NAS CORPUS CHRISTI, TEXAS CNATRA P-1218 (REV. 11-98) PAT
TACTICAL FORMATION FLIGHT TRAINING INSTRUCTION T-45TS, ADV, and IUT 1998 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 1 2 3 2 3 Attacker Defender T-45A FLIGHT TRAINING INSTRUCTION CHANGE SUMMARY PAGE CHANGE DATE NUMBER ENTERED CHANGE DESCRIPTION INITIALS List of Effective Pages Page LEP-1 FLIGHT TRAINING INSTRUCTION LIST OF EFFECTIVE PAGES EFFECTIVE PAGE PAGES NUMBERS EFFECTIVE PAGE PAGES NUMBERS Tactical Formation Flight Training Instruction Original Title page Original i thru vi Original 1 thru 46 (11-98) Original FLIGHT TRAINING INSTRUCTION FOR TACTICAL FORMATION T-45A JET PILOT TRAINING (11-98) ORIGINAL (11-98) Original THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK. Page i Tactical Formation Table of Contents (11-98) Original TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................... i FIGURES ................................................................................................................................................... iii HOW TO USE THIS FTI ............................................................................................................................ v INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................................ 1 BACKGROUND.......................................................................................................................................... 3 LOOSE DEUCE.................................................................................................................................... 3 COMBAT SPREAD ........................................................................................................................ 3 LOOKOUT DOCTRINE ................................................................................................................... 4 ENGAGED/FREE FIGHTER ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES ..................................................... 6 VOICE COMMUNICATION.............................................................................................................. 6 WEAPONS ENVELOPE ...................................................................................................................... 6 PURSUIT .............................................................................................................................................. 8 LEAD PURSUIT ............................................................................................................................. 8 PURE PURSUIT ............................................................................................................................. 8 LAG PURSUIT................................................................................................................................ 8 OPERATIONAL MANEUVERABILITY ................................................................................................... 9 FLIGHT PROCEDURES ........................................................................................................................... 11 TRANSITIONING FROM CLOSE FORMATION TO COMBAT SPREAD................................................ 11 COMBAT SPREAD STRAIGHT AND LEVEL........................................................................................ 11 COMBAT SPREAD TURNS ................................................................................................................. 12 CRUISE TURNS............................................................................................................................ 12 SHACKLE TURNS ........................................................................................................................ 15 ENGAGING TURNS ...................................................................................................................... 15 MANEUVERING TURNS ............................................................................................................... 19 LOOSE DEUCE EXERCISE ................................................................................................................ 19 START........................................................................................................................................... 19 HIGH COVER................................................................................................................................ 21 LOW COVER................................................................................................................................ 21 RETURN TO HIGH COVER ........................................................................................................... 22 ENGAGE ...................................................................................................................................... 22 REVERSALS ................................................................................................................................ 22 VARIATIONS ................................................................................................................................. 22 GUNSIGHT TRACKING - HUD ............................................................................................................. 23 GUNSIGHT TRACKING EXERCISE ............................................................................................... 25 SAFETY/EMERGENCY SITUATIONS ..................................................................................................... 31 RELATIVE MOTION/EXCESSIVE CLOSURE....................................................................................... 31 SPATIAL AWARENESS ...................................................................................................................... 31 GOOD START ..................................................................................................................................... 31 Page ii Tactical Formation Table of Contents (11-98) Original LOST SIGHT/LOOKOUT ...................................................................................................................... 31 AIRCRAFT LIMITATIONS ..................................................................................................................... 31 SELF-TEST.............................................................................................................................................. 33 APPENDIX A ........................................................................................................................................... 37 GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................................................. 39 INDEX........................................................................................................................................................ 43 Page iii (11-98) Original Tactical Formation FIGURES Figure 1: COMBAT SPREAD ................................................................................................................. 3 Figure 2: LOOKOUT DOCTRINE RESPONSIBILITIES ......................................................................... 5 Figure 3: WEAPONS FIRING ENVELOPE ............................................................................................ 7 Figure 4: TYPES OF PURSUIT.............................................................................................................. 8 Figure 5: CRUISE TURN INTO WINGMAN ......................................................................................... 13 Figure 6: CRUISE TURN AWAY FROM WINGMAN............................................................................. 14 Figure 7: CHECK TURN....................................................................................................................... 15 Figure 8: SHACKLE TURN .................................................................................................................. 15 Figure 9: TAC TURN ............................................................................................................................ 16 Figure 10: IN-PLACE TURN AWAY FROM WINGMAN.......................................................................... 17 Figure 11: IN-PLACE TURN INTO WINGMAN ...................................................................................... 17 Figure 12: CROSS TURN ...................................................................................................................... 18 Figure 13: LOOSE DEUCE EXERCISE ................................................................................................. 20 Figure 14: HUD CONTROLS/INDICATORS........................................................................................... 23 Figure 15: AIR-TO-AIR DATUM ENTRY SEQUENCE ........................................................................... 24 Figure 16: LOW YO-YO ......................................................................................................................... 27 Figure 17: HIGH YO-YO......................................................................................................................... 28 Figure 18: DISPLACEMENT ROLL ........................................................................................................ 29 Figures Tactical Formation Page iv (11-98) Original Figures THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK. Page v (11-98) Original Tactical Formation How to Use This FTI HOW TO USE THIS FTI This Flight Training Instruction (FTI) is your textbook for the Tactical Formation stage of your Jet Pilot Training and is the source document for all procedures related to TacForm. In addition, it includes sug- gested techniques for performing each maneuver and making corrections. Use your FTI to prepare for and afterward to review lessons and flights. This information will help you effectively prepare for lessons: know all the procedures in the assigned section(s), review the glossary, and be prepared to ask your instructor about anything that remains unclear. Then you can devote your attention to flying the T-45A. After a flight, review the FTI to reinforce your understanding and to clarify any difficult maneuvers or procedures. Note that this FTI also contains information on emergencies related to this stage. This section of the FTI amplifies but does not supplant the emergency procedures information contained in the T-45A NATOPS manual. Reading requirements for flight procedures lessons (lectures) are listed in Appendix A, Lesson Prepara- tion, along with the course learning objectives. The end-of-stage exam will be based on these objectives. Complete the required reading prior to each lesson (lecture). Tactical Formation Page vi (11-98) Original How to Use This FTI NOTES Page 1 Tactical Formation Introduction . (11-98) Original INTRODUCTION The relatively simple aircraft of previous wars relied solely on the gun to kill an adversary; these aircraft have given way to more sophisticated fighters that employ both guns and extremely formidable all-aspect firing missiles. This technological advance in weaponry has caused the tactical community to reexamine and redefine their basic offensive and defensive air combat tactics. As a result of this reevaluation, a simple and effective tactical formation evolved: combat spread. This formation combines optimum offensive capability with maximum defensive flexibility. Combat spread is the basic Naval air-to-air fighter formation from which loose deuce tactics are executed. A properly understood and effectively employed loose deuce doctrine will enable you to work as a team to engage the enemy and force him into a predictable flight path. It will allow you to effectively use your aircraft as a weapons platform. Loose deuce maneuvering will increase your survivability and offensive capability in combat. The tactical combat arena is the most demanding and potentially deadly environment you will fly in as a Naval aviator. During Tactical Formation, you will be introduced to and practice the fundamen- tals of tactical maneuvering. This flight training instruction (FTI) provides information and procedures on: 1) maneuvering as a section in combat spread, 2) loose deuce tactics and exercise, 3) air-to-air use of the HUD, and 4)gunsight tracking maneuvers and exercise. Page 2 Tactical Formation Introduction (11-98) Original NOTES Page 3 Tactical Formation Background BACKGROUND LOOSE DEUCE Loose deuce is the Navys tactical doctrine for air-to-air warfare in which a section of fighters can coordinate sequential attacks against a single adversary as a free and an engaged fighter in offensive and defensive situations. Loose deuce consists of a section in combat spread utilizing proper lookout, precise execution of maneuvers, mutual support by presence, and clear, concise communications. COMBAT SPREAD Combat spread is a section tactical formation maximizing mutual support. It is based on the concept that two aircraft are separated so they cannot be attacked as a single unit, but are close enough to support each other. The wingman is positioned 3/4 to 1 nm abeam the lead with a stepup of 1,000 ft (Figure 1). The lateral and vertical separation is based on visual detectability of the enemy, threat weapon system envelopes, fighter turn radius, and threat environment. Proper aircraft positioning in combat spread maximizes maneuverability against air-to-air or surface-to-air threats and forces early commitment by the threat. Lead Responsibilities The lead must ensure mutual support through a successful lookout doctrine, communications, and flight safety. Flying tactical formation in training, the lead must ensure that the specific training objectives for the flight are met, keep the section in the training area, and adhere to all other training rules. (11-98) Original Abeam 1,000 ft 3/4 to 1 nm Figure 1: COMBAT SPREAD Page 4 Tactical Formation Background (11-98) Original Wingman Responsibilities Flying tactical formation is a team effort requiring the wingman to share responsibilities with the lead. The wingman also ensures section integrity by maintaining a good combat spread position. LOOKOUT DOCTRINE An effective lookout doctrine is the cornerstone of mutual support, requiring each pilot to develop and employ a thorough visual scan pattern outside the cockpit. Coordinated scan patterns between lead and wingman in combat spread ensure maximum visual coverage and allow sufficient reaction time to engage the bandit. The threshold of visual detection depends on numerous factors, such as aspect, atmospheric conditions, and background clutter. Focus your eyes on a distant pointa cloud or ground object to give your eyes a depth of field from 1 mile to infinity. Pilots employing this technique significantly increase their detection rates. Alternate horizontal and vertical search patterns. A horizontal search pattern minimizes light intensity variations, allowing your eyes to keep their light adjustment for a given horizontal sector. A vertical search pattern causes your eyes to change their intensity adjustment. A vertical scan will often cause a bandit on or below the horizon to stand out. Scan vertically no more than a 30-degree segment of the total area at one time. Learn to scan in a definite pattern. Random searches produce poor results. The lead and wingmans primary lookout areas each extend from 30 degrees outside the formation and sweep through the formation to the aft visual limit (Figure 2). Visual search beyond 30degrees outside the formation is a secondary responsibility for both lead and wing. Directly behind each aircraft is a small unseen area referred to as the blind cone. The wingmans blind cone is visually covered by the lead as part of his primary lookout responsibility. Conversely, the leads blind cone is visually covered by the wingman as part of his primary lookout responsibility. Even an aggressive scan meticulously executed within a section in combat spread leaves a mutual blind area formed at the intersection of each aircrafts aft visual limit between 9,000 to 12,000 ft astern, varying with differences in lateral separation between aircraft. Page 5 Tactical Formation Background (11-98) Original Wingman Wingmans Secondary Lead Primary Blind Cone Blind Cone Mutual Blind Cone Leads Secondary 30 30 Figure 2: LOOKOUT DOCTRINE RESPONSIBILITIES Page 6 Tactical Formation Background (11-98) Original ENGAGED/FREE FIGHTER ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES Anytime the section is engaged with a bandit, lead and wingman formation roles and responsibilities are exchanged for engaged and free fighter tactical roles and responsibilities. The engaged fighter is the fighter actively pursuing the bandit or forcing the bandit into a predictable flight path (offensive/ defensive). The free fighter is the fighter maneuvering to protect the engaged fighter and to obtain a clear shot at the bandit. Engaged Fighter As the engaged fighter, your primary responsibility is to kill the bandit. To do this, you must keep the bandit in sight and either attack him or defend against his attack. In either case, the engaged fighter must force the bandit to maneuver hard enough to deplete his energy, thus making him predictable. It is essential that you communicate with the free fighter to coordinate your tactics effectively. Free Fighter As the free fighter, you are also responsible for killing the bandit. Analyze the fight to predict the bandits flight path and maneuver for a shot while maintaining sight of both the engaged fighter and the bandit. Use descriptive comm to inform the engaged fighter of your position and directive comm to provide tactical recommendations to target the bandit. The free fighter should constantly manage his energy package. VOICE COMMUNICATION Clear, concise radio communications of a tactical, directive, and descriptive nature will optimize the sections effectiveness. You must learn to fly, think, and communicate simultaneously. Typically, initial communications are of bandit sightings. However, immediate movement of the section utilizing directive communication is the highest priority radio call made to avoid being targeted by a bandit. The directive call would be followed immediately by descriptive communication to ensure both aircraft acquire the bandit and establish the fighter tactical game plan. WEAPONS ENVELOPE The basis for an air-to-air kill is flying the aircraft to the firing parameters necessary to employ a selected weapon system successfully. Those parameters define the weapons envelope (Figure 3) in terms of range and angle off the tail (AOTfighter position off the bandits tail). A weapons envelope around the bandit is three-dimensional and dynamic based upon fighter and bandit airspeed, altitude, g, and specific weapons capability. Firing from within the envelope greatly increases the probability of a kill (P K ). The weapons firing envelopes for CNATRA are rear quarter envelopes only for snap guns, raking guns, tracking guns, and sidewinders (FOX-2). Figure 3 illustrates maximum and minimum ranges and angle off. The hot and cold sides are functions of angle off and bandit direction of turn (intercept geometry). The hot side refers to the area in the direction of turn relative to the bandits longitudinal axis. The cold side refers to the area away from the direction of turn. Hot and cold do not refer to the heat source of the target; they are only a function of intercept geometry. The heart of the IR envelope is 1 nm at the bandits six. Page 7 Tactical Formation Background (11-98) Original 1,500 2 nm 1/2 nm 90 1,000' 60 40 2 nm Hot Side 30 Cold Side 2 nm (Sidewinder Maximum Range) (Sidewinder Minimum Range) Snap Guns 90 1/2 nm Raking Guns Tracking Guns Kill Sidewinder Kill - Hot Side Sidewinder Kill - Cold Side 2,000' Figure 3: WEAPONS FIRING ENVELOPE Page 8 Tactical Formation Background (11-98) Original PURSUIT The concept of pursuit geometry between attacker and defender in the ACM environment is basic to every tactical maneuver (Figure 4). Pursuit is defined by the attackers velocity vector relative to the defender. All pursuits control closure in some way. LEAD PURSUIT Lead pursuit increases your closure rate on the bandit and usually results in decreased nose-to-tail distance. It also solves for a guns firing solution. To employ lead pursuit as the attacking aircraft, position your nose ahead of the bandit. PURE PURSUIT Use pure pursuit to maintain nose-to-tail separation on the bandit, and to acquire a lock-on tone for an IR missile shot. To employ pure pursuit as the attacking aircraft, position your nose on the bandit. LAG PURSUIT Lag pursuit decreases closure rate on the bandit and usually results in increased nose-to-tail distance. Lag pursuit allows you to maintain your energy and may cause visibility problems for the bandit. To employ lag pursuit, position your aircrafts nose behind the bandit. LEAD PURE LAG Figure 4: TYPES OF PURSUIT Page 9 Tactical Formation Background OPERATIONAL MANEUVERABILITY Aircraft maneuverabilitythe capability to perform changes in altitude, airspeed, and direction depends on both fixed and variable factors. The fixed factors are aircraft design (weight, wing loading, power capabilities, and structural limitations) and aircraft configuration (bombs, rockets, external tanks, etc.). Variable factors include altitude, airspeed, AOA, and g. Both turn radius and turn rate are dependent on TAS and g (the ratio of lift to weight) with constant altitude. On a given wing at a specific AOA, the coefficient of lift is constant regardless of airspeed, gross weight, and altitude. For turns, lift must exceed weight, and g loads must be greater than 1. As g increases, AOA increases. The aircraft that can sustain the most g at a constant TAS will have the smallest turn radius. TAS has a greater effect on turn radius (TAS 2 /g) than on turn rate (g/TAS). Instanta- neous turn rate is the maximum available turn rate at any given airspeed without regard to energy sustainability. The aircraft that can sustain the most g at a given TAS will have the fastest turn rate. The effective application of turn rate/radius principles depends on practice. (11-98) Original Page 10 Tactical Formation Background (11-98) Original NOTES Page 11 Tactical Formation Flight Procedures FLIGHT PROCEDURES TRANSITIONING FROM CLOSE FORMATION TO COMBAT SPREAD After visually checking the area clear, the lead usually advises the wingman of his heading, altitude, and airspeed, and then signals the wingman to assume combat spread by pushing his palm out and away. At the signal, the wingman goes to MRT, accelerating to a 10-15 kt airspeed advantage, and takes a cut away from the lead to establish a 10-15 degree heading differential. He varies pitch and AOB to arrive 3/4-1 nm abeam with 1,000 ft of vertical separation. A common tendency of the wingman while moving into position is to take too great or quick a cut to combat spread, resulting in a sucked position. Patience is the key. If you find yourself looking directly down your 3/9 line or forward, correct immediately by reducing your heading differential and/ or varying your rate of climb and/or airspeed to maintain bearing. COMBAT SPREAD STRAIGHT AND LEVEL While flying combat spread straight and level, the wingman must maintain position, giving priority first to the abeam bearing, second to lateral distance, and third to vertical separation. To determine the abeam position, the wingman looks straight out over his shoulder on a 90-degree relative bearing. Once abeam, the wingman should match the leads airspeed by adjusting power and nose attitude for level flight. The gouge for straight and level combat spread is approximately 1,800 pph to maintain 300 KIAS. To remain in combat spread, the wingman must employ a continuous inside/outside scan. Look inside to scan heading, airspeed, and altitude and outside to check the leads position and scan his primary/secondary lookout areas. If the wingman is sucked or acute, close or wide, the lookout suffers, increasing the sections vulnerability to attack. Whenever necessary, trade altitude for airspeed to maintain bearing. If the wingman is sucked, he should lower the nose, add power, and accelerate until arriving on the abeam bearing. When on the bearing line, raise the nose to maintain the bearing and readjust power for 300 KIAS. During this climb, the indicated airspeed will be in excess of 300 KIAS. By raising the nose and climbing on the bearing line, the wingman increases his altitude and decreases his airspeed while maintaining position with the lead. The wingman may lose as much altitude/ airspeed as necessary to regain the bearing line. If the wingmans position is acute, he pulls the nose up and reduces power. Approaching the bearing line, he lowers the nose and resets his power to arrive on the bearing at 300 KIAS. In an acute and wide/close position or a very acute position, the wingman goes to MRT and executes a series of hard turns at 11 units and at least 30 degrees off heading in the direction necessary to regain position. He then returns to the original heading and readjusts power when in position, being careful not to overcorrect, which may lead to a sucked position. (11-98) Original Page 12 Tactical Formation Flight Procedures (11-98) Original If the wingmans vertical separation is less than 1,000 ft, but he is on the bearing line with proper distance abeam, he adds power and raises the nose to climb while maintaining 300 KIAS. He readjusts power when back in position. The amount of any correction depends on the amount of the positional error. Small errors require minor maneuvering to finesse the aircraft into proper combat spread. Trading altitude for airspeed is more fuel efficient than adjusting power. Gross errors require more aggressive flying to correct into proper position. COMBAT SPREAD TURNS All combat maneuvering is designed to maintain maximum maneuvering potential when a section performs turns. Combat spread turns are used to turn the section as much as 180 degrees during patrolling flights. There are three types: 1) cruise turns used for navigation, 2) shackle turns used to align or realign the section, and 3) engaging turns used in a high-threat environment to actually engage the enemy. CRUISE TURNS There are three types of cruise turns: called, uncalled, and check. Called and uncalled cruise turns turn the section 90 degrees, either into (Figure 5) or away (Figure 6) from the wingman. Check turns turn the section 30 degrees or less (Figure 7). Called/Uncalled Cruise Turns The lead initiates called cruise turns by transmitting, [Call sign], 90 right/left. The wingman acknowledges by calling [Two], and the lead then initiates the turn into or away from the wingman. Uncalled cruise turns into or away are executed in the same manner as called cruise turns, except that no radio communication is used. The lead initiates the turn by giving a wing flash in the direction of the turn instead of a radio call. Upon recognizing the wing flash, the wingman executes the turn either into or away, when the lead rolls into his 30-degree AOB turn. If the wingman does not see the wing flash, he soon discovers the lead turning. If the wingman does not recognize the wing flash direction, he must assume a turn away to prevent the section from being separated. Assuming a turn away, the wingman will still maintain sight of the lead and be able to react when he recognizes the direction of turn. Into Wingman The lead initiates cruise turns into the wingman (Figure 5) by transmission/response or wing flash. The lead begins a 30-degree angle of bank (AOB) turn into the wingman while maintaining his altitude and 300 KIAS. The wingman simultaneously initiates his turn with a 10-20 degree AOB turn, varying his AOB according to his distance abeam from the lead. The wingman passes approximately 2,000 ft ahead of the lead with a 15-20 degree heading differential, maintaining his AOB until the lead disappears below and behind him. As the lead passes below and behind the wingmans six oclock, he checks the wingmans six and calls, Six clear. As the lead disappears, the wingman counts 2-4 seconds, then rolls into a 45-60 degree AOB turn until acquiring sight of the lead. After reacquiring, he will check the leads six and call, Visual, six clear. The wingman adjusts AOB and nose attitude for the remainder of the turn to arrive in combat spread as the lead rolls out of his 90- degree turn. Page 13 Tactical Formation Flight Procedures If you start the turn acute, raise the nose to slow down initially, using less AOB than normal before the lead crosses your six. After the lead crosses, use more AOB than normal to arrive in combat spread. If you start the turn sucked, lower the nose to increase airspeed initially, using more AOB than normal before the lead crosses your six. After the lead crosses, use less AOB than normal to arrive in combat spread. If you start the turn wide, initially use less AOB than normal before the lead crosses your six. After the lead crosses, use more AOB than normal to arrive in combat spread. If you start the turn close, initially use more AOB than normal before the lead crosses your six. After the lead crosses, use less AOB than normal to arrive in combat spread. Away from Wingman The lead initiates cruise turns away from the wingman (Figure 6) by transmission/response or wing flash. The lead begins a 30-degree AOB turn, maintaining his altitude and 300 KIAS. The wingman simultaneously initiates his turn toward the inside of the leads turn, using 45-60 degrees AOB, and slightly lowering his nose to accelerate. After 45 degrees of turn, the wingman passes approximately 2,000 ft aft and slightly below the lead with a 15-20 degree heading advantage and a 25-30 kt airspeed advantage. The wingman should not need more than a 50-kt airspeed advantage. As the wingman passes aft and below the lead, he checks the leads six and calls, Six clear. The lead rolls out of the turn after 90 degrees, obtains a visual, and checks the wingmans six before calling, Visual, six clear. The wingman then decreases AOB to 15-20degrees and adjusts nose attitude to arrive in combat spread. (11-98) Original Lead Wingman Figure 5: CRUISE TURN INTO WINGMAN Page 14 Tactical Formation Flight Procedures (11-98) Original If you start the turn acute or close, delay 3-4 seconds, lower the nose less than normal and, initially, use more AOB before crossing the leads six. After crossing, use less AOB than normal to arrive in combat spread. If you start the turn sucked, lower the nose more than normal and, initially, use less AOB before crossing the leads six. After crossing, use more AOB than normal to arrive in combat spread. If you start the turn wide, lower the nose more than normal and, initially, use more AOB before crossing the leads six. After crossing, use less AOB than normal to arrive in combat spread. If you arrive on the bearing line before the lead rolls out of his turn, raise your nose, adjust AOB to keep from going acute, and play the roll-out to arrive in combat spread as the lead rolls out. If you find yourself out of position after the turn, it is probably attributable to improper AOB, timing, and/or airspeed control. If you are sucked, lower the nose, add power, accelerate until arriving on the abeam bearing, then raise the nose and reduce power to maintain 300 KIAS. Lead Wingman Figure 6: CRUISE TURN AWAY FROM WINGMAN Page 15 Tactical Formation Flight Procedures Check Turns The lead initiates the turn (Figure 7) by calling, [Call sign], check left/right [# of degrees]. The turn may be 30 degrees or less. The wingman acknowledges, [Two]. Both members of the section immediately turn to the new heading, with the wingman correcting to maintain combat spread position. SHACKLE TURNS Shackle turns cross the wingman from one side of combat spread to the other or redress the flight in an expedient manner (Figure 8). The lead initiates the turn by calling, [Call sign], shackle [heading]. The wingman acknowledges with [Two]. Ideally, both aircraft turn into each other at 14 units. If the maneuver is begun in proper combat spread position, both the lead and wingman will conduct about a 45-degree turn prior to the reversal. If the wingman is sucked at the beginning of the maneuver, he should use less pull and less turn prior to the reversal. If the wingman is acute prior to the maneuver, he should use a harder pull toward the lead in an attempt to pull more than 45 degrees prior to the reversal. The subsequent turn out of the reversal should be adjusted so that the wingman rolls out in proper combat spread. The lead may have the flight shackle about the original heading or up to about 30degrees off the original heading. The wingman should adjust his pull and time his reversal accordingly to arrive out of the turn in combat spread on the heading called for by the lead. ENGAGING TURNS Engaging turns maneuver the section to engage a bandit who is not an immediate threat. Therefore, they are energy-sustaining turns. In an actual combat arena, these turns are normally called by the first aircraft (tactical lead) with the tally. However, in the CNATRA environment, they will be called by the lead. There are three types of engaging turns: tactical (Tac) (11-98) Original Lead Wingman Figure 7: CHECK TURN Figure 8: SHACKLE TURN Page 16 Tactical Formation Flight Procedures (11-98) Original (Figure9), in-place (Figures 10 and 11), and cross (Figure 13). A Tac turn maneuvers the section 90 degrees; in-place and cross turns maneuver the section 180 degrees. If the bandit/threat is abeam the section, use a Tac turn. If the bandit/threat is behind the section, use a cross turn. When the bandit/threat is behind and offset to one side of the section, use an in-place turn. Tac Turn The lead initiates the turn by calling, [Call sign], Tac right/left. The wingman acknowledges, [Two]. The mechanics of this turn are not dependent on actual lead or wingman position but rather inside and outside position relative to the direction of turn (Figure 9). The outside man (i.e., the aircraft farthest from the direction of the turn) will go to MRT and execute a 14-unit AOA turn, using approximately 70 degrees AOB, tracking the nose of his aircraft on or slightly below the horizon to maintain 300 KIAS. Upon completing the 90-degree turn, he reduces power to maintain 300 KIAS. Check the inside mans six and call, Six clear. The inside man will wait until the outside man is nose on. He then goes to MRT, starts his engaging turn of 14 units AOA, and maintains 300 KIAS. When he regains sight of the outside man, he will check his six and call, Visual, six clear. Outside-man Inside-man In-place Turns An in-place turn may be into or away from the wingman. During the in-place turn away, the wingman keeps sight of the lead aircraft and adjusts his position with AOB and g accordingly. During the in- place turn into, the wingman will lose sight of the lead and must adjust for combat spread after reacquiring. Away from the Wingman The lead initiates the turn by calling, [Call sign], in-place right/left. The wingman acknowledges, [Call sign]. Both lead and wingman then go to MRT and begin engaging (energy-sustaining) turns of 180 degrees while maintaining 300 KIAS, 14 units AOA, and approximately 70 degrees AOB Figure 9: TAC TURN Page 17 Tactical Formation Flight Procedures (Figure 10). The wingman continues the turn by varying AOB and g based upon the leads turn. After 90 degrees, the wingman will check the leads six and call, Six clear. When the lead reac- quires the wingman visually, he checks the wingmans six and calls, Visual, six clear. The wingman then continues to maneuver for combat spread. Remember to make corrections for positional deviation after the first 90 degrees of turn. Failure to correct then causes you to end up out of position. (11-98) Original Into the Wingman The lead initiates the turn by calling, [Call sign], in-place right/left. The wingman acknowledges, [Two]. Both lead and wingman go to MRT and begin engaging (energy-sustaining) turns of 180degrees while maintaining 300 KIAS, 14 units AOA, and approximately 70 degrees AOB (Figure11). Lead Wingman Figure 10: IN-PLACE TURN AWAY FROM WINGMAN Lead Wingman Figure 11: IN-PLACE TURN INTO WINGMAN Page 18 Tactical Formation Flight Procedures (11-98) Original The wingman loses sight of the lead aircraft, but continues the turn by maintaining airspeed and AOA. After 90 degrees, the lead will check the wingmans six and call, Six clear. Upon regaining sight of the lead, the wingman checks his six and calls, Visual, six clear. The wingman then continues to maneuver to combat spread, maintaining 300 KIAS. Make corrections after reacquiring the lead at approximately 135 degrees of turn. Failure to correct causes you to end up out of position. The wingman should constantly use an inside/outside scan in order to maintain position. Cross Turn The lead initiates the turn by calling, [Flights call sign], cross turn; [leads call sign] high/low. (In the CNATRA scenario, the lead usually goes low.) The wingman acknowledges, [Call sign, high/ low]. The high man immediately goes to MRT and turns in the low mans direction at 17units (Figure 12). The pilot going low goes to MRT and executes a 17-unit AOA, at 300 KIAS, and a 70- degree AOB turn in the high mans direction with the nose tracking on or slightly below the horizon. After 90 degrees of turn, he checks the high mans six and calls, Six clear. As the high man approaches 90 degrees of turn with approximately 1,000 ft of vertical separation, he checks the low mans six and calls, Six clear. After the cross, the wingman pulls beyond the new reciprocal heading, taking a 10-30 degree cut into the lead to arrive back in combat spread at 300KIAS. Aircraft separation is achieved by the 1,000 ft of stepup maintained by the wingman. Lead Wingman Figure 12: CROSS TURN Page 19 Tactical Formation Flight Procedures MANEUVERING TURNS The three types of maneuvering turnsengaging, hard, and breakare executed during engage- ments with the enemy. Engaging Turn (Energy-Sustaining) Executed at MRT, 14 units AOA, and slightly nose-low, the engaging turn allows the pilot to maintain his energy package while maneuvering for an engagement. Engaging turns employ an efficient turn rate and radius and may include trading altitude for airspeed. Engaging turns are employed when the pilot detects the bandit outside the bandits weapons range. Hard Turn Executed at MRT and 17 units, the hard turn compromises between turn rate increase and energy bleed-off. Use it defensively when the bandit becomes a threat and offensively to obtain a firing solution. Break Turn The break turn is a maximum-g, defensive turn executed at MRT and 19-21 units AOA. Designed to defeat an employed weapon or to destroy a bandits firing solution by forcing an overshoot. It results in maximum instantaneous turn rate with maximum lift, but rapid energy bleed-off. LOOSE DEUCE EXERCISE This training command exercise (Figure 13) teaches you to talk and fly at the same time in a structured tactical sequence. It is practiced with two aircraft maneuvering against a simulated bandit. You establish engaged and free fighter roles, maneuver through the positions associated with those roles, swap roles, and practice tactical communications to develop proficiency at preserv- ing energy and communicating effectively during basic tactical maneuvers. START The loose deuce exercise starts with the section in combat spread when the lead spots a simulated bandit and calls out a tally report of an imminent threat, thus setting the stage for the wingman to react (Figure 13). The lead calls for the wingman to turn into the bandit to avoid a shot by the banditfor example, Murph, hard right. The lead follows the initial movement call with position of the banditBandit, right, four high. You, as the wingman, simultaneously execute the turn and respond to leads call with your call sign, bandit in sight, and role definitionMurphs tally, Im engaged. The lead calls back confirmation of his role, Torchs free. Now that the tactical roles of engaged and free fighter are identified, the formal roles of lead and wingman are dropped during the engagement. Although the engaged fighter (wingman) has a tally, the free fighter (lead) is better positioned to direct the fight and calls the initial bandit overshoot. Once the engaged fighter has turned hard into the threat, the bandit overshoots and reverses to neutralize the attack of the free fighter. The free fighter becomes the new engaged fighter (lead) when he calls: directive action, bandit information, role change, position, and the bandit position in relation to himselffor example, Reverse, bandit overshot, Im engaged at your left seven, bandits on my nose 1/2 mile. At this time, the new free fighter (wingman) reverses to get a tally on the bandit and a visual on the engaged fighter who is in a turn away, low and inside. Now that you are the free fighter, acknowledge sight of both aircraft, and identify your role by calling, Tally, visual, Im free. You now move into a high-cover position approximately 2,000 ft behind the engaged fighter outside his turn with approximately 2,000 ft of vertical separation. (11-98) Original Page 20 Tactical Formation Flight Procedures (11-98) Original Torch (Lead) Murph Bandit "Murph, reverse, bandit overshot." "Torch is engaged at your left 9, low. Bandit on my nose, 1/2 mile." "Murph, hard right, bandit right 4, high." "Torchs free." "Murphs tally, Im engaged." "Tally visual, Murphs free." Figure 13: LOOSE DEUCE EXERCISE Page 21 Tactical Formation Flight Procedures HIGH COVER The engaged fighter reduces power to approximately 92% and continues his turn. Since your (free fighter) turn is now outside the engaged fighter, the necessary nose-to-tail separation should quickly develop. Maintain power at MRT and adjust the nose as necessary to slide into high cover. Three problems may arise shortly after the reversal: 1) nose-to-tail separation does not adequately develop, 2) you drift into and on top of the engaged fighter, or 3) you maintain high cover too long generating too much nose-to-tail separation. Correct by momentarily rolling wings level to place your back outside his turn. High cover is an offensive free fighter position. To maintain high cover and preserve your vertical separation, reduce AOB as necessary to hold up the nose. Remain outside the engaged fighters turn by reducing AOB until proper nose-to-tail separation develops. Adjust your radius of turn to maintain position as necessary. LOW COVER The free fighter flies to low cover when called on to engage or whenever he needs to close nose-to- tail distance. The low-cover position is inside the engaged fighters turn at 4 or 8 oclock, but no closer than 500-ft nose-to-tail separation. As the free fighter, you may be called on to engage at any time during the transition from high-to-low cover. Once you have reached approximately 2,000 ft nose-to-tail, overbank the aircraft down and inside the engaged fighters turn, smoothly pulling your nose in front of the engaged fighter (lead pursuit). You will close on the engaged fighter and be in position to assume the role of engaged fighter, if necessary. When transitioning from high-to-low or low-to-high cover, transmit your intentions and check the engaged fighters sixfor example, Murphs high cover, going low, your six is clear. Do not allow too much closure to develop through an excessive lead pursuit angle or increased airspeed (50 kts overtake maximum). High closure may force you to make a hard, energy-bleeding roll away to avoid an overshoot. Recognize closure early. It is always better to roll away too soon, rather than too late. You can successfully transition from high-to-low or low-to-high cover by smoothly controlling pitch and roll rate. Be fluid, not erratic. At this point in the exercise, you have three options: 1) Return to high cover when nose-to-tail distance is inside 1,000 ft. Example: Free fighter: Murphs low cover, going high, your six is clear. 2) Engage at the engaged fighters request. Example: Engaged fighter: My guns are jammed, can you engage? Free fighter: Roger, Murphs in. Engaged fighter: Torchs off. New engaged fighter: Murphs engaged at your left nine low, bandits on my nose, 1/2 mile. New free fighter: Tally, visual, Torchs free. 3) Remain in low cover because nose-to-tail distance is greater than 1,000 ft. (11-98) Original Page 22 Tactical Formation Flight Procedures (11-98) Original RETURN TO HIGH COVER If not engaging, continue until reaching approximately 1,000 ft of nose-to-tail. Ensure that you pass no closer than 500 ft to the engaged fighter. Reduce AOB and increase back stick in order to fly outside and above the engaged fighters turn. Be careful not to fly through the engaged fighters jet wash and, as always, maintain sight of the engaged fighter. Continue above and outside the engaged fighters turn until nose-to-tail distance matches that of the high-cover position. ENGAGE The free fighter should always be in position to engage from either high or low cover. As the free fighter assumes the engaged role, he continues to pull inside the engaged fighter to acquire appro- priate lead on the bandit. The engaged fighter relinquishes his role as he calls Off, rolls wings level, and pulls noseup. The new engaged fighter winds up below and inside the new free fighter as he continues moving into a high-cover position. The fighter who is engaging is responsible for safe separation. The free fighter is tasked with the overall responsibility for maintaining separation, keeping sight and preserving the 500-ft bubble while either changing roles or transitioning from low/high cover. The free fighter will never engage from forward of the 4/8 position of the engaged fighter because of the midair potential. Both fighters are responsible for avoiding midair collisions. Although the engaged fighter cannot always maintain visual contact, he must attempt to keep the free fighter in sight as much as possible. REVERSALS The engaged fighter may call a bandit reversal anytime during the exercise by saying, Bandits reversed, and the free fighter must maneuver his aircraft to stay in a cover position. High Cover The free fighter may use two maneuvers when reacting to the engaged fighters (bandit) reversals, 1)the displacement roll reversal, or 2)the basic reversal. Select the appropriate maneuver based on your capability to keep sight and to maintain vertical and lateral separation. Displacement Roll Reversal When the engaged fighter reverses, reduce your AOB and raise the nose. Canopy roll to the outside of the engaged fighters new turn and remain in high cover. Maintaining sight of the engaged fighter is the primary advantage of this reversal. Basic Reversal As the engaged fighter crosses your nose, reverse to maintain the high-cover position. Momentarily losing sight of the engaged fighter under your nose is the disadvantage of this maneuver. Low Cover When you hear the bandits reversed call from the engaged fighter, you reverse and either 1) pull inside the engaged fighters turn and slide back into low cover or 2) move into high cover with the appropriate voice call. VARIATIONS As you progress through the TacForm syllabus and become more proficient, your instructor will vary the sequence of maneuvers. You will trade engaged and free fighter roles often during the loose deuce exercise. Be prepared to react to a dynamic situation. Page 23 Tactical Formation Flight Procedures GUNSIGHT TRACKING - HUD Tracking a maneuvering target for a gun shot involves solving the complex geometry of g, gravity, and range while flying your aircraft to the edge of the envelope. The HUD (Figure 14) will help you achieve a gun firing solution by combining essential flight-performance and aiming information on the pilots display unit (PDU) as you keep your eyes on the bandit. The submode identifier appears on the right side of the display below the radar altitude and indicates the submode: lead angle comput- ing (LAC) or real time gunsight (RTGS). (11-98) Original Fwd Cockpit VIDEO RECORDER SWITCH DATA ENTRY PANEL ARMAMENT CONTROL PANEL PILOTS DISPLAY UNIT GUN A/A A/G ROCKETS BOMBS OFF L STA R STA L STA R STA ARM READY GUN ARM GUN SAFE MASTER ARM VCR AUTO OFF ON ON OFF BRT AUTO DAY 1 N 2 3 W 4 5 E 6 S 8 + 9 DCL ENT 0 CLR DATA MODE 7 - + SET DEP - BARO SET Figure 14: HUD CONTROLS/INDICATORS Page 24 Tactical Formation (11-98) Original Air-to-Air Data Entry During preflight, after you have completed the interactive BIT and entered the altimeter and field height (Figure 15), set the weapons selector to GUN A/A for the air-to-air guns master mode of the HUD. The air-to-air display initially appears in the lead angle computing (LAC) submode. Select the real-time gunsight (RTGS) submode by depressing the MODE button on the HUD data entry panel (DEP). To verify the target wingspan setting, depress the DATA key. The scratch pad area displays the default wingspan of 31 ft, the T-45A wingspan. Press ENT to accept this value or enter a new value for the wingspan of the bandit and then press ENT. After completing the air- to-air data entry, set the weapons selector to OFF in order to return the HUD to the navigation mode for the flight to the operating area. Once in the operating area, place the weapons selector to GUN A/A, press the GUN select switch, and place the VCR switch in ON or AUTO, as briefed. HUD Air-to-Air Symbology In the air-to-air mode, the aircraft symbol is displayed on the waterline, and heading, true airspeed, and bank angle indicators are not displayed. Because you are maneuvering in relation to the other aircraft, heading and specific bank angle are unimportant; the pitch bars will still be displayed and you can use them as a bank angle reference. The selected submode is indicated by LAC or RTGS displayed just above GUN on the right center of the PDU. An X over GUN indicates that the master armament switch on the weapons selector panel is set to SAFE. The X is removed when the master armament switch is set to ARM. The wingspan setting you entered sets the diameter of the reticle in both LAC or RTGS. With the bandits wingspan set, the reticle can be used to estimate range. At 1,000 ft, the bandits wings fill the inside diameter of the reticle. The center of the A/A aiming reticle, the pipper, indicates the computed impact point. Each submode computes the impact point differently. The reticle flashes if it reaches the edge of your field of view. In LAC, the pipper indicates the impact point of the round at 1,000ft, but you need to track the target for at least 1 second to get a valid aiming solution. Therefore, LAC is used for a mildly maneuvering target. Enter New Value Press DATA Press ENT Press ENT Previous Wingspan Displays Select A/A GUN Figure 15: AIR-TO-AIR DATUM ENTRY SEQUENCE Flight Procedures Page 25 Tactical Formation In RTGS, the pipper indicates the instantaneous impact point of the round at 1,000 ft. Since it will take 1/3 of a second for the round to travel 1,000 ft, you need to place the pipper ahead of your targets flight path to account for the rounds time of flight. At 400KIAS, the bandit travels 222 ft in 1/3 of a second. So, with 30 degrees angle off, place the pipper about the inner diameter of the reticle ahead of the aircraft. RTGS is used for a hard-maneuvering target. The technique for using the HUD is basically a matter of experience. As you maneuver your aircraft, the reticle will move on the PDU as it compensates for g and yaw. For this reason, the more smoothly you maneuver your aircraft while tracking, the more accurate the aiming solution. During hard maneuvering, the reticle may peg to the side of the PDU and begin to flash. At this point, the aiming solution is invalid, and you should continue to maneuver to place the bandit on your nose. When the reticle stops flashing, the aiming solution is accurate. Declutter The declutter function works the same in the air-to-air mode as in the navigation mode. Declutter One removes AOA, Mach number, and g from the display. Because heading and AOB are not displayed in air-to-air mode, selecting Declutter Two will not change the display. Using declutter in TacForm is not practical, because you will lose AOA and g from the HUD display. HUD Failures (A/A mode) HUD failures are almost always identified by a loss of symbology. Do not assume, however, that a failure exists until you are certain that declutter has not been selected and that data is not out of limits. In A/A gun, declutter 1 removes angle of attack, Mach number, and g-load from the PDU. Missing symbology because of data that is out of limits due to rapid roll rates or rapid g-load transitions will return as soon as your flight parameters stabilize. If you get a HUD failure on the ground or in transit to/from the MOA, cycle the power to the HUD to see if it clears the failure. If cycling the power does not clear the problem, you have confirmed the failure. Follow CNATRA policy for your flight to determine if you can still fly. If the reticle disappears during gunsight tracking and will not reappear after cycling the power to the HUD, push the MODE key to switch the submode to RTGS. If this does not produce a usable reticle, continue tracking using guidance or demonstrations from the back seat. The rear cockpit is equipped with a conventional sight and will not be affected by a HUD failure. Coordinate with your instructor to select other HUD submodes that may produce a usable reticle. Sealed Video Module The sealed video module records the view through the HUD. The entire module is placed in the VCR receptacle located in the aft cockpit, right console, and is secured by placing the locking bar in the LOCKED position. In the RECORD position, the VCR begins recording shortly after power is applied to the aircraft. With the aft cockpit VCR switch in STBY or OFF, the forward cockpit VCR switch controls VCR operation. The forward cockpit VCR switch has three positions: (1) ON, VCR starts recording; (2) OFF, the aft cockpit controls VCR operation; (3) AUTO, VCR starts recording when the master armament switch is set to ARM. GUNSIGHT TRACKING EXERCISE This will be your first opportunity to maneuver your jet into a weapons envelope and engage a noncooperative bandit (your lead). It is also an excellent opportunity to introduce the concepts that you will need to master as a fighter pilot. (11-98) Original Flight Procedures Page 26 Tactical Formation (11-98) Original The exercise begins with the fighter (thats you) on a 45-degree offensive perch, at 300 KIAS, with 1,000 ft of stepup on the bandit. When you have announced that you are speed and angels (aircraft airspeed and altitude is established), the bandit will clear you in. Now what? If you have familiarized yourself with the CNATRA missile parameters, youll realize an immediate shot opportunity exists once you bring your nose to bear. Take it! Aggressively dig to put the waterline on the bandit and shoot him! Since the bandit is unlikely to sit there and take the shot without some type of defensive counter, we can assume that he will survive this shot. What next? It is here that we need to define the control zone. This is a cone running from approximately 2,000ft aft and 20 degrees either side of the bandits flight path to 4,000 ft aft and 40 degrees either side. It is comprised of many little control points defined as one turn radius aft of a max-performing bandit (the length of the radius varies with airspeed giving us multiple points). Ill let you in on a secret. If you can manage to establish yourself inside this control zone with fuselage alignment, there is very little the bandit can do to shake you. In fact, once you have established yourself here, driving into a gunsight tracking solution is easy. But unless your bandit is a grape of the feeblest kind, you have to get to his control zone before you can track him steady state. Pursuit If youll recall, there are essentially three types of pursuit curves: lead, pure and lag. The intelligent use of these pursuit curves (along with a willingness to max perform your airplane) that allows you to reach 1,000 ft in trail of the bandit sending a steady stream of tracers up his can. As long as there are angles between you and the bandit, closure will be determined by the pursuit curve you choose. Your nose position will define the pursuit when in the same plane-of-motion (POM) as the bandit, and your lift vector will perform the same function when in different POM. Given the set, you know that youre pretty close to the bandits control zone, but youre not there yet. You must perform some type of lag pursuit maneuver to get there. If you put your nose on or pull lead pursuit on this break-turning bandit immediately following the Fox-2, you will probably get a shot, but it will not be a tracking shot. However, holding the nose on initially is not a bad idea. It allows you to assess the quality of his break turn and forces him to move his lift vector off of you for as long as you are attempting to gun him (therefore, limiting the angles being developed). The range at which you move to lag pursuit should be early enough to allow for entry into the control zone with tactical airspeed. Well touch on this a little bit more in a second. If youll refer to your gun envelope, it becomes apparent that the longer you pull lead or hold the nose on, the more aggravated the angles become. At anything inside 2,000 ft, what youre more likely to see is a fleeting snapshot. While youre holding the pipper on the bandit, salivating at the prospect of real cool HUD footage to show your friends, the bandit is generating angles. If he brings you into minimum range (1,000 ft), there is no lag maneuver known to man that will prevent your T-45A from overshooting the bandit. In case you werent already aware, in-close, high track-crossing rate (TCR) overshoots are bad. At best, you lost the opportunity for any follow-on shots. At worst, you still have the opportunity for follow-on shotsbut it will be the bandit taking them. Lets go back to your initial lag maneuver and put you back where you belongaggressively driving to that bandits control zone. The lag maneuver you choose should be one that preserves your Flight Procedures Page 27 Tactical Formation airspeed. This can be either a momentary unload followed by a max-performance pull to lead or pure, or a simple relaxation of the pull to eat up the lateral separation while preserving no less than 300 KIAS. If a second missile shot presents itself, take it. If you misjudged to pull to lead pursuit and overshot the control zone, or if you just cant manage the turn rate needed to bring the nose to bear, attempt a low yo-yo. Low Yo-Yo Pull the nose down toward the inside of the bandits turn and position it well in front of the bandit (lead pursuitFigure 16). Upon approaching the desired weapons range, work the nose back up toward the bandit, avoiding heavy buffet. As you close on the bandit, determine if the bandit is within your weapons parameters. At this point, either fire the selected weapon or continue maneuvering to the weapons envelope. Should you generate excessive closure, use a high yo-yo to stop closure and maintain nose-to-tail separation. (11-98) Original 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 1 2 2 3 3 Attacker Defender Figure 16: LOW YO-YO Flight Procedures Page 28 Tactical Formation (11-98) Original High Yo-Yo The high yo-yo is a lag pursuit maneuver designed to reduce angle off and closure rate (Figure17). It is used to prevent an in-close/low-to-medium angle off overshoot and to control nose-to-tail separation. The out-of-plane maneuvering places the velocity vector of the fighter above the plane of attack against the bandit and exchanges airspeed for altitude. The combination of the out-of- plane maneuvering and the slower airspeed allows you to turn with a smaller horizontal radius while aligning fuselages and reducing angle off the bandit. Slowing down also reduces your closure rate, allowing you to maintain or increase nose-to-tail. Start the high yo-yo when you recognize excessive closure or potential overshoot. Quarter roll away from the bandits maneuvering plane and pull the aircraft nose up. As you pull above the bandits plane of maneuvering, you should be slowing sufficiently to stay inside the bandits turn. If it becomes obvious that you will not be able to stay inside the bandits turn, maintain the pullup until the bandits relative speed advantage results in increased nose-to-tail separation allowing you sufficient separation to come down. As angle off decreases and you acquire appropriate nose-to- tail distance, roll the aircraft back toward inside the turn. Overbank, pull the nose through the horizon to the appropriate pursuit. A low-angle overshoot at range is far better than a high angle overshoot in-close. One other lag maneuver that can help displace lateral separation is the displacement roll (Figure 18). For this to be a valid option, your fuselage should be very nearly aligned with the bandits. As you recognize excessive closure, attempt to align fuselages on the inside of the bandits turn. Raise the nose above the bandits aircraft. Roll away from the turn toward the bandits six, varying g as necessary to displace your flight path. Use rudder to maintain fuselage alignment. Control 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 1 2 3 2 3 Attacker Defender Figure 17: HIGH YO-YO Flight Procedures Page 29 Tactical Formation the rate of roll and heading differential in order to arrive in range with lead pursuit. Use either a slow roll rate to increase nose-to-tail distance or a rapid roll rate to maintain nose-to-tail. 1 1 2 3 2 3 Attacker Defender 1 1 2 2 3 3 Figure 18: DISPLACEMENT ROLL Normally, a high yo-yo is a much better tactic to prevent in-close overshoots and an unload or relaxed pull works better at range. If youve executed the initial maneuver well, youll arrive at the control zone with a turn rate advantage. You can now close to guns through a combination of excess airspeed and lead pursuit. Angles that develop should be easily controllable with either a momentary power reduction or a mild lag maneuver. Now you may track the bandit at will. Tracking As you approach 1,000 ft nose-to-tail separation, the targets wingspan should begin to fill the inner area of the aiming reticle. Place the pipper over the target and hold it there for at least one second prior to firing. This allows the reticle to stabilize on the target. After stabilizing, the pipper will have compensated for the lead required due to g and time of flight at 1,000 ft (pilot reaction time is not compensated for by the HUD). Smooth g application is paramount for a valid tracking solution. Maintain 1,000 ft nose-to-tail with power/speed brakes as necessary. When youre established in the gun envelope, place the pipper on the bandit, pull the trigger, and call Pippers on, tracking. Call Pippers off when you stop tracking, or whenever the reticle is off the target. Be aware that the bandit will attempt to get out of your POM and destroy your tracking solution by trading whatever airspeed he has for angles. If you do nothing to control the closure (reset your power!), you will fly out in front of him. A lag maneuver will probably not help you here because the savvy bandit will simply oppose your nose, further aggravating the angles. When youre inside the control zone, do not become complacent until the bandit no longer breathes! At track gun ranges, hes got options. Good luck. Were all counting on you. (11-98) Original Flight Procedures Page 30 Tactical Formation (11-98) Original NOTES Flight Procedures Page 31 Tactical Formation SAFETY/EMERGENCY SITUATIONS Always remember that safety is paramount. As you move further into the tactical phase of flight training, the potential for an incident increases significantly. If, however, you think only about being safe, you will never achieve the level of proficiency necessary to be a competent tactical aviator. Safety is the natural and number one by-product of operational proficiency. Complete knowledge, thorough preparation, and continuous practice are the keys to achieving operational proficiency. The following specific areas will go a long way in making you a safe and effective tactical jet pilot. RELATIVE MOTION/EXCESSIVE CLOSURE All midair collisions are a result of pilots failing to recognize constant bearing and decreasing range until it is too late to take evasive action. Up until now, all your flying in close proximity to other aircraft has been static, and rates of change have always been tightly controlled. This will not be the case in the rest of your tactical flying. SPATIAL AWARENESS Spatial awareness is the ability to project the flight paths of your aircraft and other aircraft in relation to each other. By developing spatial awareness and fully understanding your aircrafts capabilities, you will prevent midair collisions. GOOD START As you learned in CQ, if you arent in good position at the abeam, the chances are by the time you get to the ramp you are not in a good position to land. Similarly, in TacForm, near misses are often caused by the wingman being out of position at the start of the maneuver. Strive to be in position at all times. LOST SIGHT/LOOKOUT In order to minimize the potential for a midair collision, especially in the air-to-air phase, you must keep your head on a swivel. Learn to take quick glances into the cockpit to get the information you want and then to look back outside immediately. Any aircraft that loses sight for more than an instant must transmit Lost sight. The other aircraft will provide descriptive/directive commentary to help the lost-sight aircraft reacquire sight. If this is unsuccessful, the instructor will call, Knock it off. AIRCRAFT LIMITATIONS All aircraft have specific structural/aerodynamic limitations. If you do not heed these limitations, you could damage the aircraft. It is mandatory that you know all the aircraft limitations and procedures. (11-98) Original Safety/Emergency Situations Page 32 Tactical Formation (11-98) Original NOTES Safety/Emergency Situations Page 33 Tactical Formation SELF-TEST BACKGROUNDLOOSE DEUCE, COMBAT SPREAD 1. What is the purpose of combat spread? ANSWER: To provide mutual support 2. What is the wingmans position in combat spread? ANSWER: 3/4 to 1 nm abeam the lead with 1,000 ft of vertical separation 3. What are the wingmans responsibilities in combat spread? ANSWER: Maneuver the aircraft to maintain combat spread and employ proper lookout, communications, and flight safety. 4. What are the leads responsibilities in combat spread? ANSWER: Maneuver the section in a tactical environment, optimizing the sections capabili- ties while carrying out specific flight objectives, navigating, and ensuring flight safety. BACKGROUNDLOOSE DEUCE, LOOKOUT DOCTRINE 5. While in combat spread, the primary lookout for the _________ is from 30 degrees outside the formation sweeping through the formation to the aft visual limit. ANSWER: lead and wingman BACKGROUNDENGAGED/FREE FIGHTER ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 6. What are the significant differences between engaged and free fighter responsibilities? ANSWER: The free fighter also has the responsibility of: a. keeping the engaged fighter in sight. b. clearing the engaged fighters six. c. coordinating movement with the engaged fighter for a shot. d. keeping or regaining a high-energy state. BACKGROUNDOPERATIONAL MANEUVERABILITY 7. For two aircraft at a given TAS, the aircraft that can sustain the most g will have the ______ turn radius and the ______ turn rate. ANSWER: smallest, greatest FLIGHT PROCEDURESTRANSITIONING FROM CLOSE FORMATION TO COMBAT SPREAD 8. As you take a cut to combat spread, how will AOB affect your position? ANSWER: Too much AOB (leading to too much heading differential) will cause you to go sucked; conversely, too little AOB will cause you to go acute. Self-Test (11-98) Original Page 34 Tactical Formation (11-98) Original FLIGHT PROCEDURESCOMBAT SPREAD TURNS, CRUISE TURNS 9. Why would you assume a turn away if you did not see/recognize the wing flash? ANSWER: The section would become separated and the wingman might lose sight, making it more difficult to join-up again. 10. If you find yourself in a sucked position and the lead initiates a cruise turn in your direction, what is your initial action? ANSWER: Use more AOB than normal and lower the nose to increase airspeed. 11. If you find yourself in a sucked position and the lead initiates a cruise turn away from you, what is your initial action? ANSWER: Use less AOB than normal and lower the nose to increase airspeed. 12. At the end of a check turn, what should the wingman do? ANSWER: Maneuver as necessary to combat spread. FLIGHT PROCEDURESCOMBAT SPREAD TURNS, ENGAGING TURNS 13. Why do you think we use engaging turns instead of cruise turns? ANSWER: Engaging turns are used to maintain energy and aggressively maneuver the section. 14. When, if at all, will the wingman lose sight of the lead during an in-place turn away from the wingman? ANSWER: After 135 degrees of turn 15. As the inside man in a TAC turn, when do you advance to MRT and start your engaging turn of 14 units? ANSWER: When the outside man approaches nose on 16. When does the wingman regain sight of the lead aircraft during an in-place turn into the wingman? ANSWER: After 135 degrees of turn 17. When does the high man overbank to pass nose low, inside the low mans turn with approxi- mately 1,000 ft of vertical separation? ANSWER: When approaching 90 degrees into the turn Self-Test Page 35 Tactical Formation FLIGHT PROCEDURESCOMBAT SPREAD TURNS, MANEUVERING TURNS 18. Which maneuvering turn has an energy efficient turn rate and radius? ANSWER: Engaging turn FLIGHT PROCEDURESLOOSE DEUCE EXERCISE 19. Describe a tactical application of lead, lag and pure pursuit in the loose deuce exercise. ANSWER: Several tactical uses may be acceptable based upon lesson content, instructor examples or student deductions. The attacking aircrafts nose position in relation to the bandit must be included in each answer. 20. How does voice comm during the initial move of the loose deuce exercise demonstrate priority directive/descriptive voice communication procedures for loose deuce maneuvering? ANSWER: Hard right is a directive voice call emphasizing immediate movement for a member of the section, therefore the priority. Bandit, right 4 high, is an example of descriptive voice comm which is secondary to immediate movement. Additional voice comm during the initial move sequence either directs or describes action as necessary. 21. What are the significant differences in maintaining the high- or low-cover position? ANSWER: In high cover, the free fighter flies outside the engaged fighters turn while main- taining approximately 2,000 ft of vertical separation and approximately 2,000-ft nose-to-tail. In low cover, the free fighter flies inside the engaged fighters turn with little or no vertical separation and a minimum of 500-ft nose-to-tail. FLIGHT PROCEDURESLOOSE DEUCE EXERCISE, HIGH COVER 22. While engaging from high cover, what happens if you pull too hard or aft of the engaged fighter? ANSWER: The aircraft nose becomes buried. FLIGHT PROCEDURESGUNSIGHT TRACKING, GUNSIGHT TRACKING EXERCISE 23. What are the significant differences between a FOX-2 and a guns tracking solution? ANSWER: Significant differences exist in: a. Range and angle off b. Pure pursuit is used for the missile shot c. Lead pursuit is used for the guns solution FLIGHT PROCEDURESGUNSIGHT TRACKING, HIGH YO-YO 24. Which maneuver is a form of lag pursuit used to control a high rate of closure to prevent an overshoot and reduces angles off? ANSWER: High yo-yo Self-Test (11-98) Original Page 36 Tactical Formation (11-98) Original FLIGHT PROCEDURESGUNSIGHT TRACKING, LOW YO-YO 25. Which maneuver decreases range and increases the rate of closure? ANSWER: Low yo-yo Self-Test Page 37 Tactical Formation APPENDIX A Study Resources for Tactical Formation: [A] T-45A NATOPS Flight Manual, A1-T45AB-NFM-000 [B] Tactical Formation Flight Training Instruction (FTI) [C] MIL lesson for Eng-02, and CAI lessons for ONFP-01, ONFP-02, and WepFP-01 TFFP-01: HUD, 0.7 hr, CAI Lesson Preparation: * [A] Review Part VIII, Chapter 22, Armament System * [C] Review Lesson Objectives: * Interpret HUD air-to-air symbology * Recall settings for air-to-air submodes * Recall procedure to enter air-to-air data * Identify failure of HUD air-to-air modes * Recall procedure for responding to a failure of the air-to-air modes TFFP-02: Introduction to Tactical FormationSection Turns, 1.5 hr, Classroom Lesson Preparation: * [A] Review Part IV, Flight Characteristics, Part V, Emergency Procedures, and Part VIII, Chapter 22, Armament System * [B] Read Lesson Objectives: * Describe the correct position and purpose of the combat spread formation * Describe the concept of mutual support in a tactical situation * Recall the responsibilities of the lead aircraft in combat spread * Recall the responsibilities of the wingman in combat spread * Describe the lookout responsibilities of lead and wingman * Recall procedures for cruise turns into wingman * Recall procedures for cruise turns away from wingman * Recall procedures for performing uncalled cruise turns into and away from wingman * Recall procedures/techniques for performing check turns * Recall the types and purposes of engaging turns * Recall procedures/techniques for performing tactical turns * Recall procedures/techniques for performing in-place turns * Recall procedures/techniques for performing cross turns (11-98) Original Appendix A Page 38 Tactical Formation (11-98) Original TFFP-03: Tactical Formation, 1.5 hr, Classroom Lesson Preparation: * [A] Review Part IV, Flight Characteristics, Part V, Emergency Procedures, and Part VIII, Chapter 22, Armament System * [B] Read Lesson Objectives: * Describe the relationship between AOA and airspeed to turn radius and rate * Describe various maneuvering turns from combat spread * Describe engaged fighter responsibilities * Recall free fighter responsibilities * Recall the tactical applications of lead pursuit * Recall the techniques for lead pursuit * State the tactical applications of lag pursuit * Recall the techniques for lag pursuit * Recall the tactical applications of pure pursuit * Recall the techniques for pure pursuit * Recall voice procedures for performing loose deuce exercise * Recall the techniques of an initial turn from combat spread to loose deuce exercise * Recall the techniques of maintaining high-cover position * Describe the low-cover position * Describe the procedure for going from low cover to high cover * Recall the procedure for engaging from high cover * Recall procedures and techniques for gunsight tracking * Describe the tactical use of high yo-yo maneuvering * Describe the procedures for performing high yo-yo maneuvering * Describe the tactical use of low yo-yo maneuvering * Describe the procedures for performing low yo-yo maneuvering * Recall the tactical use of the displacement roll * Recall procedures/techniques for performing a displacement roll Appendix A Page 39 Tactical Formation Glossary GLOSSARY A Angle Of Attack (AOA): The angle between the wing chord and the relative wind. Referred to as units rather than degrees because there is no zero reference. Angle Of Bank (AOB): The angle between the wing and the horizon, assuming no wing dihedral. Angle Off The Tail (AOT): Angle between defenders longitudinal axis and attackers line-of-sight. More simply, attackers position off defenders tail. Angels: Altitude of aircraft above mean sea level in thousands of ft. B Bandit: Air contact identified as hostile. Blind: I do not see lead/wingman/friendly. Bogey: Unidentified air contact. Boresight: Synonymous with nose of aircraft when tracking a target. Break Turn: Maximum rate turn (20 units AOA) executed to defeat an employed weapon. Buster: Fly at MRT. C Check Turns: Type of cruise turn that maneuvers the section 30 degrees or less. Combat Spread: Two-aircraft tactical formation designed for mutual support. Cross Turn: An engaging turn that maneuvers a section 180 degrees by turning lead and wingman into each other. Cruise Turn: Called or uncalled turns that maneuver a section 90 degrees, either into or away from the wingman. D Deck: Minimum altitude. Descriptive Comm: Radio calls of an informative nature used to build a mental picture. (11-98) Original Page 40 Tactical Formation (11-98) Original Directive Comm: Radio calls giving specific instructions to another aircraft. E Energy Package: The combination of the aircrafts altitude (potential energy) and airspeed (kinetic energy) making up the aircrafts total energy. Engaged Fighter: A fighter actively engaged in air-to-air combat with a bandit either offensively or defensively. F FOX-2: AIM-9 IR missile firing solution. Free Fighter: Fighter maneuvering to protect the engaged fighter and to obtain a clear shot at the bandit. G GUNS: Rear-quarter steady-state or snap guns firing solution. H Hard Turn: Compromise between maximum rate turn and energy-conserving turn (300 KIAS at 17units AOA). High Cover: An offensive position of the free fighter in loose deuce, high and outside the engaged fighters turn. HUD: Head-up display used in the T-45A for flight/weapons information. I In-place Turn: An engaging turn that maneuvers a section 180 degrees by turning lead and wingman in the same direction. K Knock It Off: Stop fight or current maneuvers. Glossary Page 41 Tactical Formation L LAC: Lead Angle Computing. Lag Pursuit: Nose of the attacking aircraft tracking behind the bandit. Lead Pursuit: Nose of the attacking aircraft tracking ahead of the bandit. Lift Vector: Imaginary line that runs perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. Line Of Sight (LOS): Bearing to bandit relative to fighter. Loose Deuce: Navy tactical doctrine for employment of a section of aircraft in air-to-air warfare. Low Cover: An offensive position of the free fighter in loose deuce low and inside the engaged fighters turn. M MRT: Maximum-rated thrust. N No Joy: I do not see the bandit. P P K : Probability of kill for a given weapon. Pad Lock: I have tally and cant take my eyes off bandit (for fear of losing contact due to visibility/ range, etc.). Pigeons: Magnetic bearing of and distance from home base (or unit indicated). Popeye: In clouds or area of reduced visibility. Pure Pursuit: Nose of the attacking aircraft tracking on the bandit. R Range: Linear distance between two aircraft stated in nautical miles (nm) or ft. RTGS: Real Time Gunsight (11-98) Original Glossary Page 42 Tactical Formation (11-98) Original S Section: A pair of fighter aircraft working together as a unit. Shackle: To redress the section by crossing member to other side, thus reassuming proper combat spread position. Six: Abbreviated reference to the 6 oclock position directly behind an aircraft. Spatial Awareness: Ability to project the flight paths of aircraft in relation to each other. T Tac Turn: An engaging turn that maneuvers a section 90 degrees in the direction of the bandit. Tally: Bandit visually sighted. Track Crossing Angle (TCA): Angular difference in velocity vectors at any instant. V Velocity Vector: Projected flight path of the aircraft at a given moment. Visual: Wingman in sight. W Weapons Envelope: Airspace around an aircraft within which an employed weapon has a high probability of destroying the aircraft. Defined in terms of weapon, angle off, and range. Glossary Page 43 Tactical Formation (11-98) Original Index INDEX A Air-to-air data entry ...................................... 23 Air-to-air symbology .............................. 24, 37 B Bandit .............................. 4, 6, 8, 15, 16, 19, 21-23, 25-29, 35, 39-42 Basic reversal ............................................... 22 Blind cone ........................................................ 4 Bogey ............................................................ 39 Break turn .............................................. 19, 39 C Called/uncalled cruise turns ........................ 12 Check turns ............................. 12, 15, 37, 39 Combat spread ........................ 1, 3, 4, 11-19, 33-35, 37-39, 42 Combat spread turns ..................... 12, 34, 35 Communication ................................ 6, 12, 35 Cross turn ....................................... 16, 18, 39 Cruise turns ............................. 12, 13, 34, 37 D Declutter ....................................................... 25 Displacement roll ............... 22, 23, 28, 29, 38 Displacement roll reversal ........................... 22 E Engaged fighter ................... 3, 6, 19, 21, 22, 33, 35, 38, 40, 41 Engaging turn (energy-sustaining ............... 19 Engaging turns ................. 12, 15, 19, 34, 37 F Fixed factors.................................................... 9 Free fighter .......................... 6, 19, 21-23, 33, 35, 38, 40, 41 G Gunsight tracking ........ 1, 23, 26, 35, 36, 38 H Hard turn.......................................... 19, 26, 40 High cover ........................ 21, 22, 35, 38, 40 High yo-yo........................... 23, 26-28, 35, 38 HUD ............................... 1, 23-26, 28, 37, 40 I In-place turns ........................................ 16, 37 L Lag pursuit ........................ 8, 26, 35, 38, 41 Lead pursuit .......... 8, 21, 28, 29, 35, 38, 41 Lead responsibilities ....................................... 3 Lookout doctrine................................... 3-5, 33 Loose deuce ........................ 1, 3, 19, 20, 23, 33, 35, 38, 40, 41 Loose deuce doctrine.................................... 1 Loose deuce exercise ...... 19, 20, 23, 35, 38 Loose deuce tactics ........................................ 1 Low cover ......................... 21, 22, 35, 38, 41 Low yo-yo ......................... 23, 27-29, 36, 38 M Maneuvering turns ......................... 19, 35, 38 Mutual blind area............................................. 4 Mutual support ...................... 3, 4, 33, 37, 39 O Operational maneuverability ................... 9, 33 P Primary lookout areas ..................................... 4 Pure pursuit ........................ 8, 26, 35, 38, 41 R Reversals........................................ 22, 23, 29 S Safety/emergency situations ....................... 31 Sealed video module.................................... 26 Secondary lookout areas .............................. 11 Shackle turns......................................... 12, 15 Spatial awareness ................................. 31, 42 T Training rules................................................... 3 V Variable factors ............................................... 9 VCR ...................................................... 23, 26 Page 44 Tactical Formation (11-98) Original Index W Weapons envelope .......................... 6, 28, 42 Wingman responsibilities ................................ 4 Page 45 Tactical Formation NOTES (11-98) Original Index Page 46 Tactical Formation NOTES (11-98) Original Index