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Electromagnetic Fields

Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 1


Review: TimeDependent Maxwells Equations


















( ) ( )
( ) ( )
D t E t
B t H t


=
=
( )
( )
0
D t
B t

=
=
( )
( )
( )
( )
B t
E t
t
D t
H t J
t

= +

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 2
Electromagnetic quantities:















Vector
quantities
in space
Electric Field
Magnetic Field
Electric Flux (Displacement) Density
Magnetic Flux (Induction) Density
Current Density
Displacement Curren
E
H
D
B
J
D
t

t
Charge Density
Dielectric Permittivity
Magnetic Permeability

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 3
In free space:

In a material medium:

If the medium is anisotropic, the relative quantities are tensors:
| | | |
| | | |
12
0
7
0
8.854 10 As/Vm or F/m
4 10 Vs/Am or Henry/m

= =
= =
0 0
;
relative permittivity (dielectric constant)
relative permeability
r r
r
r
= =
=
=
;
xx xy xz xx xy xz
r yx yy yz r yx yy yz
zx zy zz zx zy zz
( (

( (
= =
( (
( (


Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 4
Electromagnetic fields are completely described by Maxwells
equations. The formulation is quite general and is valid also in the
relativistic limit (by contrast, Newtons equations of motion of
classical mechanics must be corrected when the relativistic limit is
approached).

The complete physical picture is obtained by adding an equation
that relates the fields to the motion of charged particles.

The electromagnetic fields exert a force F on a charge q, according
to the law (Lorentz force):







where v(t) is the velocity of the moving charge.
Electric Force Magnetic Force
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
F t q E t q v t B t q E t v t B t


= + = +
(

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 5
Review: Electrostatics and Magnetostatics

In the static regime, electromagnetic quantities do not vary as a
function of time. We have two main cases:


ELECTROSTATICS The electric charges do not change
postion in time. Therefore, , E and D are constant and there is no
magnetic field H, since there is no current density J.


MAGNETOSTATICS The charge crossing a given cross-
section (current) does not vary in time. Therefore, J, H and B are
constant. Although charges are moving, the steady current
maintains a constant charge density in space and the electric
field E is static.
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 6
The equations of electrostatics are obtained directly from Maxwells
equations, by assuming that /t , J, H and B are all zero:



The electrostatic force is simply

We also define the electrostatic potential by the relationship
E

=
F q E

=
0
0
E
D
D E


=
=
=
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 7
The electrostatic potential is a scalar function of space. From
vector calculus we know that

This potential is very convenient for practical applications because
it is a scalar quantity. The potential automatically satisfies
Maxwells curl equation for the electric field, since

From a physical point of view, the electrostatic potential provides
an immediate way to express the work W performed by moving a
charge from location a to location b:
Here, l is the coordinate along the path. The negative sign indicates
that the work is done against the electrical force.
b
a
W F d l

0 E

= =
0 =
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 8
By introducing the electrostatic potential, we obtain



NOTE: The line integral of a gradient does not depend on the path
of integration but only on the potential at the end points of the path.


The electrostatic potential is measured with respect to an arbitrary
reference value. We can assume for most problems that a
convenient reference is a zero potential at an infinite distance. In
the result above for the electrostatic work, we could set a zero
potential at the initial point of the path, so that (a)=0. Either
choice of potential reference would give the same potential
difference .
( ) ( ) | |
b b
a a
W q E dl q dl q b a q

= = = =

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 9
It is quite convenient to express also the divergence equation in
terms of the electrostatic potential. If we assume a uniform material
medium:


This result yields the well known Poisson equation



In the case of = 0, we have the classic Laplace equation


2
0 =
2

=

2
D E

= = = =
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 10
If the problem involves a non-uniform medium with varying
dielectric permittivity, a more general form of Poisson equation
must be used


Another important equation is obtained by integrating the
divergence over a certain volume V

Gauss theorem allows us to transform the volume integral of the
divergence into a surface integral of the flux


V V
D dV dV

=

V S
D dV D dS

=

Component normal
to the surface
( )
=
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 11
The volume integral of the charge density is simply the total charge
Q contained inside the volume

The final result is the integral form of Poisson equation, known as
Gauss law:






Most electrostatic problems can be solved by direct application of
Poisson equation or of Gauss law.

Analytical solutions are usually possible only for simplified
geometries and charge distributions, and numerical solutions are
necessary for most general problems.
S
D dS Q

=

V
dV Q =

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 12
The Gauss law provides a direct way to determine the force
between charges. Let's consider a sphere with radius r surround-
ing a charge Q
1
located at the center. The displacement vector will
be uniform and radially directed, anywhere on the sphere surface,
so that

Assuming a uniform isotropic medium, we have a radial electric
field with strength
If a second charge Q
2
is placed at distance r from Q
1
the mutual
force has strength
( )
1 2
2
2
4
Q Q
F Q E r
r

= =

( )
1
2
4
D
Q
E r
r

= =


2
1
4
S
D dS r D Q

= =

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 13
The electrostatic potential due to a charge Q can be obtained using
the previous result for the electrostatic work:


where r indicates the distance of the observation point b from the
charge location, and a is a reference point. If we chose the
reference point a , with a reference potential (a) = 0, we can
express the potential at distance r from the charge Q as
( )
4
Q
r
r
=

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2
4
1 1
4
b b
a a
a b
Q
b a E dr a dr
r
Q
a
r r

= =

(
= +
(



Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 14
The potential indicates then the work necessary to move an
infinitesimal positive probe charge from distance r (point b) to
infinity (point a) for negative Q, or conversely to move the probe
from infinity to distance r for positive Q (remember that the work is
done against the field). The probe charge should be infinitesimal,
not to perturb the potential established by the charge Q.

The work per unit charge done by the fields to move a probe charge
between two points, is usually called Electromotive Force ( emf ).
Dimensionally, the emf really represents work rather than an actual
force.

The work per unit charge done against the fields represents the
voltage V
ba
between the two points, so that:

b
ba
a
emf E d l V

= =

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 15
In electrostatics, there is no difference between voltage and
potential. To summarize once again, using formulas, we have













a b
a b
E d l E d l



= =

Potential at point a Potential at point b
( )
. . .
b
b a ba
a
V E d l e m f

= = =

Potential difference or Voltage between a and b


Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 16
In the case of more than one point charge, the separate potentials
due to each charge can be added to obtain the total potential


If the charge is distributed in space with a density (x,y,z), one
needs to integrate over the volume as






( )
1
, ,
4
i
i
i
Q
x y z
r
=

( )
( )
', ', '
1
, ,
4
V
x y z
x y z dV
r

=


Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 17
In the magnetostatic regime, there are steady currents in the
system under consideration, which generate magnetic fields (we
ignore at this point the case of ferromagnetic media). The full set of
Maxwell's equations is considered (setting /t = 0 )












with the complete Lorentz force
( )
F q E v B

= +
0
0
E
H J
D
B
D E
B H



=
=
=
=
=
=
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 18
It is desirable to find also for the magnetic field a potential function.
However, note that such a potential cannot be a scalar, as we found
for the electrostatic field, since






We define a magnetic vector potential A through the relation

This definition automatically satisfies the condition of zero
divergence for the induction field, since



The divergence of a curl is always = 0
( )
0 B A

= =
= =

A B H
Current density is a vector 0
=

H J
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 19
The vector potential can be introduced in the curl equation for the
magnetic field


However, in order to completely specify the magnetic vector
potential, we need to specify also its divergence. First, we observe
that the definition of the vector potential is not unique since:







= Scalar function
Always = 0
( )
( )
' A A A A

= + = + =
( ) ( )
2
1 1 1
H B A A A J

= = = =

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 20
In the magnetostatic case it is sufficient to specify (in physics
terminology: to choose the gauge)

so that

We simply need to make sure that the arbitrary function satisfies

We can then simplify the previous result for the curl equation to



the magnetic equivalent of the electrostatic Poisson equation.
=
2

A J
=
2
0
( )
2
0 A A A A

= + = + = + =
0 A

=
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 21
The general solution of this vector Laplacian equation is given by


which is similar to the formal solution obtained before for the
electrostatic potential for a distributed charge. If the current is
confined to a wire with cross-sectional area S and described by a
curvilinear coordinate l, we can write

with a final result
(note that the total current I is constant at any wire location).
( )
, ,
4
l
I dl
A x y z
r

I I J S dV S dl

= = =
( )
( )
', ', '
, ,
4
V
J x y z
A x y z dV
r

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 22
The solution for the magnetic field obtained from the vector
potential leads to the famous Biot-Savart law:











r
I
dl
(x,y,z)

i
r
2
1
4 4

1
4 4
l l
r
l l
B I dl I dl
H A
r r
I I dl i
dl
r
r

| |
= = = =
|

\ .

| |
= =
|

\ .


Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 23
The magnetic field can also be determined by direct integration of
the curl equation over a surface


Stoke's theorem can be used to transform the left hand side of the
equation, to obtain the integral form of Ampere's law


In many applications it is useful to determine the magnetic flux
through a given surface. The vector potential can be used to
modify a surface integral into a surface integral, using again
Stoke's theorem

l
H dl I

S S
H dS J dS I

= =

Magnetic Flux
S S l
B dS A dS A dl

= = =

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 24
Review: Time Varying Fields

In the dynamics case, we can distinguish between two regimes:


Low Frequency (Slowly-Varying Fields) The displacement
current is negligible in the Maxwells equations, since



High Frequency (Fast-Varying Fields) The general set of
Maxwells equations must be considered, with no approximations.


( )
( )
D t
J t
t

<<

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 25
In the low frequency regime we use the complete set of Maxwells
equations, but the displacement current is omitted

















=
=
=
=
=
=



E
B
dt
H J
D
B
D E
B H

0
( )
F q E v B

= +
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 26
The concept of low frequency and slowly-varying phenomena is
relative to the situation at hand. Any disturbance (time-variation) of
the electromagnetic field propagates at the speed of light. If a
length L is the maximum dimension of the system under study, the
maximum propagation time for a disturbance is



We can assume slow-varying fields if the currents are practically
constant during this time period.
For sinusoidal currents, with a period of oscillation T , we have
Maximum Propagation Time
Maximum Length
Phase velocity of light
t
v
d
p
=
L
Period
Frequency
Wavelength
T
f v
t
p
d
= = >> <<
1
and L
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 27
The electric potential is now by itself insufficient to completely
describe the time-varying electric field, because there is also a
direct dependence on the magnetic field variations. By recalling the
definition of magnetic vector potential, we can derive a relationship
between electric field and electric potential




Time-Varying Fields Statics
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
0
B t
E t A t
t t
A t
E t
t


= =

| |
+ =
|

\ .

( )
( )
( )
A t
E t t
t


+ =

E 0

E =
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 28
We can also obtain an integral relation between electric field and
magnetic flux, by integrating the curl of the electric field over a
surface
















Stokes Theorem
Magnetic Flux ( t )
( )
t
E d l
t

( )
( )
( )
S S S
B t
E t dS dS B t dS
t t


= =


Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 29
In the electrostatic case, we do not need to distinguish between
voltage and potential difference. The voltage between two points is
always defined as

but in terms of potential we have




Time-Varying Fields Statics
( )
( )
b b
ba ba
a a
b
b a b a
a
A
V t d l V E d l
t
A t d l
t


| |
= + =
|
\ .

= + =

. . .
b
ba
a
V E d l e m f

= =

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 30
Note that for time-varying fields the line integral of the magnetic
vector potential between two given points depends on the actual
path of integration. In general:



Consider now the integral of the electric field along a closed path:








The closed path could be a metallic wire which confines the current
due to moving electric charge.
( ) ( )
( , ) ,
b
a
A t d l A b t A a t

Time-varying fields Statics


( ) ( )
0 0 E t d l E t d l



=

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 31
The line integral of the electric field gives the work necessary to
move a unit charge along the path of integration, under the
influence of time-varying electric and magnetic fields.

For a closed wire loop at rest, the work necessary to move a unit
charge once around the loop is




Magnetic Flux
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
Force
Charge
S S
W d l E t d l E t d S
B t
d S B t d S
t t
t
t



= = =


= =



Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 32
As a more general case, consider a wire loop in motion. The
complete Lorentz force must be considered:












If the velocity of motion is constant, note that

0 0
0
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
v B t
v B B v B v v B v B



=
+ =
Flux ( t )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Force
Charge
. . . W e m f d l E t v t B t d l
E t v t B t d S
B t
d
v t B t d S B t d S
t d t


= = = +
= +

| |
= + =
|

\ .


( )
dB t
d t

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 33
Electromagnetic Waves

For fast-varying phenomena, the displacement current cannot be
neglected, and the full set of Maxwells equations must be used


( )
( )
0
B t
E
dt
D t
H J
t
D
B
D E
B H

= +

=
=
=
=
( )
F q E v B

= +
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 34
The two curl equations are analogous to the coupled (first order)
equations for voltage and current used in transmission lines. The
solutions of this system of equations are waves. In order to obtain
uncoupled (second order) equations we can operate with the curl
once more. Under the assumption of uniform isotropic medium:
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2
2
2
B t
E t H t
t t
J t E t
t
t
D t
H t J J E t
t t
H t
J
t



= =


=




= + = +

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 35
From vector calculus, we also have










Finally, we obtain the general wave equations

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2
2
2
2
E t J t
E t E t
t
t
H t
H t J t
t

( )
1
0 B t

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2
E t E t E t
H t H t H t H t


=
= =
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 36
In a region where the wave solution propagates away from charges
and flowing currents, the wave equations can be simplified
considerably. In such conditions, we have


and the wave equations assume the familiar form
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2
2
2
2
0
0
E t
E t
t
H t
H t
t

( )
( )
0 / 0
0
E t
J t
= = =
=

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 37
When currents and charges are involved, the wave equations are
difficult to solve, because of the terms


It is more practical to have equations for the electric potential and
for the magnetic vector potential, which contain linear source
terms dependent on charge and current, as shown below.

We saw earlier that the divergence of the magnetic vector potential
must be specified. The simple choice made in magnetostatics of
zero divergence is not suitable for time-varying fields. Among the
possible choices, it is convenient to adopt the Lorenz gauge



Time-varying fields Lorenz gauge Magnetostatics (d.c.)
( )
0 A t A
t

= =

( ) ( ) ( )
E t J t and


Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 38
Starting from the definitions

we obtain again the wave equation by applying the curl operation







With the application of Lorenz gauge
( )
( )
( )
2
2
2
A t
A t J t
t

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2
2
2
H t A t A t A t
A t
J
t
t

= = =

( )
A t

=
( ) ( )
( )
A t
B t A E t
t



= =

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 39
For the electric potential we have

After applying the Lorenz gauge once more, we arrive at the
potential wave equation
2
2
2
t

=

( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
2
D t E t
A t
E t
t
A t
t

= =

| |
= =
|

\ .

=

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 40
In engineering it is very important to consider time-harmonic fields
with a sinusoidal time-variation. If we assume a steady-state
situation (after all transients have died out) most physical situations
may be investigated by considering one single frequency at a time.

This assumption leads to great simplifications in the algebra. It is
also realistic, because in practical electromagnetics applications
we often have a dominant frequency (carrier) to consider.

The time-harmonic fields have the form


We can use the complex phasor representation


( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0 0
cos cos
E H
E t E t H t H t

= + = +
( )
{ }
( )
{ } 0 0
Re Re
E H
j j j t j t
E t E e e H t H e e


= =
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 41
We define







Maxwells equations can be rewritten for phasors, with the time-
derivatives transformed into linear terms










( )
( )
0
0
E phasor of
H phasor of
E
H
j
j
E e E t
H e H t

= =
= =
( )
( )
2
2
2
E phasor of
E phasor of
E t
j
t
E t
t

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 42
In phasor form, Maxwells equations become

















where all electromagnetic quantities are phasors and functions only
of space coordinates.
E H
H J E
D
B 0
D E
B H
j
j



=
= +
=
=
=
=
( )
F E B q v

= +
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 43
Lets consider first vacuum as a medium. The wave equations for
phasors become Helmholtz equations








The general solutions for these differential equations are waves
moving in 3-D space. Note, once again, that the two equations are
uncoupled.

This means that each equation contains all the necessary
information for the total electromagnetic field and one only needs to
solve the equation for one field to completely specify the problem.
The other field is obtained with a curl operation by invoking one of
the original Maxwell equations.

2 2
0 0
2 2
0 0
E E 0
H H 0


+ =
+ =
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 44
At this stage we assume that a wave exists, and we do not yet
concern ourselves with the way the wave is generated. So, for the
sake of understanding wave behavior, we can restrict the Helmhlotz
equations to a simple case:

We assume that the wave solution has an electric field which is
uniform on the { x , y }-plane and has a reference positive
orientation along the x-direction. Then, we verify that this is a
reasonable choice corresponding to an actual solution of the
Helmholtz wave equations. We recall that the Laplacian of a
scalar is a scalar
and that the Laplacian of a vector is a vector
2 2 2
2
2 2 2
f f f
f
x y z

= + +

2 2 2 2

E E E E
x x y y z z
i i i

= + +
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 45
The Helmholtz equation becomes:






Only the x-component of the electric field exists (due to the chosen
orientation) and only the z-derivative exists, because the field is
uniform on the { x , y }-plane.

We have now a one-dimensional wave propagation problem
described by the scalar differential equation






( )
2
2 2 2
0 0 0 0
2
E

E E E 0
x
x x x
i i
z


+ = + =

2
2
0 0
2
E
E 0
x
x
z

+ =

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 46
This equation has a well known general solution

where the propagation constant is
The wave that we have assumed is a plane wave and we have
verified that it is a solution of Helmholtz equation. The general
solution above has two possible components

For the simple wave orientation chosen here, the problem is
mathematically identical to the one solved earlier for voltage
propagation in a homogeneous transmission line.
( ) ( )
exp exp A j z B j z +
0 0
c

= =
( )
exp z A j z Forward wave, moving along positive
( )
exp z B j z Backward wave, moving along negative
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 47
If a specific electromagnetic wave is established in an infinite
homogeneous medium, moving for instance along the positive
direction, only the forward wave should be considered.

A reflected wave exists when a discontinuity takes place along the
path of the forward wave (that is, the material medium changes
properties, either abruprtly or gradually).

We can also assume that the amplitude of the forward plane wave
solution is given and that it is in general a complex constant fixed
by the conditions that generated the wave

We can write at last the phasor electric field describing a simple
forward plane wave solution of Helmholtz equation as:
0
j
A E e

=
0

E ( )
j j z
x x
z E e e i


=
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 48
The corresponding time-dependent field is obtained by applying the
inverse phasor transformation

The phasor magnetic field is obtained directly from the Maxwell
equation for the electric field curl









( ) ( )
{ } { }
( )
0
0

, Re E Re

cos
j t j j z j t
x x x x
x
E z t z e i E e e e i
E t z i


= =
= +
( )
( )
0 0
0
0

E H

H
j j z
x
j j z
x
E e e i j
E e e i
j



= =

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 49
We then develop the curl as



















( )
( )
( ) ( )
0
0 0
0

det
E 0 0

x y z
j j z
x
x
j j j z j z
y z
j j z
y
i i i
E e e i
x y z
z
E e e E e e
i i
z y
j E e e i



(
(

(
= =
(

(
(


= =

=
= 0
( )
E
x
z
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 50
The final result for the phasor magnetic field is


We define





( )
( )
0
0 0
0
0
0 0
0
0 0


E
j j z
y y
j j z
y
j j z
y x y
j E e e
z i
j
E e e i
E e e i z i





= =


= =


= =

0
0
0
377 Intrinsic impedance of vacuum

= =

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 51
We have found that the fields of the electromagnetic wave are
perpendicular to each other, and that they are also perpendicular
(or transverse) to the direction of propagation.

















x
z
y
E

H
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 52
Electromagnetic power flows with the wave along the direction of
propagation and it is also constant on the phase-planes. The
power density is described by the time-dependent Poynting vector





The Poynting vector is perpendicular to both field components, and
is parallel to the direction of wave propagation.

When the wave propagates on a general direction, which does not
coincide with one of the cartesian axes, the propagation constant
must be considered to be a vector with amplitude



and direction parallel to the Poynting vector.
( ) ( ) ( )
P t E t H t

=
| | =

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 53
The condition of mutual orthogonality between the field
components and the Poynting vector is general and it applies to
any plane wave with arbitrary direction of propagation. The mutual
orientation chosen for the reference directions of the fields follows
the right hand rule.















( , , ) E x y z

( , , ) H x y z

, P


x
y
z
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 54

So far, we have just verified that electromagnetic plane waves are
possible solutions of the Maxwell equations for time-varying fields.
One may wonder at this point if plane waves have practical physical
relevance.

First of all, we should notice that plane waves are mathematically
analogous to the exponential basis functions used in Fourier
analysis. This means that a general wave, with more than one
frequency component, can always be decomposed in terms of
plane waves.

For periodic signals, we have a discrete set of waves which are
harmonics of the fundamental frequency (analogy with Fourier
series).

For general signals, we must consider a continuum of
frequencies in order to decompose in terms of elementary plane
waves (analogy with Fourier transform).

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 55
From a physical point of view, however, the properties of a plane
wave may be somewhat puzzling.

Assume that a steady-state plane wave is established in an ideal
infinite homogeneous medium. On any plane perpendicular to the
direction of propagation (phase-planes), the electric and magnetic
fields have uniform magnitude and phase.

The electromagnetic power, flowing with a phase-plane of the wave,
is obtained by integrating the Poynting vector, which is also
uniform on each phase-plane. For a plane where the Poynting
vector is non-zero, the total power carried by the wave is infinite





In many practical cases, we approximate an actual wave with a
plane wave on a limited region of space, thus considering an
appropriate finite power.
( ) ( ) ( )
plane plane
P t E t H t =


Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 56
Review of Boundary Conditions

Consider an electromagnetic field at the boundary between two
materials with different properties. The tangent and the normal
component of the fields must me examined separately, in order to
understand the effects of the boundary.




Medium 1

1
;
1
Medium 2

2
;
2
boundary
1 t
H

2 t
H

2 n
H

1 n
H

1
H

2
H

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 57
Tangential Magnetic Field












Ampres law for the boundary region in the figure can be written as



Medium 1

1
;
1
Medium 2

2
;
2
boundary
1
H
t

2
H
t

3
H
n

a
4
H
n

b
.
x
y
z
H
H
H E
y
x
z z
J j
x y


= +

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 58
In terms of finite differences approximation for the derivatives

If one lets the boundary region shrink, with a going to zero faster
than b,


4 3 1 2
H H H H
E
n n t t
z z
J j
b a


= +
t
t
z
t
t s
a
J a J
for perfect conducto
for materials wi
rs
(sur
th finite co
face cur
nducti
ren
v ty
)
i
t
2 1
0
2 1
H H lim

( )
H 0

H

= =
= Tangential components are conserved
3 4
2 1
0
H H
H H lim( E )
n n
t t z z
a
J a j a a
b


= + +
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 59
For a general boundary geometry






In the case of a perfect conductor, the electromagnetic fields go
immediately to zero inside the material, because the conductivity is
infinite and attenuates instantly the fields. The surface current is
confined to an infinitesimally thin skin, and it accounts for the
discontinuity of the tangential magnetic field, which becomes
immediately zero inside the perfect conductor.

For a real medium, with finite conductivity, the fields can penetrate
over a certain distance, and there is a current distributed on a thin,
but not infinitesimal, skin layer. The tangential field components on
the two sides of the interface are the same. Nonetheless, the
perfect conductor is often a good approximation for a real metal.
t t s
n J
1 2

(H H ) =

n unit vector normal to the su e rfac =
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 60
Tangential Electric Field













Faradays law for the same boundary region can be written as


Medium 1

1
;
1
Medium 2

2
;
2
boundary
1
E
t

2
E
t

3
E
n

a
4
E
n

b
.
x
y
z
E
E
E H
y
x
z
j
x y

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 61
In terms of finite differences approximation for the derivatives

If one lets the boundary region shrink, with a going to zero faster
than b,

For a general boundary geometry




4 3 1 2
E E E E
H
n n t t
z
j
b a


=
t t 2 1
E E 0 = Tangential components are conserved
3 4
2 1
0
E E
E E lim( H )
n n
t t z
a
j a a
b


= +
t t
n
1 2

(E E ) 0 =

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 62
Normal components













Consider a small box that encloses a certain area of the interface
with
Medium 1

1
;
1
Medium 2

2
;
2
boundary
1 1
D B
n n

2 2
D B
n n

w
Area
.
x
y
z
+ + + + + +

s
s
interface charge density =
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 63
Integrate the divergence of the fields over the volume of the box:

Volu Volume
Surface
me
d d
ds
r r
Divergence theorem
Flux of D out of the box

D
D n
=

Volume
Surface
dr
ds
Divergence theorem
Flux of B out of the box

B 0
B n
=

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 64
If the thickness of the box tends to zero and the charge density is
assumed to be uniform over the area, we have the following fluxes

The resulting boundary conditions are






The discontinuity in the normal component of the displacement
field D is equal to the density of surface charge.

The normal components of the magnetic induction field B are
continuous across the interface.
n n
s
n n
Area
Area
Area

1 2
1 2
= (D D )
= T
D-Flux out of box
B-Flux out of bo
otal interface charge =
= (B ) 0 x B

=

=
n n s n n 1 2 1 2
D D B B 0 = =
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 65
For isotropic and uniform values of and in the two media








Even when the interface charge is zero, the normal components of
the electric field are discontinuous at the interface, if there is a
change of dielectric constant .

The normal components of the magnetic field have a similar
discontinuity at the interface due to the change in the magnetic
permeability. In many practical situations, the two media may have
the same permeability as vacuum,
0
, and in such cases the normal
component of the magnetic field is conserved across the interface.

n n n n s
n n n n
1 2 1 1 2 2
1 2 1 1 2 2
D D E E
B B H H 0


= =
= =


Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 66
SUMMARY




















If medium 2 is
perfect conductor
















t

1
H
t

2
H
t

1
E
t

2
E
n

1
H
n

2
H
n

1
E
n

2
E

1
,
1

1
,
1

1
,
1

1
,
1

2
,
2

2
,
2

2
,
2

2
,
2
t t t s
t
n
1 2 1
2
H J

H H
H 0
=
=
=


t t t
t
1 2 1
2
E 0



E E




E 0
= =
=


n n n
n
1 1
2
2
H 0

H H
1 2

H 0
= =
=


1 1 2
2
1
E



E E
1 2
E 0


s

+
n
n
n n s
= =
=


Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 67
Examples:
An infinite current sheet generates a plane wave (free space on
both sides)















The E.M. field is transmitted on both sides of the infinitesimally thin
sheet of current.
x
y
+ z
- z
J
s
H
s

( ) cos( )

Phasor J
s so x
so x
J t J t i
J i
=
=

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 68
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS








1 2

(H H ) J
t t s
n =

1 2
1 2
1 0 1
1 2
1 2

H H
E E
E H
Symmetry H H
H H
2 2
t t so x
t t
t t
t t
so so
J i
J J

=
=
=
=
= =




Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 69
A semi-infinite perfect conductor medium in contact with free space
has uniform surface current and generates a plane wave
















The E.M. field is zero inside the perfect conductor. The wave is only
transmitted into free space.
x
y
+ z
- z
J
s
H

J cos( )
s so x
J t i =

Perfect
Conductor
Free Space
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 70
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS









1 2

(H H ) J
t t s
n =

1 2 1
2
1 2
1 2

H H H 0
E 0
Asymmetry H H
H H 0
t t t so x
t
t t
t so t
J i
J
= =
=

= =


Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 71
Doppler Effect









An observer moves along the direction of propagation of the
electromagnetic wave, with constant velocity v
o
.

Because of its movement, the observer will detect phase planes of
the wave at a different rate than in stationary position, as



E
H
z
z
o
Observer
z z v t
o o
= +

obs o o o o
t z v t t v t z = + = ( )
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 72
The observer detects an angular frequency
The frequency deviation (Doppler shift) is

If the observer moves on a different direction, one has to take into
account the projection of the velocity along the wave propagation
direction. The Doppler shift becomes



obs o
p
o
o
p
obs
o
p
v
v
v
v
v
f f
v
v
= = =
=
( )
( )
1
1
f f
v
v
p
=
0
f f
v i
v
o p
p
=

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 73










If the observer is stationary and the electromagnetic wave moves
with uniform velocity, the true and the measured frequencies are
related through the phase relationship







E
H
z
z
o
Plane wave
source
z z v t
o s
= +
Stationary observer


t t z t
v
v t t
v t
v
obs obs obs
obs
p
s obs
s
p
= = = ( )
Frame of reference of
moving E.M. source
Frame of reference of
fixed observer
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 74

The frequency recorded by the observer is

In most practical cases, the velocity of the source is much smaller
than the phase velocity of the wave



= =

obs
s
p
obs
s
p
v
v
v
v
( ) 1
1
f
f
v
v
obs
s
p
=
1
v v f f
v
v
s p obs
s
p
<< + ( ) 1
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 75
Electromagnetic Waves in Material Media

In a material medium free charges may be present, which generate
a current under the influence of the wave electric field. The current
J
c
is related to the electric field E through the conductivity as





The material may also have specific relative values of dielectric
permittivity and magnetic permeability





J E
c
=
r o r o
= =
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 76
Maxwells equations become

In phasor notation, it is as if the material conductivity introduces an
imaginary part for the dielectric constant . The wave equation for
the phasor electric field is given by







We have assumed that the net charge density is zero, even if a
conductivity is present, so that the electric field divergence is zero.
E H
H E E ( )E
j
j j j


=

= + =

2
c
2
E E E H
(J E)
E ( )E
j
j j
j j



= =
= +
= +
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 77
In 1-D the wave equation is simply





with general solution


These resemble the voltage and current solutions in lossy
transmission lines.
2
2
2
E
( )E E
x
x x
j j
z

= + =

( )
( )
E ( ) exp( ) exp( )
1
( ) exp( ) exp( )
1
exp( ) exp( )
x
x
y
z A z B z
E j
H z A z B z
j z j
A z B z
= +
+
= =

=

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 78
The intrinsic impedance of the medium is defined as

For the propagation constant, one can obtain the real and imaginary
parts as
j
j
e
j


= =
+
1/ 2
2
1/ 2
2
( )
1 1
2
1 1
2
j j j = + = +
(

| |
(
= +
|

( \ .

(

| |
(
= + +
|

( \ .

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 79
Phase velocity and wavelength are now functions of frequency
The intrinsic impedance of the medium is complex as long as the
conductivity is not zero. The phase angle of the intrinsic
impedance indicates that electric field and magnetic field are out of
phase. Considering only the forward wave solutions
( )
( )
1 / 2
2
1 / 2
2
2
1 1
2 2
1 1
p
v
f


= = + +


= = + +

(
(
(

(
(
(

E ( ) exp( ) exp( ) exp( )
1 1
H ( ) exp( ) exp( ) exp( )
x
y
z A z A z j z
z A z j A z j z j
= =
= =

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 80
In time-dependent form



where the integration constant has been assumed to be in general a
complex quantity as


{ }
{ }
1
( , ) Re exp( ) exp( ) exp( )
exp( ) cos( )
1
( , ) Re exp( ) exp( ) exp( )
exp( )
exp( )
exp( ) cos( )
x
y
E z t z j z j t
z t z
H z t A z j z j j t
A j
A
j
A z t z =

=
+
=

+
=
exp( ) A A j =
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 81
Classification of materials

Perfect dielectrics - For these materials = 0
















Propagation constant
0
r o r o
=
=
Medium Impedance
=
r o
r o
j
j

=

Phase velocity
1
p
r o r o
v

= =


Wavelength
2 1
p
r o r o
v
f
f

= = =


Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 82
Imperfect dielectrics For these materials 0 but (/)<<1

1
2
( ) 1
2
1 1
1
2
2
p
j j j j
j
v
f
j j
j
j j

= + =


+ +


= =



| |
= =
|
+

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 83
If (/)<<1, the errors made in the approximations for , , v
p

and are very small, since only terms of order (/)
2
or higher
appear in the expansions. The error is slightly higher fo the
medium impedance since the expansion contains a term of order
(/).

The simple rule of thumb is that approximations for imperfect
dielectric can be applied when


When the condition above is verified, the imperfect dielectric
behaves in all respects like a perfect dielectric, except for an
attenuation term in the fields.

The quantity / is called Loss Tangent.
0.1

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 84
Good conductors For these materials 0 but (/)>>1
( )
1 1
exp( ) (1 )
4
2 2
4 2 4
exp( )
4
1 1
2 2
(1 )
p
j j j j
j j f j
f
v
f
j j
j
f
f
j j
f
j
= + =

| |
= = + = +
\ .

= =


=

=
+

| |
= + =
\ .

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 85
The simple rule of thumb is that approximations for good conductor
can be applied when


Note that for a good conductor the attenuation constant and the
propagation constant are approximately equal.


The medium impedance has nearly equal real and imaginary
parts, therefore its phase angle is approximately 45.


This means that in a good conductor the electric and magnetic
fields have always a phase difference = 45 = /4.

10

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 86

Also, in a good conductor the fields attenuate very rapidly. The
distance over which fields are attenuated by a factor exp(1.0) is



A typical good conductor is copper, which has the following
parameters:



1 1
Skin depth
f
= = =


7
5.80 10 [S/m]
o
o
=


Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 87
Copper remains a good conductor at extremely high frequencies.
Another good conductor example is sea water at relatively low
frequencies




At a frequency of 25 kHz



4.0 [S/m]
80
o
o



36, 000

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 88
Perfect conductor - For this ideal material

For this material, the attenuation is also infinite and the skin depth
goes to zero. This means that the electromagnetic field must go to
zero below the perfect conductor surface.

General medium - When a material is not covered by one of the limit
cases, the complete formulation must be used. We can classify a
material for which the conditions (/)<<1 or (/)>>10 are
invalid as a general medium.

The simple rule of thumb for general medium is


10 0.1

> >

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 89
Power Flow in Electromagnetic Waves

The time-dependent power flow density of an electromagnetic wave
is given by the instantaneous Poynting vector






For time-varying fields it is important to consider the time-average
power flow density



where T is the period of observation.

( ) ( ) ( )
P t E t H t

=
0 0
1 1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
T T
P t P t dt E t H t dt
T T

= =

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 90
Consider time-harmonic fields represented in terms of their phasors

The time-dependent Poynting vector can be expressed as the sum
of the cross-products of the components


(Note that:
1
cos sin sin2
2
t t t = )

( )
2
2
( ) ( ) Re{E} Re{H} cos
Im{E} Im{H} sin
Re{E} Im{H} Im{E} Re{H} cos sin
E t H t t
t
t t



=
+
+
{ }
{ }
( ) Re E exp( ) Re{E} cos Im{E} sin
( ) Re Hexp( ) Re{H} cos Im{H} sin
E t j t t t
H t j t t t


= =
= =


Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 91
The time-average power flow density can be obtained by integrating
the previous result over a period of oscillation T . The pre-factors
containing field phasors do not depend on time, therefore we have
to solve for the following integrals:
2
0
0
2
0
0
2
0
0
1 1 sin2
cos
2 4
1 1 sin2
sin
2 4
1 1 sin
cos sin
2
1
1
2
0
2
T
T
T
T
T
T
t t
t dt
T T
t t
t dt
T T
t
t t dt
T T

(
= + =
(

(
= =
(

= =
(

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 92
The final result for the time-average power flow density is given by


Now, consider the following cross product of phasor vectors





( )
0
1
( ) ( ) ( )
1
Re{E} Re{H} Im{E} Im{H}
2
T
P t E t H t dt
T


=
= +

( )
*
E H Re{E} Re{H} Im{E} Im{H}
Im{E} Re{H} Re{E} Im{H} j


= +
+
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 93
By combining the previous results, one can obtain the following
time average rule

We also call complex Poynting vector the quantity

NOTE: the complex Poynting vector is not the phasor of the time-
dependent power nor that of the time-average power density!




Phasor notation cannot be applied to the product of two time-
harmonic functions (e.g., P( t )), even if they have same frequency.
{ }
*
0
1 1
( ) ( ) ( ) Re E H
2
T
P t E t H t dt
T

= =

*
1
P E H
2

=
{ } { }
( ) Re P ( ) Re P exp( ) P t P t j t don't t ( ) ry

= =
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 94
Consider a 1-D electro-magnetic wave moving along the z-direction,
with a specified electric field amplitude E
o


The time-average power flow density is

Power in a lossy medium decays as exp(-2 z)!
E ( ) exp( ) exp( )
H ( ) exp( ) exp( ) exp( )
x o
o
y
z E z j z
E
z z j z j
=
=

{ }
{ }
*
*
2 2
2 2
1 1
( ) Re E H Re
2 2
1 1
Re cos
2 2
z j z z j z j
o
o
z z
j
o o
E
P t E e e e e e
e e
E e E




= =
`


)
= =

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 95
Consider the same wave, with a specified amplitude for the
magnetic field

The time-average power flow density is expressed as


If is the attenuation constant for the electromagnetic fields
2 is the attenuation constant for power flow.

H ( ) exp( ) exp( )
E ( ) exp( ) exp( ) exp( )
y o
x o
z H z j z
z H z j z j
=
=
{ }
*
2
2
1
( ) Re
2
1
cos
2
z j z z j z j
o o
z
o
P t H e e H e e e
H e



=
=
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 96
If the wave is generated by an infinitesimally thin sheet of uniform
current J
so
(embedded in an infinite material with conductivity )
we have for propagation along the positive z-direction (normal to
the plane of the current sheet):I




For this ideal case, an identical wave exists, propagating along the
negative z-direction and carrying the same amount of power.
2
2
2 2
( ) cos
8
so so
o o
z
so
J J
H E
J
P t e


= =
=
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 97
Poynting Theorem

Consider the divergence of the time-dependent power flow density

The curls can be expressed by using Maxwells equations












This is the differential form of Poynting Theorem.
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) P t E t H t H t E t E t H t

= =
2 2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
H E
P t H t E t E t E t
t t
E t E t H t
t t



=


| | | |
=
| |

\ . \ .
Density of
dissipated
power
Rate of change
of stored electric
energy density
Rate of change
of stored magnetic
energy density
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 98
Now, integrate the divergence of the time-dependent power over a
specified volume V to obtain the integral form of Poynting theorem


















2 2 2
Power Flux through S ( ) ( )
1 1
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
V S
V V V
P t dV P t ds
E t dV E t dV H t dV
t t

= =

=



Power dissipated
in volume
Rate of change
of electric energy
stored in volume
Rate of change
of magnetic energy
stored in volume
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 99
Typical applications











L
in
P t ( )

out
P t ( )

= ?
1 m
2
2
Watts
( ) ( ) exp( 2 )
m
( )
1 Nepers
ln
2 ( ) m
out
in
out in
P t P t
P t
L P t
L

| |
(
=
(
=
(

|
(

\ .
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 100

Example:



Pay attention to the logarithms:



2 2
Watts Watts
( ) 30 ; ( ) 5 ; 20 m
m m
Nepers
= 0.0448
m
in out
P t P t L

( (
= = =
( (

(

(

( ) ( )
ln ln
( ) ( )
out in
in out
P t P t
P t P t


| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 101









Area = Area(A) = Area(B)
Power IN ( ) ( ) Area
Power OUT ( ) ( ) Area
( ) ( ) exp( 2 )
= Power IN Power OU Power dissipated T
A A
A
B B
B
B A
P t dS P t
P t dS P t
P t P t L



= =
= =
=

L
out
B
P t ( ) Power OUT =


SURFACE A SURFACE B
in
A
P t ( ) Power IN =


Power dissipated
between A and B?
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 102
Example
2
Area = 5 m
2
8.2244637 General Lossy medium
130.88 0.725rad 130.88 41.5
; 1.0 cm; 1.0 GHz; 10 V/m
; ; 0.45755 S/m
34
40.0 Ne/m; ( ) 0.286 W/m ;
( ) ( ) exp( 2 )
in
out i
o
n
B A
o o
P t
P t P t L
L f E

= =

= = =
= = =
= =
= =
2
Power IN Area ( )
Power OUT Area ( )
= Power IN Power Power dissipat T e OU d
0.12845 W/m ;
1.43 W
0.6423 W
0.7876 W
in
B
P t
P t

=
=

=
=
=
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 103
Normal Incidence on an Interface

Consider a planar interface between two unbounded media, and a
uniform plane wave with normal incidence on the interface.
















Medium 1

1
=
r1

1
=
r1

1
Medium 2

2
=
r2

2
=
r2

2
Incident wave
Reflected wave
Transmitted wave
z
0
x
y
Interface
{x,y}-plane
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 104
Because of the medium discontinuity, the incident wave
experiences a partial reflection at the interface.

In medium 2, only a forward transmitted wave exists

The total fields at the interface must satisfy the boundary
conditions for electromagnetic fields. Without loss of generality,
we assume the following orientation for the electromagnetic fields
of the waves











E
x
H
y
z
Propagation
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 105
Recalling the solution for Helmholtz equation, the phasor fields in
the medium 1 can be written as


( )
Refle To Inci cted wave tal
Fi
dent wav
l
e
e d

1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1 1
1 1
1 1
1
1
E ( )
H ( )
1
E E exp( )
H exp( )
E exp(
exp( )
H exp( )
E ) exp( )
+

+
+

= +
= +


z
z
z
z
z z
z
z
1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1
( )
j
j j
j

= + =
+
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 106
The forward transmitted wave in medium 2 is given by






Transm itted wave Total
Fie d

l

2 2
2 2
2 2
2
2
2
E exp( )
H exp( )
1
E exp(
E ( )
H ( )
)
+
+
+

=
=
=
x
y
z z
z z
z
2
2 2 2 2 2
2 2
( )
j
j j
j

= + =
+
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 107
Both fields are parallel to the interface. The boundary conditions
indicate that the total fields are continuous at the interface. Note
that we are assuming a finite conductivity, therefore no surface
current exists and the tangent magnetic field is also continuous.

The interface is located at z = 0 so all exponentials are equal to 1:


Assuming that the amplitude E
1
+
of the incident wave is known, we
have two unknowns E
1

and E
2
+
. In order to obtain a general result,
it is convenient to solve the equations above in terms of reflection
coefficient (E
1

/E
1
+
) and transmission coefficient (E
2
+
/E
1
+
).
( )
1
1
1 2
1 2
1
2
1
2
2
1
E ( 0) E ( 0)
1 1
H ( 0) H ( 0
E
E )
E
E E
E
x x
y y
z z
z z
+
+
+
+
= = = + =
= = = =

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 108
Reflection Coefficient

This is similar to the voltage load reflection coefficient found for a
transmission line, if one considers the following analogy

For the magnetic field
1 2 1
E
2 1
1
E
E

+

= =
+
2
1 0
Medium 1 Transmission Line
Characteristi
Medium 2 Load
Load Im
c Impedance
pedance
R
Z
Z


1 1 1 1
H E
1 1 1 1
H E / E
H E / E

+ + +

= = = =

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 109
Transmission Coefficient


For the magnetic field we have


NOTE: The reflection and transmission coefficients for the fields are
in general complex quantities.
E
2
E
2 1 1 1
1 1 1
2 1
E E E E
1
2
1
E E E
+ +
+ + +

+
+
= = = +

=
+
=
2 1 1 1 1
H E
1 1 1 1
H H H H E
1 1 1
H H H E
+ +
+ + + +
+
= = = + = =
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 110
Special cases

Matched Impedances

In this case we have total transmission into medium 2 and no
reflection.

Medium 2 = Perfect Conductor

The wave experiences total reflection, consistent with the fact that
the fields must be zero inside the perfect conducting medium. This
case is analogous to a line with a short circuit load. The total
electric fields at the interface is
1 2 E E
0 1 and = = =
2 2 E E
0 1 0 and = = =
1 1 1 1 1 1 E 2
E E E E E 0 E E
+ + + + + +
+ = + = = =
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 111
Perfect Dielectric Media

Usually,

1
1
1
2
2
2
1
2
Rea 0
0
l
Real
=

= =

= =

=
2 1 2 1
E
2 1 2 1
2 1
E
2 1
2
2
1
1
/ / 1 /
Real
/ / 1 /
1 / 2
1 1 Real
1 / 1 /
o o
o
o
o

= = =
+ +
=


= + = + = =
+ +
=
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 112
Power flow

Assuming dielectric media (no-loss) for simplicity, the time-average
power associated with the incident wave and the reflected wave is

The power reflection coefficient is
{ }
2
2
1
E
1
*
1
2
1
E
1 1
E
1
( )
2
( ) Re E H
2 2
in
refl
P
P t
t

+
+
=

= =

E P
2
(
)
)
(
refl
in
P
t
t
P

= =
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 113
The time-average power flow transmitted in medium 2 is
Also

since power flow normal to the interface must be continuous

2
2
2
E
1
( )
2
trans
P t

+
=

( )
2
1
2
E
1
(
E
( ) 1 )
1
2
( )
r t ef ns in l ra
P P t t t P

+

= =
( )
2 2
2 1
2
E
2 1
E E
1 1
1
2 2
+ +

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 114
The power transmission coefficient is



Note that, as a consequence of power conservation, from the
results above one gets


NOTE: the reflection and transmission coefficients for the time-
average power flow are always real.
2
1
E
2
2
E
P
( )
( )
(
( )
)
( )
1
in
in
i
tran
ref
n
s
l
P t
P t
P
P
P
t
t
t

= =

= =

2
P
2
P E E
1 1 + = + =
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 115
Plane Waves in Arbitrary Directions
For a uniform plane wave with general orientation, the direction of
propagation is identified by the propagation vector, normal to the
phase planes

Considering the position vector


we have the scalar dot product


y x z z x y
i i i

+ + =

r

z y x
y x i i i z

= + +
( ) ( )

r

y y y x x x
x
z z
y
z
z
i x i i z i
z x
i y i
y


= + + + + =
= +

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 116
The electromagnetic fields of a plane wave propagating along a
general direction are on the phase plane perpendicular to the
propagation vector and can be written as


We have assumed propagation in a dielectric by giving the same
phase to the fields. In addition

( )
( )
( )
( )
cos r
cos
cos r
co
(r
(r, )
, )
s
o o
o x y z o
o o
o x y z o
E t
E t x y z
H t
H t x y z
H t
E t


= +
= +
= +
= +
(dielectric)
o
o
E
H

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 117
The fields are perpendicular to each other and to the propagation
vector according to the right hand rule















The propagation vector is also parallel to the Poynting vector.
( , , ) E x y z

( , , ) H x y z

, P


x
y
z
(r, ) (r, ) ( ) E t H t P t


=
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 118
The orthogonality of the vectors can be expressed mathematically
by the following dot products




and cross products

We have








o
o o o
E
H i E i H



= =

0
o o o o
E H E H

= = =
/ /
o
o
o o
o
o
E E
H
E
i
E
H


= = =

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 119










Since the propagation vector is related to the wavelength and the
phase velocity as


for each direction corresponding to components of the propagation
vector we can define apparent wavelengths and apparent velocities

o
o o o
o
o
E i H H H
H
E


= = =

2
p
v


= =

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 120

The apparent quantities are related to the actual ones as

2 2 2
y
y
py
x
x
px
x y
z
z
pz
z
v v v

=
=


=

2
2
2 2
2 2 2 2
2
2
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1
4 4 4
1 1 1
1 1 1 1
4
x y z
p px py pz
y
z
x
y
z
x
v v v v



= = + + =



= = + + =

+ +

+ +


Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 121

















An apparent wavelength is greater than the actual one, since it is
measured along a direction which is not normal to the parallel
phase planes.
Phase planes
x

x x
i

1
r

2
r

3
r

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 122
An apparent velocity is greater than the actual velocity since it
seemingly connects longer distances during the same time. With
reference to the previous figure

Since


The apparent velocity always exceeds the phase velocity. However,
we will see later that relativity laws are not violated.

If one considers a direction parallel to the phase planes, the
apparent velocity is even infinite!
( )
( )
2 1 1
3 1 1
r r
r r
p
px x
v t
v i t


=
=
( ) ( )
2 1 3 1
r r r r
p px
v v

< <
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 123
Phasor notation




( )
{ }
( )
{ }
cos
Re
cos (r, )
phasor H(r)
(r, )
phasor E(r
Re
)
y
z
y
z
o x
y
x
z
o x
o
j
o x y z o
j y
j z
j j x j t
y
j z
j j x
o
o x y z o
j y
j z
j j x
j t
o
o
o
E t x y z
E e e e e e
H t
E t
E e e e
x y z
H e e
t
e e
e
H
e
H

= +
=
= +
=
=
=
y
z
o x
j y
j z
j j x
e e e e



Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 124
Incidence on Perfect Conductor

Consider first normal incidence at an interface between a dielectric
and a perfect conductor. Total reflection occurs, as in a short-
circuited transmission line.















Medium 1

1
=
r1

1
=
r1

o

Medium 2
Perfect
Conductor

2

Incident wave
Reflected wave
z
0
x
y
Interface
{x,y}-plane
0
E
H
0
=
=

E
1.0 =
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 125
Because of interference between incident and reflected wave, there
is a standing wave in medium 1.


















Medium 1

1
=
r1

1
=
r1

o
Medium 2
Perfect
Conductor

2

z
0
x
y
0
E
H
0
=
=

o
E 2
o
E 2

/ 2 /
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 126
Consider now incidence at an angle. We choose an electric field
perpendicular to the plane of incidence.


















Medium 1

1
=
r1

1
=
r1

o
Medium 2
Perfect
Conductor

2

z
0
x
y
0
E
H
0
=
=

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 127
Only the normal component, corresponding to
z
is reflected.

















Note:
z z
< >
Medium 1

1
=
r1

1
=
r1

o
Medium 2
Perfect
Conductor

2

z
0
x
y
0
E
H
0
=
=

o
E 2
o
E 2

z z
/ / 2 = 2 /
z z
=
Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 128




















max
max
max
m
max
in
First minimum
First maximum
4 4 cos
45 0.35
15 0.259
2 2 co
2 2
s
2
; cos
Exa
0 0.25
mples:
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z


=

= = =

= =
=

=
=
=

Medium 2
Perfect
Conductor

2

z
0
x
y
0
E
H
0
=
=

Electromagnetic Fields
Amanogawa, 2006 Digital Maestro Series 129
If we place a second perfect conductor interface, parallel to the
previous one, the wave is guided along the x-direction by reflection.


















z
0
x
y
0
E
H
0
=
=

Perfect
Conductor

2

Perfect
Conductor

2

0
E
H
0
=
=

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