Power supply

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A vacuum-tube, rackmount, adjustable power supply capable of +/- 1500 volts DC, 0 to 100mA
output, with current limiting capability.
A power supply is a device that supplies electric power to an electrical load. The term is most
commonly applied to devices that convert one form of electrical energy to another, though it may
also refer to devices that convert another form of energy (mechanical, chemical, solar) to
electrical energy. A regulated power supply is one that controls the output voltage or current to a
specific value; the controlled value is held nearly constant despite variations in either load
current or the voltage supplied by the power supply's energy source.
Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as any energy it
consumes while performing that task, from an energy source. Depending on its design, a power
supply may obtain energy from:
Electrical energy transmission systems. Common examples of this include power
supplies that convert AC line voltage to DC voltage.
Energy storage devices such as batteries and fuel cells.
Electromechanical systems such as generators and alternators.
Solar power.
A power supply may be implemented as a discrete, stand-alone device or as an integral device
that is hardwired to its load. Examples of the latter case include the low voltage DC power
supplies that are part of desktop computers and consumer electronics devices.
Commonly specified power supply attributes include:
The amount of voltage and current it can supply to its load.
How stable its output voltage or current is under varying line and load conditions.
How long it can supply energy without refueling or recharging (applies to power supplies
that employ portable energy sources).
Contents
1 Power supplies types
o 1.1 Battery
o 1.2 DC power supply
o 1.3 AC power supply
o 1.4 Linear regulated power supply
1.4.1 AC/DC supply
o 1.5 Switched-mode power supply
o 1.6 Programmable power supply
o 1.7 Uninterruptible power supply
o 1.8 High-voltage power supply
o 1.9 Voltage multipliers
2 Power supply applications
o 2.1 Computer power supply
o 2.2 Welding power supply
o 2.3 AC adapter
3 Overload protection
o 3.1 Current limiting
4 Power conversion
5 Mechanical power supplies
6 Terminology
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Power supplies types
Power supplies for electronic devices can be broadly divided into line-frequency (or
"conventional") and switching power supplies. The line-frequency supply is usually a relatively
simple design, but it becomes increasingly bulky and heavy for high-current equipment due to
the need for large mains-frequency transformers and heat-sinked electronic regulation circuitry.
Conventional line-frequency power supplies are sometimes called "linear," but that is a
misnomer because the conversion from AC voltage to DC is inherently non-linear when the
rectifiers feed into capacitive reservoirs. Linear voltage regulators produce regulated output
voltage by means of an active voltage divider that consumes energy, thus making efficiency low.
A switched-mode supply of the same rating as a line-frequency supply will be smaller, is usually
more efficient, but will be more complex.
Battery
Main article: Battery (electricity)


Alkaline batteries
A battery is a device that converts stored chemical energy to electrical energy. Batteries are
commonly used as energy sources in many household and industrial applications.
There are two types of batteries: primary batteries (disposable batteries), which are designed to
be used once and discarded, and secondary batteries (rechargeable batteries), which are designed
to be recharged and used multiple times. Batteries come in many sizes, from miniature cells used
in hearing aids and wristwatches to room-size battery banks that serve as backup power supplies
in telephone exchanges and computer data centers.
DC power supply


A home-made linear power supply (used here to power amateur radio equipment)
An AC powered unregulated power supply usually uses a transformer to convert the voltage
from the wall outlet (mains) to a different, nowadays usually lower, voltage. If it is used to
produce DC, a rectifier is used to convert alternating voltage to a pulsating direct voltage,
followed by a filter, comprising one or more capacitors, resistors, and sometimes inductors, to
filter out (smooth) most of the pulsation. A small remaining unwanted alternating voltage
component at mains or twice mains power frequency (depending upon whether half- or full-wave
rectification is used)rippleis unavoidably superimposed on the direct output voltage.
For purposes such as charging batteries the ripple is not a problem, and the simplest unregulated
mains-powered DC power supply circuit consists of a transformer driving a single diode in series
with a resistor.
Before the introduction of solid-state electronics, equipment used valves (vacuum tubes) which
required high voltages; power supplies used step-up transformers, rectifiers, and filters to
generate one or more direct voltages of some hundreds of volts, and a low alternating voltage for
filaments. Only the most advanced equipment used expensive and bulky regulated power
supplies.
AC power supply
An AC power supply typically takes the voltage from a wall outlet (mains supply) and lowers it
to the desired voltage. Some filtering may take place as well.
Linear regulated power supply


A linear DC power supply.
The voltage produced by an unregulated power supply will vary depending on the load and on
variations in the AC supply voltage. For critical electronics applications a linear regulator may
be used to set the voltage to a precise value, stabilized against fluctuations in input voltage and
load. The regulator also greatly reduces the ripple and noise in the output direct current. Linear
regulators often provide current limiting, protecting the power supply and attached circuit from
overcurrent.
Adjustable linear power supplies are common laboratory and service shop test equipment,
allowing the output voltage to be adjusted over a range. For example, a bench power supply used
by circuit designers may be adjustable up to 30 volts and up to 5 amperes output. Some can be
driven by an external signal, for example, for applications requiring a pulsed output.
AC/DC supply
Main article: AC/DC (electricity)
In the past, mains electricity was supplied as DC in some regions, AC in others. Transformers
cannot be used for DC, but a simple, cheap unregulated power supply could run directly from
either AC or DC mains without using a transformer. The power supply consisted of a rectifier
and a filter capacitor. When operating from DC, the rectifier was essentially a conductor, having
no effect; it was included to allow operation from AC or DC without modification.
Switched-mode power supply
Main article: Switched-mode power supply


A computer's switched mode power supply unit.
In a switched-mode power supply (SMPS), the AC mains input is directly rectified and then
filtered to obtain a DC voltage. The resulting DC voltage is then switched on and off at a high
frequency by electronic switching circuitry, thus producing an AC current that will pass through
a high-frequency transformer or inductor. Switching occurs at a very high frequency (typically
10 kHz 1 MHz), thereby enabling the use of transformers and filter capacitors that are much
smaller, lighter, and less expensive than those found in linear power supplies operating at mains
frequency. After the inductor or transformer secondary, the high frequency AC is rectified and
filtered to produce the DC output voltage. If the SMPS uses an adequately insulated high-
frequency transformer, the output will be electrically isolated from the mains; this feature is
often essential for safety.
Switched-mode power supplies are always regulated.
[citation needed]
To keep the output voltage
constant, the power supply employs a feedback controller that monitors current drawn by the
load. The switching duty cycle increases as power output requirements increase.
SMPSs often include safety features such as current limiting or a crowbar circuit to help protect
the device and the user from harm.
[1]
In the event that an abnormal high-current power draw is
detected, the switched-mode supply can assume this is a direct short and will shut itself down
before damage is done. PC power supplies often provide a power good signal to the
motherboard; the absence of this signal prevents operation when abnormal supply voltages are
present.
SMPSs have an absolute limit on their minimum current output.
[2]
They are only able to output
above a certain power level and cannot function below that point. In a no-load condition the
frequency of the power slicing circuit increases to great speed, causing the isolated transformer
to act as a Tesla coil, causing damage due to the resulting very high voltage power spikes.
Switched-mode supplies with protection circuits may briefly turn on but then shut down when no
load has been detected. A very small low-power dummy load such as a ceramic power resistor or
10-watt light bulb can be attached to the supply to allow it to run with no primary load attached.
Power factor has become an issue of concern for computer manufacturers. Switched mode power
supplies have traditionally been a source of power line harmonics and have a very poor power
factor. The rectifier input stage distorts the waveshape of current drawn from the supply; this can
produce adverse effects on other loads. The distorted current causes extra heating in the wires
and distibution equipment. Switched mode power supplies in a building can result in poor power
quality for other utility customers. Customers may face higher electric bills for a low power
factor load.
Some switch-mode power supplies use filters or additional switching stages in the incoming
rectifier circuit to improve the waveform of the current taken from the AC line. This adds to the
circuit complexity. Many computer power supplies built in the last few years now include power
factor correction built right into the switched-mode supply, and may advertise the fact that they
offer 1.0 power factor.
Programmable power supply


Programmable power supplies
Programmable power supplies allow for remote control of the output voltage through an analog
input signal or a computer interface such as RS232 or GPIB. Variable properties include voltage,
current, and frequency (for AC output units). These supplies are composed of a processor,
voltage/current programming circuits, current shunt, and voltage/current read-back circuits.
Additional features can include overcurrent, overvoltage, and short circuit protection, and
temperature compensation. Programmable power supplies also come in a variety of forms
including modular, board-mounted, wall-mounted, floor-mounted or bench top.
Programmable power supplies can furnish DC, AC, or AC with a DC offset. The AC output can
be either single-phase or three-phase. Single-phase is generally used for low-voltage, while
three-phase is more common for high-voltage power supplies.
Programmable power supplies are now used in many applications. Some examples include
automated equipment testing, crystal growth monitoring, and differential thermal analysis.
[3]

Uninterruptible power supply
Main article: Uninterruptible power supply
An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) takes its power from two or more sources
simultaneously. It is usually powered directly from the AC mains, while simultaneously charging
a storage battery. Should there be a dropout or failure of the mains, the battery instantly takes
over so that the load never experiences an interruption. In a computer installation, this gives the
operators time to shut down the system in an orderly way. Other UPS schemes may use an
internal combustion engine or turbine to continuously supply power to a system in parallel with
power coming from the AC. The engine-driven generators would normally be idling, but could
come to full power in a matter of a few seconds in order to keep vital equipment running without
interruption. Such a scheme might be found in hospitals or telephone central offices.
High-voltage power supply
High voltage refers to an output on the order of hundreds or thousands of volts. High-voltage
supplies use a linear setup to produce an output voltage in this range.
Additional features available on high-voltage supplies can include the ability to reverse the
output polarity along with the use of circuit breakers and special connectors intended to
minimize arcing and accidental contact with human hands. Some supplies provide analog inputs
that can be used to control the output voltage, effectively turning them into high-voltage
amplifiers albeit with very limited bandwidth.
Voltage multipliers
Main article: Voltage multiplier
A voltage multiplier is an electrical circuit that converts AC electrical power from a lower
voltage to a higher DC voltage, typically by means of a network of capacitors and diodes. The
input voltage may be doubled (voltage doubler), tripled (voltage tripler), quadrupled (voltage
quadrupler), and so on. These circuits allow high voltages to be obtained using a much lower
voltage AC source.
Typically, voltage multipliers are composed of half-wave rectifiers, capacitors, and diodes. For
example, a voltage tripler consists of three half-wave rectifiers, three capacitors, and three diodes
(as in the Cockcroft Walton multiplier). Full-wave rectifiers may be used in a different
configuration to achieve even higher voltages. Also, both parallel and series configurations are
available. For parallel multipliers, a higher voltage rating is required at each consecutive
multiplication stage, but less capacitance is required. The voltage rating of the capacitors
determines the maximum output voltage.
Voltage multipliers have many applications. For example, voltage multipliers can be found in
everyday items like televisions and photocopiers. Other applications can be found in the
laboratory, such as cathode ray tubes, oscilloscopes, and photomultiplier tubes.
[4][5]

Power supply applications
Computer power supply
Main article: Power supply unit (computer)
A modern computer power supply is a switch-mode power supply that converts AC power from
the mains supply, to several DC voltages. Switch-mode supplies replaced linear suplies due to
cost, weight, and size improvement. The diverse collection of output voltages also have widely
varying current draw requirements.
Welding power supply
Main article: Welding power supply
Arc welding uses electricity to melt the surfaces of the metals in order to join them together
through coalescence. The electricity is provided by a welding power supply, and can either be
AC or DC. Arc welding typically requires high currents typically between 100 and 350 amps.
Some types of welding can use as few as 10 amps, while some applications of spot welding
employ currents as high as 60,000 amps for an extremely short time. Older welding power
supplies consisted of transformers or engines driving generators. More recent supplies use
semiconductors and microprocessors reducing their size and weight.
AC adapter


Switched mode mobile phone charger
Main article: AC adapter
A power supply that is built into an AC mains power plug is known as a "plug pack" or "plug-in
adapter", or by slang terms such as "wall wart". They are even more diverse than their names;
often with either the same kind of DC plug offering different voltage or polarity, or a different
plug offering the same voltage. "Universal" adapters attempt to replace missing or damaged
ones, using multiple plugs and selectors for different voltages and polarities. Replacement power
supplies must match the voltage of, and supply at least as much current as, the original power
supply.
The least expensive AC units consist only of a small transformer, while DC adapters include a
few additional diodes. Whether or not a load is connected to the power adapter, the transformer
has a magnetic field continuously present and normally cannot be completely turned off unless
unplugged.
Because they consume standby power, they are sometimes known as "electricity vampires" and
may be plugged into a power strip to allow turning them off.
In contrast, switched-mode power supplies can cut off leaky electrolyte-capacitors, use
powerless MOSFETs, and reduce their working frequency to get a gulp of energy once in a while
to power, for example, a clock, which would otherwise need a battery.
Overload protection
Power supplies often have protection from short circuit or overload that could damage the supply
or cause a fire. Fuses and circuit breakers are two commonly used mechanisms for overload
protection.
[6]

A fuse contains a short piece of wire which melts if too much current flows. This effectively
disconnects the power supply from its load, and the equipment stops working until the problem
that caused the overload is identified and the fuse is replaced. Some power supplies use a very
thin wire link soldered in place as a fuse. Fuses in power supply units may be replaceable by the
end user, but fuses in consumer equipment may require tools to access and change.
A circuit breaker contains an element that heats, bends and triggers a spring which shuts the
circuit down. Once the element cools, and the problem is identified the breaker can be reset and
the power restored.
Some PSUs use a thermal cutout buried in the transformer rather than a fuse. The advantage is it
allows greater current to be drawn for limited time than the unit can supply continuously. Some
such cutouts are self resetting, some are single use only.
Current limiting
Some supplies use current limiting instead of cutting off power if overloaded. The two types of
current limiting used are electronic limiting and impedance limiting. The former is common on
lab bench PSUs, the latter is common on supplies of less than 3 watts output.
A foldback current limiter reduces the output current to much less than the maximum non-fault
current.
Power conversion
The term "power supply" is sometimes restricted to those devices that convert some other form
of energy into electricity (such as solar power and fuel cells and generators). A more accurate
term for devices that convert one form of electric power into another form (such as transformers
and linear regulators) is power converter. The most common conversion is from AC to DC.
Mechanical power supplies
Flywheels coupled to electrical generators or alternators
Compulsators
Explosively pumped flux compression generators
Terminology
SCP - Short circuit protection
OPP - Overpower (overload) protection
OCP - Overcurrent protection
OTP - Overtemperature protection
OVP - Overvoltage protection
UVP - Undervoltage protection
UPS - Uninterruptable Power Supply
PSU - Power Supply Unit
SMPSU - Switch-Mode Power Supply Unit
1. ^ Quoting US Patent #5402059: A problem can occur when loads on the output of a
switching power supply become disconnected from the supply. When this occurs, the
output current from the power supply becomes reduced (or eliminated if all loads become
disconnected). If the output current becomes small enough, the output voltage of the
power supply can reach the peak value of the secondary voltage of the transformer of the
power supply. This occurs because with a very small output current, the inductor in the
L-C low-pass filter does not drop much voltage (if any at all). The capacitor in the L-C
low-pass filter therefore charges up to the peak voltage of the secondary of the
transformer. This peak voltage is generally considerably higher than the average voltage
of the secondary of the transformer. The higher voltage which occurs across the
capacitor, and therefore also at the output of the power supply, can damage components
within the power supply. The higher voltage can also damage any remaining electrical
loads connected to the power supply.
Microcontroller
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Jump to: navigation, search

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The die from an Intel 8742, an 8-bit microcontroller that includes a CPU running at 12 MHz, 128
bytes of RAM, 2048 bytes of EPROM, and I/O in the same chip.
A microcontroller (sometimes abbreviated C, uC or MCU) is a small computer on a single
integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory, and programmable input/output
peripherals. Program memory in the form of NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often included on
chip, as well as a typically small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded
applications, in contrast to the microprocessors used in personal computers or other general
purpose applications.
Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as automobile
engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls, office machines,
appliances, power tools, toys and other embedded systems. By reducing the size and cost
compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output devices,
microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more devices and processes. Mixed
signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analog components needed to control non-
digital electronic systems.
Some microcontrollers may use four-bit words and operate at clock rate frequencies as low as
4 kHz, for low power consumption (milliwatts or microwatts). They will generally have the
ability to retain functionality while waiting for an event such as a button press or other interrupt;
power consumption while sleeping (CPU clock and most peripherals off) may be just nanowatts,
making many of them well suited for long lasting battery applications. Other microcontrollers
may serve performance-critical roles, where they may need to act more like a digital signal
processor (DSP), with higher clock speeds and power consumption.
Contents
1 History
o 1.1 Volumes
2 Embedded design
o 2.1 Interrupts
o 2.2 Programs
o 2.3 Other microcontroller features
3 Higher integration
4 Programming environments
5 Types of microcontrollers
6 Interrupt latency
7 Microcontroller embedded memory technology
o 7.1 Data
o 7.2 Firmware
8 See also
9 Notes
10 External links
History

This section requires expansion. (June 2008)
The first single-chip microprocessor was the 4-bit Intel 4004 released in 1971, with the Intel
8008 and other more capable microprocessors becoming available over the next several years.
However, both processors required external chips to implement a working system, raising total
system cost, and making it impossible to economically computerize appliances.
The Smithsonian Institution says TI engineers Gary Boone and Michael Cochran succeeded in
creating the first microcontroller in 1971. The result of their work was the TMS 1000, which
went commercial in 1974. It combined read-only memory, read/write memory, processor and
clock on one chip and was targeted at embedded systems.
[1]

Partly in response to the existence of the single-chip TMS 1000,
[2]
Intel developed a computer
system on a chip optimized for control applications, the Intel 8048, with commercial parts first
shipping in 1977.
[2]
It combined RAM and ROM on the same chip. This chip would find its way
into over one billion PC keyboards, and other numerous applications. At that time Intel's
President, Luke J. Valenter, stated that the microcontroller was one of the most successful in the
company's history, and expanded the division's budget over 25%.
Most microcontrollers at this time had two variants. One had an erasable EPROM program
memory, which was significantly more expensive than the PROM variant which was only
programmable once. Erasing the EPROM required exposure to ultraviolet light through a
transparent quartz lid. One-time parts could be made in lower-cost opaque plastic packages.
In 1993, the introduction of EEPROM memory allowed microcontrollers (beginning with the
Microchip PIC16x84) [1]
[citation needed]
to be electrically erased quickly without an expensive
package as required for EPROM, allowing both rapid prototyping, and In System Programming.
The same year, Atmel introduced the first microcontroller using Flash memory.
[3]
Other
companies rapidly followed suit, with both memory types.
Cost has plummeted over time, with the cheapest 8-bit microcontrollers being available for under
$0.25 in quantity (thousands) in 2009,
[citation needed]
and some 32-bit microcontrollers around $1
for similar quantities.
Nowadays microcontrollers are cheap and readily available for hobbyists, with large online
communities around certain processors.
In the future, MRAM could potentially be used in microcontrollers as it has infinite endurance
and its incremental semiconductor wafer process cost is relatively low.
Volumes
About 55% of all CPUs sold in the world are 8-bit microcontrollers and microprocessors.
According to Semico, over four billion 8-bit microcontrollers were sold in 2006.
[4]

A typical home in a developed country is likely to have only four general-purpose
microprocessors but around three dozen microcontrollers. A typical mid-range automobile has as
many as 30 or more microcontrollers. They can also be found in many electrical devices such as
washing machines, microwave ovens, and telephones.


A PIC 18F8720 microcontroller in an 80-pin TQFP package.
Embedded design
A microcontroller can be considered a self-contained system with a processor, memory and
peripherals and can be used as an embedded system.
[5]
The majority of microcontrollers in use
today are embedded in other machinery, such as automobiles, telephones, appliances, and
peripherals for computer systems. While some embedded systems are very sophisticated, many
have minimal requirements for memory and program length, with no operating system, and low
software complexity. Typical input and output devices include switches, relays, solenoids, LEDs,
small or custom LCD displays, radio frequency devices, and sensors for data such as
temperature, humidity, light level etc. Embedded systems usually have no keyboard, screen,
disks, printers, or other recognizable I/O devices of a personal computer, and may lack human
interaction devices of any kind.
Interrupts
Microcontrollers must provide real time (predictable, though not necessarily fast) response to
events in the embedded system they are controlling. When certain events occur, an interrupt
system can signal the processor to suspend processing the current instruction sequence and to
begin an interrupt service routine (ISR, or "interrupt handler"). The ISR will perform any
processing required based on the source of the interrupt before returning to the original
instruction sequence. Possible interrupt sources are device dependent, and often include events
such as an internal timer overflow, completing an analog to digital conversion, a logic level
change on an input such as from a button being pressed, and data received on a communication
link. Where power consumption is important as in battery operated devices, interrupts may also
wake a microcontroller from a low power sleep state where the processor is halted until required
to do something by a peripheral event.
Programs
Typically microcontroller programs must fit in the available on-chip program memory, since it
would be costly to provide a system with external, expandable, memory. Compilers and
assemblers are used to convert high-level language and assembler language codes into a compact
machine code for storage in the microcontroller's memory. Depending on the device, the
program memory may be permanent, read-only memory that can only be programmed at the
factory, or program memory may be field-alterable flash or erasable read-only memory.
Manufacturers have often produced special versions of their microcontrollers in order to help the
hardware and software development of the target system. Originally these included EPROM
versions that have a "window" on the top of the device through which program memory can be
erased by ultraviolet light, ready for reprogramming after a programming ("burn") and test cycle.
Since 1998, EPROM versions are rare and have been replaced by EEPROM and flash, which are
easier to use (can be erased electronically) and cheaper to manufacture.
Other versions may be available where the ROM is accessed as an external device rather than as
internal memory, however these are becoming increasingly rare due to the widespread
availability of cheap microcontroller programmers.
The use of field-programmable devices on a microcontroller may allow field update of the
firmware or permit late factory revisions to products that have been assembled but not yet
shipped. Programmable memory also reduces the lead time required for deployment of a new
product.
Where hundreds of thousands of identical devices are required, using parts programmed at the
time of manufacture can be an economical option. These "mask programmed" parts have the
program laid down in the same way as the logic of the chip, at the same time.
A customizable microcontroller incorporates a block of digital logic that can be personalized in
order to provide additional processing capability, peripherals and interfaces that are adapted to
the requirements of the application. For example, the AT91CAP from Atmel has a block of logic
that can be customized during manufacturer according to user requirements.
Other microcontroller features
Microcontrollers usually contain from several to dozens of general purpose input/output pins
(GPIO). GPIO pins are software configurable to either an input or an output state. When GPIO
pins are configured to an input state, they are often used to read sensors or external signals.
Configured to the output state, GPIO pins can drive external devices such as LEDs or motors.
Many embedded systems need to read sensors that produce analog signals. This is the purpose of
the analog-to-digital converter (ADC). Since processors are built to interpret and process digital
data, i.e. 1s and 0s, they are not able to do anything with the analog signals that may be sent to it
by a device. So the analog to digital converter is used to convert the incoming data into a form
that the processor can recognize. A less common feature on some microcontrollers is a digital-to-
analog converter (DAC) that allows the processor to output analog signals or voltage levels.
In addition to the converters, many embedded microprocessors include a variety of timers as
well. One of the most common types of timers is the Programmable Interval Timer (PIT). A PIT
may either count down from some value to zero, or up to the capacity of the count register,
overflowing to zero. Once it reaches zero, it sends an interrupt to the processor indicating that it
has finished counting. This is useful for devices such as thermostats, which periodically test the
temperature around them to see if they need to turn the air conditioner on, the heater on, etc.
A dedicated Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) block makes it possible for the CPU to control
power converters, resistive loads, motors, etc., without using lots of CPU resources in tight timer
loops.
Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART) block makes it possible to receive and
transmit data over a serial line with very little load on the CPU. Dedicated on-chip hardware also
often includes capabilities to communicate with other devices (chips) in digital formats such as
IC and Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI).
Higher integration
Micro-controllers may not implement an external address or data bus as they integrate RAM and
non-volatile memory on the same chip as the CPU. Using fewer pins, the chip can be placed in a
much smaller, cheaper package.
Integrating the memory and other peripherals on a single chip and testing them as a unit
increases the cost of that chip, but often results in decreased net cost of the embedded system as
a whole. Even if the cost of a CPU that has integrated peripherals is slightly more than the cost of
a CPU and external peripherals, having fewer chips typically allows a smaller and cheaper circuit
board, and reduces the labor required to assemble and test the circuit board.
A micro-controller is a single integrated circuit, commonly with the following features:
central processing unit - ranging from small and simple 4-bit processors to complex 32-
or 64-bit processors
volatile memory (RAM) for data storage
ROM, EPROM, EEPROM or Flash memory for program and operating parameter
storage
discrete input and output bits, allowing control or detection of the logic state of an
individual package pin
serial input/output such as serial ports (UARTs)
other serial communications interfaces like IC, Serial Peripheral Interface and Controller
Area Network for system interconnect
peripherals such as timers, event counters, PWM generators, and watchdog
clock generator - often an oscillator for a quartz timing crystal, resonator or RC circuit
many include analog-to-digital converters, some include digital-to-analog converters
in-circuit programming and debugging support
This integration drastically reduces the number of chips and the amount of wiring and circuit
board space that would be needed to produce equivalent systems using separate chips.
Furthermore, on low pin count devices in particular, each pin may interface to several internal
peripherals, with the pin function selected by software. This allows a part to be used in a wider
variety of applications than if pins had dedicated functions. Micro-controllers have proved to be
highly popular in embedded systems since their introduction in the 1970s.
Some microcontrollers use a Harvard architecture: separate memory buses for instructions and
data, allowing accesses to take place concurrently. Where a Harvard architecture is used,
instruction words for the processor may be a different bit size than the length of internal memory
and registers; for example: 12-bit instructions used with 8-bit data registers.
The decision of which peripheral to integrate is often difficult. The microcontroller vendors often
trade operating frequencies and system design flexibility against time-to-market requirements
from their customers and overall lower system cost. Manufacturers have to balance the need to
minimize the chip size against additional functionality.
Microcontroller architectures vary widely. Some designs include general-purpose
microprocessor cores, with one or more ROM, RAM, or I/O functions integrated onto the
package. Other designs are purpose built for control applications. A micro-controller instruction
set usually has many instructions intended for bit-wise operations to make control programs
more compact.
[6]
For example, a general purpose processor might require several instructions to
test a bit in a register and branch if the bit is set, where a micro-controller could have a single
instruction to provide that commonly-required function.
Microcontrollers typically do not have a math coprocessor, so floating point arithmetic is
performed by software.
Programming environments
Microcontrollers were originally programmed only in assembly language, but various high-level
programming languages are now also in common use to target microcontrollers. These languages
are either designed specially for the purpose, or versions of general purpose languages such as
the C programming language. Compilers for general purpose languages will typically have some
restrictions as well as enhancements to better support the unique characteristics of
microcontrollers. Some microcontrollers have environments to aid developing certain types of
applications. Microcontroller vendors often make tools freely available to make it easier to adopt
their hardware.
Many microcontrollers are so quirky that they effectively require their own non-standard dialects
of C, such as SDCC for the 8051, which prevent using standard tools (such as code libraries or
static analysis tools) even for code unrelated to hardware features. Interpreters are often used to
hide such low level quirks.
Interpreter firmware is also available for some microcontrollers. For example, BASIC on the
early microcontrollers Intel 8052;
[7]
BASIC and FORTH on the Zilog Z8
[8]
as well as some
modern devices. Typically these interpreters support interactive programming.
Simulators are available for some microcontrollers. These allow a developer to analyze what the
behavior of the microcontroller and their program should be if they were using the actual part. A
simulator will show the internal processor state and also that of the outputs, as well as allowing
input signals to be generated. While on the one hand most simulators will be limited from being
unable to simulate much other hardware in a system, they can exercise conditions that may
otherwise be hard to reproduce at will in the physical implementation, and can be the quickest
way to debug and analyze problems.
Recent microcontrollers are often integrated with on-chip debug circuitry that when accessed by
an in-circuit emulator via JTAG, allow debugging of the firmware with a debugger.
Types of microcontrollers
See also: List of common microcontrollers
As of 2008 there are several dozen microcontroller architectures and vendors including:
ARM core processors (many vendors)
o includes ARM9, ARM Cortex-A8, Sitara ARM Microprocessor
Atmel AVR (8-bit), AVR32 (32-bit), and AT91SAM (32-bit)
Cypress Semiconductor's M8C Core used in their PSoC (Programmable System-on-Chip)
Freescale ColdFire (32-bit) and S08 (8-bit)
Freescale 68HC11 (8-bit)
Intel 8051
Infineon: 8, 16, 32 Bit microcontrollers
[9]

MIPS
Microchip Technology PIC, (8-bit PIC16, PIC18, 16-bit dsPIC33 / PIC24), (32-bit
PIC32)
NXP Semiconductors LPC1000, LPC2000, LPC3000, LPC4000 (32-bit), LPC900,
LPC700 (8-bit)
Parallax Propeller
PowerPC ISE
Rabbit 2000 (8-bit)
Renesas RX, V850, Hitachi H8, Hitachi SuperH (32-bit), M16C (16-bit), RL78, R8C,
78K0/78K0R (8-bit)
Silicon Laboratories Pipelined 8-bit 8051 Microcontrollers and mixed-signal ARM-based
32-bit microcontrollers
STMicroelectronics STM8 (8-bit), ST10 (16-bit) and STM32 (32-bit)
Texas Instruments TI MSP430 (16-bit)
Toshiba TLCS-870 (8-bit/16-bit).
Many others exist, some of which are used in very narrow range of applications or are more like
applications processors than microcontrollers. The microcontroller market is extremely
fragmented, with numerous vendors, technologies, and markets. Note that many vendors sell or
have sold multiple architectures.
Interrupt latency
In contrast to general-purpose computers, microcontrollers used in embedded systems often seek
to optimize interrupt latency over instruction throughput. Issues include both reducing the
latency, and making it be more predictable (to support real-time control).
When an electronic device causes an interrupt, the intermediate results (registers) have to be
saved before the software responsible for handling the interrupt can run. They must also be
restored after that software is finished. If there are more registers, this saving and restoring
process takes more time, increasing the latency. Ways to reduce such context/restore latency
include having relatively few registers in their central processing units (undesirable because it
slows down most non-interrupt processing substantially), or at least having the hardware not save
them all (this fails if the software then needs to compensate by saving the rest "manually").
Another technique involves spending silicon gates on "shadow registers": One or more duplicate
registers used only by the interrupt software, perhaps supporting a dedicated stack.
Other factors affecting interrupt latency include:
Cycles needed to complete current CPU activities. To minimize those costs,
microcontrollers tend to have short pipelines (often three instructions or less), small write
buffers, and ensure that longer instructions are continuable or restartable. RISC design
principles ensure that most instructions take the same number of cycles, helping avoid the
need for most such continuation/restart logic.
The length of any critical section that needs to be interrupted. Entry to a critical section
restricts concurrent data structure access. When a data structure must be accessed by an
interrupt handler, the critical section must block that interrupt. Accordingly, interrupt
latency is increased by however long that interrupt is blocked. When there are hard
external constraints on system latency, developers often need tools to measure interrupt
latencies and track down which critical sections cause slowdowns.
o One common technique just blocks all interrupts for the duration of the critical
section. This is easy to implement, but sometimes critical sections get
uncomfortably long.
o A more complex technique just blocks the interrupts that may trigger access to
that data structure. This is often based on interrupt priorities, which tend to not
correspond well to the relevant system data structures. Accordingly, this
technique is used mostly in very constrained environments.
o Processors may have hardware support for some critical sections. Examples
include supporting atomic access to bits or bytes within a word, or other atomic
access primitives like the LDREX/STREX exclusive access primitives introduced
in the ARMv6 architecture.
Interrupt nesting. Some microcontrollers allow higher priority interrupts to interrupt
lower priority ones. This allows software to manage latency by giving time-critical
interrupts higher priority (and thus lower and more predictable latency) than less-critical
ones.
Trigger rate. When interrupts occur back-to-back, microcontrollers may avoid an extra
context save/restore cycle by a form of tail call optimization.
Lower end microcontrollers tend to support fewer interrupt latency controls than higher end
ones.
Microcontroller embedded memory technology
Since the emergence of microcontrollers, many different memory technologies have been used.
Almost all microcontrollers have at least two different kinds of memory, a non-volatile memory
for storing firmware and a read-write memory for temporary data.
Data
From the earliest microcontrollers to today, six-transistor SRAM is almost always used as the
read/write working memory, with a few more transistors per bit used in the register file. MRAM
could potentially replace it as it is 4 to 10 times denser which would make it more cost effective.
In addition to the SRAM, some microcontrollers also have internal EEPROM for data storage;
and even ones that do not have any (or not enough) are often connected to external serial
EEPROM chip (such as the BASIC Stamp) or external serial flash memory chip.
A few recent microcontrollers beginning in 2003 have "self-programmable" flash memory.
[3]

Firmware
The earliest microcontrollers used mask ROM to store firmware. Later microcontrollers (such as
the early versions of the Freescale 68HC11 and early PIC microcontrollers) had quartz windows
that allowed ultraviolet light in to erase the EPROM.
The Microchip PIC16C84, introduced in 1993,
[10]
was the first microcontroller to use EEPROM
to store firmware. In the same year, Atmel introduced the first microcontroller using NOR Flash
memory to store firmware.
[3]


Microcontrollers are hidden inside a surprising number of products these days. If your microwave oven
has an LED or LCD screen and a keypad, it contains a microcontroller. All modern automobiles contain at
least one microcontroller, and can have as many as six or seven: The engine is controlled by a
microcontroller, as are the anti-lock brakes, the cruise control and so on. Any device that has a remote
control almost certainly contains a microcontroller: TVs, VCRs and high-end stereo systems all fall into
this category. Nice SLR and digital cameras, cell phones, camcorders, answering machines, laser printers,
telephones (the ones with caller ID, 20-number memory, etc.), pagers, and feature-laden refrigerators,
dishwashers, washers and dryers (the ones with displays and keypads)... You get the idea. Basically, any
product or device that interacts with its user has a microcontroller buried inside.
A microcontroller is a computer. All computers -- whether we are talking about a personal
desktop computer or a large mainframe computer or a microcontroller -- have several things in
common:
All computers have a CPU (central processing unit) that executes programs. If you are
sitting at a desktop computer right now reading this article, the CPU in that machine is
executing a program that implements the Web browser that is displaying this page.
The CPU loads the program from somewhere. On your desktop machine, the browser
program is loaded from the hard disk.
The computer has some RAM (random-access memory) where it can store "variables."
And the computer has some input and output devices so it can talk to people. On your
desktop machine, the keyboard and mouse are input devices and the monitor and printer
are output devices. A hard disk is an I/O device -- it handles both input and output.
The desktop computer you are using is a "general purpose computer" that can run any of
thousands of programs. Microcontrollers are "special purpose computers." Microcontrollers do
one thing well. There are a number of other common characteristics that define microcontrollers.
If a computer matches a majority of these characteristics, then you can call it a "microcontroller":
Microcontrollers are "embedded" inside some other device (often a consumer product)
so that they can control the features or actions of the product. Another name for a
microcontroller, therefore, is "embedded controller."
Microcontrollers are dedicated to one task and run one specific program. The program is
stored in ROM (read-only memory) and generally does not change.
Microcontrollers are often low-power devices. A desktop computer is almost always
plugged into a wall socket and might consume 50 watts of electricity. A battery-operated
microcontroller might consume 50 milliwatts.
A microcontroller has a dedicated input device and often (but not always) has a small
LED or LCD display for output. A microcontroller also takes input from the device it is
controlling and controls the device by sending signals to different components in the
device.
For example, the microcontroller inside a TV takes input from the remote control and
displays output on the TV screen. The controller controls the channel selector, the
speaker system and certain adjustments on the picture tube electronics such as tint and
brightness. The engine controller in a car takes input from sensors such as the oxygen and
knock sensors and controls things like fuel mix and spark plug timing. A microwave oven
controller takes input from a keypad, displays output on an LCD display and controls a
relay that turns the microwave generator on and off.
A microcontroller is often small and low cost. The components are chosen to minimize
size and to be as inexpensive as possible.
A microcontroller is often, but not always, ruggedized in some way.
The microcontroller controlling a car's engine, for example, has to work in temperature
extremes that a normal computer generally cannot handle. A car's microcontroller in
Alaska has to work fine in -30 degree F (-34 C) weather, while the same microcontroller
in Nevada might be operating at 120 degrees F (49 C). When you add the heat naturally
generated by the engine, the temperature can go as high as 150 or 180 degrees F (65-80
C) in the engine compartment.
On the other hand, a microcontroller embedded inside a VCR hasn't been ruggedized at
all.
The actual processor used to implement a microcontroller can vary widely. For example, the cell
phone shown on Inside a Digital Cell Phone contains a Z-80 processor. The Z-80 is an 8-bit
microprocessor developed in the 1970s and originally used in home computers of the time. The
Garmin GPS shown in How GPS Receivers Work contains a low-power version of the Intel
80386, I am told. The 80386 was originally used in desktop computers.
In many products, such as microwave ovens, the demand on the CPU is fairly low and price is an
important consideration. In these cases, manufacturers turn to dedicated microcontroller chips
-- chips that were originally designed to be low-cost, small, low-power, embedded CPUs. The
Motorola 6811 and Intel 8051 are both good examples of such chips. There is also a line of
popular controllers called "PIC microcontrollers" created by a company called Microchip. By
today's standards, these CPUs are incredibly minimalistic; but they are extremely inexpensive
when purchased in large quantities and can often meet the needs of a device's designer with just
one chip.
A typical low-end microcontroller chip might have 1,000 bytes of ROM and 20 bytes of RAM
on the chip, along with eight I/0 pins. In large quantities, the cost of these chips can sometimes
be just pennies. You certainly are never going to run Microsoft Word on such a chip -- Microsoft
Word requires perhaps 30 megabytes of RAM and a processor that can run millions of
instructions per second. But then, you don't need Microsoft Word to control a microwave oven,
either. With a microcontroller, you have one specific task you are trying to accomplish, and low-
cost, low-power performance is what is important.
LED display
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about Light-emitting diode (LED) based displays. For LED-backlighted displays,
see LED-backlit LCD display.

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article
by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and
removed. (June 2009)


The 1,500-foot (460 m) long LED display on the Fremont Street Experience is currently the
largest in the world.


The 40m large LED display at the Armin Only event on 19/20 apr 2008 in the Jaarbeurs Utrecht


The LED Display at the Taipei Arena displays commercials and movie trailers.


A city trolleybus with LED destination signs
An LED display is a flat panel display, which uses light-emitting diodes as a video display. An
LED panel is a small display, or a component of a larger display. They are typically used
outdoors in store signs and billboards, and in recent years have also become commonly used in
destination signs on public transport vehicles or even as part of transparent glass area. LED
panels are sometimes used as form of lighting, for the purpose of general illumination, task
lighting, or even stage lighting rather than display.
Contents
1 Types
o 1.1 Flat panel LED television display
o 1.2 The largest 3D LED television display
o 1.3 LED text displays
2 See also
3 References
Types

This section does not cite any references or sources. (August 2008)
There are two types of LED panels: conventional (using discrete LEDs) and surface-mounted
device (SMD) panels.
[citation needed]
Most outdoor screens and some indoor screens are built around
discrete LEDs, also known as individually mounted LEDs. A cluster of red, green, and blue
diodes is driven together to form a full-color pixel, usually square in shape. These pixels are
spaced evenly apart and are measured from center to center for absolute pixel resolution. The
largest LED display in the world is over 500 meters long and is located in Suzhou, China,
covering the Yuanrong Times Square.
[citation needed]
The largest LED television in the world is the
Center Hung Video Display at Cowboys Stadium, which is 160 72 ft (49 22 m), 11,520
square feet (1,070 m
2
).
Most indoor screens on the market are built using SMD technology
[citation needed]
a trend that is
now extending to the outdoor market. An SMD pixel consists of red, green, and blue diodes
mounted in a single package, which is then mounted on the driver PC board. The individual
diodes are smaller than a pinhead and are set very close together. The difference is that the
maximum viewing distance is reduced by 25% from the discrete diode screen with the same
resolution.
[clarification needed]

Indoor use generally requires a screen that is based on SMD technology and has a minimum
brightness of 600 candelas per square meter (cd/m, sometimes informally called nits). This will
usually be more than sufficient for corporate and retail applications, but under high ambient-
brightness conditions, higher brightness may be required for visibility. Fashion and auto shows
are two examples of high-brightness stage lighting that may require higher LED brightness.
Conversely, when a screen may appear in a shot on a television studio set, the requirement will
often be for lower brightness levels with lower color temperatures; common displays have a
white point of 65009000 K, which is much bluer than the common lighting on a television
production set.
For outdoor use, at least 2,000 cd/m is required for most situations, whereas higher-brightness
types of up to 5,000 cd/m cope even better with direct sunlight on the screen. (The brightness of
LED panels can be reduced from the designed maximum, if required.)
Suitable locations for large display panels are identified by factors such as line of sight, local
authority planning requirements (if the installation is to become semi-permanent), vehicular
access (trucks carrying the screen, truck-mounted screens, or cranes), cable runs for power and
video (accounting for both distance and health and safety requirements), power, suitability of the
ground for the location of the screen (if there are no pipes, shallow drains, caves, or tunnels that
may not be able to support heavy loads), and overhead obstructions.
Flat panel LED television display
The first true all-LED flat panel television screen was possibly developed, demonstrated and
documented by James P. Mitchell in 1977.
[1]
The modular, scalable display was initially
designed with hundreds of MV50 LEDs and a newly available transistor-transistor logic memory
addressing circuit from National Semiconductor.
[2]
The in thin flat panel prototype and the
scientific paper were displayed at the 29th ISEF expo in Washington D.C. in May 1978.
[3]
It
received awards by NASA,
[4]
and General Motors Corporation.
[5]
A liquid crystal display (LCD)
matrix design was also cited in the LED paper as an alternative x-y scan technology and as a
future alternate television display method. The replacement of the 70 year+ high-voltage analog
system (cathode-ray tube technology) with a digital x-y scan system has been a significant
achievement. Displacement of the electromagnetic scan systems included the removal of
inductive deflection, electron beam and color convergence circuits. The digital x-y scan system
has helped the modern television to collapse into its current thin form factor.
The 1977 model was monochromatic by design. Efficient blue LEDs did not arrive for another
decade. Large displays now use high-brightness diodes to generate a wide spectrum of colors. It
took three decades and organic light-emitting diodes for Sony to introduce an LED TV: the Sony
XEL-1 OLED screen which was marketed in 2009.
The largest 3D LED television display
The 2011 UEFA Champions League Final match between Manchester United and Barcelona was
broadcast live in 3D format in Gothenburg (Sweden), on an EKTA screen. It had a refresh rate of
100 Hz, a diagonal of 7.11 m (23 ft 3.92 in) and a display area of 6.1923.483 m, and was listed
in the Guinness Book of Records as the largest LED 3D TV.
[6][7]

LED text displays
LED text displays refer to types that are specialized and limited to display of alpha-numeric
characters. Most types display either one character or a group of characters. One character is
generally displayed by a matrix of LEDs, or by a matrix of segments.
1. Basics
o LEDs (light-emitting diodes) are a modified form of semiconductor diode--that is,
a device that allows current to flow in one direction while blocking it in the other.
Made of a semiconductive material, smaller than traditional lighting sources and
using less energy, LEDs can produce light of all colors and outside the visible
light spectrum.
Function
o In LEDs, as in other diodes, output is created by electron/hole interactions at a
positive-negative (p-n) junction (composed of the positive anode and negative
cathode). Electrons emitted by electrodes are drawn to the p-n junction. Light
energy (photons) is released by electrons falling into lower energy levels via
holes, which are defined as the absence of electrons.
o Sponsored Links
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Efficiency
o Unfortunately, LEDs tend to lose efficiency because light produced by falling
electrons tends to reflect back into the semiconductor. To overcome this,
researchers developed the familiar (refractive) dome-shaped packaging of LEDs.
This packaging minimizes reflection, which also reduces the production of excess
heat, another way in which LEDs lose efficiency.
Initial Uses
o LEDs evolved from producing infrared and red light to light in colors of the
visible light spectrum, as well as ultraviolet. Initially, these lights were not viable
as sources of lighting--that is, illuminating an area larger than the LED itself--so
they were used as indicator lights in things like laboratory equipment and car
instrument panels.
LEDs for Lighting
o The creation of a blue-light-emitting LED completed the light spectrum for LEDs.
This made it theoretically possible to create white-light-emitting LEDs, which, in
turn, made lighting with LEDs possible. Applications, potential and realized,
include traffic signs, lighting displays and indoor lighting. According to a paper
from the Takeda Foundation on the creation of the blue LED (see "Resources"),
this long-lived and efficient technology may eventually replace traditional
lighting in indoor settings.

Read more: How Do LED Displays Work? | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/how-
does_4928528_led-displays-work.html#ixzz23QDfhWSK
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) are exactly what they say. They emit light rather than reflect it
and are therefore many times brighter than other technologies. Diodes are one-way electronic
semiconductors; they respond rapidly to being switched on and off (as occurs in moving images)
and they do not lose their colour if a drop in electrical current occurs. No other type of image
generator like LCD, CRT, Plasma or Projector Screen was (and still isnt) suitable to be used
under direct sunshine. Only LED offers the brightness, colour saturation, contrast and wide
viewing angle.

A LED display is a video display which uses light-emitting diodes. A LED panel is a small
display, or a component of a larger display. They are typically used outdoors in store signs and
billboards, and in recent years have also become commonly used in destination signs on public
transport vehicles. LED panels are sometimes used as form of lighting, for the purpose of general
illumination, task lighting, or even stage lighting rather than display.
What is led display?
The LED display screen is a digital display panel displaying text, graphics, videos etc. It is the
replacement of the conventional painting display media.LED display is a combination of LED
modules. LED module is the basic unit of the LED display panel which is a combination of parts
that form the building blocks of LED video displays, message centers and dynamic message
signs.

Introduction to Liquid Crystal Displays

The most common application of liquid crystal technology is in liquid crystal displays (LCDs).
From the ubiquitous wrist watch and pocket calculator to an advanced VGA computer screen,
this type of display has evolved into an important and versatile interface.
A liquid crystal display consists of an array of tiny segments (called pixels) that can be
manipulated to present information. This basic idea is common to all displays, ranging from
simple calculators to a full color LCD television.
Why are liquid crystal displays important? The first factor is size. As will be shown in the
following sections, an LCD consists primarily of two glass plates with some liquid crystal
material between them. There is no bulky picture tube. This makes LCDs practical for
applications where size (as well as weight) are important.
In general, LCDs use much less power than their cathode-ray tube (CRT) counterparts. Many
LCDs are reflective, meaning that they use only ambient light to illuminate the display. Even
displays that do require an external light source (i.e. computer displays) consume much less
power than CRT devices.
Liquid crystal displays do have drawbacks, and these are the subject of intense research.
Problems with viewing angle, contrast ratio, and response time still need to be solved before the
LCD replaces the cathode-ray tube. However with the rate of technological innovation, this day
may not be too far into the future.
We will restrict this discussion to traditional nematic LCDs since the major technological
advances have been developed for this group of devices. Other LC applications, such as those
employing polymer stabilization of LC structure, are discussed in the appropriate section
covering those materials.
Home > LCD
LCD







Short for liquid crystal display, a type of display used in digital watches and many portable
computers. LCD displays utilize two sheets of polarizing material with a liquid crystal solution
between them. An electric current passed through the liquid causes the crystals to align so that
light cannot pass through them. Each crystal, therefore, is like a shutter, either allowing light to
pass through or blocking the light.
Monochrome LCD images usually appear as blue or dark gray images on top of a grayish-white
background. Color LCD displays use two basic techniques for producing color: Passive matrix is
the less expensive of the two technologies. The other technology, called thin film transistor
(TFT) or active-matrix, produces color images that are as sharp as traditional CRT displays, but
the technology is expensive. Recent passive-matrix displays using new CSTN and DSTN
technologies produce sharp colors rivaling active-matrix displays.
Most LCD screens used in notebook computers are backlit, or transmissive, to make them easier
to read.
An LCD or liquid crystal display is a type of flat panel display commonly used in digital devices,
for example: digital clocks, appliance displays, and portable computers.
How an LCD Works
According to a PC world article, liquid crystals are liquid chemicals whose molecules can be
aligned precisely when subjected to electrical fields, much in the way metal shavings line up in
the field of a magnet. When properly aligned, the liquid crystals allow light to pass through.
A simple monochrome LCD display has two sheets of polarizing material with a liquid crystal
solution sandwiched between them. Electricity is applied to the solution and causes the crystals
to align in patterns. Each crystal, therefore is either opaque or transparent, forming the numbers
or text that we can read.
How Liquid Crystal Displays Work
How It Works: LCD Monitors
LCD Optics 101
History of Liquid Crystal Displays - LCD
In 1888, liquid crystals were first discovered in cholesterol extracted from carrots by Austrian
botanist and chemist, Friedrich Reinitzer.
In 1962, RCA researcher Richard Williams generated stripe-patterns in a thin layer of liquid
crystal material by the application of a voltage. This effect is based on an electro-hydrodynamic
instability forming what is now called Williams domains inside the liquid crystal.
According to the IEEE, "Between 1964 and 1968, at the RCA David Sarnoff Research Center in
Princeton, New Jersey, a team of engineers and scientists led by George Heilmeier with Louis
Zanoni and Lucian Barton, devised a method for electronic control of light reflected from liquid
crystals and demonstrated the first liquid crystal display. Their work launched a global industry
that now produces millions of LCDs."
Heilmeier's liquid crystal displays used what he called DSM or dynamic scattering method,
wherein an electrical charge is applied which rearranges the molecules so that they scatter light.
The DSM design worked poorly and proved to be too power hungry and was replaced by an
improved version, which used the twisted nematic field effect of liquid crystals invented by
James Fergason in 1969.
James Fergason
Inventor, James Fergason holds some of the fundamental patents in liquid crystal displays filed
in the early 1970's, including key US patent number 3,731,986 for "Display Devices Utilizing
Liquid Crystal Light Modulation"
In 1972, the International Liquid Crystal Company (ILIXCO) owned by James Fergason
produced the first modern LCD watch based on James Fergason's patent.
The LCDs have a parallel interface, meaning that the microcontroller has to manipulate several
interface pins at once to control the display. The interface consists of the following pins:
A register select (RS) pin that controls where in the LCD's memory you're writing data to. You
can select either the data register, which holds what goes on the screen, or an instruction register,
which is where the LCD's controller looks for instructions on what to do next.
A Read/Write (R/W) pin that selects reading mode or writing mode
An Enable pin that enables writing to the registers
8 data pins (D0 -D7). The states of these pins (high or low) are the bits that you're writing to a
register when you write, or the values you're reading when you read.
There's also a display constrast pin (Vo), power supply pins (+5V and Gnd) and LED
Backlight (Bklt+ and BKlt-) pins that you can use to power the LCD, control the display
contrast, and turn on and off the LED backlight, respectively.
The process of controlling the display involves putting the data that form the image of what you
want to display into the data registers, then putting instructions in the instruction register. The
LiquidCrystal Library simplifies this for you so you don't need to know the low-level
instructions.