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Narcissistic Personality Disorder:
Facing DSM-V
P
sychoanalytic theories and clini-
cal case studies of patients with
narcissistic character pathology
were most inuential in outlining the
conceptualization and description of the
narcissistic personality disorder (NPD)
when it was rst included as a diagnostic
category in the Diagnostic and Statistic
Manual of Mental Disorders, third edi-
tion, (DSM-III) in 1980. This was elo-
quently summarized by Salman Akhtar.
1

Inuences from other disciplines, (ie,
psychiatric and psychosocial research on
epidemiology and prototypical features),
as well as academic social psychological
inventory and laboratory studies of hu-
man behavior, have contributed additional
perspectives on pathological narcissism
and NPD. More recently, cognitive neu-
ropsychology and studies of infant and
child development have also added valu-
able information to our understanding of
the origins of pathological narcissism and
specic areas of narcissistic personality
functioning. Three recent reviews
2-4
have
Elsa Ronningstam, PhD

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Elsa Ronningstam, PhD, is Associate Clinical
Professor, Harvard Medical School, and Psychol-
ogist, McLean Hospital.
Address correspondence to: Elsa Ron-
ningstam, PhD, McLean Hospital, 115 Mill
Street, Belmont MA 02478; or e-mail ron-
ningstam@email.com.
Dr. Ronningstam has disclosed no relevant
nancial relationships.
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summarized available knowledge and
suggested new avenues toward improve-
ment in diagnosis and clinical conceptu-
alization of NPD.
Clinical accounts of the narcissistic
personality indicate a range of charac-
teristics and behaviors among these pa-
tients. Some match the typical expecta-
tion of a narcissistic personality (ie, being
boastful, assertive, and arrogant). Others
can initially appear friendly and tuned in,
but gradually become strikingly distant
and aloof. Some can be modest and unas-
suming with an air of grace. Still others
present as perpetual failures, while con-
stantly driven by unattainable, grandiose
aims. One can be shy and quiet, another
charming and talkative, yet another dom-
ineering, aggressive, and manipulative.
Absence of symptoms and experiences
of suffering can be a paradoxical blessing
for some people with NPD while others
are prone to depression, substance use,
mood swings, or eating disorder. Some
people effectively hide their narcissistic
aims, while others openly and bluntly ex-
hibit their most extreme narcissistic char-
acteristics. Nevertheless, the underlying
commonality is that they all struggle with
grandiosity, self-esteem uctuations,
limitations in their interpersonal relation-
ships, and intense emotional reactions to
threats to their self-experience.
Empirical studies have supported the
clinical observations that pathological
narcissism can be expressed in temporary
traits or in a stable, enduring personality
disorder. It can be identied as symp-
toms that to various degrees inuence
and limit interpersonal and/or vocation-
al functioning, or as context-determined
narcissistic reactions.
5,6
Independently
of level of severity, pathological narcis-
sism can either show as overt, striking
and obtrusive symptoms and function-
ing, or it can be internally concealed and
unnoticeable.
1,7
Narcissism can also take
malignant forms and co-occur with anti-
social behavior or psychopathy.
8,9
Currently, there is evidence within four
areas of relevance for NPD that can fur-
ther guide the discussion about the diag-
nosis of NPD and its delineating criteria.
Regulatory patterns in pathological nar-
cissism can be identied within a range
of narcissistic features. The range of
function, phenotype, changeability, and
empathy in NPD will be discussed and
integrated into reformulations of charac-
teristics that can represent, describe, and
help understand people with disordered
narcissism and NPD.
THE FUNCTIONAL RANGE
The variable prevalence rates of NPD
in different settings imply a functional
range in people given this diagnosis (see
Table 1). Several studies have indicated
functional impairment and mental dis-
ability, especially when co-occurring
with major Axis I disorders such as sub-
stance use and mood and anxiety disor-
ders.
10-12
A recent study, Wave 2 National
Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and
Related Conditions (NESARC),
13
found
a lifetime prevalence rate of 6% (7.7% for
men and 4.8% for women) in the general
population, with considerable psycho-
social disability, especially among men,
and co-occurring mood disorders (de-
pression, bipolar I disorder), anxiety
disorder, personality disorders, and sub-
stance use disorder.
On the other hand, the NPD diagno-
sis has more often been reported in out-
patient private practice and small clinics
as compared with the general population
and larger psychiatric settings. NPD has
also been diagnosed in non-psychiatric
professional settings such as the mili-
tary and medical school, indicating that
NPD does not necessarily cause nor is it
necessarily accompanied by impairment
in ability to work, or in social or daily
functioning. In other words, people with
NPD, contrary to most other personality
disorders, include both those who are
high-functioning who can be profession-
ally and socially successful, as well as
those with functional impairment, with
severely disabling narcissistic traits and
character functioning or accompanying
Axis I disorders.
There are several possible explana-
tions to the high functional ability in
people with NPD. One suggests that
they can appear stable stoic, rigorous,
and organized despite internal dysregu-
lation, hyperreactivity, and uctuations.
Their surface functioning and absence
of symptomatology, combined with in-
terpersonal distance and difculties with
self-disclosure, may support their internal
control and allow their internal suffering
to remain bypassed or hidden. Another
suggests that people with NPD cause dis-
tress, pain, and suffering in others while
they themselves are oblivious and do not
experience their own suffering. Those
without accompanying Axis I disorder
who also can avoid professional or per-
sonal failure may not experience psycho-
logical stress at all.
10
A third explanation relates to the range of
narcissism from healthy and extraordinary
to pathological and malignant.
14
Co-exis-
TABLE 1.
Prevalence of NPD
General population 0%-5.3%
86-90
Wave 2, NESARC lifetime prevalence 4.8%-7.7%
13
Clinical population 1.3%-17%
53,91-94
Forensic population 6%
95
Outpatient private practice 8.5%-20%
67,96,97
Military setting (NPD and NP traits) 20%
98, 99
Medical school, rst-year students 17%
100
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tence of and uctuations between healthy
and pathological aspects and functions of
narcissism are common. Narcissistic in-
dividuals may have strengths and abilities
in certain areas (ie, in their professional or
social lives), which can help sustain self-
esteem regulation and interpersonal func-
tioning, but still present with severe vulner-
abilities and narcissistic patterns in other
areas (eg, in their intimate relations, paren-
tal roles, or moral and ethical standards or
behavior). Working capacity (ie, the ability
for sustained- and evidence-based voca-
tional or creative activities maintained over
time and during phases of success as well
as when facing challenges and setbacks) is
a signicant indication of sustainable high-
er functioning in people with NPD. Ability
for temporary achievements and a history
of occasional or irregular accomplishments,
or a one-time top achievement under favor-
able circumstances, can indicate an actual
or potential capability that is hampered by
narcissistic uctuations or vulnerabilities.
In others, such eeting achievements can
be the results of temporary self-enhanc-
ing and self-serving behavior with little or
no accompanying capability or potential.
Such differences are noticeable in the fol-
lowing examples.
After graduating from college Ms. A
protested against her professionally ac-
complished and demanding parents by
working as a taxi driver. While driving
in the city, she observed the architec-
tural construction of several of the new
buildings. Increasingly fascinated by en-
visioning architectural novelties and by
the idea of herself as a designer of excep-
tional interiors and exteriors, she studied
architectural design on her own, formed
a team of artists and contractors, and im-
plemented her ideas in a few buildings.
After a period of successful collabora-
tion and production, her business ran
into nancial difculties. In the context
of being denied a bank loan, she barely
survived a serious suicide attempt.
Mr. P, a very smart, articulate, and
laid-back middle-aged man, told one of
his numerous psychotherapists about his
outstanding accomplishments. Convinc-
ingly outlining his passion from beauty
and design, he described a project he
had done in a residence owned by the
Dutch royal family and another owned
by a famous Hollywood lm director.
Further exploration revealed that at both
occasions he had been involved in ro-
mantic relationships with partners who
were designers and contracted to do these
projects, and that Mr. Ps role had been
to assist with certain tasks while the re-
lationships lasted. When confronted with
the discrepancies in his accounts, he re-
sumed to convincingly outline his inter-
est in architectural and artistic beauty by
showing photographs of the interiors of
exceptionally esthetic and artistically de-
signed buildings he had visited.
THE PHENOTYPIC RANGE
Several clinical accounts and studies
have suggested a two-cluster or two-fac-
tor structure indicating two phenotypes
of NPD. This was initially suggested by
Akhtar and Thomson
15
and further dis-
cussed and conrmed by several other
authors.
16-20
Empirical studies have also
supported such subtypes.
21-26
Despite their
descriptive variations, a phenotypic range
within different and opposite sets of nar-
cissistic personality traits is indicated: one
arrogant, overt, grandiose, assertive, and
aggressive, and another shy, covert, vul-
nerable, insecure, and shame-ridden. As
with the functional range, the individual
presentation can include traits and patterns
of both phenotypes (ie, the narcissistic in-
dividual may uctuate between assertive
grandiosity and vulnerability with shame-
driven aggressive reactions).
27
In the Psy-
chodynamic Diagnostic Manual (PDM)
28

the two subtypes of NPD, P104, are labeled
Arrogant/entitled and Depressed/depleted.
People with narcissistic withdrawal or neg-
ative narcissism as suggested by Green,
29

with a state of emptiness, nothingness, or
even chronic suicidality, may be included
in the latter category.
Outstanding for the Arrogant type is
the more striking predominant presenta-
tion, with openly featured expressions
of self-serving and enhancing behaviors
and attitudes in their more active and de-
liberate interactions with others. This is
in contrast to the inhibited, shame-rid-
den, and hypersensitive shy type, whose
low tolerance for attention from others
and hypervigilant readiness for criticism
or failure makes him/her more socially
passive, tuned in, and interpersonally
awaiting. Nevertheless, under a modest
surface, the shy narcissistic individual is
equally preoccupied with self-enhancing
fantasies and strivings and hyperreactive
to oversights or unfullled expectations
from others. Contrary to the Arrogant
type who has more compromised, incon-
sistent, or uctuating super-ego ranging
from perfectionism to temporary corrup-
tion/deceitfulness, the shy type suffers
from more strict conscience, harsh self-
criticism, and feelings of guilt.
A third and more outstanding presen-
tation includes narcissistic people within
the range of antisocial personality disor-
der, psychopathy, and malignant narcis-
sism,
8,30
characterized by aggression and
hostility, or by cruel, sadistic, and destruc-
tive criminal or violent behavior. Typi-
cally, such behavior serves to protect and
enhance the narcissistic individuals self-
esteem and can be driven by envy, entitle-
ment, vengefulness, or sadism, combined
with severely compromised empathic
functioning (ie, when empathic ability is
connected to exploitive ambitions).
FLUCTUATIONS AND
CHANGEABILITY
Fluctuation in narcissistic character
functioning, especially grandiosity, and
changeability both toward improvement
and worsening is the third area of studies
with relevance for the diagnosis of NPD.
A follow-up study showed overall im-
provement with less pathological narcis-
sistic traits and diagnosis after 3 years.
5
It
also suggested that grandiosity, the core
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trait and the most distinguishing and dif-
ferentiating characteristic for NPD, is re-
active and state-dependent. For instance,
it can be inuenced by brief depressive
reactions or depressive disorder causing a
more self-critical and humble attitude, or
by moving from late adolescence to adult-
hood with experiences of more realistic
achievements and interpersonal experi-
ences that stabilize self-esteem. Sudden
threats to self-esteem or to more favor-
able self-images can temporarily increase
defensive grandiose behavior, such as an-
ger and hostility.
31,32
Alternatively, such
threats can cause a loss of self-esteem
with shame and detachment.
33
A continu-
ous search for others afrmation of the
grandiose but vulnerable self is typical, as
is the use of interpersonal self-regulatory
strategies such as self-enhancing behav-
ior and blaming others for failures. On the
other hand, corrective life events, such as
achievements, relationships, and manage-
able disillusionments, can contribute to a
more realistic alignment of the self-es-
teem and of the evaluation of the persons
own capacity and potential.
5
In addition,
life events such as losses and narcissistic
injuries can also promote disengagement
from inhibitions and can lead to meaning-
ful engagements and self-representational
change in the context of achieving more
realistically anchored ego-ideals.
34
Depression and anxiety, not endem-
ic to NPD but resulting from problems,
failures, or realizations of their own
limitations, may also cause changes
in narcissistic individuals general
functioning.
10
Stress associated with
external experiences can escalate nar-
cissistic symptoms and functioning,
overwhelm the self, and trigger symp-
toms such as shame, humiliation, and
rage. Although underlying vulnerabil-
ity to such stress can stem from the
presence of pathological narcissism or
NPD, even relatively healthy people
can develop narcissistic symptoms af-
ter experiencing more or less severe
narcissistic threats or humiliation.
6
THE RANGE OF EMPATHIC
FUNCTIONING
Empathy, usually considered an inborn
and naturally occurring ability, is also a
complex, multidimensional regulatory
process that requires skills, tact, and ex-
perience. Empathy is an essential aspect
of self-esteem regulation, and it is crucial
for the ability to master interpersonal re-
lationships and social interactions. Com-
promised or uctuating empathic process-
ing is basic to pathological narcissism and
NPD. Recent studies on empathic func-
tioning have implications for identify-
ing, understanding, and treating empathic
decits in narcissistic patients.
Social psychological research has
identied empathic regulation in terms
of cognitive empathy (perceiving the ex-
pression in others and theory of mind)
and emotional empathy (affective recog-
nition of the emotions perceived in oth-
ers). Both empathic accuracy and em-
pathic concern are involved in empathic
regulation and both can vary indepen-
dently
35
(ie, an individual can present with
empathic accuracy in the absence of em-
pathic concern, and vice versa). Netzlek
and colleagues
36
suggested that people
have dispositional ability to be empathic
(ie, to perceive and experience the emo-
tions of others), but situational factors can
inuence, or even overwhelm the expres-
sions of such abilities. They concluded:
the capacity to experience empathy
in the right contexts can be viewed as a
skill or ability rather than an automatic,
dispositionally driven process Such an
ability is likely related to peoples ability
to regulate their emotions.
35
Empathy refers to the ability to perceive
the inner psychological state of others and
to identify and feel the feelings and needs
of other people. Decety and colleagues
37

identied four neuropsychological com-
ponents involved in empathic capability:
affect sharing is based on the ability to
mimic and the development of shared rep-
resentations between self and others; self-
other awareness requires a sense of self-
agency and separateness from the other;
mental exibility includes the ability for
perspective-taking and adopting the oth-
ers subjective perspective; and emotional
regulation holds emotional resonance
and reappraisal. Self-awareness and self-
regulation are also central components in
empathic functioning. Those require sev-
eral abilities (ie, to identify and feel ones
own emotions and separate oneself from
ones own feelings); to recognize the other
person as similar to ones self but at the
same time as separate and different from
ones self; and the ability to regulate and
inhibit ones own emotional expressions.
Fonagy
38
suggested empathy dysfunction
can stem from impaired capacity to un-
derstand own feelings and disconnected
interpersonal affective interpretative func-
tion, which are essential in emotional reso-
nance. Low affect tolerance, or strong re-
actions to the perception of the feelings of
others, especially helplessness and shame,
tend to impair capacity for empathic con-
cern.
39
On the other hand, self-serving and
self-enhancing strivings also interfere with
empathic capability.
40
In addition, empa-
thy is modulated by cultural values and
personal, developmental experiences.
Empathic Variations in
Psychiatric Samples
Studies of empathic functioning in
psychiatric samples can provide some
information relevant to understanding
the narcissistic individuals empathic
abilities and limitations. People with
autism have difculties with cognitive
empathy (ie, perceiving the expression
in another persons face). They also have
problems with empathic accuracy, (ie, to
accurately infer or even recognize the ex-
istence of others thoughts and feelings).
However, variations in empathic ability,
especially empathic accuracy, have been
found along the autism spectrum.
41
Pa-
tients with schizophrenia have a general
empathic decit manifest across all do-
mains of empathy-related processes.
42

However, notable variations are related
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to the symptoms and source that cause
a specic decit. For instance, patients
with schizophrenia with paranoid symp-
toms are hypersensitive to threats and
therefore likely to misinterpret others
facial intentions and expressions. On the
other hand, an inability to feel what the
others feel (affective blunting) can also
lead to a misidentication of others fa-
cial expressions.
Blair and colleagues
43
found a high
degree of selectivity in empathic func-
tioning in people with psychopathy. They
concluded that while these people have
an impaired ability to process selective
emotional expressions (fear, sadness, dis-
gust), there is no evidence that they have
a cognitive or theory of mind-related
empathic impairment. Similarly, studies
of empathic functioning in people with
antisocial personality disorder (ASPD)
also show that they do not have basic
cognitive or theory of mind decits,
or difculties reading basic or complex
emotions from facial expressions. In-
stead, their problems refer to their ability
to make empathic inference about how
others feel.
44
Patients with borderline per-
sonality disorder (BPD) have been con-
sidered above average in their ability to
infer others thoughts and feelings. How-
ever, Flury and Ickes
45
challenged this as-
sumption in a study of paired BPDnon-
BPD dyads whose ability to accurately
read thoughts and feelings of each other
were measured. They concluded that
people with BPD do not have empathic
impairment (ie, they are capable of pro-
cessing the complex borderline-related
dysregulatory emotional experiences in
themselves and others, but they do not
have exceptional or above-average em-
pathic capability).
Conditions related to pathological
narcissism have been associated with low
levels of cognitive empathy (preoccupa-
tion with other things). Gilgun
46
identi-
ed a high degree of self-centeredness in
perpetrators of child abuse (ie, a focus
on the self so intense that it precludes
consideration of the feelings and choices
of others and which at times causes di-
rect emotional and/or physical harm to
others).
46
Similarly, Wiehe
47
found an
inverse correlation between empathy and
need for power, control, and dominance
in child abuse perpetrators.
Implications for Empathic
Functioning in Narcissistic
Individuals
Compromised empathic functioning
causing recurrent interpersonal failures
or conicts can be a source of uctuating
or low self-esteem and underlying inse-
curity. The narcissistic individual, ready
to blame others, may or may not be aware
of such a decit. Several possible factors
may impact the narcissistic individuals
empathic capability and functional pat-
tern. Those include:
a) High degree of self-centeredness
and focus on self-enhancing and self-
serving interpersonal strivings;
b) Emotional dysregulation (ie, in-
sensitivity or impaired ability to appraise
certain emotions in others, such as de-
spair, sadness, grief, joy, happiness; or
difculties in tolerating, modulating, and
processing certain of ones own emotions
triggered by the perception of others
experiences or emotions, such as strong
negative feelings of contempt, shame,
rage or envy);
c) Self-esteem dysregulation, where
the perception of others experiences
evoke self- promoting or self-enhancing
strivings, or alternatively, feelings of in-
feriority, powerlessness; and
d) Superego dysregulation, with com-
promised ability for care and concern,
exploitative efforts, disregard for the pos-
sessions, and well-being of other people,
or deceitfulness.
Narcissistic people may be able to ap-
propriately empathize when feeling in
control or when their self-esteem is un-
challenged or promoted. Some can em-
pathize more with others positive feel-
ings and success-related experiences than
with others negative feelings or defeats
and vice versa. Those inuenced by envy
can be unable to tolerate others positive
events and feelings, while those who
tend to mirror themselves in the light of
others may perceive others success as an
opportunity for self-enhancement. Simi-
larly, those who readily feel contempt
can nd others defeats and losses despi-
cable and secure their own superiority or
perfectionism in the comparison between
self and the other. Others are able to em-
pathize under certain circumstances (ie,
when asked for advice by a friend who
has marital problems, but unable to relate
to their own marital problems as pointed
out by the spouse). A guide for evalua-
tion of the narcissistic patients specic
individual empathic decits and func-
tional patterns is outlined in the Sidebar
(see page 116).
Empathic dysfunction and compro-
mised ability for empathic processing
can disable the narcissistic patient from
accurately perceiving and experiencing
empathy from another person. This has
Sudden threats to self-
esteem or to more favorable
self-images can temporarily
increase defensive grandiose
behavior, such as anger
and hostility.
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signicant consequences in treatment of
the narcissistic individual, who easily can
misinterpret the clinicians genuine efforts
to help. Glasser
48
noted that: Sometimes
the patient can actually experience empa-
thy as a danger, since he feels the analyst
is getting inside his mind and reading his
thoughts, and that the danger of being
brainwashed is imminent.
48
IDENTIFYING REGULATORY
PATTERNS IN PATHOLOGICAL
NARCISSISM
The self-regulatory approach to patho-
logical narcissism focuses on the self-es-
teem (ie, its range from assertiveness and
grandiosity to inferiority or insecurity)
and on the various self-enhancing and
self-serving interpersonal strategies that
aim at protecting and heightening self-es-
teem and grandiosity. Emotional dysreg-
ulation is evident in the predominance of
aggression and shame, the intense reac-
tions to threats to the self-esteem, and the
individuals efforts to maintain internal
and external control.
O. Kernberg
49,50
suggested a motiva-
tional function in aggression as an effect,
because it links self-object representations
with internalized object relations associ-
ated with frustrating experiences. More or
less primitive aggression, expressed either
overtly toward others or internally, is the
self-regulatory process that contributes to a
sense of superiority. Kohut
50,51
considered
self-cohesiveness to be central for narcis-
sistic functioning. Several authors have re-
cently recognized the narcissistic patients
preoccupation with control, both internal
and interpersonal.
52-54
Internal control, a
psychological function that promotes a
sense of mastery, cohesiveness, power,
separateness, and self-sufciency, includes
both the efforts to maintain a sense of con-
trol and an underlying fear of loss of con-
trol. Fear of loss of control can be triggered
by internal as well as external experiences,
especially related to sustaining meaning
and self-sufciency, and to avoiding emo-
tional ooding and shaming. Interpersonal
control is a major obstacle in treatment of
the narcissistic patient
55-57
and is expressed
in a range of attitudes and behavior
from self-assertive independence and self-
protection to dominance and power and to
critical, aggressive, sadistic intrusiveness.
In its ultimate form, narcissistic self-
regulation with self-directed aggres-
sion and efforts to control, can also be
expressed in suicidal ideations and acts,
representing a my way or no way or
death before dishonor attitude. Studies
have proved pathological narcissism to be
connected to suicide.
58-60
Suicidal ideations and behavior can
serve to protect against threats or defeats,
represent an illusion of mastery, control,
or indestructibility, or they can serve as a
means to attack or destroy imperfect as-
pects of the self. Narcissistic individuals
can have suicidal thoughts and impulses
in the absence of depression, and they
can also balance suicide-related self-es-
teem-preserving grandiose ideas on the
one hand and the actual suicidal behavior
and its real self-destructive or lethal con-
sequences on the other.
61,62
Intolerable ef-
fects, caused by threats to self-esteem, or
loss of essential support or ideals, can be
denied and split off.
30,33,63
These regula-
tory functions may make narcissistic indi-
viduals reluctant (or even unable) to con-
vey their suicidal intentions to a clinician.
For some, suicidal ideations may even
function as a way to control and process
unbearable feelings and help the individu-
al preserve connections to life.
64
However,
if acted upon in a state of rage or despair,
they may also cause instant suicide in rel-
atively well-functioning individuals with-
out other major mental illness.
58,65,66
FACING DSM-V
The general limitations of DSM-Axis
II have been pointed out (ie, failing to
capture the range of personality pathol-
ogy and identify patients whom clini-
cians consider having personality dis-
orders is particularly consequential for
NPD).
53,67,68
People with traits of patho-
SIDEBAR.
Narcissistic Empathic
Functioning: Decits and
Phenotypic Range
Developmental, Emotional,
and Cognitive Decits
Lack of motivation, curiosity, interest, or
other-orientation/narcissistic withdrawal
(negative narcissism)
Underdeveloped, self-other distinction
Self-centeredness
Emotional dysregulation,
low-affect tolerance
Superego decits
Phenotypic Range
Detached Empathic Functioning
Inattentive
Obliviously insensitive
Withdrawn
Silent due to internal reactions:
emotional ooding (aggression, shame);
confusion; internal paralysis or numbness
Self-enhancing Empathic Functioning
Tuned in, seemingly empathic
Friendly, actively helpful, seemingly
altruistic
Multiple-intellectual, perspective taking,
seemingly reective
Ambitiously intrusive, domineering,
or controlling, seemingly concerned,
involved, and protecting
Perfectionist attitude
Moral superiority or condemnation
Taking emotional or social advantage of
others feelings and experience
Aggressive Empathic Functioning
Belittling, ridiculing
Irritable
Resentful, rejecting
Critical, contemptuous
Retaliating, revengeful
Hostile dismissive reactions
Malignant Reactions to the Perception
of Others Feelings and Experiences
Manipulative deceitfulness
Exploitive usage of empathic compe-
tence for self-serving, perverse, sadistic,
cruel, or antisocial aims
Violent impulses or behavior
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logical narcissism that range beyond the
DSM-IV-text revision
69
criteria set, or
people who have less severe or less overt
narcissistic pathology and for various
reasons do not meet any combination of
ve required criteria, will consequently
not be correctly identied.
The current NPD criterion set has re-
peatedly been criticized for its low speci-
city with high diagnostic overlap and
comorbidity. The fact that the diagnosis
is heavily relying on overt and one-sided
determinants of grandiosity and on con-
text-dependent external symptoms or pat-
terns of reactions and interpersonal inter-
actions has contributed to this problem.
In addition, the narcissistic individuals
experiences of the complex interplay be-
tween self-esteem uctuations and emo-
tional dysregulation within the interper-
sonal context are not adequately captured.
Consequently, there is reluctance among
clinicians to use the diagnosis, and pa-
tients tend to strongly oppose to being
labeled NPD, conceiving it as more
prejudicial than informative and helpful.
An integrative diagnostic approach for
pathological narcissism and NPD with al-
ternative formulations is much called for,
one that focuses more on basic indicators
for the range of narcissistic personality
functioning and less on symptomatic fea-
tures or phenotypic categories (see Table
2, page 118). Such a diagnostic approach
should evaluate basic characteristics of nar-
cissistic functioning, and differentiate tem-
porary uctuating or externally triggered
shifts in narcissistic functioning from en-
during indications of pathological narcis-
sism. Regulation of self-esteem, a central
part of self-regulation, is identied as the
motivating force in narcissistic function-
ing, and its vulnerability and uctuations
are indicated by reactions to threats and
challenges to the self-esteem (ie, the most
signicant trait of NPD; compare vulner-
ability and reactions with abandonment as
a central marker for borderline personality
disorder). A broader denition of grandios-
ity captures not only a sense of superiority
and success fantasies, but is also expressed
in terms of perfectionism and high ideals
and is sustained through self-enhancing
and self-serving interpersonal behavior.
These reformulations serve to expand the
spectrum of grandiosity-promoting striv-
ings and activities, capture its uctuations,
and attend to the narcissistic individuals
internal experiences and motivation.
Independently of whether the future
DSM will remain categorical or move
toward a dimensional perspective, the
conceptualization of NPD in terms of a
range of narcissistic dysregulatory func-
tioning aims at improving clinical utility,
promoting awareness, and understanding,
and motivating and guiding treatment for
both clinicians and patients.
ALTERNATIVE FORMULATIONS
1. Grandiosity
Grandiosity is by now an evidence-
based criterion, and the most distinguish-
ing and discriminating for NPD.
25,70,71

However, it is also limited by the few
external features assigned to it. The dif-
ferentiation between enhanced compared
with unrealistic sense of superiority, and
the inclusion of value, capability, and fan-
tasies of unfullled achievements serve
to capture a broader functional range of
narcissism and to make the diagnosis
applicable to both those with NPD who
are vocationally higher functioning and
those who are disabled. For the purpose
of clinical utility, it is useful to evaluate
grandiosity not only in terms of its sur-
face expressions but also in the context
of its functional base (ie, to differentiate
unrealistic and defensive aspects of gran-
diosity and grandiose fantasies), from po-
tentially realistic competence and hidden
or potential capability for factual or even
successful abilities.
2. Vulnerable and Fluctuating
Self-esteem
Vulnerable and uctuating self-es-
teem relate to changeability in grandios-
ity. Several accounts support the shifts in
self-esteem-related internal experiences
and overt expressions of grandiosity.
5,31

Vulnerability and insecurity have usu-
ally been assigned to the range of NPD
that includes the shy, covert, shame-rid-
den phenotype. However, such shifts in
the arrogant aggressive phenotypic range
may be easily bypassed or covered up,
and only overtly occur in the context of
ultimatums or when feeling trapped with
no way out, and then expressed in rage at-
tacks, retaliation, or suicidal behavior.
3. Strong Reactions to Perceived
Challenges or Threats
to Self-esteem
Strong reactions in response to criti-
cism from others was included in DSM-
III
72
and DSM III-revision but excluded in
DSM IV
73
because of its low discrimina-
tory power and overlap with other person-
ality disorders. Morey
53
has convincingly
argued for its reinstatement. This alterna-
tive formulation, strong reactions to per-
ceived challenges,or threats to self-esteem
attest to the narcissistic individuals spe-
cic self-esteem vulnerability and to the
threats or challenges that are perceived
as especially narcissistically threatening.
It also captures a pattern of emotional
dysregulation. Mood variations as a sign
of narcissistic vulnerability and reactiv-
ity reect shifting levels in self-esteem
18

and are important in differentiating Axis I
mood disorders. The concept threatened
egotism
32
suggests that such vulnerabil-
ity and reactivity could make narcissistic
individuals prone to more distress, such as
depression, substance use, self-defeating
or violent behavior, or suicidality.
4. Self-enhancing Interpersonal
Behavior
The alternative formulation self-en-
hancing interpersonal behavior integrates
3.5 of the DSM-IV-TR criteria. It aims at
diminishing the previously heavy focus on
grandiosity-related features by highlight-
ing its self-esteem regulatory and motiva-
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TABLE 2.
Diagnostic Criteria for NPD: DSM-IV-TR
69
and Alternative Formulations
DSM-IV-TR NPD: Construct and Criteria Alternative Formulations: Construct and Criteria
A pervasive pattern of grandiosity (in fantasy and behavior), need for admira-
tion, and lack of empathy, beginning in early adulthood and present in a
variety of contexts, as indicated by ve (or more) of the following:
A pervasive pattern of uctuating and vulnerable self-esteem ranging
from grandiosity and assertiveness to inferiority or insecurity, with self-
enhancing and self-serving interpersonal behavior, and intense reac-
tions to perceived threats, beginning in early adulthood and present in
a variety of contexts as indicated by ve (or more) of the following:
DSM 1. Has a grandiose sense of self-importance (eg, exaggerates achieve-
ment and talents, expects to be recognized as superior without commen-
surate achievements). DSM 2. Is preoccupied with fantasies of unlimited
success, power, brilliance, beauty, or ideal love. DSM 3. Believes that he or she
is specialand unique and can only be understood by, or should be associ-
ated with, other special or high-status people (or institutions).
1. Grandiosity: enhanced or unrealistic sense of superiority,
uniqueness, value or capability, expressed either overtly in unwar-
ranted expectations, exceptionally high aspirations, and self-centered-
ness, or covertly in inner convictions, fantasies of unfullled ambitions
or unlimited success, power, brilliance, beauty, or ideal relationships.
2. Fluctuating and vulnerable self esteem, alternating between feel-
ing overly condent or assured, and feeling inferior or insecure.
DSM 8. Is often envious of others or believes that others are envious of them.
3. Strong reactions to perceived challenges or threats to self-es-
teem (humiliation, defeats, criticism, or envy from others), including
overtly expressed or covertly hidden intense feelings (aggression, envy
or shame) or mood variations (irritability, depression or elation).
DSM 3. Believes that he or she is special and unique and can only be
understood by, or should be associated with, other special or high-status
people (or institutions). DSM 4. Requires excessive admiration.
4. Self-enhancing interpersonal behavior (ie, admiring attention
seeking, self-promoting, boastful, or competitive behavior).
DSM 5. Has a sense of entitlement (ie, unreasonable expectations of
especially favorable treatment or automatic compliance with his or her
expectations). DSM 6. Is interpersonally exploitive (ie, takes advantage
of others to achieve his or her own ends).
5. Self-serving interpersonal behavior (ie, expecting unreasonable
and unwarranted rights and services and unreciprocated favors from
others, or taking emotional, intellectual and social advantage of others).
DSM 9. Shows arrogant, haughty behaviors or attitudes.
6. Interpersonally aggressive (ie, arrogant, critically argumentative,
resentful, hostile, or passive-aggressive).
7. Interpersonally controlling (ie, domineering, distant or uncommit-
ted interpersonal behavior that serves to avoid intolerable affects or
threats to self-esteem).
DSM 7. Lacks empathy: is unwilling to recognize or identify with the
feelings and needs of others.
8. Fluctuating or impaired empathic ability, compromised by
self-centeredness, self-serving interests, or emotional dysregulation
(low affect tolerance or intense reactions, ie, shame, envy, inferiority,
powerlessness, anger).
9. Exceptionally high or perfectionist (although inconsistent) personal
ideals and standards, with strong reactions, including aggression, harsh
self-criticism, shame, or deceitfulness when failing to measure up.
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tional functions, and broadening the range
of behavior that the individual can use for
self-enhancing purposes.
5. Self-serving Interpersonal
Behavior
Self-serving interpersonal behavior is
an integrative formulation capturing types
of behavior previously referred to as en-
titlement and exploitation. With its normal
developmental and social/political conno-
tation, entitlement can be misleading as a
diagnostic criterion. To be non-entitled or
score low on entitlement does not neces-
sarily indicate a healthy narcissistic func-
tioning, and strikingly entitled behavior
may stem from an underlying sense of
being undeserving, with restricted entitle-
ment or even feeling nonentitled.
74
Where
normal or exceptional rights and expecta-
tions end and unrealistic expectations take
over with exaggerated and overbearing in-
terpersonal demand, intense reactions can
vary with individual contexts and cultures.
Exploitative behavior failed to differentiate
NPD in previous studies.
71,75-77
Narcissistic
exploitative behavior is distinguished by a
more passive, manipulative, entitled, and
emotionally focused quality that serves to
support and enhance self-esteem.
6. Interpersonal Aggression
Depending upon the narcissistic indi-
viduals ability for emotional regulation
and interpersonal skills, interpersonal ag-
gression can range from subtle arrogance,
argumentativeness, or resentfulness to vari-
ous expressions of passive-aggression to
more strikingly hostile, enraged behavior,
or outbursts. Such outbursts can also stem
from underlying feelings of shame, envy,
inferiority, diffuse guilt, or fear.
7. Interpersonal Control
Interpersonal control refers to domi-
neering, distant, or uncommitted inter-
personal behavior that serves to avoid
potentially intolerable affects or threats to
self-esteem evoked in closeness to others.
Several accounts have supported its differ-
ent components; (ie, uncommitted,
71
con-
trolling/hostile,
53
dominance to manage
hostility and protect self-esteem;
78
control-
ling/competitive
54,79,80
).Attention to these
underlying regulatory mechanisms of
emotions and self-esteem serve to differ-
entiate pathological narcissism and NPD
from more psychopathic and malignant
interpersonal behavior.
8. Fluctuating or Impaired
Empathic Ability
Fluctuating or impaired empathic abil-
ity, inuenced by emotional dysregulation
(low affect tolerance or intense reactions)
and/or self-centeredness or self-serving
interest, is a reformulation of the seventh
of the NPD criteria in DSM, based on the
review of research on empathy presented.
The differentiation between actual and im-
paired capability and between temporarily
interfering and persistently dysregulatory
characteristics are specically important
for choice of treatment approach and mo-
dality, and for prognosis.
9. Exceptionally High or Perfectionist
Personal Ideals and Standards
A complex interrelation between ego-
ideals, self-esteem regulation, self-criti-
cism, and deceitfulness can be found in
narcissistic individuals. Some can be
found among those who openly take pride
in their superior and perfectionist stan-
dards and ideals.
81-83
Such perfectionism
can coexist with incompatible, inconsis-
tent, and contradictory moral standards.
For example, a married, middle-age man
who took pride in being monogamous
was bothered by what he considered to
be his wifes imperfect physical appear-
ance. Feeling compelled and justied to
approach perfect-looking young women
to meet his standards for ideal ecstatic in-
timacy and full satisfaction, he struggled
with an obvious dilemma: as a perfect
husband he should be satised within his
marriage, but a perfect-looking woman
was necessary for him to experience per-
fect excitement, and such standards were
unreachable to him within his marriage.
Playing with indelity and dishonesty,
he struggled with underlying self-critical
attacks for being an imperfect, dishonest
husband, which tended to escalate his de-
sire for more ecstatically perfect erotic ad-
ventures. The narcissistic individuals in-
ternal underlying self-shaming
84
and harsh
or punitive self-criticism is often bypassed
or externalized during evaluation and treat-
ment because it may be expressed as self-
depravation or excessive entitlement.
85
SUMMARY
Facing the process of outlining and
deciding the new DSM-V, there are a few
major incentives with regards to the future
NPD diagnosis. The rst concerns the self-
regulatory nature of narcissistic function-
ing and its focus on self-esteem and inter-
personal control. The second relates to the
clinical range of pathological narcissism,
including both the enhanced, seemingly in-
violate grandiosity, as well as the uctuating
and vulnerable nature of self-esteem with
its opposites inferiority and insecurity.
The third is the underlying reactivity and
sensitivity to threats (ie, potential defeats
or depreciation of self-esteem), and vari-
ous self-serving and self-enhancing striv-
ings to protect or heighten the internal and
external value of the self. The fourth refers
to reevaluation of the empathic functioning
and the variable, context-dependent decits
in empathic ability. This review has aimed
at summarizing, reformulating, and outlin-
ing a proposal for a diagnosis and set of de-
scriptive criteria for NPD accordingly.
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