On the Status of Science Fiction and Realism in the Age of Dissolved

Technological Aura
Jaak Tomberg
In his article Fear and Loathing in lobali!ation" #$%%&'( first )ublished in the maga!ine
*e+ Left Revie+" but then re)rinted in his larger uto)ia,centered stud- Archaeologies of
the Future"( Fredric Jameson( )robabl- one of the most +ell,kno+n theorists of cultural
)ostmodernism( makes an intriguing comment about one of .illiam ibson/s latest novels(
0attern Recognition #$%%$' 1 a comment +hich( if to be studied more closel-( might have
interesting conse2uences concerning the relationshi) bet+een #contem)orar-' realism and
science fiction( the )ossible future )ers)ectives of both genres( and the em)irical condition
of our cultural realit- toda-3
Jameson notes that there is a great contrast bet+een the novel/s thoroughl-
namedro))ing st-le 1 its main character( 4a-ce( is a )eculiar intuitive cool hunter" +ho( in
the logo,filled +orld of toda-( has commodit- bulimia"( allergic )h-sical reactions to+ards
bad fashion( logos and advertising( and is therefore fre2uentl- em)lo-ed in the advertising
industr- as a )h-sical indicator of +hat might and +hat might not a))eal to the general
consum)tive cultural unconsciousness" of the future 1 and bet+een the main focal )oint
of its narrative content 1 4a-ce is em)lo-ed to find the author of anon-mous film stri)s(
)ublished in the internet( +hich( in their minimal st-le( are devoid of #)o)'cultural
references of an- kind3 According to Jameson( this contrast( and the fact that 4a-ce/s talent
itself lies half+a- bet+een #future,oriented' tele)ath- and old,fashioned aesthetic
sensibilit-( sus)ends ibson/s novel bet+een Science Fiction and realism"
i
3 The )articular
conte5t of this assertion needs no dee)er e5)loration at this e5act )oint 1 Jameson doesn/t
seem to develo) it an- further 1 but +hat matters is the assertion itself( if taken to a more
general level( and its )ossible literar-,theoretical conse2uences concerning the status of
mimetic re)resentation of our cultural realit- toda-3 One other +ell,kno+n theorist( this
time mainl- of )ostmodernist )oetics( 6rian 7c8ale( has also noted in an intervie+ that
since Jameson said these things about science fiction and realism( .illiam ibson( formerl-
most +ell,kno+n as a c-ber)unk science,fiction author of the 9%s and :%s(
has gone on to +rite entirel- contem)orar- novels( set in the immediate )resent( involving
no )ro;ection of future alternatives at all3 *evertheless( these novels have an entirel-
science fiction feel(" es)eciall- 0attern Recognition( ibson/s $%%& novel about :<==( as
+ell as its se2uel( S)ook 4ountr-( from $%%>3 This can be seen as confirmation that Jameson
+as right( and that ibson has reached the conclusion that the onl- +a- to +rite science
fiction no+ is to +rite immediatel- contem)orar- novels3"
ii
First of all( it has to be noted that both these remarks on the convergence of science fiction
and realism 1 as +ell as some of 6audrillard/s kno+n comments on the )ostmodern
science,fictionali!ation of realit- itself
iii
1 are thoroughl- em)irical in kind3 The- are )urel-
#ade2uate' descri)tions 1 there/s a talk about a feel" here( and a lack of directl- s)elt,out
theoretical or )hiloso)hical content3 7- main aim in the follo+ing )resentation is to
)ro)ose one )ossible version of this content3 In other +ords 1 if the contem)orar- realist
novels +hich aim to ade2uatel- describe the immediate contem)orar- +orld reall- feel"
science,fictional( +ould it then be )ossible to detect and )oint out the )oetic( cultural or
)hiloso)hical as)ects surrounding these novels or the )resent cultural realit- +hich directl-
)rovide" this feeling?
To tr- to )rovide an ans+er( it is first necessar- to e5)lore the re2uired literar-( cultural
or )hiloso)hical )re,conditions +hich enable the convergence of the science,fictional feel"
and the classic( mimetic( realist literar- )ractice3 8ere I +ould like to turn to one of the
most,kno+n theories of science,fiction and begin +ith outlining the basic nature of the
aforementioned science,fictional feel"( as it a))ears in or constitutes #traditional' science
fiction3 For Darko Suvin( in his groundbreaking surve- 7etamor)hoses of Science
Fiction"( the necessar- structural com)onent and the dominant formal device of science
fiction is an element #+hich he calls the novum
iv
' that causes the effect of cognitive
estrangement3 This effect( not far removed from 6recht/s @erfremdungseffekt #+hich the
latter defined as a re)resentation A,,,B +hich allo+s us to recogni!e its sub;ect( but at the
same time makes it seem unfamiliar"
v
'( ma-( in science fiction( a))ear on various degrees
of magnitude(
running from a minimum of one discrete ne+ invention" #gadget( techni2ue(
)henomenon( relationshi)' to the ma5imum of a setting #s)atiotem)oral locus'( agent
#main character or characters'( and<or relations basicall- ne+ and unkno+n in the author/s
environment"3
vi

Such a re)resentation must necessaril- be cognitive 1 the source on +hich the novum is
based must be cognitivel- familiar( recogni!able or traceable #the +a- +e can recogni!e( for
e5am)le( that a fl-ing car is e5tra)olated from the usual carC or the +a- u)loading our
consciousness +ould seem someho+ )lausible or even )ossible because +e can inter)ret
our kno+ledge memor- as bits of data' 1 or +e +ould immediatel- cross over to the terrain
of the fantastic +here this kind of recognition is much more indirect( more difficult( or
reali!ed on the meta)horical( rather than on the immediatel- meton-mical level3 A novum or
cognitive innovation( then( is a totali!ing )henomenon or relationshi) deviating from the
author/s and im)lied reader/s norm of realit-"
vii
3 A novum( as a )oetic device( therefore in a
+a- enables us a certain distance( a certain estranged )oint of vie+ from +here( even if
meta)horicall-( to look at our realit- as if for the ver- first time3
Returning to the to)ic of literature( and taking into account the assum)tion that the
contem)orar- realist novel 1 as an- kind of realism 1 a))lies immediatel- mimetic
techni2ues on one/s cognitive sense of #cultural' realit- then the aforementioned science,
fictional feel" +hich is at 2uestion here must at least )artiall- originate from that #cultural'
ever-da- realit- itself3 4oming back to Jameson/s and 7c8ale/s remarks( it is no+ )ossible
to ask another crucial 2uestion 1 if the good old" cognition,based mimetic realism
no+ada-s reall- )roduces a science,fictional feel"( then ho+ can realit- itself( in its
immediate intimac-( someho+ cognitivel- estrange us( so that +e can recogni!e it" but still
someho+ retain a fundamentall- unfamiliar" distance to+ards it? 8o+ can #cultural'
realit- itself feel like cognitive innovation? 8o+ is it )ossible that the various )henomena
+e live amongst 1 no matter +hether the-/re ob;ects( relations or )ersons 1 in their o+n
direct e)istemological re)resentation( as realit-( )roduce science,fictional cognitive
estrangement?
It is here that +e have to first transfer the source of cognitive estrangement from the
novum of the science,fictional novel directl- to the #cultural' realit- itself( to the )articular
e5)erience of the current condition of the em)irical +orld toda-3 And it is here that a
cou)le of +ell,kno+n contem)lations on a certain distance( or lack thereof( might hel) us 1
s)ecificall-( .alter 6en;amin/s conce)t of aura and Fredric Jameson/s conce)t of the
technological sublime3
.alter 6en;amin uses the term aura )rimaril- in the conte5t of characteri!ing the
source of the uni2ueness or authenticit- of a +ork of art and defines it as the uni2ue
)henomenon of distance( ho+ever close Athe +orkB might be"
viii
3 This distance once
generated the +ork/s e5istence in time and s)ace( its uni2ue e5istence at the )lace +here it
ha))ens to be"
ix
( granted it its historical authorit-( immersed it in tradition( and caused the
rituals oriented to+ards it3 6en;amin used such a conce)t of s)ecific distance in order to
take notice of its +ithering in the era of mechanical re)roduction3 The techni2ue of
re)roduction detaches the re)roduced ob;ect from the domain of traditionC"
x
thereb-
rendering the ob;ect too close" and de)riving it of its auraD
333the contem)orar- deca- of the aura A,,,B rests on t+o circumstances( both of +hich are
related to the increasing significance of the masses in contem)orar- life3 *amel-( the
desire of contem)orar- masses to bring things closer" s)atiall- and humanl-( +hich is ;ust
as ardent as their bent to+ards overcoming the uni2ueness of ever- realit- b- acce)ting its
re)roduction3 A,,,B To )r- an ob;ect from its shell( to destro- its aura is the mark of a
)erce)tion +hose sense of universal e2ualit- of things" has increased to such a degree
that it e5tracts it even from a uni2ue ob;ect b- means of re)roduction3"
xi
Even though 6en;amin said these things in the middle of =:&%s( historicall- thus 2uite far
from the cultural and scientific develo)ments of toda- and in the general frame+ork of
to)ics +hich onl- interest me here b- +a- of an indirect analog-( +hat might still remain
relevant in contem)orar- anal-sis is the basic mechanism of a certain #aural' distance and
its dissolution +hich I +ill a little further on a))l- in the conte5t of a closeness and
)roliferation of a different kind3
.hereas for 6en;amin various re)roductive technologies +ere the cause of the
colla)se of the aura +hich earlier granted the +ork of art its uni2ue e5istence( technolog-
itself #and not onl- re)roductive( but of an- kind' can also be characteri!ed b- the
)ossession of an aura of its o+n 1 of a s)ecific distance that it maintains to+ards the ones
+ho e5)erience the cultural realit- +hich it no+ thoroughl- )enetrates3 This aura 1 b-
nature at once fascinating and terrif-ing( attractive and estranging 1 is( of course( different
from 6en;amin/s original conce)t and can in m- mind first be described +ith the su))ort of
Jameson/s notion of the technological sublime3
The sublime +as for 6urke an e5)erience bordering on terror( the fitful glim)se( in
astonishment( stu)or and a+e( of +hat +as so enormous as to crush human life altogetherD
a descri)tion then refined b- Fant to include the 2uestion of re)resentation itself( so that
the ob;ect of the sublime becomes not onl- a matter of sheer )o+er and of the )h-sical
incommensurabilit- of the human organism +ith *ature but also of the limits of figuration
and the inca)acit- of the human mind to give re)resentation to such enormous forces3 A,,,B
The other of our societ- A,,,B is no longer *ature at all3 A,,,B I am an5ious that this other
thing not overhastil- be gras)ed as technolog- )er se( since I +ill +ant to sho+ that
technolog- is here itself a figure for something else3"
xii
Jameson/s notion of the technological sublime doesn/t therefore im)l- that technolog- itself
+ith its inner nature" should someho+ be considered ungras)able but rather that
technolog- re)resents something +hich in itself is e5actl- thatC and )recisel- the hint of the
ungras)able nature of this something else is the source of +hat I +ould call technolog-/s
aura 1 a certain estranging but necessaril- mesmeri!ing distance from an- re)resentation of
technolog-3
The technolog- of contem)orar- societ- is therefore mesmeri!ing and fascinating not so
much in its o+n right but because it seems to offer some )rivileged re)resentational
shorthand for gras)ing a net+ork of )o+er and control even more difficult for our minds
and imaginations to gras)D the +hole ne+ decentered global net+ork of the third stage of
ca)ital itself3 This is a figural )rocess best observed in a +hole mode of contem)orar-
entertainment literature 1 one is tem)ted to characteri!e it as high,tech )aranoia" 1 in
+hich the circuits and net+orks of some )utative global com)uter hooku) are narrativel-
mobili!ed b- lab-rinthine cons)iracies of autonomous but deadl- interlocking and
com)eting agencies in a com)le5it- often be-ond the ca)acit- of the normal reading mind3
A,,,B It is in terms of that enormous and threatening( -et onl- diml- )erceivable( other
realit- of economic and social institutions that( in m- o)inion( the )ostmodern sublime can
alone be ade2uatel- theori!ed3"
xiii
Through such contem)lation Jameson considers technolog- as a figure for the
incommensurable sublime other" of the )ostmodern #cultural' realit-3 At this )oint it is no
longer difficult to trans)ose this contem)lation to the cognitivel- estranging effect gained
from reading science fictionD science fiction estranges not so much in its o+n right"( not
because it invents something ne+"( but because it is the )referred literar- form #and
)ossesses( through the novum( the necessar- tools' for the meta)horic re)resentation of the
novelt- inherent in technolog- itself( for the figural de)iction of the infinitel- ungras)able
and therefore al+a-s novel technological sublime3 It is )recisel- this 2ualitative novelt- 1 a
certain necessar- cognitive distance from the technological sublime 1 that I +ould like to
designate as the aura of technolog-3
6ut since the time Jameson stated this before =::=( the im)ossible totalit- of the
net+ork of the social and economic institutions of the contem)orar- +orld s-stem has
gained a direct material embodiment" in the form of digital net+orks +hich( through their
constant )roliferation and infinite ungras)able multi)licit-( directl- and e5)licitl-( +ith no
meta)horical transaction of an- kind( em)hasi!e the merel- and resolutel- )articular
e5istence of one/s #both ontological and cultural' ever-da- e5istence( and her immediate
effacement +ith the inherent multi)licit- of the technological sublime3 In other +ords( the
high,tech scientific develo)ments of the )resent late,ca)italist culture have been b- no+ so
smoothl- and thoroughl- integrated to the )erce)tion or understanding of our surrounding
ever-da- that their near,natural and unnoticeable )resence( almost intimate closeness and
s)eed aren/t +orth- of mentioning as something directl- novel an-more3 In the
contem)orar- cultural realit- +hich is thoroughl- immersed in and constituted and b-
various kinds of #both material and immaterial' net+orks( it is no+ the constant contrast
bet+een their infinite multi)licit- and one/s o+n )articular e5istence +hich is al+a-s ne+"
and thus )rovokes cognitive estrangement3 7- )ro)osition is that( in 6en;aminian terms(
the technological aura( the estranging distance +e have earlier maintained to+ards the
technolog- that surrounds us 1 but also the some+hat safe )osition from +here to gras)
and designate our o+n cultural estrangement 1 has in the +ake of advanced technological
integration and the )roliferation of digital multi)licit- started to +ither and fade( or to
com)letel- merge +ith realit- itself3 0ut in science,fictional conte5t( the frightening and
estranging novelt- of industrial technolog- +hich +as earlier the )rimar- source of
ins)iration for creating the science,fictional novum has( through the thorough )enetration
of realit- b- the technological sublime( inse)arabl- s)ilt over to #cultural' realit- as a +hole3
Or -et still in other +ords 1 the novum has indiscernibl- merged +ith socio,cultural realit-C
and the ones +ho e5)erience this realit- have been fused into the technological aura3
4ognitive estrangement must in this conte5t be described as the effect gained from
e5)eriencing late,ca)italist cultural realit- itselfD instead of s)ecific technological
)henomena +hich +ere earlier( in the modernist times( the onl- )rivileged #and in itself
almost isolated' source of novel #science,fictional' estrangement( the late,ca)italist realit-
as a +hole( to some degree( no+ al+a-s seems to a))ear to the ones +ho e5)erience it as if
for the ver- first time3 This cultural realit-( being here the ultimate medium in transition"(
a))ears( like a novum( itself u) to a degree as if being out of our norm of realit-"3 It is no
longer some s)ecific #scientific or technological' )henomena +hich create the cognitive
estrangement from a safe distance"( but rather the ungras)able( im)ossible totalit- of the
late,ca)italist cultural realit- that em)hasi!es the thoroughl- )articular nature of our
e5)erience of realit- in an era of the constant )roliferation of digital multi)licit- #the latter(
in itself( being a figure for the 6en;aminian sense of universal e2ualit- of things"'3
0recisel- due to the contrast bet+een this )articularit- and this multi)licit-( realit- a))ears(
as 6recht alread- )ut it( familiar but at the same time unrecogni!able"3
It seems that onl- in the basic frame+ork of this )eculiar thinking it is )ossible to
think the sus)ension of borders" bet+een #contem)orar-' realism and science,fiction( to
think the notion that the directl- mimetic re)resentation of cultural realit- necessaril-
)roduces a science,fictional feel" 1 and to )rovide a theoretical insight to the above,cited
em)irical assertions b- Jameson and 7c8ale3 It is in the light of this argument that +e
might inter)ret 7c8ale/s above,cited statement that ibson has reached the conclusion
that the onl- +a- to +rite science fiction no+ is to +rite immediatel- contem)orar- novels3
In su))ort of this line of thought( I +ould no+ like to give some short literar-
e5am)les from ibson/s recent novels +hich might illustrate the abovementioned science,
fictional" feel in the fabric of ever-da- realit-D
She turned on the bedside lam)( illuminating the )revious evening/s em)t- can of Asahi
Draft( from the 0ink Dot( and her sticker,encrusted 0o+er6ook( closed and slee)ing3 She
envied it3"
xiv
She kno+s( no+( absolutel-( hearing the +hite noise that is London( that Damien/s theor-
of ;et lag is correctD that her mortal soul is leagues behind her( being reeled in on some
ghostl- umbilical do+n the vanished +ake of the )lane that brought her here( hundreds of
thousands of feet above the Atlantic3 Souls can/t move that 2uickl-( and are left behind( and
must be a+aited( u)on arrival( like lost luggage3"
xv
Through this evening/s tide of faces unregistered( unrecogni!ed( amid hurr-ing black
shoes( furled umbrellas( the cro+d descending like a single organism into the station/s
airless heart( comes Shin-a Gama!aki( his notebook clas)ed beneath his arm like the egg of
some modest but moderatel- successful marine s)ecies3"
xvi
40Hs for the meeting( reflected in the +indo+ of a Soho s)ecialist in mod )ara)hernalia(
are a fresh Fruit T,shirt( her black 6u!! RicksonIs 7A,=( anon-mous black skirt from a
Tulsa thrift( the black leggings sheId +orn for 0ilates( black 8ara;uku schoolgirl shoes3 8er
)urse,analog is an envelo)e of black East erman laminate( )urchased on e6a-,if not
actual Stasi,issue then +ell in the ball)ark3"
xvii
It is here( in the sim)le descri)tions of the ever-da-( that +e can trace the com)lete
mergence of cultural realit- +ith Jameson/s technological sublime( the cognitive
estrangement generated b- the sim)le mimetic" re)resentation of contem)orar- realit-
itself3 In the first t+o e5am)les( the science,fictional feel" is generated b- re)resenting the
emotional,sub;ective facult- #e3g3 env-( souls' through thoroughl- technological imager- or
meta)hors #the closed and aslee) state of the 0o+er6ookC souls being reeled in like lost
luggage' In the third( this #the heart of the stationC notebook as the egg of some marine
s)ecies' is com)lemented b- the thoroughl- fragmentar- )erce)tion of +hat could be
called the technological sublime #the contingent details of the cro+d in the station as a kind
of self,o)erating machine in its o+n rightC the undetectable nature of the faces in the
cro+d'( and the )redominantl- visual or aural" flo+ of time that Jameson took notice of in
ibson/s earlier c-ber)unk novels of the 9%s3
xviii
In the fourth e5am)le #as a bit in the first'(
cognitive estrangement is created b- the staggering densit- of )ro)er names 1 clothing
items and accessories here not onl- being described through common names but b- their
im)lied smooth integration into +ell,kno+n #)ro)er' brand names( the )ro)er name here
s-mbolicall- designating infinitel- more than the common name +ould #this is a territor-
that Jameson has alread- e5)lored'3
It is )robabl- )ossible to bring more e5am)les here( and to name more novum,like
sources or factors of realist cognitive estrangement in ibson/s te5t( but it is more
im)ortant to em)hasi!e that these e5cer)ts should be considered as neither solel- science,
fictional nor solel- ade2uatel- real in regard to the cultural condition de)icted but
indiscernibl- both at the same timeD in this res)ect +e might as +ell be dealing +ith a ne+
literar- form evoked b- a change in the cultural condition( b- the dissolution of the
technological aura3
Finall-( and in a different line of argument to +hich I have little s)ace to devote here(
the ungras)able nature of the late,ca)italist technological sublime and its indiscernible
fusion +ith cultural realit- should not onl- be thought in terms of s)atialit-( but also and as
much in terms of tem)oralit-3 6rian 7c8ale( dra+ing a firmer line of division bet+een
realism and science fiction than I do here( has alread- devoted a thought to this( noting the
inca)abilit- of realism to gras) the s)eed of change of contem)orar- technological
develo)mentsD
Science fiction has ;ustified itself b- giving us tools for thinking about contem)orar-
e5)erience( as realism once could( but not longer does3 ood old mimetic realism" has
actuall- become retrograde +ith res)ect to the immediate contem)orar- +orld3 Realism is
not reall- +ell,e2ui))ed to deal +ith change at this )ace( and it inevitabl- lags behind
+here +e are no+C it/s not )a-ing attention to the right things or looking in the right
)laces3"
xix
4uriousl-( in an intervie+ devoted to his latest novel S)ook 4ountr-( .illiam ibson(
commenting his recent turn to contem)orar- novels as something necessar-( has noted the
same inca)abilit- in the case of science fictionD
I donIt kno+ if IIll be able to make u) an imaginar- future in the same +a-3 In the I9%s
and I:%s,,as strange as it ma- seem to sa- this,,+e had such lu5ur- of stabilit-3 Things
+erenIt changing 2uite so 2uickl- in the I9%s and I:%s3 And +hen things are changing too
2uickl-( as one of the characters in 0attern Recognition sa-s( -ou donIt have an- )lace to
stand from +hich to imagine a ver- elaborate future3"
xx
So it seems it/s not onl- realism but also future,oriented science,fiction +hich is
e5)eriencing difficulties in gras)ing the current )ace of the develo)ments of the
contem)orar- cultural realit- toda-3 And it might as +ell be that this ne+ literar- form
#)robabl-( as Jameson +ould )ut it( still on its +a- to+ards a defining )ro)er name of its
o+n' +hich ibson/s novels hint to+ards and +hich indiscernibl- merges science fictional
cognitive estrangement +ith realist mimetic )ractices( is one of the fe+ mediums to
ade2uatel- re)resent the em)irical condition of the )resent,da- late,ca)italist culture and
the radical colla)se of the technological aura3
i
i
Frederic Jameson, Archaeologies of the Future. The Desire Called Utopia and Other Science Fictions (London, New York:
Verso, 2005), 390 (m em!"asis).
ii
i
#ee $arina %ris"akova, Jaak &om'er(, )n *"e )'+i(a*ion *oward *"e ,i--ic.+* /"o+e. 0n*erview wi*" 1rian $c2a+e
(2or*.s #emio*ic.s 3 (2003)) "**!:44www..*.ee4"or*.ssemio*ic.s45620034mc"a+e."*m+ (accessed 7!ri+ 58, 2009)
iii
i
Jean 1a.dri++ard, &"e 9cs*as o- :omm.nica*ion in The Anti-Aesthetic, ed 2a+ Fos*er. (New York: &"e New ;ress, 5999),
3<=>
iv
i
,arko #.vin, $e*amor!"oses o- #cience Fic*ion.)n *"e ;oe*ics and 2is*or o- a Li*erar %enre (New 2aven and London:
Ya+e ?niversi* ;ress), <3
v
v
1er*"o+* 1rec"*, @+eines )r(anon -Ar das &"ea*er in Gesammelte Werke, 5< (Frank-.r*, 59>3), 592
vi
v
,arko #.vin, $e*amor!"oses o- #cience Fic*ion, <8
vii
v
,arko #.vin, $e*amor!"oses o- #cience Fic*ion, <8
viii
v
/a+*er 1ennBamin, &"e /ork o- 7r* in *"e 7(e o- $ec"anica+ Ce!rod.c*ion in Illuminations ed 2anna" 7rend* (London:
;im+ico, 5999), 25<
ix
i
/a+*er 1ennBamin, &"e /ork o- 7r* in *"e 7(e o- $ec"anica+ Ce!rod.c*ion, 255
x
x
/a+*er 1ennBamin, &"e /ork o- 7r* in *"e 7(e o- $ec"anica+ Ce!rod.c*ion, 255
xi
x
/a+*er 1ennBamin, &"e /ork o- 7r* in *"e 7(e o- $ec"anica+ Ce!rod.c*ion, 25<D>
xii
x
Fredric Jameson, ;os*modernism, or, *"e :.+*.ra+ Lo(ic o- La*e :a!i*a+ism (LondonE New York: Verso, 5999), 38D5
xiii
x
Fredric Jameson, ;os*modernism, or, *"e :.+*.ra+ Lo(ic o- La*e :a!i*a+ism (LondonE New York: Verso, 5999), 3>D3
xiv
x
/i++iam %i'son, #!ook :o.n*r (New York: %. ;. ;.*namFs #ons, 200>), 5
xv
x
/i++iam %i'son, ;a**ern Ceco(ni*ion (New York: %. ;. ;.*namFs #ons, 2003), 5
xvi
x
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