in
preserving the worlds biodiversity.

Corporations can support and invest in projects
which aim to preserve biodiversity. Many of these
projects are lead by NGOs such as Conservation
International or WWF.

Corporations can limit as much as possible their
impacts by looking in their supply chain and
choosing products which are from sustainable
sources (e.g. Paper made from recycled content
or sustainable forest rather than from sources
which contribute in deforestation).

Corporations can spread the word and educate
their staff as well as reaching to the community
on the importance of biodiversity conservation.
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Corporations can choose to only do business
with organizations which have policies on
limitations of their environmental impacts
including biodiversity.

The more corporations adopt this type of
policies, the more rapid changes in corporate
practices will start to occur.

=> Large corporations with extended supply
chains must take the lead as they are in a
position to drive significant changes.
X.2 (b) What Can
Corporates Do?
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Case study: The Census of Marine life

The Census of Marine Life is a global network of
2700 researchers in more than 80 nations
engaged in a 10-year scientific initiative to assess
and explain the diversity, distribution, and
abundance of life in the oceans.

The largest component of the Census involves
investigating what now lives in the world's oceans
through 14 field projects. Each is sampling
important kinds of biota in one of six realms of
the global oceans using a range of technologies.

This international programme was privately
founded. It is a good case study of how
corporations can significantly contribute to
biodiversity research and conservation.
X.2 (c) Financing
Biodiversity
Research/Expeditions
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X.3 (a) What Can
Governments Do?
Governments have a crucial role to play in the
preservation of biodiversity through:

Making development plans which take into
account the preservation of biodiversity.

Developing and supporting conservation efforts.

Implementing laws and regulations to preserve
biodiversity.

Support corporate and community projects
aiming to preserve biodiversity.

Influencing other nations through political
negociations on biodiversity conservation.
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X.3 (b)
Governments have a critical
role to play in preserving
biodiversity. However, they
must make the right move as
species extinctions will not
wait. To date very few
governments have understood
what is at stake
Governments must take the lead in preserving biodiversity.
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Contrary to the fight against climate change
which would require all nations to come to an
agreement, fighting biodiversity loss can be done
effectively at the national level. One nation can
decide to take significant actions to preserve or
not its biodiversity regardless of whether its
neighboring nations are already taking such
measures.

Governments should put funds available to assess
the biodiversity of their country as It is not
possible to preserve what is not known.

Gaining a greater knowledge of the locations
biodiversity will help in planning conservation
efforts. A lot still remains to be discovered when
it comes to species.
X.3 (c) What Can
Governments Do?
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Case Study: the Genetic Arc Project
(Antarctic)

In order to preserve flora biodiversity,
governments around the world have started a
major seed storage programme.

This programme also aims to act as a food
security storage in the event of an extreme
event

X.3 (d) What Can
Governments Do?
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X.3 (e) Governments:
Preserving Forests and
Bio-Diverse Sensitive Areas
Governments have a very important role to play in
preserving biodiversity. It is the responsibility of
governments around the world to protect their
countries natural resources and biodiverse locations.

Without governmental support there is little hope that
these areas will be preserved.

In order to identify these locations, government should
undertake biodiversity site assessments by experts.

Governments should then classify these zones as
national parks in order to preserve the biodiversity of
these sensitive areas.

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X.3 (f)
There is still a tremendous amount of
species and ecosystems to assess and
study.

=> Therefore the primordial
importance of governments to invest
in a wide spread biodiversity
assessment exercise.
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X.3 (g)
We cannot protect what
we do not know.

Biodiversity assessment
and study remains a
required exercise.
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X.4 (a) Education and
Biodiversity
There is a lot of efforts to be put in educating the
young's and the society on biodiversity issues.

Such initiatives should be led by governments with
support from the private sector.

A recent study in Europe reveals the shocking result
that about 70 % of the European population either has
never heard of the concept of biodiversity or have
heard about it but do not know its meaning. In a
location where education is well supported and
compulsory, this clearly highlights that educating the
large public on the biodiversity crisis is primordial and
that a lot remains to be done.

Biodiversity, along side environmental studies should
become part of the mainstream education of nations.
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X.4 (b)
What Can Governments Do?
Education: Detachment
from Nature
As societies evolve, so is our connection to nature.

In a society which is becoming increasingly dominated by
technology, people (especially children) are becoming
detached from the environment, which is a concerning
trend.

According to recent statistics conducted in Europe, the
majority of children aged 6 to 12 would rather play a video
game then go to an outdoor natural environment.

Governments should be very concerned about this. If
societies become detached from nature, they will no
longer see and understand the need to preserve it.

The consequence will be the destruction of natural habitats
and the extinction of species in total indifference.
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Biodiversity must become part of mainstream education.
X.4 (c)
If significant changes are to be
made in the way that people view
and interact with the natural
environment, it is crucial that
governments impose awareness
programmes on the environment
and biodiversity in particular as
part of the mainstream education
process. If a significant portion of
the population were to know
about the issues facing
biodiversity losses, changes would
start to happen in limiting the
impacts
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X.5 The Concept of
Sustainable Development
The concept of sustainable development was first
suggested during the Brundtland Commission.

This concept is largely misunderstood and wrongly
used around the world.

What it states is that any development activity should
take equally into consideration environmental, social
and economic attributes.

It states that present developments should not
deprive future generations from benefiting from the
same type of environment that we observe today.

However, most of the time the environmental aspects
of such development model is neglected.

=> The concept of sustainable development remains
today largely misused and misunderstood.

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As many projects (e.g. mining, farming) fail to protect biodiversity by poorly
adopting the concept of sustainable development it appears more logical to
adopt a new approach that would be to sacrifice restricted zones in order to
better preserve much larger ones.
Such principle would work
on the basis of impact
zones.

An important aspect would
be to surround the Dead
Zone by a bumper zone in
order to strictly protect the
protected zone.

Of course such model would
only work if protected
zones are much larger than
impacted zones and if well
controlled.

The protected zone must
also coincide with
ecosystems most at risk.
X.6 Alternative Solution?
The Concept of Dead Zone
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X.7 Alternative Solution?
Vertical Farms
Agriculture has destructive impacts on biodiversity by
converting natural lands (forests) to monocultures.

A solution to limit this conversion of land would be to start
producing food in vertical farms in city environments.

As most of the world population will be living in cities in
the decades to come and the world population is
increasing fast, such model for development would be a
good way to prevent existing forests from being
transformed to agricultural fields and therefore preserving
the biodiversity contained in these habitats.

If we take into account predictions of population growth
and the current agricultural practices, most forests will
need to be converted to agricultural fields to feed the
growing population.

=> Maintaining current land use practices for agriculture
would be disastrous.
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X.8 Case Study:
Singapore City
Biodiversity Index
The purpose of the "The Singapore Index on Cities
Biodiversity (CBI) is to assist in the benchmarking
of cities' biodiversity conservation efforts over
time.

The three components of CBI are a) Biodiversity in
the City; b) Ecosystem Services Provided by the
Native Biodiversity in the City; and c) Governance
and Management of Biodiversity in the City.

In May 2008, Singapore made a commitment to
develop the CBI. To date, Curitiba, Montreal,
Nagoya, Singapore, Edmonton, Joondalup,
Brussels, Paris, have agreed to test-bed the CBI.

At the Nagoya Biodiversity Summit to be held in
October 2010, the global community will discuss
the international adoption of the CBI.
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X.9 (a) Sustainable
Urban Design
It is estimated that 80% of the world
population will be living in cities by 2050.

Most cities have been unsuccessful at
incorporating natural habitats and preserving
vegetative coverage within the architecture
and design.

Maintaining a vegetative coverage is
important for various reasons. First it reduces
the urban heat island effect which increases
ambient temperatures. But it also provides
shelter and habitat for various species.
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X.9 (b)
Cities must start to incorporate natural features into their design.
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X.10 (a) Greening Cities
As cities are rapidly expending, the built
environment is taking over natural features.

A way to improve current cities design and to
bring back some of the biodiversity to cities would
be to start implementing on a large scale roof top
gardens and vertical green walls.

There is a lot of research in these fields however
to date only a few landmarks have implemented
these practices.

If implemented on a large scale, bringing greenery
back to the cities along with other features such
as water points and parks would certainly improve
cities biodiversity index.
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X.10 (b)
Development and biodiversity are
not necessarily incompatible.

If natural features are well
incorporated within buildings and
infrastructures, they will in term
attract species by providing
habitats.
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X.11 (a) Eco Tourism
'Ecotourism' is responsible travel to fragile, pristine,
and usually protected areas that strives to be low
impact and (often) small scale. It purports to educate
the traveler; provide funds for conservation; directly
benefit the economic development and political
empowerment of local communities; and foster
respect for different cultures and for human rights.

There are obvious economic benefits from preserving
healthy environments by developing ecotourism.

In some countries (e.g. Australia, New Zealand)
ecotourism accounts for a very significant part of
national income. People from all over the world are
willing to travel for the sole purpose of experiencing
healthy and well preserved environments.

As the world population is moving to cities, people
will be more and more searching to escape to well
preserved natural environments.
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X.11 (b)
Eco tourism is a highly profitable business and a reason for governments and the private sector to preserve
natural ecosystems.
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In order to preserve biodiversity, initiatives must not only come from one source but governments,
the private sector and the community must act together
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Conclusion Chapter X
As highlighted in this chapter, in order for
significant results to take place in biodiversity
conservation, the governments, private sector and
individuals must act together in a common goal of
preserving biodiversity on Earth.

Much of the lack of current actions comes from a
broad misunderstanding and non sufficient
education on the issues surrounding biodiversity
loss. If people, governments and individuals become
more aware of what it really means to preserve
biodiversity and what is at stake, changes to
preserve this precious resource will become more
significant.
As with the issue of climate change, significant
awareness only started to take place following the
creation of an international panel on the issue (IPCC).
Perhaps a similar approach on the issue of biodiversity
should be adopted. The creation of an international
panel composed of experts from various countries will
significantly impact and pressure decision makers and
raise global awareness on biodiversity losses. The
creation of such a panel is currently under
negotiations.

However, when talking about biodiversity issues, time
is running out fast and such measures would need to
be put into place quickly for significant actions to
have time to be effective.

=> We are running out of time if we are to preserve
a significant portion of the species present on Earth
today
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Chapter XI
Common
Misunderstandings
about Biodiversity
Why it is so crucial to preserve
biodiversity
239
This statement is wrong. Biodiversity could indeed be a
renewable resource should it be exploited with respect of
the renewal rate of species populations and without
destroying the surrounding environments in the process.
However, this is not the practices observed today. Expert
have warned that at the current rate at which we are
exploiting natural resources, most commercial species
populations will collapse within 30 years.

Through all the pressures that human beings are putting on
the environment, experts estimate that we are losing
biodiversity at a rate of a least a thousand time greater
than the natural rate of extinction. One must understand
that when species become extinct they forever disappear
from the surface of the Earth. The disappearance of species
is definitely not sustainable.
Biodiversity is a renewable resource
therefore we can afford to exploit it at
the current rate as it will come back
Chapter XI: Common Misunderstandings about Biodiversity
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240
The concept of simply preserving very isolated places
on Earth will not work.

Such principles have been well explained in scientific
work done in the area of biogeography. Small island-
like ecosystems are much more vulnerable to threats
and are doomed to extinction in relatively short
timeframes. Furthermore, many species require a
sufficient gene pool to survive. That is the more
individuals in a population, the more the species will be
able to survive. Restricted ecosystems have a too small
gene pooI.

In order to succeed in preserving biodiversity we must
not only put restricted areas under reserve but also
reduce our overall pressures on the surrounding
environment.
To save biodiversity we can simply
create reserves while continuing
business as usual everywhere else
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241
Preserving biodiversity in very restricted ecosystems such as inside a glasshouse or isolated parks will not be
sufficient to save species from extinction.
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242
Many do not understand that every species on the planet has
a role to play in maintaining stable ecosystems upon which
the human species rely on. If species continue to disappear
at the current rate, many of these ecosystems will collapse
with severe consequences for human beings. Our food
supplies and health is directly related to diverse life forms.
It does not matter to lose biodiversity, we
will be able to see animals in museums
This is a wrong approach. Such remote ecosystems hold very
specialised species which hold great potential in terms of
new discoveries, potential remedies. We should preserve
existing remote ecosystems at all cost as their value is un-
priceable.
Most of the very diverse ecosystems are in
very remote areas that most people would
never go to. So if it gets destroyed it does
not matter because we dont see it anyway
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243
Such strategy will not work. First it is very difficult to
assess when a species is becoming extinct. We know that
many species are becoming extinct because we see a
sharp drop in their population numbers. However, there
are also many species we dont even know exist for the
reason that they have never been studied to date.
We can continue business as usual until
species are on the verge of extinction.
When this comes we can simply stop what
we are doing for species to recover
We can simply collect DNA samples of
existing species. In the future we will be
able to revive the species through new
DNA technology
Such statements seem to come out of fiction novels. Most
scientist would agree that it is unlikely that we will one
day be able to re-generate species from their DNA ones
these species are extinct.
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244
Many have tried to put a value on species. Such
concept does not work for the reason that one given
species is invaluable.
In order to preserve species, we should put a price
on them

Putting a price on species is a risk. If ecosystems are
valued according to a price fixed on species, large
corporations are in a position to buy the resource in
order to destroy it. The only corporations in a position
to do this are also the most destructive: Mining and oil
companies.
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245
We are still living in a relatively bio-
diverse world and there is still time to go
in either directions: continuing on the
path of current destruction or going
towards a more sustainable alternative
focusing on conservation.

However, time is running out, fast
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246
General Conclusion
This book on biodiversity has provided an insight of the incredible
diversity of life on Earth which is concentrated in a few ecosystems and
locations.

It has also highlighted that despite the fact that we are still enjoying
today a relatively bio-diverse world, the situation is becoming more and
more critical: Species are becoming extinct at alarming rates. By the year
2100, at the current rate, we are most likely to lose more than half of all
the species which inhabit the planet today as a result of the combination
of anthropic pressures of which climate change, overexploitation,
deforestation and pollution are the most of concern.

This book has also highlighted the fact that preserving biodiversity is a
priority. Indeed, our quality of life and human populations stability is
depending on a natural balance of species within ecosystems. If
biodiversity continues to decline at the current rate, this will result in
serious perturbations of ecosystems which will impact our agricultural
and health systems. Furthermore, all our medicines rely on compounds
extracted from species. The discovery of new remedies relies on the
survival of species from which we have so much more to discover and
learn from. Talking about learning, new fields such as biomimetics are
only starting to surface revealing how much we can still achieve by simply
gaining inspiration from nature and the study of species.
However, the key message here is that despite
the tremendous amount of destruction and
species extinctions which is occurring since the
industrial revolution. we are still living in a bio-
diverse environment today.

As such, we can still do something to preserve
the diversity of life on Earth and reverse the
current trend, or to the least limit or slow
down the damages.

As highlighted in this book, meaningful and
realistic actions can be taken at the individual,
corporate and government level to preserve
biodiversity for current and future generations.

Extinction is forever
General Conclusion
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Annex
248
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Author: Mr. Sylvain Richer de Forges

Photographs

All Photographs contained in this book are taken by the author in various
locations around the world.

All pictures @ Sylvain Richer de Forges all rights reserved

This e-book is a simplified adaptation from
the book of the same name which can be
purchased through main book sales
channels ISBN 978-981-07-3457-2

Acknowledgements
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About the Author:
Sylvain Richer de Forges is a business strategist and a corporate sustainability
specialist. Over the last years he has been mostly working in Asia with public and
private sectors.

He is the writer of numerous articles and the author of two published books on issues
surrounding sustainable development and corporate change strategies.

Sylvain holds a diploma in physics from France, a bachelors degree in environmental
sciences from La Trobe University (Australia) and a masters in management from the
university of Sherbrooke in Canada.

Additionally he is a photographer.
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