Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag

Chapter 6
Effect of material properties on design
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Chapter 6: Goal and objectives
The goal of this chapter is to illustrate how the material-
related factors affect the design. The main objectives are
to get better understanding of the material properties that
need to be considered when designing for:
1. static strength, stiffness, and toughness
2. fatigue resistance
3. high-temperature conditions
4. hostile environments
5. wear resistance
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Design for static strength I
Designing for simple axial loading
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
When the component is subjected to uniaxial stress, yielding will take place
when the local stress reaches the yield strength of the material.
The critical cross sectional area, A, of such component can be estimated as:

YS nL K A
t
/ (6.1)

where K
t
= stress concentration factor
L = applied load
n = factor of safety
YS = yield strength of the material
Design for static strength II
Designing for torsional loading
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
The critical cross sectional area of a circular shaft subjected to torsional
loading can be determined from the relationship:


max
/ / 2 nT K d I
t p
(6.2)

where d = shaft diameter at the critical cross section

max
= shear strength of the material
T = transmitted torque
I
p
= polar moment of inertia of the cross section
= d
4
/32 for a solid circular shaft
= (d
o
4
- d
i
4
)/32 for a hollow circular shaft of
inner diameter d
i
and outer diameter d
o

Design for static strength III
Designing for bending
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
When a relatively long beam is subjected to bending, the bending
moment, the maximum allowable stress, and dimensions of the cross
section are related by the equation:

YS nM Z / ) ( (6.3)

where M = bending moment.
Z = section modulus = I/c.
I = moment of inertia of the cross section with respect to
the neutral axis normal to the direction of the load.
c = distance from center of gravity of the cross section to
the outermost fiber.
Design example 6.1 Designing a cantilever beam I
Determine the dimensions of a cantilever beam of length 1 m and
rectangular cross section of depth-to-width ratio 2:1.
The cantilever is not to deflect more than 50 mm for every 1000 N
increment of load at its tip.
The beam material is steel AISI 4340 with
YS 1420 MPa and UTS 1800 MPa.
What is the maximum permissible load?
Assume a suitable factor of safety.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Design example 6.1 Designing a cantilever beam II
Answer:
Deflection (y) of a cantilever beam under a load (L) acting on its tip is
given by the relationship: y = (L l
3
)/(3 E I),
where l = the length of the cantilever, E = elastic modulus= 210 GPa
I = [b(2b)
3
]/12 = (L l
3
)/2 y E. This gives b -14.77 mm
Taking a factor of safety n = 1.5
Z = (nM)/YS = 1.5 x L x 1000/1420 = 14.77 (2 x 14.77)
3
/ 12 x 14.77
= 2148 mm
3
The safe value of L = 2033 N.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Design example 6.2 Selection of a material
for a stiff and light tie rod I
Select one of the following materials for the manufacture of the tie
rods of a suspension bridge.
The rod is 10 m long and carries a tensile load of 50 kN. The rod
must not yield and the maximum extension is 18 mm.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Material YS
(MPa)
E
(GPa)
Specific
gravity
Area based
on yield
strength
(mm
2
)
Area
based on
deflection
(mm
2
)
Mass
(kg)
ASTM A675 Grade 60 205 212 7.8 244 131 19
ASTM A572 Grade 50 345 211 7.8 145 131 11.3
ASTM A717 Grade 70 485 211 7.8 103 131 10.2
Maraging steel Grade 200 1400 211 7.8 36 131 10.2
Al 5052-H38 259 70.8 2.7 193 392 10.6
Cartridge brass 70% hard temper 441 100.6 8.0 113 276 22.1

Design example 6.2 Selection of a material
for a stiff and light tie rod II
Solution
For the present case, calculations of the area will be carried out twice:
Area based on yield strength = load/YS
Area based on deflection = (load x length)/(E x deflection)
The larger of the two areas will be taken as the design area and will
be used to calculate the mass.
The results of the calculations are shown in the table and show that
steel A717 grade 70 and maraging steel grade 200 give the least
mass. As the former steel is more ductile and less expensive it will
be selected.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Designing for stiffness
Examples of how low stiffness of plastics is overcome by increasing
the second moment of area of the critical cross-section
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Design example 6.3 Substituting HDPE for stainless steel
in a fork
What design changes are required when substituting HDPE for stainless steel in
making a fork for a picnic set while maintaining similar stiffness.
Solution:
E for stainless steel = 210 GPa , E for HDPE = 1.1 GPa
The narrowest cross section of the stainless steel fork is rectangular of 0.6 x 5 mm
I for the stainless steel section = 5 x (0.6)
3
/12 = 0.09 mm
4
EI for stainless steel = 210 x 0.09 = 18.9, EI for HDPE design = 1.1 x I
I for HDPE design = 17.2 mm
4
.
A channel section of thickness 0.5 mm, web height 4 mm, and width 8 mm
I = [8 x (4)
3
- 7 x (3.5)
3
]/12 = 17.7 mm
4
, which meets the required value.
Areas of the stainless steel and HDPE sections = 3 mm
2
and 7.5 mm
2
of stainless steel is 7.8 and that of HDPE is 0.96.
Relative weight of HDPE/Stainless steel = (7.5 x 0.96)/(3 x 7.8) = 0.3
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Designing with high-strength low toughness materials I
High-strength materials are less tolerant of defects than the
traditional lower-strength, tougher materials.
A crack-like defect can safely exist in a low-strength ductile material,
it can cause catastrophic failure in a high-strength low-toughness
material.
Such defects can be the result of:
Initial flaws in the material, e.g. inclusions and cavities.
Production deficiencies, e.g. welding defects.
Service conditions, e.g. fatigue cracks or stress corrosion
cracks.
Fail-safe design : The structure is sufficiently damage tolerant to
allow defects to be detected before they develop to a dangerous
size.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Designing with high-strength low toughness materials II
Guidelines for design
In designing with high-strength low-toughness materials, the
interaction between fracture toughness of the material, the
allowable crack size, and the design stress should be considered.
The condition for failure under plane strain conditions, where a
crack of length 2a exists in a thick infinitely large plate, is given
by:
K
I
= K
IC
= Y
f
( a)
1/2
(6.8)
Where
f
is the fracture stress
Y is a dimensionless factor which is a function of crack geometry.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Design example 6.4 Designing with K
IC
If the minimum detectable crack in the beam described in example
6.1 is 3 mm, what is the maximum permissible load? K
IC
of the
beam material is 87.4 MPa m
1/2
.
Answer
K
IC
= 87.4 = Y
f
( a)
1/2
Taking Y = 1 and a = 1.5 mm, then
f
= 1273.2 MPa.
For a beam in bending, Z = (nM)/YS
L = (
f
x Z)/(n x l) = (1273.2 x 2148)/(1.5 x 1000) = 1824 N
Conclusion
This load is less than the safe load calculated in example 6.1,
which means that had the presence of cracks been ignored, failure
would have taken place.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Leak-before-burst
The approach of leak-before-burst utilizes the fracture mechanics
approach in designing pressure vessels and similar structures.
If a vessel containing pressurized gas or liquid has a growing crack,
the toughness should be sufficiently high to tolerate a defect size
which will allow the contents to leak out before it grows
catastrophically.
For leakage to occur, the crack must grow through the vessel wall
thickness, t.
This means that the crack length 2a is about 2t.
This condition is satisfied when (K
IC
/Y )
2
is larger than t.
Example 6.5 illustrates the use of the leak-before-burst approach in
design.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Design example 6.5 Designing of a pressure vessel for
leak-before-burst conditions I
Design a pressure vessel of the following specifications:
Internal pressure, p = 16 MN/m
2
, Internal diameter, D = 400 mm
Welded joints are inspected using NDT which detect surface
cracks > 3 mm.
Solution
Consider fist the use of AISI 4340 . When tempered at 260
o
C it has
YS1640 MPa and K
IC
= 50.0 MPa m
1/2
.
Treating the pressure vessel as a thin wall cylinder, the wall
thickness, t, is given as t = p D/2 S
w
where S
w
is the working stress.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Design example 6.5 Designing of a pressure vessel for
leak-before-burst conditions II
Taking a factor of safety of 2, the working stress is 820 MPa and the
wall thickness is 3.9 mm.
The critical surface crack size can then be calculated as:
K
IC
= 50 = Y
f
( a)
1/2
= Y x 820 ( a)
1/2
Taking Y as 1, for
f
/YS = 0.5, the critical crack length is found to
be 2.37 mm.
This length is too small to be detected by the available NDT
technique and does not satisfy the condition for leak-before-burst,
which makes the selected steel unsuitable.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Design example 6.5 Designing of a pressure
vessel for leak-before-burst conditions III
Taking the same steel, AISI 4340, but tempering at 425
o
C gives a
yield Strength of 1420 MPa and K
IC
of 87.4 MPa m
1/2
.
Following the same procedure as before, t = 4.5 mm and the critical
crack length is 9.66 mm which can be detected by the available
NDT technique and also satisfies the condition for leak-before-
burst.
This means that the steel in this tempered condition is acceptable for
making the pressure vessel from the fracture mechanics point of
view.
Other factors like availability of material, weldability, weight of
vessel, and cost have to be taken into consideration before this
steel is finally selected.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Designing against fatigue
The fatigue behavior of materials is usually described by means of the
S-N diagram which gives the number of cycles to failure, N, as a
function of the maximum applied alternating stress, S
a
.
Such values cannot be directly used for design purposes because the
behavior of a component under fatigue loading does not only depend
on the endurance limit of the material, but also on several other factors
including:
size and shape of the component or structure;
type of loading and state of stress;
stress concentration and surface finish;
operating temperature and service environment;
The influence of the above factors can be accounted for by modifying the
endurance limit of the material using a number of derating factors.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Table 6.2 Effect of surface condition and environment on the fatigue strength of steels

UTS
MPa (ksi)
Fatigue strength as % of maximum endurance limit
Mirror
polish
Polished Machined 0.1 mm
notch
Hot
worked
surface
Under
fresh
water
Under
salt
water
280 (40) 100 95 93 87 82 72 52
560 (80) 100 92 88 77 63 53 36
840 (122) 100 90 84 66 47 37 25
1120 (162) 100 88 78 55 37 25 17
1400 (203) 100 88 72 44 30 19 14
1540 (223) 100 88 69 39 30 19 12

Fatigue endurance-limit modifying factors
Derating factors are used to account for the parameters that affect the
behavior of components in service under fatigue loading as
follows:
S
e
= k
a
k
b
k
c
k
d
k
e
k
f
k
g
k
h
S
e
' (6.10)
S
e
= endurance limit of the material in the component
S
e
= endurance limit of the material from laboratory fatigue test
k
a
= surface finish factor, k
b
= size factor
k
c
= reliability factor, k
d
= operating temperature factor
k
e
= loading factor, k
f
= stress concentration factor
k
g
= service environment factor,
k
h
= manufacturing processes factor
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Table 6.3 Effect of surface finish and UTS on surface finish factor (k
a
) for steels

UTS
MPa (ksi)
Forged
R
a
=500-125
Hot rolled
R
a
=250-63
Machined or
cold drawn
R
a
=125-32
Ground
R
a
=63-4
Polished
R
a
<16
420 (60) 0.54 0.70 0.84 0.90 1.00
700 (100) 0.40 0.55 0.74 0.90 1.00
1000 (143) 0.32 0.45 0.68 0.90 1.00
1400 (200) 0.25 0.36 0.64 0.90 1.00
1700 (243) 0.20 0.30 0.60 0.90 1.00

Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Table 6.4 Effect of environment and UTS on the service environment factor (k
g
) for steels

UTS
MPa (ksi)
k
g
under fresh water k
g
under salt water
280 (40) 0.72 0.52
560 (80) 0.52 0.36
840 (122) 0.37 0.25
1120 (162) 0.25 0.17
1400 (203) 0.19 0.14
1540 (223) 0.19 0.12

Design example 6.6-Design an axle for fatigue resistance I
Calculate the diameter of the two rear axle shafts for a truck of mass
6000 kg.
2/3 of the mass of the truck is supported by the rear axles, which can
be treated as cantilever beams each of one meter length with the
load acting on its end. The material is 4340 steel of UTS 952 MPa
and the endurance ratio is 0.56.
Solution
The endurance limit is 532 MPa.
Take the surface finish factor k
a
as 0.68,
Assuming 3 inch diameter shaft, the size factor k
b
is 0.8.
The reliability is taken as k
c
= 0.752.
The loading factor is k
e
= 1, as the shaft is loaded in bending.
Stress concentration factor k
f
= 0.7
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Design example 6.6-Design an axle for fatigue resistance II
Se = 532 x 0.68 x 0.8 x 0.752 x 1.0 x 0.7 = 152.3 MPa.
Load acting on each shaft = 6000 x 2/3 x 1/2 x 9.8 = 19600 N.
Bending moment M= 19600 x 1 = 19600 N.m.
Stress acting on the surface of the shaft = S = M/Z = 32 M/ D
3
D
3
= (32 x 19600 x 1000)/( x 152.3) = 1,310,860 mm
3
D = 109.5 mm.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Effect of mean stress on fatigue behavior
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Incorporating mean and alternating
stresses in design
In designing for fatigue under mean and alternating stresses,
separate factors of safety for the static and alternating strengths
of the material, n
m
and n
a
can be used.
When the component contains a stress concentration, separate stress
concentration factors K
t
, and K
f
are also used .
The factors can be incorporated with the Goodman line as follows:
The Soderberg line can be used by substituting YS for UTS.
Design example 6.7 illustrates the use of this approach in design.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
1 / /
e a f a m t m
S S K n UTS S K n
Design example 6.7 Design of a cantilever beam for
fatigue behavior I
The cantilever beam in example 6.1: length 1 m and rectangular
cross section of depth-to-width ratio 2:1.
The material is steel AISI 4340 with
YS 1420 MPa, UTS 1800 MPa., and endurance ratio 0.56.
The load on the beam in is fluctuating around a mean value of 1000
N, what is the maximum alternating load that can be applied
without causing fatigue failure?
Use a suitable factors of safety.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Design example 6.7 Design of a cantilever beam for
fatigue behavior II
Answer:
From example 6.1, Z = 2148 mm
3
,
Mean stress = S
m
= M/Z = 1000 x1000/2148 = 465.3 MPa
Endurance limit = Se = 1800 x 0.56 = 1008 MPa.
Taking a factor of safety of 1.5 for the static load and 3 for the
dynamic load,
(n
m
K
t
S
m
/UTS)+(n
a
K
f
S
a
/S
e
) = 1
= (1.5 x 465.3/1800)+(3xS
a
/1008)
S
a
= 205.7 MPa,
Alternating load = (205.7 x 2148)/1000 = 440 N
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Cumulative fatigue damage
According to the Palmgren-Miner rule, if cyclic stressing occurs at a
series of stress levels S
1
, S
2
, S
3
,....S
i
, each of which would
corresponds to a failure life of N
1
, N
2
, N
3
,....N
i
if applied singly.
Then, the fraction of total life used at each stress level is the
actual number of cycles applied at this level n
1
, n
2
, n
3
,....n
i
divided
by the corresponding life.
The part is expected to fail when the cumulative damage satisfies the
relationship:
n
1
/N
1
+ n
2
/N
2
+ n
3
/N
3
+.....+ n
i
/N
i
= C (6.13)
C is usually in the range 0.7 to 2.2 and can be taken as unity.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Other fatigue design criteria
Safe-life, or finite-life, design assumes that the component is free
from flaws but the stress level is higher than the endurance limit.
This means that fatigue crack initiation is inevitable and the
component life is estimated as the number of stress cycles to initiate
such a crack.
Fail-safe design assumes that cracks that form in service will be
detected and repaired before they can lead to failure. This requires
materials with high fracture toughness and a reliable NDT program.
Damage-tolerant design is an extension of the fail-safe criterion; it
assumes that flaws exist in components before they are put in
service. Fracture mechanics techniques are used to determine
whether such cracks will grow large enough to cause failure before
they are detected during a periodic inspection.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Designing under high temperature conditions
Under creep conditions, the service life of a component at a given
service temperature is usually determined by the creep rate and
applied stress.
For design purposes, creep properties are usually presented on plots
which yield reasonable straight lines.
Common methods of presentation include :
log-log plots of stress vs. steady state creep rate
stress vs. time to produce different amounts of total strain
In addition to creep, the other factors which must be taken into
consideration include:
Metallurgical and microstructural changes at high temperature
Oxidation and hot corrosion
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Variation of stress with steady-state creep rate at various
temperatures
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Variation of stress with time to produce different amounts of total
strain at a given temperature. The uppermost curve is the stress-
rupture which occurs at different total strains to failure
Design example 6.8 - Designing of a cantilever
beam to resist creep
If the cantilever describes in example 6.1 is made of 5% Cr, o.5% Mo
steel and is to serve at 300
o
C, what is the maximum allowable load
that can be endured at least 100,000 hrs?
Analysis
The allowable design stress for 5% Cr - 0.5% Mo steel according to the
ASME Boiler Code is shown in Fig. 6.6.
From the figure, the allowable stress at 300
o
C is about 90 MPa.
Maximum allowable load = (90 x 2148)/1000 = 193.3 N
Conclusion
Comparing the above result with example 6.1 shows that the maximum
allowable load at 300
o
C is less than 10% of the safe load at room
temperature.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Larson-Miller
parameter (LMP)
LMP correlates creep data
at different times and
temperatures.
LMP = T (C + log t
r
)
T = test temp. in Kelven
t
r
= time to rupture in hrs.
C = Larson-Miller constant
Usually taken to be 20
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Design example 6.9 Designing a turbine blade to
resist creep using LMP
If a turbine blade made of Nimonic 105 alloy had a life of 10,000 hrs
at 150 MPa at 810
o
C, what is the expected life at the same stress
but at service temperature 750
o
C ?
Solution
LMP = T (C + log t
r
)
where T = is temperature in degrees Kelvin or degrees Rankin
t
r
= time to rupture in hours, the log is to the base 10
C= the Larson-Miller constant, often taken to be 20.
LMP = (810 + 273) (20 + 4) = (750 + 273) (20 + log t
r
)
Life at the new service temperature is about 255,637 hours.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Life under combined fatigue and creep loading
Similar to the cumulative fatigue reasoning, life can be predicted
under combined fatigue and creep loading:
t
1
/t
r1
+ t
2
/t
r2
+ t
3
/t
r3
+..... + n
1
/N
1
+ n
2
/N
2
+ n
3
/N
3
+..... = 1
where
t
1
, t
2
, t
3
... are the times spent by the part under stress levels 1, 2, 3,
t
r1
, t
r2
, t
r3
, ... are the rupture lives of the part under stress levels 1, 2, 3,
n
1
,n
2
, n
3
,.. are the number of cycles at stress levels 1, 2, 3,
N
1
,N
2
, N
3
,.. are fatigue lives at stress levels 1, 2, 3,
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Designing for hostile environment
Avoid galvanic corrosion by ensuring that dissimilar metals are not
in electrical contact. Use insulating washers, gaskets, or paint.
Eliminate crevices formed by the geometry of the structure, e.g.
rivet joints and areas of metal under deposits or dirt.
Ensure full drainage of rain water and liquids in reservoirs .
Provide ventilation in closed tanks and sections to avoid
condensation, or sweating.
Avoid sharp corners and convex surfaces which tend to have
thinner coatings or are subject to coating cracks.
Eliminate features that cause turbulence and rotary motion in
moving liquids or gases.
Prevent fretting corrosion by avoiding slippage or relative motion
between surfaces that are not meant to move.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Features of design against corrosion I
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Features of design against corrosion II
Designing with specific materials
A successful design with a specific material must use its points of
strength and avoid its points of weakness.
In metallic materials, ductility and toughness decrease as the
strength increases.
Electrical and thermal conductivity of metallic materials may be
important factors is some designs.
Polymers are light but their stiffness and impact strength are
much lower than metals. They are also insulators .
Ceramics are corrosion resistant and strong in compression but
are very brittle and sensitive to mechanical and thermal shocks.
They are also insulators.
Composite materials generally have high strength/weight ratio
and their properties can be tailored to suite the type of loading.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Chapter 6: Summary I
A successful design should take into account
function,
material properties, and
manufacturing processes.
The relationship between material properties and design is complex
because the behavior of the material in the finished product can
be quite different from that of the stock material.
The stiffness of components under bending is proportional to the
elastic constant of the material (E) and the moment of inertia of
the cross section (I).
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Chapter 6: Summary II
Fail-safe design requires a structure to be sufficiently damage
tolerant to allow defects to be detected before they develop to a
dangerous size.
In the case of high-strength materials, the interaction between
fracture toughness, crack size, and the design stress should be
considered.
Leak-before-burst is a useful design criterion in the case of pressure
vessels and similar products. The toughness of the material used in
such applications should be sufficiently high to tolerate a defect
size which will allow the contents to leak out before it grows
catastrophically.
Chapter 6: Summary III
In designing for fatigue, consider the fatigue strength of the material
as well as size and shape of the component or structure, type of
loading and state of stress, stress concentration, surface finish,
operating temperature, service environment, method of
fabrication.
Safe-life, or finite-life, design assumes that the component is free
from flaws but the stress level in certain areas is higher than the
endurance limit of the material. In this case, fatigue-crack
initiation is inevitable and the life of the component is estimated
on the basis of the number of cycles to initiate such a crack.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Chapter 6: Summary IV
The Larson-Miller parameter can be used when creep data are
incomplete and have to be supplemented or extended by
interpolation or extrapolation.
Many of the causes of failure in hostile environment can be avoided
by observing appropriate design rules such as
avoiding electrical contact between dissimilar metals,
sealing crevices,
provision of appropriate ventilation and drainage of liquids
avoiding sharp corners in coated components,
preventing turbulence in moving liquids,
preventing slippage between surfaces that are not meant to
move.
Materials and Process Selection for Engineering Design: Mahmoud Farag
Chapter 6: Summary V
A successful design with a specific material must use its points of
strength and avoid its points of weakness.
In metallic materials, ductility and toughness decrease as the
strength increases.
Polymers are light but their stiffness and impact strength are
much lower than metals.
Ceramics are corrosion resistant and strong in compression but
are very brittle and sensitive to mechanical and thermal shocks.
Composite materials generally have high strength/weight ratio
and their properties can be tailored to suite the type of loading.