Basic Construction Training Manual Swiss Red Cross Skat Foundation

Basic Construction Training Manual
for Trainers
Heini Mller
Basic Construction Training Manual
for Trainers
Heini Mller
References of sketches
1. Elem entary course on B uilding C onstruction and M aterials
SATA
2. B rick w ork M anual
Laurie B aker
3. B uilding C onstruction M anual
SKAT
4. Joints in M asonry
M odule M M 13
H abitat Polytech, R ichm ar
Impessum
A uthor: H eini M ller
C opyright: Skat Foundation, St.G allen, Sw itzerland
2004, 1
st
edition, 200 C opies
C opyright w aiver: Perm ission is granted to use the m aterial found in this volum e for educational
and developm ent purposes. A cknow ledgem ent is requested.
Layout: M artin Lng, A lex B chi; Skat Foundation
SRC
Sw iss Red C ross
P.O . Box 2699
R ainm attstrasse 10
C H -3001 Bern, Sw itzerland
http://w w w .redcross.ch
em ail: iz@ redcross.ch
SEW A
Self Em ployed W om ens A ssociation
Sew a Reception C entre
O pp. Lok M anya Tilak Baug, B hadra
A hm edabad 380 001, India
em ail: sew a.m ahila@ w ilnetonline.net
Skat Foundation
Vadianstrasse 42
C H -9000 St. G allen
Sw itzerland
http://w w w .skat.ch
em ail: info@ skat.ch
Sw iss Solidarity
B.P. 132
Rue des M arachers 8
C H -1211 G enve 8
Sw itzerland
http://w w w .bonheur.ch
em ail: info@ bonheur.ch
Foreword
The devastating earthquake of January 26, 2001 caused trem endous dam age to the lives and
property of the population living in the northern and northw estern districts of G ujarat. In the
w ake of this hum anitarian tragedy a large num ber of local, national and international organisa-
tions engaged in relief and rehabilitation operations.
A diverse range of strategies w as adopted to m eet the urgent needs of the suffering population
to rehabilitate their lives and reconstruct their houses. In line w ith its principles, Sw iss R ed
C ross prom oted a process-oriented and com m unity-centred approach, taking into consideration
the actual needs of the people and the specific conditions of the area. A ccordingly, the rural
villagers, especially w om en, w ere identified as a pro-active force building on their ow n strength
rather than becom ing passive recipients of external aid.
A fter a participatory assessm ent in three rem ote villages A ntarnesh, B akutra and G adsai of
Patan district, Sw iss R ed C ross decided to contribute to the rehabilitation of the lives of nine
hundred fam ilies, through providing them w ith new , earthquake save houses, kitchens, toilets
and w ater harvesting system s, called N aya G har (N ew housing). This infrastructure-focused
im provem ent w as m ainly seen under the aspect of securing peoples livelihood by creating
em ploym ent opportunities in the building sector.
The follow ing com plem entary organisations w ere engaged in the Sw iss R ed C ross and Sw iss
Solidarity supported N aya G harProject:
n SEW A , (Self-em ployed W om ens A ssociation) w ith its w ide netw ork of m ore than
500000 m em bers in G ujarat w as selected as the m ain local project im plem enting partner
organisation.
n D A (D evelopm ent A lternatives), an India based N G O , in cooperation w ith Skat C onsulting
from Sw itzerland, w ere selected to ensuring the practicability and quality of the
construction w ork.
The earthquake unfortunately proved that local construction techniques and skill did not prevent
houses from collapsing during the incident. This clearly indicated the urgent need to im prove
on both, construction technologies and especially on construction skill.
For this reason the B asic C onstruction Training M anual for Trainershas been developed by
Skat in close cooperation w ith field based SEW A construction engineers to ensure that their
needs and expectations are m et. This Training M anual is the sum m ary of basic practical con-
struction know -how that is of crucial im portance to transfer appropriate and new skills to local
m asons, supervisors and SEW A m em bers in building earthquake resistant houses. It w ill help
construction trainers to pass on relevant skills in constructing houses and im proving infrastruc-
ture in a practical m anner, and offers a w ide range of essential inform ation.
B eside the Sw iss R ed C ross and Sw iss Solidarity supported N aya G har Project, this B asic C on-
struction Training M anual for Trainersw ill also serve other SEW A construction related projects.
A ll partners actively involved in the creation and application of this Training M anual hope that
trough it the new skills acquired by local m asons, supervisors and SEW A m em bers w ill lead
to an better building standard and quality, preventing further loss of lives and property in this
earthquake prone part of India.
Peter Eppler
Program m e C oordinator
Sw iss R ed C ross
5
General Introduction
W hen G ujarat has been hit by the horrifying earthquake in January 2001, international help
for the reconstruction of houses and creation of livelihood w as soon at hand and w arm ly
w elcom ed by the needy one.
The concerned governm ent authorities and non-governm ental organisations launched re-
construction activities w ith an astonishing sw iftness. The resulting focus of construction
activities in G ujarat w as dem anding a huge num ber of skilled construction m anpow er that w as
regrettably not alw ays easy at hand.
This Basic Construction Training Manual for Trainers is tailor m ade for the specific capacity
building / training needs of SEW A for the earthquake reconstruction program m e that is,
financed by the Sw iss Solidarity Fond and im plem ented in partnership w ith Sw iss R ed C ross
and technically coached by Skat_consulting.
This m anual is specifically focussing on the practical im plem entation level and provides a w ide
range of essential inform ation as w ell as dos and donts for trainers to com m unicate to m asons
and supervisors during theoretical and on the job trainings. It also contains photos and sketches
/ draw ings that add clarity to the context. These photos and sketches have been collected from
various reference sources and are therefore, not of uniform character in its present form .
This m anual is divided into five separate m odules. Module one explains the overall and
essential parts of a building. Module two provides inform ation about the quality benchm ark
and testing m ethods of building m aterials that are m ost com m only used in housing construc-
tion in G ujarat. Module three describes the skilled w orking principles for; M ortar, C oncreting,
B rick m asonry, Stone m asonry, C uring, Plastering and Flooring. Module four describes
essential w orking safety m easures to avoid occupational accidents. A nd finally, Module five
provides a list of literature w here useful inform ation regarding earthquake save house designing
and construction principles are described.
The m erit of this m anual lies in the m odular structured docum entation of inform ation from a
practitioner for practitioners that allow s the design of various com bination of required practical
training.
A very tiny fraction of active m asons in G ujarat have received form al m asonry training. Practical
construction skill and inform ation are transferred in an inform al w ay. B ecause of this system ,
som e practices that are actually w rong have now becom e good practice standardand
therefore som e present construction qualities are not up to professional quality standards in
G ujarat.
There is a genuine need and high dem and for form al building construction training by m asons.
SEW A has recognised this as a high priority and expressed the necessity of professional and
practical construction training m aterial for their construction related program m es. This Basic
Construction Training Manual for Trainers is the resulting outcom e of their expression.
5
M
O
D
U
L
E

1
M
O
D
U
L
E

2
M
O
D
U
L
E

3
M
O
D
U
L
E

4
M
O
D
U
L
E

5
M O D U LE 1:
Basic Building Parts ..................................................................7
M O D U LE 2:
Building Material and Quality Standards ..........................19
M O D U LE 3:
Principles of Construction ....................................................33
M O D U LE 4:
Safety ..........................................................................................83
M O D U LE 5:
Earthquake resistant construction practices ..................89
7
7
Various parts of a building (Floor, wall, openings, roof, stair)
Basic Building Parts
M
O
D
U
L
E

1
9
9
M
O
D
U
L
E

1
Content
1. Building......................................................................................................10
1.1. Foundation................................................................................................. 10
1.2 Plinth .......................................................................................................... 11
1.3 Damp proof course (DPC).........................................................................12
1.4 Plinth beam................................................................................................12
1.5 Floor ...........................................................................................................13
1.6 Walls...........................................................................................................13
1.7 Openings.................................................................................................... 14
1.8 Stairs ..........................................................................................................15
1.9 Roof ............................................................................................................16
1.10 Surfaces / Finishes ....................................................................................16
2. Service facilities........................................................................................17
2.1 Water supply..............................................................................................17
2.2 Drainage and sewerage............................................................................17
2.3 Garbage disposal ......................................................................................17
2.4 Electricity....................................................................................................17
10
Basic Construction Training Manual for Trainers
11
1. Building
A building provides shelter against natural elem ents such as rain, sunshine and w ind. It also
provides security and privacy. A building consists of the follow ing basic parts:
1.1. Foundation
A foundation is necessary to evenly distribute the entire building load on the soil in such
a m anner that no dam aging settlem ents take place. H ence, the foundations need to be
constructed on good/solid ground
The Roof
The Lintel
The Window
The Door
The Cill
The Wall
The Floor
The DPC lies at the
Floor Level right below
the Walls (not under any
openings like Doors)
The Plinth lies between
the Floor and the
Ground
The Foundation is
invisible and lies below
the Ground, just beneth
the Walls
Water Supply
Drainage
10
11
Steel reinforcement placing
in foundation excavation
1.2 Plinth
A plinth is norm ally constructed just above the ground level and im m ediately after the
foundation. It raises the floor above the ground level and herew ith prevents surface w ater
from entering the building.
Plinth construction height up to ground floor level
M
O
D
U
L
E

1
12
13
1.3 Damp proof course (DPC)
D am p proof course is a layer of w ater proofing m aterial such as asphalt or w aterproof cem ent.
W alls are constructed above the dam p proof course.
D am p proof course prevents surface w ater from rising into the w alls.
D am pness reduces the strength of the w alls and creates unhealthy living conditions. A lso it
affects the paint and plaster and increasing the cost of m aintenance
D am p proofing layer is not required w here a plinth beam is constructed, because the plinth
beam already perform s like a D PC .
Typical DPC type where no concrete plinth has been constructed
1.4 Plinth beam
A plinth beam is constructed depending upon the type of the structure of the building and
nature of the soil. It provides additional stability in regard to settlem ents of the building and
earthquake dam ages.
Completed plinth beam of a building
12
13
1.5 Floor
This is the surface on w hich w e do m ost of our activities. Floorings is laid over the filling of the
plinth and on subsequent floors.
Flooring can be done w ith different m aterials, but care m ust be given that the ground below
the floor is w ell com pacted. Flooring is done to prevent dam pness from rising to the top and
to have a firm platform that can be kept hygienic and clean.
Floor construction section, levelling sand, brick layer, cement cover and finishing work
1.6 Walls
W alls are the vertical elem ents on w hich the roof finally rests. They can be m ade of different
m aterials like bricks, stones, m ud, concrete blocks, laterite blocks etc.
If the w alls are very long, colum ns can be provided to carry the roof.
W alls provide privacy and enclosure. W alls also provide security and protection against natural
elem ents such as w ind, rain and sunshine.
O penings are to be provided in w all for access and ventilation.
M
O
D
U
L
E

1
14
15
Ongoing brick wall (Rat Trap Bond) construction
1.7 Openings
O penings are norm ally provided in the w alls as door, w indow s and ventilators.
D oors provide access; w indow s and ventilators provide light and ventilation.
Building with many windows providing desired ventilation and light
Lintels are constructed just above the openings. It is norm ally a stone slab or a concrete slab.
Sill is the part of the w all that is just below the w indow .
Lintels are constructed to hold up the w alls above the openings.
In earthquake prone areas a continuous lintel beam is provided all over the w alls.
14
15
Continuous sill (direct bellow window)
and lintel (direct above window)
1.8 Stairs
A stair is a sequence of steps and it is provided to afford the m eans of ascent and descent
betw een the floors and landings.
The apartm ent or room of a building in w hich stair is located is called staircase.
The space or opening occupied by the stair is called a stairw ay.
There are different kind of stairs are used in buildings, like R C C stair, w ooden stair, m etal stair,
brick stair etc.
External stair construction, provides safe access to roof area
M
O
D
U
L
E

1
16
17
1.9 Roof
The roof provides protection for the building and the people living in it. The roof rests on the
w alls and requires proper anchoring so that w ind and other m echanical im pact cannot destroy
it. A roof can have different shapes but it is alw ays either flat or sloping.
R oof is typically m ade of R C C , stone slab, tiles etc.
Clay tile covered roofs for rural housing scheme
1.10 Surfaces / Finishes
External finishes are the outer m ost layer of protection, w hich protect the structure from
w eathering.
Internal finishes are the layers given on internal faces. They give durability and pleasing
appearance to the inside.
Wall plastering and decorative structure design
16
17
2. Service facilities
2.1 Water supply
W ater supply facility is done to provide and distribute clean w ater inside the building.
This can be done through a netw ork of pipes. U sually pipes used are of PVC or G I pipes.
2.2 Drainage and sewerage
This is provided to collect and carry the w astew ater aw ay from the building.
2.3 Garbage disposal
G arbage should be collected and disposed for creating hygienic living conditions.
2.4 Electricity
Electrical connections are done to provide pow er supply for various needs inside the building.
M
O
D
U
L
E

1
19
19
Building material compilation at site (sand, grave, cement, concrete blocks)
M
O
D
U
L
E

2
Building Material and
Quality Standards
21
21
Building Material and Quality Standards
M
O
D
U
L
E

2
Content
Raw materials for masonry works ..........................................................22
1. Bricks..........................................................................................................22
1.1 Classification of bricks ..............................................................................22
1.1.1 Facing bricks..................................................................................23
1.1.2 Solid bricks ....................................................................................23
1.1.3 C avity bricks ..................................................................................23
1.1.4 Special shaped bricks ....................................................................23
1.2 Quality of bricks.........................................................................................23
1.2.1 A A class ........................................................................................24
1.2.2 Soaked bricks ................................................................................24
1.2.3 Structure........................................................................................24
1.2.4 Shape and size ..............................................................................24
1.2.5 Soundness.....................................................................................24
1.2.6 Fall test..........................................................................................24
1.2.7 Scratch test...................................................................................24
2. Stones .......................................................................................................25
2.1 Classification of stones.............................................................................25
2.2 Quality of building stone..........................................................................26
2.2.1 Signs of good quality stones.........................................................26
2.2.2 Q uality tests ..................................................................................26
3. Concrete blocks.........................................................................................27
3.1 Classification of concrete blocks..............................................................27
3.2 Quality of concrete blocks ........................................................................27
4. Sand and aggregates................................................................................28
4.1 Classification of sand and aggregates.....................................................28
4.1.1 C oarse aggregate ..........................................................................28
4.1.2 Sand ..............................................................................................28
4.2 Quality of sand and aggregates...............................................................28
4.2.1 Sand storage .................................................................................29
4.2.2 Testing the sand quality ................................................................29
4.2.3 Sea sand........................................................................................29
5. Cement ......................................................................................................30
5.1 Setting/Hardening......................................................................................30
5.2 Hydration of cement .................................................................................30
5.3 Different types of cement .........................................................................30
5.4 Type and quality........................................................................................30
5.4.1 C em ent storage.............................................................................30
5.4.2 U se of fresh cem ent.....................................................................31
5.5 Testing the cement quality .......................................................................31
6. Water..........................................................................................................32
6.1 Type and quality........................................................................................32
6.1.1 Seaw ater.......................................................................................32
6.1.2 C ollected rainw ater from roofs......................................................32
6.1.3 O ils ................................................................................................32
6.2 Water storage ............................................................................................32
6.3 Testing the water quality ..........................................................................32
22
23
Raw materials for masonry works
The raw m aterials required for m asonry w ork, together w ith the skill of the m ason are decisive
factors for the final quality of the m asonry w ork. Therefore, it is im portant that the correct raw
m aterials are used. B asic know -how about the different required raw m aterials is essential for
m asons as w ell as supervisors.
The follow ing m ain raw m aterials for brick m asonry are needed:
n B ricks
n Stones
n C oncrete blocks
n Sand
n C em ent mortar
n W ater
1. Bricks
B ricks m ust be of good quality and w ithout visible cracks for a load-bearing w all. A hard ringing
sound em itted w hen tw o bricks are struck together indicates that they have been burnt satis-
factorily. G enerally, the bricks should be true to size and shape, w ith straight edges and even
surface, so as to facilitate laying them into position w ithout using too m uch m ortar. Inferior
bricks are generally under-burnt and as a consequence are easily broken and are very porous.
These are neither hard nor durable and are incapable of w ithstanding heavy loads.
N ow all over the w orld, nearly all bricks are roughly the sam e shape and size that is approx:
9 x 4 - 1/2 x 3 inches.
1.1 Classification of bricks
These are defined as suitable for general building w ork having no special claim to give an
attractive appearance. The type in use for m ost areas in India is classified as C om m on B ricks.
Pilling up of common bricks at production site, ready for selling
}
22
23
1.1.1 Facing bricks
These bricks are thoroughly burned and uniform in colour, and having plane rectangular faces
and sharp straight right angled edges. They are used in the exposed face of the brickw ork
w ithout any plaster or surface treatm ent. The bricks m ust have sufficient resistance to
penetration by rain and w eathering agencies. In general they are selected from a num ber of
bricks. Facing bricks are also used for R at Trap B ondm asonry w alls.
Facing bricks (second quality) stored at construction site
1.1.2 Solid bricks
A solid brick is a brick w ith less holes or perforations of 25% of its volum e, in w hich frogs do
not exceed 20% of its volum e.
1.1.3 Cavity bricks
A burnt clay hollow block or brick w ith holes larger than 20m m w ide, w hich exceed 20% of its
volum e.
1.1.4 Special shaped bricks
These are usually solid bricks of various shapes suited to a particular construction.
1.2 Quality of bricks
G enerally com m on bricks are grouped into 3 classes:
Description Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
Water absorption M ax. 20% M ax 20% M ax 20%
Crushing strength M in. 105 kg/cm
2
M in. 70 kg/cm
2
M in. 35 kg/cm
2
M
O
D
U
L
E

2
24
25
1.2.1 AA class
B ricks w ith crushing strength not less than 140 kg/cm
2
are graded as A A class.
1.2.2 Soaked bricks
The strength of a brick decreases by about 25% w hen soaked in w ater.
1.2.3 Structure
B rick w hen broken should be hom ogeneous in structure, com pact and free from holes, cracks,
fissures, air bubbles, lum ps, pebbles and stones and particles of lim e etc.
1.2.4 Shape and size
The brick should be rectangular w ith straight and sharp edges. A ll bricks should have the sam e
dim ensions and no broken corners or edges.
The size of the bricks varies slightly from region to region in India. Standard size is norm ally
230 x 115 x 70 m m (9 x 4-1/2 x 2-3/4 inch).
N o dim ension of a class 1 brick is allow ed to vary m ore than 3 m m from the standard size.
1.2.5 Soundness
The quality of a brick is good if there is a clear ringing sound w hen tw o bricks are struck
together.
1.2.6 Fall test
A brick should not break w hen dropped flat on hard ground from a height of about one m eter.
1.2.7 Scratch test
A good burned brick has surface so hard that the fingernail cannot scratch it.
24
25
2. Stones
B uilding stones are derived from various types of rocks that are found in the crust of the earth.
They are natural products and are used directly, except for their rough sizing and dressing,
before being put in a structure.
Stones are or can be used in alm ost all parts of construction such as foundations, w alls, floors,
roofs, as w ell as for roads, dam s etc.
A s a rough guide, w alls w ith w ell fitting stones laid in cem ent m ortar have a strength of about
75% of an equivalent brick w all, and w alls m ade of rough stones have a strength of about 50%
of the equivalent brick w all.
C rushed and broken stones are used in m aking concrete and artificial stones such as concrete
blocks.
All size bolder stone deposit Sized stone deposit
All size bolder stone try masonry wall Sized stone pillar construction
2.1 Classification of stones
Stones or rocks are divided into three m ain groups:
n Igneous (G ranite)
n Sedim entary (Sand-stone Lim e-stones)
n M etam orphic (Slates, M arble, Laterite)
M
O
D
U
L
E

2
26
27
2.2 Quality of building stone
The fundam ental requirem ents of building stones are strength, density and durability com bined
w ith reasonable facility for w orking. A good building stone m ust be hard, tough, com pact
grained and uniform in texture and color.
U sually, crystalline and close-grained stones are durable.
2.2.1 Signs of good quality stones
Colour: Stones should have uniform colour. R ed and brow n shades and
m ottled colour indicate the presence of injurious m aterial.
Weight: B asically, the heavier and com pact grained stones are the stronger and
durable they are.
Water absorption: A stone absorbing less w ater is stronger and m ore durable as it w ill
have less action of rainw ater.
Appearance: A good building stone should be free from decay, flaw s, veins, cracks
and sand-holes
2.2.2 Quality tests
There are several tests possible to define the quality of a stone. H ow ever, in the field there are
basically three tests w here one can define the suitable quality of a stone.
Hammer test
Take a ham m er and check the stone for its sound. A hard ringing sound indicates that the stone
is of good quality and has no m ajor defect such as holes or cracks.
Visible test
C heck the stone for any defects such as cracks, patches w ith soft m aterials, discoloring etc.
Porosity or absorption test
W eight a stone of reasonable size and place it for 24 hrs. into a w ater-bucket. A good building
stone should not absorb m ore than 5% of its w eight of w ater after 24hrs im m ersion.
26
27
3. Concrete blocks
C oncrete blocks are now adays very com m on and tim e proofed w alling m aterials. C oncrete
blocks can be produced by hand and by m achine. H and m ade blocks are usually of low er
quality, because m achine m ade blocks are better com pacted by a vibrator table. The specific
use of a concrete block defines its size and the quality. C em ent and coarse sand w ith sm all
size aggregates are used w ith very low w ater/cem ent ratio.
H ollow blocks have better therm al properties than solid blocks of the sam e m aterial and total
thickness.
H ollow blocks have certain advantages over bricks, they are only about 1 3
rd
of the w eight
of the sam e num ber of bricks and they can be laid about four tim es rapidly and are of am ple
strength for all purposes for w hich ordinary bricks are used except under concentrated loads.
They have the advantages of hollow w alls as regards insulation against heat and sound.
Concrete hollow block (CHB)production yard CHB wall construction used in earthquake
resistant house design
3.1 Classification of concrete blocks
C oncrete blocks are classified into tw o m ain groups;
n Solid blocks
n H ollow blocks
3.2 Quality of concrete blocks
The basic quality requirem ent of concrete blocks are; strength, uniform in size and to a certain
degree w ater resistant. A good concrete block is produced and stored under a sunshade,
has an appropriate m ix ratio (not m ore than 1: 6 for hollow blocks and 1: 10 for solid blocks)
contains clean raw m aterials (sand, aggregates and w ater) and fresh cem ent, is properly cured
for 21 days and is handled w ith care up to the point of use for m asonry w ork.
Description Solid blocks
Hollow blocks
(non load bearing w alls)
Hollow blocks
(load bearing w alls)
Density > 1800 kg/cum > 1500 kg / cum > 1500 kg/cum
Crushing strength
(after 28 days)
M in. 5 N /m m
2
M in.2.8 N /m m s M in. 3.5 N /m m
2
M
O
D
U
L
E

2
28
29
4. Sand and aggregates
Sand and aggregates are very essential building construction raw m aterials and deserve special
attention.
4.1 Classification of sand and aggregates
M aterial retained on a 4.75 m m IS (Indian Standard) sieve is classified as coarse aggregate,
and below that size as fine aggregate or sand. The m aterial passing a 75-m icron IS sieve is
generally considered to be clay, fine silt or fine dust in an aggregate.
Sand, w hich contains 90% of particles of size greater than 0.06 m m and less than 0.2 m m , is
fine sand.
Sand, w hich contains 90% of particles of size greater than 0.6 m m and less than 2 m m is
coarse sand.
4.1.1 Coarse aggregate
There are m ainly three sources from w here coarse aggregates originate nam ely:
n N atural deposits
n C rushed stones
n B rick aggregates
4.1.2 Sand
There are m ainly four types of sand nam ely:
n Pit sand
n Sea sand
n R iver sand
n C rushed sand
Pit sand deposit
28
29
4.2 Quality of sand and aggregates
The quality of the m ortar is directly linked to the characteristics and condition of the sand. Sand
and aggregates m ust be free from clay, loam , vegetables and any other organic m aterial.
C lay or dirt coating on aggregates prevents adhesion of cem ent to aggregate, slow s dow n the
setting and hardening process and reduces the strength of the m ortar.
Therefore, clay and silt content should not exceed 10% , otherw ise the sand needs to be
w ashed.
4.2.1 Sand storage
The sand should be stored preferably under a shade. The sand should be sufficiently protected,
such that no im purity from anim als, agricultural w aste, children, trees, etc. is possible.
4.2.2 Testing the sand quality
There are tw o m ain sand quality-testing m ethods, nam ely:
Visible test
C heck the sand for im purities such as organic m aterials (m ud, leaves, roots etc.) R em ove them
before using the sand.
Clay and silt content test
The clay and silt content test can be in tw o w ays:
Hand test
The sand sam ple is rubbed betw een dam p hand. A clean sand w ill leave the hands only slightly
stained. If the hands stay dirty, it indicates the presence of too m uch silt or clay.
Bottle test
Take a bottle and fill in the sand until it is half full. Fill in clean w ater until the bottle is three-
quarters full. Shake up vigorously and leave it to settle for about one hour. C lean sand w ill
settle im m ediately, silt and clay w ill settle slow ly on top of the sand. The thickness of the clay
and silt layer should not exceed one-tenth or 10% of the sand below .
This test is also called decantation test. This test is not applicable to crushed stone sands!!
D irty sand should never be used in m asonry because it w ill reduce the adhesive value of the
m ortar considerably.
4.2.3 Sea sand
Sea sand is unsuitable for m ortar as it contains salts, w hich attract and retain m oisture. In
addition the salt content in the m ortar w ill produce a w hitish pow der of efflorescence, w hich
discolors the brickw ork or m asonry.
M
O
D
U
L
E

2
30
31
5. Cement
C em ent is a m ixture of 60 to 67% lim e, 17 to 25% silica and 3 to 8% alum ina, w hich are
intim ately m ixed together w ith w ater to form into a slurry, w hich is subsequently heated, dried,
calcined and ground to a very fine pow der. A sm all proportion of gypsum is added before
grinding in order to control the rate of setting.
5.1 Setting/Hardening
The term s setting and hardening have different m eanings. Setting is the process w hich changes
a fluid concrete to a solid but w eak state. H ardening is the process by w hich the w eak set
concrete attains strength.
5.2 Hydration of cement
W hen w ater is added to cem ent, the cem ent hydrates and during the chem ical reactions, w hich
take place w hile the cem ent is setting, an increase in tem perature occurs and a considerable
quantity of heat is generated
5.3 Different types of cement
There are total five different kinds of cem ents. C em ents are classified by their properties and
chem ical com position. The nam es of these five kinds of cem ents are:
n O rdinary Portland C em ent
n R apid hardening C em ent
n Q uick setting C em ent
n B last furnace Slag C em ent
n H igh A lum ina C em ent
5.4 Type and quality
For ordinary brick m asonry w ork it is recom m ended to use ordinary Portland cem ent. In order
to achieve a good m ortar in strength and durability, it is essential that the follow ing rules and
regulations be follow ed:
5.4.1 Cement storage
C em ent can be safely stored in bags for a few m onths if kept in a dry room . Paper bags are
better for storing than jute bags because paper bags perform better in regard to quality dete-
rioration due to m oisture. D uring the m onsoon tim e, the cem ent storage plays an even m ore
im portant role, since the relatively higher hum idity accelerates the deterioration process of the
cem ent.
C em ent bags should be stored on a raised w ooden platform (e.g. tim ber pallets) about 15 to
20 cm above the floor level and about 30 to 50 cm aw ay from w alls.
The cem ent stack should not be m ore than 10 bags high. The bags should be placed close
together to reduce circulation of air.
A cem ent bag should never be opened until its im m ediate use for m ixing.
30
31
5.4.2 Use of fresh cement
O rdinary Portland cem ent, w hich has been stored for over six m onths, should not be used for
m asonry w ork.
The average reduction of strength in a 1:2:4 m ix as a result of storage is:
Fresh cement strength 100%
C em ent after 3 m onths, strength reduced by 20%
C em ent after 24 m onths; strength reduced by 50%
5.5 Testing the cement quality
The indication of dam aged cem ent is given by the presence of large lum ps of set cem ent.
These lum ps of set cem ent should not be used, not even if screened again.
The freshness of cem ent can be tested as per follow ing description:
Lump test:
C heck the cem ent for any sm all or large lum ps. R em ove them .
Rubbing test:
W hen cem ent is rubbed betw een fingers and thum b it should feel like a sm ooth pow der such
as flour.
Setting test:
If you are uncertain about your cem ent quality you can m ake a sim ple setting test.
M ake a stiff paste of neat cem ent and w ater and form it into a cake about 75 m m diam eter
and 12 to 15 m m thick. The cake should com m ence to set in about 30 to 60 m inutes. In 18 to
24 hours the cake should have hardened sufficiently so that it does not effortlessly scratch the
surface w ith a thum bnail.
M
O
D
U
L
E

2
32
33
6. Water
The w orkability of a m ortar increases as the w ater content of the m ix is increased. W ater
lubricates the m ixture. H ow ever, increased w ater content w ill cause a decrease in strength,
produce cracks (shrinkage) and decrease density.
Therefore, not only the quality, but equally im portant the quantity of the w ater is im portant for
producing a good m ortar and brick m asonry w ork.
6.1 Type and quality
A lm ost any natural w ater that is drinkable and has no pronounced taste or odor can be used as
m ixing w ater for m aking cem ent m ortar. W ater suitable for m aking cem ent m ortar, how ever,
m ay not be fit for drinking.
6.1.1 Seawater
Seaw ater should not be used as m ixing w ater for cem ent m ortar.
6.1.2 Collected rainwater from roofs
R ainw ater collected from roofs can be used for m ixing m ortar or concrete.
6.1.3 Oils
Various kinds of oil are occasionally present in m ixing w ater. W ater m ixed w ith any kind of oil
shall not be used for m ixing m ortar or concrete.
6.2 Water storage
W ater should be stored w here no contam ination is possible. W ater stored in clean drum s
or covered tanks is preferred. The age of the w ater, or the storage tim e does not affect the
cem ent m ortar quality in any w ay.
6.3 Testing the water quality
W ater of questionable suitability can be used for m aking cem ent m ortar cubes. The w ater in
question should achieve the strength in 7 and 28 days equal to at least 90% of com parable
specim ens m ade w ith drinkable w ater.
32
33
Bad brick wall construction resulting into corner collapse / damage
Principles of Construction
M
O
D
U
L
E

3
35
35
M
O
D
U
L
E

3
Content
1. Principles of mortar .................................................................................38
1.1 What is mortar?.........................................................................................38
1.2 Type of mortars .........................................................................................38
1.3 Cement mortar...........................................................................................38
1.4 Lime mortar ...............................................................................................38
1.5 Cement lime mortar ...............................................................................38
1.6 Mortar sand granulation...........................................................................38
1.7 Mixing mortars..........................................................................................39
1.7.1 W eight m ethod..............................................................................39
1.7.2 Volum etric m ethod ........................................................................39
1.8 Categorization of mortars and its mix ratio............................................39
1.9 Dos and donts ..........................................................................................40
2. Principles of concreting............................................................................42
2.1 What is concrete?......................................................................................42
2.1.1 O ther ingredients ..........................................................................42
2.1.2 H ydration begins ...........................................................................42
2.1.3 The form s of concrete...................................................................43
2.2 Functions and requirements of concrete ingredients.............................43
2.2.1 Functions of cem ent......................................................................43
2.2.2 Functions of sand ..........................................................................43
2.2.3 C oarse aggregate ..........................................................................44
2.2.4 W ater.............................................................................................44
2.3 Reinforced concrete .................................................................................44
2.4 Reinforcement ..........................................................................................44
2.4.1 Type and characteristics of steel bars ..........................................44
2.4.2 C ategories & purpose of reinforcem ent........................................45
2.4.3 B asic rules for steel reinforcem ent...............................................45
2.5 Type of concrete .......................................................................................46
2.5.1 H igh strength concrete..................................................................46
2.5.2 M edium strength concrete............................................................46
2.5.3 Low strength concrete ..................................................................46
2.5.4 M ixing proportion of concrete .......................................................46
2.6 Cover in concrete......................................................................................47
2.7 Requirements of concrete.........................................................................47
2.7.1 Strength.........................................................................................47
2.7.2 W orkability.....................................................................................47
2.8 Factors influencing concrete quality........................................................47
2.8.1 C em ent..........................................................................................47
2.8.2 W ater C em ent ratio ....................................................................47
2.8.3 R aw m aterials................................................................................47
2.8.4 Fineness of fine aggregate............................................................48
2.8.5 Placing the concrete......................................................................48
2.8.6 C om paction ...................................................................................49
2.8.7 C uring ............................................................................................49
2.8.8 Effect of aging ...............................................................................49
2.9 Mixing of concrete....................................................................................49
2.9.1 H and m ixing ..................................................................................49
2.9.2 M achine m ixing ............................................................................50
2.10 Dos and donts ..........................................................................................50
2.11 Form work..................................................................................................53
2.12 Removal of the forms ...............................................................................54
36
37
3. Principles of brick masonry......................................................................55
3.1 Brick overlap between layers ...................................................................55
3.2 Size of bricks..............................................................................................55
3.2.1 N am es of parts of a brick..............................................................56
3.3 Rules for joints ..........................................................................................57
3.3.1 H orizontal joints.............................................................................57
3.3.2 Vertical joints .................................................................................57
3.4 Selection of bricks.....................................................................................58
3.5 Brick cuttings .............................................................................................58
3.6 Brick soaking..............................................................................................58
3.7 Maximum brick wall height per day........................................................59
3.8 Curing.........................................................................................................59
3.9 Pointing......................................................................................................59
3.10 Most common bonds................................................................................60
3.10.1 Flem ish bond (O ne brick thick)......................................................60
3.10.2 Flem ish bond (O ne and half brick thick)........................................60
3.10.3 English bond (O ne brick thick).......................................................61
3.10.4 English bond (O ne and half brick thick ..........................................61
3.10.5 R at trap bond.................................................................................62
3.10.6 Stretcher bond...............................................................................63
3.10.7 H eader bond..................................................................................64
4. Principles of stone masonry....................................................................65
4.1 Stone surfaces...........................................................................................65
4.2 Rules for stone shaping............................................................................65
4.2.1 Line stones....................................................................................66
4.2.2 C ornerstones.................................................................................66
4.2.3 A rch stones ..................................................................................67
4.3 Unsquared rubble masonry ....................................................................67
4.3.1 U ncoursed rubble ..........................................................................67
4.3.2 R andom coursed rubble ................................................................68
4.3.3 C oursed rubble ..............................................................................68
4.4 How to build with shaped stones ............................................................68
4.5 Bonding......................................................................................................70
4.6 Curing.........................................................................................................70
4.7 Pointing......................................................................................................70
4.8 Dos and donts ..........................................................................................71
5. Principles of curing...................................................................................72
5.1 What is curing?..........................................................................................72
5.2 Type of curing............................................................................................72
5.2.1 W ater curing ..................................................................................72
5.2.2 Vapor curing ..................................................................................73
5.2.3 Steam curing .................................................................................73
36
37
M
O
D
U
L
E

3
6. Principles of plastering.............................................................................74
6.1 What is plastering? ................................................................................... 74
6.2 Requirements of good plaster ................................................................ 74
6.3 Types of mortars for plastering................................................................ 74
6.3.1 C em ent m ortar..............................................................................74
6.4 Number of coats of plaster....................................................................... 74
6.4.1 B ackground ....................................................................................75
6.4.2 Tw o coat plaster............................................................................75
6.4.3 Three coat plaster.........................................................................75
6.4.4 Single coat plaster ........................................................................75
6.5 Preparation of background ......................................................................75
6.6 Recommended mortar mixes ................................................................... 76
6.7 Defects in plastering .................................................................................77
6.7.1 B listering of plastered surface.......................................................77
6.7.2 C racking.........................................................................................77
6.7.3 C razing...........................................................................................77
6.7.4 Efflorescence ...............................................................................77
6.7.5 Flaking ...........................................................................................77
6.7.6 Peeling...........................................................................................77
6.7.7 Popping..........................................................................................77
6.7.8 R ust stains ....................................................................................78
6.7.9 U neven surface .............................................................................78
7. Flooring......................................................................................................79
7.1 What is flooring?.......................................................................................79
7.2 Components of flooring ..........................................................................79
7.2.1 Sub floor........................................................................................79
7.2.2 Floor finish.....................................................................................79
7.3 Types of floors...........................................................................................79
7.3.1 B rick bat floor ...............................................................................79
7.3.2 C oncrete floor................................................................................80
7.3.3 O ther com m on types of floors......................................................81
38
39
1. Principles of mortar
1.1 What is mortar?
M ortar m ay be defined as a m aterial com posed of fine aggregate and cem ent, w hich form s a
hardened m ass after m ixing w ith w ater. It is used in the beds and side joints of m asonry w ork,
in order to bind the stones, bricks or blocks together and distribute the pressure throughout
the block-w ork.
M ortar is further used also for plastering w ork, pointing w ork, flooring and topping w ork.
G ood m ortar used for m asonry consists of cem ent, sand and w ater in the correct proportions.
W hen the m aterials are freshly m ixed, m ortars have a plastic consistency, w hich could be
easily w orked w ith trow els to fill the joints in m asonry or to render the surfaces of w alls by
plastering etc. B y the virtue of the setting properties of the binding m aterial used (cem ent,
lim e) they set and becom e hard subsequently.
1.2 Type of mortars
G enerally there are three com m on types of m ortars in use for m asonry and plastering w ork,
nam ely:
n C em ent m ortar
n Lim e m ortar
n C em ent lim e m ortar
1.3 Cement mortar
C em ent m ortar is now adays the m ost com m only used m ortar for brick as w ell as stones
or concrete block m asonry w ork. It provides high strength properties. M ix proportion varies
according to requirem ents of the m asonry structure.
1.4 Lime mortar
This is a m ixture of quicklim e (burnt lim estone) and sand in the proportion of 1 part lim e and 3
parts sand, in addition to w ater. Lim e m ortar w as once the principal m aterial used for bedding
and jointing bricks and stones. It is used less frequently now as it develops strength very
slow ly and is not easily available in the m arket.
1.5 Cement lime mortar
This w as the m ost usual general-purpose m ortar com prising 1 part cem ent 2 parts lim e and 9
parts sand. The addition of lim e im proves the w orkability and m akes it easier to use. C em ent
lim e m ortar is m ainly used for internal w ork.
1.6 Mortar sand granulation
The sand used for every kind of m ortar m ust be clean and free from clay and other organic
m atters.
For getting a proper m ortar, the granulation of the sand needs to be correct. Sand w ithout fines
(below 0.5m m ) gives a harsh m ortar w ith a low com pressive strength and a bad w orkability.
C em ent m ortar gives the best result w hen the sand com prises of the follow ing:
38
39
0 - 0.5 m m (60% 0-0.2 m m ) 1 part
0.5 - 2 m m 1 part
2 - 4 m m 1 part
1.7 Mixing mortars
The sand is placed on a clean platform , the correct am ount of cem ent is added to it, both, sand
and cem ent are thoroughly m ixed before w ater is added and the m ass gradually w orked up into
a plastic condition. The general rule is that sand and cem ent are m ixed dry together at least 3
tim es before w ater is added. This is im portant for achieving the proper plasticity.
Flatten the dry mix with a trowel, if properly
mixed a uniform gray color is visible.
Add water only once a uniform gray color is
visible.
1.7.1 Weight method
M ortar m ixtures are also expressed in kg of cem ent per 1 m
3
of cem ent m ortar. For exam ple
PC 250 m eans that 250 kg of Portland C em ent (PC ), approx. 1000 liters of sand and 120 liters
of w ater are used to obtain about 1 m
3
m ortar. This m ethod is m ainly used for large construc-
tions in cities for bridges, hotel and shopping com plexes etc.
1.7.2 Volumetric method
U sually on sm all and rural construction sites the m ore practical volum e batching m ethod is
applied. The volum etric m ethod is a very appropriate w ay to m ix raw m aterials. Special care
m ust be given to ensure that the w orkers m easure each tim e the sam e volum e.
1.8 Categorization of mortars and its mix ratio
M ortars are categorized in m ainly three groups, nam ely:
Group 1
H ighly stressed m asonry incorporating height strength structural units as used in m ultistory
load bearing buildings.
G roup 1 batching
Cement Sand
1 4
Bucket Buckets
M
O
D
U
L
E

3
40
41
Group 2
N orm al load bearing applications such as external house w alls, parapets, and balustrades,
retaining structures, freestanding garden w alls and other w alls exposed to severe dam pness.
G roup 2 batching
Cement Sand
1 6
Bucket Buckets
Group 3
Lightly stressed non-structural w alls
G roup 3 batching
Cement Sand
1 8
Bucket Buckets
1.9 Dos and donts
Dos:
U se alw ays-clean sand for m ortar.
Why?
C ontam inated sand (e.g. roots, leaves, plastic parts, saw dust, anim al and hum an excreta etc
w ill not bind w ith cem ent, hence is w eakening the m ortar. A lso sand w ith high percentage of
clay or silt w ill w eaken the m ortar, because the clay or silt contains too m any fines that needs
to be covered by cem ent for proper binding, hence, the m ortar becom es w eak.
Sand deposit properly covered and protected from being contaminated
40
41
Dos:
A lw ays use fresh and lum p free cem ent for m ortar
Why?
O ld cem ent is loosing its strength property. E.g. cem ent that has been stored for about 6
m onths is gaining 30% less strength than fresh cem ent. For good m asonry w ork, strength is
im portant as it influences the overall building quality.
Improperly stored cement results in
loss of quality
Dos:
A lw ays m ix the dry ingredients (sand & cem ent) together before adding w ater.
Why?
W et sand particles have the tendency to stick together and are therefore hindering that cem ent
can cover them . This results in an un-uniform m ix that is reducing the m ortar quality, because
each sand particle should ideally be fully covered w ith cem ent.
Further, adding w ater together w ith sand and cem ent in one go m akes m ixing the m ortar
extrem ely difficult for the laborers.
Dos:
A lw ays protect the m ortar-m ixing place from w ind, rain and sunshine.
Why?
W ind and sunshine is entraining the w ater from the m ortar and is accelerating the hardening
process before it is being used. This is m akes the m ortar useless for any purpose. R ain is
adding w ater and the m ortar becom es unusable too.
Donts:
D o not use or re-use m ortar that has already hardened. A s cem ent m ortar sets relatively quickly
(approx. 30 m inutes), it should never be m ixed in huge quantities.
Why?
In hardened m ortar, the hydration process of the cem ent has started and re-m ixing it is
destroying the bond betw een cem ent and sand. This bond cannot regain strength again by
sim ply adding fresh w ater to the m ortar.
M
O
D
U
L
E

3
42
43
2. Principles of concreting
2.1 What is concrete?
In its sim plest form , concrete is a m ixture of paste and aggregates. The paste, com posed of
portland cem ent and w ater, coats the surface of the fine and coarse aggregates. Through a
chem ical reaction called hydration, the paste hardens and gains strength to form the rock-like
m ass know n as concrete. W ithin this process lies the key to a rem arkable trait of concrete: its
plastic and m alleable w hen new ly m ixed, strong and durable w hen hardened. These qualities
explain w hy one m aterial, concrete, can build skyscrapers, bridges, sidew alks and superhigh-
w ays, houses and dam s. The key to achieving a strong, durable concrete rests in the careful
proportioning and m ixing of the ingredients. A concrete m ixture that does not have enough
paste to fill all the voids betw een the aggregates w ill be difficult to place and w ill produce
rough, honeycom bed surfaces and porous concrete. A m ixture w ith an excess of cem ent paste
w ill be easy to place and w ill produce a sm ooth surface; how ever, the resulting concrete is
likely to shrink m ore and be uneconom ical.
A properly designed concrete m ixture w ill possess the desired w orkability for the fresh
concrete and the required durability and strength for the hardened concrete. Typically, a m ix
is about 10 to 15 percent cem ent, 60 to 75 percent aggregate and 15 to 20 percent w ater.
Entrained air in m any concrete m ixes m ay also take up another 5 to 8 percent.
Portland cem ents chem istry com es to life in the presence of w ater. C em ent and w ater form a
paste that coats each particle of stone and sand. Through a chem ical reaction called hydration,
the cem ent paste hardens and gains strength. The character of the concrete is determ ined
by quality of the paste. The strength of the paste, in turn, depends on the ratio of w ater to
cem ent. The w ater-cem ent ratio is the w eight of the m ixing w ater divided by the w eight of
the cem ent. H igh-quality concrete is produced by low ering the w ater-cem ent ratio as m uch
as possible w ithout sacrificing the w orkability of fresh concrete. G enerally, using less w ater
produces a higher quality concrete provided the concrete is properly placed, consolidated, and
cured.
2.1.1 Other ingredients
A lthough m ost drinking w ater is suitable for use in concrete, aggregates are chosen carefully.
A ggregates com prise 60 to 75 percent of the total volum e of concrete. The type and size of
the aggregate m ixture depends on the thickness and purpose of the final concrete product.
A lm ost any natural w ater that is drinkable and has no pronounced taste or odor m ay be used
as m ixing w ater for concrete. H ow ever, som e w aters that are not fit for drinking m ay be
suitable for concrete. Excessive im purities in m ixing w ater not only m ay affect setting tim e
and concrete strength, but also m ay cause efflorescence, staining, corrosion of reinforcem ent,
volum e instability, and reduced durability.
R elatively thin building sections call for sm all coarse aggregate, though aggregates up to six
inches (150 m m ) in diam eter have been used in large dam s. A continuous gradation of particle
sizes is desirable for efficient use of the paste. In addition, aggregates should be clean and free
from any m atter that m ight affect the quality of the concrete.
2.1.2 Hydration begins
Soon after the aggregates, w ater, and the cem ent are com bined, the m ixture starts to harden.
A ll portland cem ents are hydraulic cem ents that set and harden through a chem ical reaction
w ith w ater. D uring this reaction, called hydration, a node form s on the surface of each cem ent
particle. The node grow s and expands until it links up w ith nodes from other cem ent particles
or adheres to adjacent aggregates. The building up process results in progressive stiffening,
42
43
hardening, and strength developm ent. O nce the concrete is thoroughly m ixed and w orkable
it should be placed in form s before the m ixture becom es too stiff. D uring placem ent, the
concrete is consolidated to com pact it w ithin the form s and to elim inate potential flaw s, such
as honeycom bs and air pockets. For slabs, concrete is left to stand until the surface m oisture
film disappears. A fter the film disappears from the surface, a w ood or m etal handfloat is used
to sm ooth off the concrete. Floating produces a relatively even, but slightly rough, texture
that has good slip resistance and is frequently used as a final finish for exterior slabs. If a
sm ooth, hard, dense surface is required, floating is follow ed by steel trow eling. C uring begins
after the exposed surfaces of the concrete have hardened sufficiently to resist m arring. C uring
ensures the continued hydration of the cem ent and the strength gain of the concrete. C oncrete
surfaces are cured by sprinkling w ith w ater fog, or by using m oisture-retaining fabrics such
as burlap or cotton m ats. O ther curing m ethods prevent evaporation of the w ater by sealing
the surface w ith plastic or special sprays (curing com pounds). Special techniques are used for
curing concrete during extrem ely cold or hot w eather to protect the concrete. The longer the
concrete is kept m oist, the stronger and m ore durable it w ill becom e. The rate of hardening
depends upon the com position and fineness of the cem ent, the m ix proportions, and the
m oisture and tem perature conditions. M ost of the hydration and strength gain take place w ithin
the first m onth of concretes life cycle, but hydration continues at a slow er rate for m any years.
C oncrete continues to get stronger as it gets older.
2.1.3 The forms of concrete
C oncrete is produced in four basic form s, each w ith unique applications and properties. Ready
mixed concrete. Its batched at local plants for delivery in the fam iliar trucks w ith revolving
drum s. Precast concrete products are cast in a factory setting. These products benefit from
tight quality control achievable at a production plant. Precast products range from concrete
bricks and paving stones to bridge girders, structural com ponents, and panels for cladding.
Concrete masonry, another type of m anufactured concrete, m ay be best know n for its con-
ventional 8 8 16 - inch block. Todays m asonry units can be m olded into a w ealth of shapes,
configurations, colors, and textures to serve an infinite spectrum of building applications and ar-
chitectural needs. C em ent-based m aterials represent products that defy the label of concrete,
yet share m any of its qualities. C onventional m aterials in this category include m ortar, grout,
and terrazzo. Soil-cem ent and roller-com pacted concrete-cousinsof concrete-are used for
pavem ents and dam s. O ther products in this category include flow able fill and cem ent-treated
bases. A new generation of advanced products incorporates fibers and special aggregate to
create roofing tiles, shake shingles, lap siding, and countertops. A nd an em erging m arket is the
use of cem ent to treat and stabilize w aste.
2.2 Functions and requirements of concrete ingredients
2.2.1 Functions of cement
n It fills up the voids in the fine and coarse aggregates.
n M ake the concrete im perm eable.
n It provides strength to concrete on setting and hardening.
n It binds the aggregates into a solid m ass by virtue of its setting.
n H ardens w hen m ixed w ith w ater.
2.2.2 Functions of sand
n Sand fills the voids existing in the coarse aggregates.
n It reduces shrinkage of concrete
n Sand helps in hardening of cem ent by allow ing the w ater through its voids.
M
O
D
U
L
E

3
44
45
2.2.3 Coarse aggregate
n It m akes solid and hard m ass of concrete w ith cem ent and sand.
n It reduces the cost of concrete, since it occupies m ore volum e.
2.2.4 Water
n W ater w ets the surface of aggregates
n It facilities the spreading of cem ent over the aggregates and m akes the m ix w orkable.
n It initiates the hydration process of the cem ent, subsequently starts the setting and
hardening process
n It controls the heat generated by the hydration process of the cem ent
2.3 Reinforced concrete
C oncrete can support heavy loads in com pression, but its tensile strength is relatively low .
(A bout one tenth of the com pressive) To com pensate for the low tensile strength property of
the concrete, steel bars w ith a very high tensile strength is com bined w ith concrete.
B y em bedding steel bars in the concrete, advantage is taken of these properties to im prove
the load carrying capacity of the structure. The steel is placed in the concrete that is subjected
to tension but also to avoid cracks due to shrinking.
2.4 Reinforcement
2.4.1 Type and characteristics of steel bars
Steel is a high strength m aterial and for reinforced concrete w ork m ild steel, m edium tensile
steel, high tensile steel and hard draw n steel is com m only used.
D ifferent size of reinforcem ent & their w eights:
Sr.No. Size of Steel (dia in mm) Weight per Rm.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
6
8
10
12
16
20
25
0.22 kg
0.39 kg
0.62 kg
0.89 kg
1.58 kg
2.47 kg
3.85 kg
44
45
The various form s in w hich steel is used as reinforcem ent in R .C .C . w orks are round bars,
deform ed bars, tw isted bars, square bars and flats. Som e tim es expanded m etal fabrics m ade
by w elding steel w ire in the form square m esh, are also used as reinforcem ent in slabs.
M ild steel and m edium tensile steel bars of round sections are m ost com m only used in R .C .C .
w ork. The diam eters of round bars used in norm al building w ork are 6, 8,10, 12, 16,18, 20, 22,
25 and 32 m m .
D eform ed bars or high yield strength deform ed bars are furnished w ith lugs, ribs or other form
of surface deform ations for the purpose of increasing their bond strength w ith concrete.
2.4.2 Categories & purpose of reinforcement
There are tw o m ain categories and purposes of reinforcem ent by steel.
The main reinforcement, to take care for the tension forces.
Distribution reinforcement, to spread the load and to keep the m ain reinforcem ent in
position during casting.
2.4.3 Basic rules for steel reinforcement
The m ain reinforcem ent should alw ays be at the place w here tension occurs. It should
adequately covered by concrete to avoid corrosion of the reinforcem ent. Steel bars of plain
surface (m ild steel) need to be hooked at the ends to obtain better adhesion, and therefore
create a greater strength for the structure. H ooking is not necessary for steel bars w ith ribbed
surface (Tor-steel).
A proper bond betw een the steel rods and the concrete is the m ost im portant for reinforced
concrete. The surface of the rod has to be clean. In order to provide a proper bond the rods
have to be surrounded com pletely by the concrete. Therefore, the reinforced concrete has to
be properly vibrated. Plain bars m ust have ends w ith hooks, w hich, should be anchored, in
the pressure zone. D eform ed bars w ith ribbed projections can have straight ends but then the
anchorage has to be in the pressure zone of the structure.
If rods have to be overlapped the follow ing rules show the m inim um overlap length:
R od w ith hook - 45 tim es diam eter of the rod
Straight - 65 tim es diam eter of the rod
Important:
The proper placing of reinforcem ent for structures of high quality concrete requires a w orking
draw ing or reinforcem ent plan, containing all the necessary inform ation. A structural engineer
w ill m ake this reinforcem ent plan only.
M
O
D
U
L
E

3
46
47
2.5 Type of concrete
The strength of the concrete depends on m ix proportions and should suit the w ork being done.
D ifferent applications require different strengths of concrete. Three different strength categories
w ith typical applications are outlined below
2.5.1 High strength concrete (M 300 M350)
H igh strength concrete should be used for suspended structural beam s and slabs, precast
item s (stairs) and heavy-duty floors.
2.5.2 Medium strength concrete (M 200 M250)
M edium strength concrete is suitable for reinforced foundations and slabs, light duty house
floors, paths, steps, drivew ays and garage doors.
2.5.3 Low strength concrete (M100 M150)
Low strength concrete is suitable for unreinforced foundations for houses and freestanding
w alls.
2.5.4 Mixing proportion of concrete
Concrete Type Proportion of Cement Proportion of Sand Proportion of Aggregates
M 100
M 150
M 250
M 350
1
1
1
1
4
4
3
2
6
4
3
2
46
47
2.6. Cover in concrete
A n appropriate concrete cover of the steel reinforcem ent is absolutely essential to protect the
steel m em bers from w eathering effects. A s soon as air contacts the steel m em bers inside the
concrete, the oxidation process starts, leading to rusting and eventually disintegration of the
affected part. This can lead to serious consequences such as the collapse of a beam or slab.
M inim um requirem ent of cover in concrete m em bers:
Members Minimum reinforcement cover
Slab 150 m m
B eam 25 m m
C olum n, Foundation 40 m m
2.7 Requirements of concrete
2.7.1 Strength
The concrete m ust be strong enough to bear the im posed stresses safely in each w ith the
required factor of safety. It w ill be uneconom ical m aking the concrete stronger than desired,
but at the sam e tim e its m inim um strength m ust be ensured.
2.7.2 Workability
The concrete m ix used should be such that it can be easily m ixed, placed, com pacted and
finished at surface w ith m inim um of effort i.e. the concrete should be w orkable.
2.8 Factors influencing concrete quality
2.8.1 Cement
The cem ent quality is a very im port factor that influences the basic requirem ent of the
concrete. C em ent m ust be fresh and free from any lum ps. The grading of the cem ent is
im portant too. A high grade cem ent, e.g. G rade 53 is gaining m ore rapid strength than a G rade
33 cem ent. H ow ever, after 90 days, both type of cem ent w ill have approx. gained the sam e
final strength.
2.8.2 Water Cement ratio
The ratio of m inim um quantity of w ater to the w eight of cem ent, required to obtain the desired
consistency and w orkability of concrete m ix is called: w ater cem ent ratio. C oncrete strength
decreases w ith the increases in w ater cem ent ratio. This is because the added w ater once
evaporated leaves behind very very sm all voids. The m ore voids there are in a concrete, the
w eaker it becom es.
2.8.3 Raw materials
The sand and aggregate m ust be free of leaves, grass and other foreign m atters. Sand should
be fairly coarse w ith particle sizes ranging from fine dust up to about 5m m .
C lean aggregate w ith sizes of 26,5 m m , 19 m m , 13,2 m m or 9,2 m m can be used for concrete.
A ggregate size of 26.5 m m can b e used for thick section such as foundations, deep suspended
M
O
D
U
L
E

3
48
49
slabs and industrial floors thicker than 120 m m . 19 m m aggregates can be used for floors, paths
and drivew ays. A ggregates 13,2 m m or 9,5 m m can be used for thin concrete section such as
thin suspended slabs, precast item s w ith section thickness ranging from 40 m m to 50 m m .
2.8.4 Fineness of fine aggregate
C oncrete strength decreases w ith increases in fineness of fine aggregate. This is because the
fines require a lot of cem ent for a total coverage, resulting into a leaner overall m ix.
2.8.5 Placing the concrete
C oncrete after m ixing m ust be placed in the defined position and com pacted before the initial
setting of cem ent starts.
B efore placing of concrete starts, it m ust be ensured that the form s are rigidly braced, true to
their position, oiled, cleaned and dried of any standing w ater.
Special care m ust be taken that before placing the concrete that the steel reinforcem ent is
properly distanced from the form w ork to ensure appropriate coverage of the steel m em bers.
Place the concrete as close to its final position as possible. I f concrete is placed on the
ground, the soil should be thoroughly dam p, but w ithout any standing w ater w hen the concrete
is placed. W ork the concrete right into the corners and along the edges on the form or hole
w ith a spade or a trow el.
Concrete should never be dropped from a height, as it will cause segregation.
wrong: placing heaps causes segregation
48
49
2.8.6 Compaction
It is extrem ely im portant that the concrete is thoroughly com pacted im m ediately after placing in
to the form s. N ot properly com pacted concrete results into so called honey com bspots that
expose the steel reinforcem ent to air and resulting in rusting. B esides, not properly com pacted
concrete has a reduced bearing capacity and is overall w eakening the casted structure. A
vibrator needle can achieve best com paction.
2.8.7 Curing
A fter concrete is placed, a satisfactory m oisture content and tem perature (betw een 50F
and 75F) m ust be m aintained, a process called curing. A dequate curing is vital to quality
concrete. C uring has a strong influence on the properties of hardened concrete such as
durability, strength, w atertightness, abrasion resistance, volum e stability, and resistance to
freezing and thaw ing and deicer salts. Exposed slab surfaces are especially sensitive to curing.
Surface strength developm ent can be reduced significantly w hen curing is defective. C uring
the concrete aids the chem ical reaction called hydration. M ost freshly m ixed concrete contains
considerably m ore w ater than is required for com plete hydration of the cem ent; how ever, any
appreciable loss of w ater by evaporation or otherw ise w ill delay or prevent hydration. If tem -
peratures are favorable, hydration is relatively rapid the first few days after concrete is placed;
retaining w ater during this period is im portant. G ood curing m eans evaporation should be
prevented or reduced
2.8.8 Effect of aging
B asically if all rules and regulation for concreting are properly follow ed, concrete gains strength
by aging. H ow ever, the rate of increase in strength decreases w ith tim e.
2.9 Mixing of concrete
M ixing of concrete is usually m ade by hand for sm all quantities or by m achine for big
quantities.
2.9.1 Hand mixing
H and m ixing is adopted w here in sm aller quantities of aggregates is involved or the involvem ent
or procuring of m ixing m achines is out of reach. M ixing shall alw ays be done on w atertight
platform in order to avoid cem ent w ater seepage.
M
O
D
U
L
E

3
50
51
Procedure for proper hand mixing:
n Spread the m easured quantity of sand in a layer of about 10 cm on the m ixing platform .
n Place the cem ent on top of the sand and m ix the tw o thoroughly together until thy form
an even color.
n Pile the m ixture into a heap and m ake a hollow in the m iddle.
n Pour in w ater slow ly in sm all quantities and m ix until a sm ooth paste is form ed.
n A dd now the correct am ount of aggregate and m ix until every aggregate is properly
coated.
2.9.2 Machine mixing
M achine m ixing is required for large quantities of concrete w ork and for good w orkability for
placing the concrete in a short tim e and w ith no w astage.
C oncrete having coarse aggregates is m ixed in concrete m ixers.
Procedure for machine mixing:
n M easure the quantities of each ingredient
n First add the aggregates and som e am ount of w ater, then the cem ent, then the sand
n M ix and add m ore w ater until the right consistency is reached
n Em pty the m ixer com pletely w hen discharging each batch.
n C lean the concrete m ixer thoroughly on com pletion.
2.10 Dos and donts
Dos:
A lw ays calculate exactly how m uch finished concrete is required for the job to do and ascertain
how m uch cem ent sand, coarse aggregate and w ater w ill be required
Why?
Even a good guess can go w rong. W hile guessing the am ount of m aterial required it can
happen that you order to m uch, resulting into unnecessary expenses. It m ight also happen that
you order too less and organizing im m ediately the rem aining m aterial m ight proof to be difficult
or even im possible, resulting into unnecessary expenses and loss of quality.
Dos:
U se alw ays-clean sand and aggregates for concrete.
Why?
C ontam inated sand and aggregate (e.g. roots, leaves, plastic parts, saw dust, anim al and
hum an excreta etc. w ill not bind w ith cem ent, hence is w eakening the concreter. A lso sand
and aggregate w ith high percentage of clay or silt w ill w eaken the concrete, because the clay
or silt contains too m any fines that needs to be covered by cem ent for proper binding, hence,
the concrete becom es w eak.
50
51
Dos:
A lw ays use fresh and lum p free cem ent for concrete
Why?
O ld cem ent is loosing its strength property. E.g. cem ent that has been stored for about 6
m onths is gaining 30% less strength than fresh cem ent. For good concrete w ork, strength is
im portant as it influences the overall building quality.
Dos:
A lw ays m ix the dry ingredients (sand & cem ent) together before adding w ater.
Why?
W et sand particles have the tendency to stick together and are therefore hindering that cem ent
can cover them . This results in an un-uniform m ix that is reducing the concrete quality, because
each sand and aggregate particle should ideally be fully covered w ith cem ent.
Further, adding w ater together w ith sand, aggregate and cem ent in one go m akes m ixing the
concrete extrem ely difficult for the laborers.
Dos:
A lw ays protect the concrete-m ixing place from w ind, rain and sunshine.
Why?
W ind and sunshine is entraining the w ater from the concrete and is accelerating the hardening
process before it is being used. This is m akes the concrete useless for any purpose. R ain is
adding w ater and the concrete is becom ing too w et, resulting in a w eak final strength.
Dogs will contaminate concrete raw material, therefore proper protection is required
M
O
D
U
L
E

3
52
53
Dos
U se the concrete m ix w ithin a m axim um of 1 hr. after w et m ixing and do never retem pering
by m ixing in additional w ater
Why?
In concrete that is older than 1 hr., the hydration process of the cem ent has started and re-
m ixing it is destroying the bond betw een cem ent and sand/aggregates. This bond cannot regain
strength again by sim ply adding fresh w ater to the concrete.
Dos:
U se alw ays-proper quantity m easuring boxes.
Why?
U sing em pty cem ent bags, or other m eans does not alw ays ensure that the correct am ount
of raw m aterial is being added. This inaccuracy could lead into a leaner or richer m ix than
designed, either reducing the concrete quality or adding extra costs.
Dos:
A lw ays m ake a final check of the form w ork before placing the concrete into the form .
Why?
D uring placing of the reinforcem ent som e supporting pools or bracing m ight have been
dislocated. If now concrete is pored into the fram ew ork, side shuttering or even slab shuttering
m ight collapse. This is the w orst-case scenario, but unfortunately it still happens too often,
som etim es even killing people.
Donts
D o not m ake concrete w ork if the outside tem perature is crossing 40 degree C elsius.
Why?
The direct sunshine tem perature at 40 degree C elsius is nearly 50 degree C elsius. H ence,
the w ater evaporation of the freshly placed concrete w ill happen im m ediately, causing serious
shrinkage cracks and hindering a proper and controlled hardening of the concrete. This w ill
finally seriously w eaken the concrete w ork quality.
H ow ever, if it is unavoidable to stop concreting w ork, then the follow ing precautions can be
taken:
n C ooling dow n the aggregates by w ater sprinkling
n Providing a shade at the casting side
n Placing im m ediately plastic on the casted concrete
Donts
D o not store the steel bars direct on the ground.
Why?
The steel bars m ight get dirty and covered w ith m ud. If the m ud w ill not be properly w ashed
aw ay before concrete casting, the binding of the steel bar w ith the concrete is reduced,
resulting in a w eak structure.
52
53
Donts
D o not clean the rust of the steel bars.
Why?
A n alkaline environm ent, cem ent, surrounds the steel bars. The alkalinity of the cem ent w ill
clean the rust in a very short tim e, provided no air is accessing the steel bars.
2.11 Form work
M ost structural concrete is m ade by casting concrete into previously m ade boxes that are
called form s or shuttering. U sually w all, colum n, beam and slab form s are built by joining
w ooden boards edge on edge. Som etim es plyw ood m ay be nailed on since it is tighter and
m ore w rap resistant. In certain cases m etal form s are used, e.g. w hen a large num ber of equal
structural m em bers (pre-cast elem ents) have to be erected or w hen the parts should be very
exact in m easurem ents.
The m ost suitable m aterial for form w ork is w ood, in particular boards, rails, batten and planks.
A ll this tim ber is available in various quality and dim ension. H ardw ood should not be used for
parts w here nailing is necessary. B oards of less quality and boards of rough surface do not last
very long as shuttering. U sing plastic or m etal sheets can extend the reuse.
Steel bars properly stored at
construction site.
A ll form w ork m aterial (planks, boards, steel etc.) and elem ents form w ork (m oulds) are
sprinkled w ith w ater before placing concrete. A fter striking or dism antling, the form w ork is
cleaned and eventually oiled as w ell as properly stored and protected from sun and rain. This
w ill guarantee the use of m any tim es.
M
O
D
U
L
E

3
54
55
Form w ork for pre-cast products like cover slabs, fence posts, w ell and culvert rings, and
elem ent form w ork for standard structures like stand posts should be m ade of quality tim ber
or steel. The use of G I sheets as additional reinforcem ent for tim ber form w ork is very suitable
because nailing of sideboards or batten is still possible
2.12 Removal of the forms
Form s should be left in place until the concrete has hardened enough to hold its ow n w eight
and any other w eight it m ay be carrying. The surface m ust be hard enough to rem ain uninjured
and unm arked w hen care is used in stripping the form s.
U nder ordinary circum stances, form s for various types for construction be rem oved after
intervals as follow s:
Side forms on beams, lintels, walls, columns 1 to 2 days
Slabs, lintels, beams
Clear span 3 m and below
Clear span 3 6m
Clear span more than 6m
8 to 14 days
16 to 14 days
24 to 35 days
Cantilever constructions
as long as possible but m in. 35 days
(because of creeping of the concrete)
54
55
3. Principles of brick masonry
The craft of the bricklayer is concerned w ith em bedding bricks in m ortar and suitably arranging
them so that the m ass, called brickw ork conform s to certain requirem ents such as strength
and appearance. Strength depends a great deal upon the bond.
There are m any rules for bonding and they are m ainly related to the different bonds such as the
English bond, the Flem ish bond or the R at Trap bond.
B onding m eans the arrangem ents of bricks in such a w ay that no vertical joint of one course is
exactly over the one below . This m eans that the brick is laid in such a w ay that it overlaps and
breaks the joint below .
A n un-bonded w all, w ith its continuous vertical joints, has little strength and stability and such
joints in general m ust be avoided.
3.1 Brick overlap between layers
The am ount of lap is generally half of the length of a brick. The m inim um lap is of the length
of a brick
3.2 Size of bricks
U niform ity in the size of bricks is essential. The correct size of a brick for a proper bonding
should be tw ice its w idth plus the thickness of one vertical joint.
M
O
D
U
L
E

3
Half Lap Quarter Lap
56
57
3.2.1 Names of parts of a brick
Proper overlap is obtained by using closers.
They are also called Queen closer.
Rowlock course
Rowlock course: Bricks are laid on their
edge, normally used for window sills and
lintels
Soldier course
Soldier course: Bricks are lead on their end,
normally used over windows and for special
effects
Closer
Closer
56
57
3.3 Rules for joints
B asically, the m ortar joints are the w eakest as w ell as the m ost expensive part of the m asonry.
Therefore, care m ust be taken to be as econom ically as possible w ith all type of joints so not
to m ake the m asonry w all unnecessary w eak and expensive.
3.3.1 Horizontal joints
For horizontal joints B ed joint a thickness of 12 m m is recom m ended for brickw ork to
ensure:
n Leveling of the brick in the m ortar bed
n Placing the brick com pletely in the m ortar
n N o uneven or incom plete support of the bricks due to stones in the m ortar
If the horizontal joints are too thick (m ore than 15 m m ) the result is a w aste of expensive
m ortar (cem ent) as w ell as w eakening of the structure.
3.3.2 Vertical joints
For vertical joints C ross joint and C ollar jointa thickness of 10 m m is recom m ended for
brickw ork. The reduction of approx. 2 m m to the horizontal joints is possible because the
contact area is m uch sm aller at the side than at the bottom . C are m ust be taken to ensure
that the entire vertical joint is filled w ith m ortar; otherw ise the brick m asonry w all is prone to
leakages.
M
O
D
U
L
E

3
Bed J oint Cross J oint
Collar J oint
Mortar J oint
58
59
3.4 Selection of bricks
W here good and bad quality of bricks is supplied in one truck load, it is advisable to select first
of all the good quality out of the supplied bricks. This is especially im portant w here bricks are
used for constructing load bearing w alls and foundations. B ad quality bricks should generally
not be used for w all construction purpose. H ow ever, if it is unavoidable to use bad quality of
bricks, then it should be used in the Flem ish double bond brick w all as center fillers.
3.5 Brick cuttings
B efore one is cutting a brick it is advisable to look just around and confirm that there is no cut
brick already there. O therw ise, use first the cut bricks available.
In order to avoid too m uch w astage, only good bricks (w ithout crack) should be cut. The m ason
needs to check each brick (sound test w ith a ham m er) and m ust reject bricks that are faulty.
The correct size to be cut should be m arked on the brick. A brick-cutting ham m er is the m ost
appropriate tool to cut a brick, avoid cutting bricks w ith a trow el. The trow el is not m eant for
this w ork.
3.6 Brick soaking
B efore a brick is placed for m asonry w ork, it needs to be thoroughly soaked in w ater. The
m inim um w atering tim e is 6 hours. D ipping the brick into a w ater bucket just before placing it
w ill not be good enough. Essentially, the soaking of bricks is done for tw o reasons:
Dust
The surface of the brick is alw ays covered w ith a lot of dust, som etim es-even dirt. If this dust
or dirt layer is not properly rem oved, the binding betw een the brick and the m ortar w ill not be
effective, hence the entire brick m asonry w all w ill be w eakened and the appearance of cracks
w ill be very likely.
Soakage of Water by Brick
Further, a dry and porous brick w ill im m ediately consum e aw ay the w ater from the m ortar. It is
how ever exactly this w ater w hich is required for ensuring the proper hardening and controlled
setting of the cem ent. If the cem ent does not have enough m oisture to ensure a proper
hydration process the final m ortar strength w ill be considerably reduced and the m asonry w all
w eakened in general.
58
59
3.7 Maximum brick wall height per day
The m axim um brick w all height per day should not exceed m ore than 12 to 14 layers. B ecause
the added w eight by each new brick layer (course) needs to be carried by the m ortar. The
m ortar how ever needs tim e to harden and to be able to carry m ore those 12 to 14 layers per
day w ithout developing cracks under this heavy load. These cracks usually cannot be seen; still
they are there and w ill reduce the total strength of the m asonry w all.
3.8 Curing
A brick w all needs to be cured for at least 7 days. Several tim es a day, w ater needs to be
poured over the brick w all. The w alls are m ostly very m uch exposed to w ind and sunshine and
the w ater (m oisture) of the w all w ill be dried out very quick. H ow ever, to gain the appropriate
bearing strength, the m ortar needs certain m oisture content for hardening. Therefore, all brick
m asonry needs regular curing for at least 7 days.
3.9 Pointing
The m ain reasons for pointing the surface of block or brickw ork joints are to increase its
w eather resistance and to give a neat looking finish to the w ork.
Pointing can be carried out as construction of the brickw ork proceeds, using ordinary m ortar in
w hich the bricks are bedded.
A nother m ethod is to finish the m asonry w ork first and then m ake the pointing w ork w ith a 1:2
cem ent m ortar later. The joints m ust be raked out to the depth of about 1 to 1.5 cm ., brushed,
w ashed and filled w ith a 1:2 cem ent m ortar.
M
O
D
U
L
E

3
60
61
3.10.2 Flemish bond (One and half brick thick)
Courses 2,4,6,8 etc. Courses 1,3,5,7 etc.
3.10 Most common bonds
3.10.1 Flemish bond (One brick thick)
60
61
3.10.3 English bond (One brick thick)
3.10.4 English bond (One and half brick thick
M
O
D
U
L
E

3
62
63
3.10.5 Rat trap bond
R at trap bond m asonry is a cost effective application of brick m asonry that has been popularized
in India by the A rchitect Laurie B aker in the last 20-30 years. In rat trap w all, the bricks are
placed on edge, thereby leaving a cavity of 4betw een the tw o leaves in case of a 10thick
w all. The bricks are placed alternate headers and stretchers as in Flem ish bond. The rate trap
m asonry reduces cost by reducing the consum ption of bricks and cem ent m ortar for the sam e
cubic m eter of brickw ork.
Where to use Rat Trap Bonded brick masonry ?
W here good quality of bricks is available. B ricks used in a rat trap m asonry w all need a
m inim um com pressive strength of m ore than 35 kg per square centim eters and the other
properties as per IS 1905-1987.
Advantages
n C om pared to a 10thick solid brick w all, consum ption of brick is reduced by 25% in rat
trap.
n D ue to reduction in num ber of bricks, the consum ption of cem ent m ortar is also reduced.
n Stability of w all is not affected as the excess m aterial is elim inated from around the
center line.
n A cts as a good therm al insulator due to the cavity in the w all.
n Plastering of the outside face is not needed as w ell as inside plaster is m inim ized since
both surfaces are fair faced.
Limitations
n N ot a good sound insulator.
The rat-trap bond is a m asonry technique that reduces brick and m ortar consum ption. B ricks
are placed w ith a 3cavity betw een tw o leaves of brick-on-edge. The cavity provides for
therm al insulation.
Rat trap bond
62
63
Rat trap bond T-J unction
3.10.6 Stretcher bond
All bricks are placed as stretchers.
Alternate layers start with a half bat.
All joints break at the center of the brick below
Stretcher walls are generally used in half brick walls like partition or compound walls etc.
M
O
D
U
L
E

3
64
65
3.10.7 Header bond
All bricks are placed as headers.
Overlap is achieved by laying a three quarter bat in alternative course at the corners
Header bond walls are generally used for footings in foundation and walls curved in
plan.
64
65
4. Principles of stone masonry
Evidently for building purpose, a good stone should possess strength, durability, cheapness and
fine appearance. The strength of a stone under com pression and cross strain is an im portant
factor for the w eight of the m asonry. Floor loads m ust be supported, resulting in considerable
pressure on the low er course. Therefore, for a given load, the low er the com pressive strength
of the stone, the thicker the w all should be for safe loading.
4.1 Stone surfaces
For the proper shaping of stones, it is im portant to know the different surfaces of the stone.
Face This is the exposed surface of a stone in elevation.
Returned face This is the exposed face to the side elevation e.g. a corner stone.
Bed This is the top or the bottom of a stone. The low er surface on w hich the
stone rests and the upper surface w hich supports the stone im m ediately
above.
J oint (Side) These are the surfaces prepared to m eet other surfaces, (e.g. Linestone).
To shape or dress a good stone is not a problem if a m an takes the pains to do it.
The stonem ason should ham m er, dress, shape or cut inequalities w hich prevents the stone
from facing up w ith the rest of the w all, or that w ill interfere w ith the bedding or fitting of the
next course. A lw ays select the stones m aking sure that they have no cracks, w hich could lead
to unexpected breaking off.
In shaping and dressing w e classify the different shapes of the stones according to their
purposes.
Line stones
Corner stones
Arch stones
4.2 Rules for stone shaping
Stone shaping m ust be m ade by a very experienced stonem ason to avoid unnecessary
w astage. H e needs to have a good feeling to assess the potential use of each stone. Since
stone handling and cutting is quite an accident prone activity, it is im portant that basic safety
rules are follow ed such as:
n W orkers shaping stones should alw ays use eye protection glasses and w ear good shoes.
n A ll the stones should be of a size and w eight that can be carried by one person only.
M
O
D
U
L
E

3
66
67
The follow ing general stone cutting and shaping rules are relevant
n Select the stone and then choose the w ay you w ant to shape it.
n C ut it first roughly on all sides, if possible according to its natural shape.
n N o angle of the face to side surface should be m ore than 90 degrees.
n D ress the face straight and check it w ith a square or a straight edge.
n Select the stones, w hich could be used as corners and shape the reverse face.
4.2.1 Line stones
C ut out the sides to form the beds and the joints. The beds should be such that they can keep
the stone w hen laid w ithout supports. If the joints and the beds are shaped, the face can now
be produced. Lay the stone dow n w ith the intended face up and cut off the high parts w ith a
chisel, bush ham m er etc. to a plain surface. U se a straight edge to check the surface.
4.2.2 Cornerstones
C ornerstones are the stones placed at the external angle of a building and prepared to bond
w ith other stones in the w all in each direction. In any building good corners are essential
therefore good cornerstones m ust be used for easy plum bing.
A good cornerstone m ust have good arises and the tw o faces m ust be squared to each
other.
C ut first the beds and the joints and give particular attention to the returned face. If the joints
and the beds are w ell prepared, lay the stone w ith the intended face up, shape it and m ake
sure that it is straight by using a straight edge.
Then shape the returned face by chiseling and squaring it to the face. C are m ust be taken not
to dam age the arises.
66
67
4.2.3 Arch stones
U nlike the cornerstone the arch stone is shaped like a w edge and is m ore difficult to shape than
any other stone, because it has to be shaped to specific m easurem ents and dim ensions.
First cut out the beds to the required height of the arch. Then cut the joints and form the
w edge, giving special attention to the dim ensions required. Finally cut out and shape the face,
checking it w ith a straight edge.
4.3 Unsquared rubble masonry
Stone m asonry m ay be classified in various w ays, as for instance, according to the kind of
stones used, surface finished, bonding etc.
R ubble m asonry is com posed of unsquared stones. They are found in a quarry or are dug and
broken out of the field, the irregularities being m ade up by filling w ith m ortar, as the stones
are set. The quarried variety is preferable because they approach m ore nearly a rectangular
shape and is better for stonew ork because their faces are sharper and form a better hold for
the cem ent than the w eather w orn and sm oother surfaces of fieldstones. H ow ever, fieldstones
are m uch used in the building of houses.
There are three kinds of rubble m asonry know n as:
n U ncoursed rubble
n R andom coursed rubble
n C oursed rubble
4.3.1 Uncoursed rubble
This kind of m asonry covers all kinds and all sizes of stones in w hich faces, joints and beds
are roughly shaped.
N o special attention is given to the level of the courses.
W ith a good surface finish (joint finish, flash joints) an attractive w all w ill result.
M
O
D
U
L
E

3
68
69
4.3.2 Random coursed rubble
In this kind of rubble m asonry all the stones, w hich are used, beds, joints and faces are w ell
shaped. In laying the stones special attention is needed to bring each course to as near a level
as possible.
The difference of uncoursed and random coursed rubble can be seen in the surface finish.
In random coursed rubble sm aller stones are used than in uncoursed rubble.
4.3.3 Coursed rubble
In coursed rubble particular attention is given by shaping the stones. The faces are roughly
squared and the height of all the stones should be nearly the sam e. Special attention by laying
of the stones is given to the bond stones, the height of each course and a proper alignm ent.
4.4 How to build with shaped stones
n The norm al procedure to build a stone w all is such that it involves tw o m asons w orking
one at each face of the w all.
n The bottom or footing course should be laid w ith the largest, straightest stones since the
stability of the w all depends largely on the bearing of stones on the ground.
n First the corners of the w all are built up to a height of about 1m , m aking sure that outer
and inner faces are plum bed and squared.
n The corners m ust be of large stones that w ill bond the tw o w alls together in the best
m anner to resist strain. A dditional strength m ay be given to the w all by the addition of
galvanized iron or w ire bonds, especially if sm all stones are used.
n W hen the corners are up, the building can now continue by fixing tw o lines (rope) in and
outside the w all. The purpose of those lines is to guide the m asons during laying, and
they should be 2 m m aw ay from the face of the w all. The shaped line stones are then laid
in a m ortar-bed to the line and then checked for alignm ent.
68
69
n Instead of shaping a stones bed, w hich does not bed firm ly, spallsor pieces broken off
in trim m ing can be slipped under the stone. It is easier than the painful labour involved
in handling, trim m ing and correct setting. Though contrary to the best practice, if these
spalls are correctly used and set in m ortar so as to actually support and hold the stones
that they can not m ove or be displaced, it sim plifies the m aking of a rubble w all and
proves m uch satisfaction for an ordinary building.
n A fter a thorough check sm all stones (spalls) are laid into the interior cavities and filled w ith
m ortar to tie the tw o faces (lines) together. These interior cavities are know n as hearting.
n B ond stones (trough stones) should cover the thickness of the w all at frequent intervals of
not over 1.50 m . Their ends should be dressed to conform to the w all on either side.
Minimum length of a bond stone is 1/3 of
the wall thickness
Bond stones or through stones provide
stability to the masonry wall
Bad example, stone wall construction
without bond stones
Bad example, stone wall construction with
too many small stones and no proper bonds
n D irty stones m ust be brushed (iron brush) and w ashed clean before laying them into
m ortar because the dirt prevents adhesion betw een the stone and m ortar.
n The stones should be w et before laying them into m ortar.
n U se up all sizes and shapes of stones to the best advantage and the least cutting by
sorting and placing them at the sam e tim e preserving the strength and the quality of the
w all, and bring each to as near a level as possible.
n A lone stone needs uniform bedding. If it is too long, break it and lay it as tw o stones.
M
O
D
U
L
E

3
70
71
n Spread the m ortar, force the stone to its bed w ithout its touching the stone underneath,
and m aintain a perfect alignm ent w ith the face of the w all. The thickness of the joint
betw een tw o stones is equal a flat hand (2 2.5 cm ).
n A fter building up the w all in stages, cover it w ith cem ent bags or plastic to protect the
m ortar against sun and rain.
4.5 Bonding
In stonew ork too it is im portant to secure a proper bonding. In bonding the follow ing rules
should be strictly observed:
n H eaders should extend not less than 2/3 the thickness of the w all.
n The vertical joints of each course should break w ith the joints of the course below .
n The largest stones should be used for the low est courses!
n Stratified stones should be laid on their natural beds (Sandstones).
4.6 Curing
The w alls are m ostly very m uch exposed to w ind and sunshine and the w ater (m oisture) of
the w all w ill be dried out very quick. H ow ever, to gain the appropriate bearing strength, the
m ortar needs certain m oisture content for hardening. Therefore, a stone m asonry w all needs
to be cured for at least 7 days. Several tim es a day, w ater needs to be sprinkled over the stone
m asonry w all.
4.7 Pointing
The m ain reasons for pointing the surface of the stone m asonry w all or joints are to increase
its w eather resistance and to give a neat looking finish to the w ork.
Pointing can be carried out as construction of the stone m asonry w ork proceeds, using ordinary
m ortar in w hich the stones are bedded.
A nother m ethod is to finish the stone m asonry w ork first and then m ake the pointing w ork
w ith a 1:2 cem ent m ortar later. The joints m ust be raked out to the depth of about 1 to 1.5 cm .,
brushed, w ashed and filled w ith a 1:2 cem ent m ortar.
70
71
4.8 Dos and donts
Dos
U se m ortar in stone m asonry as econom ical as possible.
Why?
M ortar is expensive and is also the w eakest part in the stone m asonry w all.
Dont
D o not build up a stone m asonry w all higher than 1.00 m per day
Why?
The heavy w eight of the stone needs to be carried by the low est m ortar joint. If the m ortar is
not properly hardened, it w ill develop cracks if the w eight becom es too m uch, resulting in a
w eak m asonry w all
Dont
D o not partly lift up the stone after placing into the m ortar bed for final adjustm ents w ith sm all
stones or additional m ortar.
Why?
W hile partly lifting up the stone and placing additional m ortar or sm all stone pieces a gab w ill
be created betw een the stone and the m ortar bed resulting in a very w eek stone m asonry
bonding. The correct procedure is to rem ove the entire stone and place additional m ortar so
that the entire stone be is again covered in m ortar.
Dont
D o not level at the end of the day the stone m asonry w all w ith m ortar.
Why?
The next m orning new m ortar w ill be placed on top of the old m ortar. This old m ortar is anyw ay
not properly cured and m ost likely very w eak. H ence, this joint becom es a w eak spot in the
stone m asonry w all.
Dont
D o not allow anyone to stand on the fresh w all
Why?
A person standing or m uch w orse, w orking on top of a stone m asonry w all w ill disturb the
m ortar joints w hile m oving. This w ill create cracks as w ell as gabs betw een the stones and the
m ortar, resulting in a very w eak stone m asonry w all.
M
O
D
U
L
E

3
72
73
5. Principles of curing
5.1 What is curing?
C uring m ust be m ade w ith every building m aterial, construction part or product that is using
cem ent as part of the raw m aterial. This is because C em ent requires w ater to initiate the
hydration process and to control the internal tem perature generated by this process in order
to obtain optim al hardening and strength of the cem ent. This internal tem perature controlling
w ith w ater is called curing.
U ncontrolled hydration process initiated tem peratures w ill lead to overheating of cem ent and
a very substantial loss of hardness and final strength of the cem ent product such as concrete,
m ortar etc.
Good curing means evaporation should be prevented or reduced
5.2 Type of curing
There are generally 3 m ain type of curing used in the construction sector, nam ely:
n W ater curing
n Vapor curing
n Steam curing
5.2.1 Water curing
W ater curing is the m ost com m only used practice. It is the system that is m ost appropriate for
house construction and does not require any special infrastructure or skill.
H ow ever, w ater curing requires a lot of w ater, w hich is not alw ays easy at hand and m ight be
even expensive.
Water tank curing method. Cement products are only partly immersed into water,
resulting into loss of quality
72
73
In order to econom ize on w ater it is im portant that all m easures are taken to prevent w ater
evaporation of cem ent products. E.g. concrete m ust be protected from direct sunshine and
w inds to prevent rapid w ater evaporation. M ethods such as covering the concrete w ith w et,
earth, sand, saw dust, grass and leaves are inexpensive, still quite effective.
Further, plastic, jute bags, hessian clothes too are com m on used m aterial to prevent rapid
w ater evaporation of cem ent products. W ood form s left in place also furnish good protection if
they are loosened and flooded w ith w ater at frequent intervals.
Is of param ount im portance that the entire cem ent product (concrete, stone m asonry, brick
m asonry, plaster w ork, cem ent flooring w ork etc.) is kept w et and that it does never fully dry
out, otherw ise the final strength of the cem ent product w ill suffer. If the hydration process
has prem aturely ended due to overheating (no curing), sprinkling w ater onto the fully dried
out cem ent product w ill not reactivate the hydration process, the loss in strength w ill be
perm anent.
In w ater curing, the cem ent product m ust be kept fully w et for at least 7 days. A fter 7 days, the
cem ent product should be regularly sprinkled w ith w ater for additional 14 days.
5.2.2 Vapor curing
Vapor curing is done w here w ater is scare and cem ent based prefabricated elem ents such as
toilet slabs, tiles, stairs, beam s etc are m ass-produced. Vapor curing reduces the curing tim e
com pared w ith sim ple w ater curing of about 50 to 60% .
The principle of vapor curing is to keep the cem ent product in a hum id and hot environm ent
that allow s the cem ent to gain strength in a m uch quicker w ay then w ith sim ple w ater curing.
To create this hum id and hot environm ent a sim ple cham ber w ith w ater retaining w alls and
floor needs to be constructed w hich is covered w ith plastic to allow the sunshine to heat the
cham ber up and prevents the w ater from evaporating. A floor w ater level of about 5 to 7 cm is
to be m aintained all the tim es to keep the vapor system principle w orking.
5.2.3 Steam curing
Steam curing is norm ally used in only very sophisticated industrial plants that produce m ass
cem ent based produces. A steam curing system is expensive and requires a lot of energy to
generate the required heat required for the steam .
H ow ever, steam cured products can be used after approx. 24 to 36 hrs. after production,
providing a distinctive advantage over all other curing system s.
M
O
D
U
L
E

3
74
75
6. Principles of plastering
6.1 What is plastering?
Plastering is the process of covering rough surfaces of w alls, colum ns, ceilings and other
building com ponents w ith thin coat of m ortars to form a sm ooth durable surface. The coating
of m ortar is term ed as plaster.
Plastering is done to achieve the follow ing objects:
n To protect the external surfaces against penetration of rainw ater and other atm ospheric
agencies.
n To give sm ooth surface in w hich dust and dirt cannot lodge.
n To give decorative effect.
n To protect surfaces against verm in.
n To conceal inferior m aterials or defective w orkm anship.
6.2 Requirements of good plaster
The plaster m aterial should fulfill the follow ing requirem ents:
n It should adhere to the background, and should rem ain adhered during all variations in
seasons and other atm ospheric conditions.
n It should be hard and durable.
n It should possess good w orkability.
n It should be possible to apply it during all w eather conditions.
n It should be cost efficient.
n It should effectively check penetration of m oisture.
6.3 Types of mortars for plastering
The selection of type of plaster depends upon the follow ing factors:
n Availability of binding m aterials.
n D urability requirem ents.
n Finishing requirem ents.
n A tm ospheric conditions and variations in w eather.
n Location of surface (i.e. exposed surface or interior surfaces).
6.3.1 Cement mortar
C em ent m ortar is the best m ortar for external plastering w ork since it is practically non-
absorbent. It is also preferred to lim e plaster in both room s etc., and in dam p clim ates. C em ent
m ortar is m uch stronger than lim e m ortar. The m ix proportion (i.e. cem ent:sand) m ay vary from
1:4 to 1:6. Sand used for plastering should be clean, coarse and angular.
C em ent plaster is applied either in tw o coats or in three coats, the form er being m ore com m on.
For inferior w ork, single coat plaster is som etim es provided.
6.4 Number of coats of plaster
The background over w hich plastering is to be done depend upon the type of w all construction,
such as random rubble (R .R .) m asonry, coarsed rubble m asonry, brick m asonry
74
75
6.4.1 Background No. of Coats
Stone w ork 3 or 2
B rick w ork or hollow blocks 2 or 1
C oncrete cast in situ 2 or 1
If plastering is done in single coat only, its thickness should not exceed 12 m m nor should it
be less than 6 m m .
6.4.2 Two coat plaster
The follow ing procedure is adopted:
n The background is prepared by raking the joint to a depth of 20 m m , cleaning the surface
and w ell-w atering it.
n If the surface to be plastered is very uneven, a prelim inary coat is applied to fill up the
hollow s, before the first coat.
n The first coat or rendering coat of plaster is applied, the thickness being equal to the
specified thickness of plaster less 2 to 3 m m . In order to m aintain uniform thickness
of plaster, 15 cm x 15 cm size. Tw o dots are so form ed in vertical line, at a distance of
about 2 m , and are plum bed by m eans of a plum b. A num ber of such vertical screeds are
form ed at suitable spacing. C em ent m ortar is then applied on the surface betw een the
successive screeds and the surface is properly finished.
n B efore rendering hardens, it is suitably w orked to provide m echanical key for the final
or finishing coat. The rendering coat is trow elled hard forcing m ortar into joints and over
the surface. The rendering coat is kept w et for at least 2 days, and then allow ed to dry
com pletely.
n The thickness of final or finishing coat m ay vary betw een 2 and 3 m m . B efore applying
the final coat, the rendering coat is dam ped evenly. The final coat is applied w ith w ooden
floats to a true even surface and finished w ith steel trow els. A s far as possible, the
finishing coat should be applied starting from top tow ards bottom and com pleted in one
operation to elim inate joining m arks.
6.4.3 Three coat plaster
The procedure for applying three-coat plaster is sim ilar to the tw o-coat plaster except that an
interm ediate coat, know n as floating coat is applied. The purpose of this coat of plaster is to
bring the plaster to an even surface. The thickness of rendering coat, floating coat and finishing
are kept 9 to 10 m m , 6 to 9 m m and 2 to 3 m m respectively. The rendering coat is m ade rough.
The floating coat is applied about 4 to 7 days after applying the first coat. The finishing coat
m ay be applied about 6 hours after the application of floating coat.
6.4.4. Single coat plaster
This is used only in inferior quality w ork. It is applied sim ilarly as tw o-coat plaster except that
the rendering coat, as applied for tw o-coat plaster, is finished off im m ediately after it has suf-
ficiently hardened.
6.5 Preparation of background
For plastering new surfaces, all m asonry joints should be raked to a depth of 10 m m in brick
m asonry and 15 m m in stone m asonry for providing key to the plaster. A ll m ortar droppings
and dust, and laitance (in case of freshly laid concrete) should be rem oved w ith the help of stiff
w ire brush. A ny unevenness is levelled before rendering is applied. For finish applied in three
M
O
D
U
L
E

3
76
77
coats, local projections should not be m ore than 10 m m proud of general surface and local
depressions should not exceed 20 m m . For tw o-coat plaster, these lim itations are 5 m m and
10 m m respectively. The surface should be w ashed w ith clean w ater and kept dam p uniform ly
to produce optim um suction. In no case should the surface be kept so soaked that it causes
the green m ortar to slide off, or so dry that it causes strong suction w hich w ithdraw s m oisture
from m ortar and m akes it w eak, porous and friable. If plaster is to be applied on old surface,
all dirt, scool, oil, paint etc. should be cleaned off. Loose and crum bling plaster layer should be
rem oved to its full thickness and the surface of the background should be exposed and joints
properly raked. The surface should be w ashed and kept dam p to obtain optim um suction.
6.6 Recommended mortar mixes
Situation Composition of Mortar
I.S. Grading
of Lime
1 External Plaster in localities where rainfall is less
than 500 Mm per year and where sub- Soil water
is not within 2.5 m Below the ground surface:
(a) B elow D .P.C .
1 cem ent 6 sand -
1 cem ent 2 lim e 9 sand B or C
1 lim e 2 sand A
1 lim e 1 sand 1 surkhi B or C
1 lim e 2 surkhi B or C
(b) A bove D .P.C .
1 lim e 2 sand A
1 lim e 1 surkhi sand B or C
2 External plaster in localities where rain fall is
more than 1300 mm per year and where subsoil
water is not within 2.5m below ground surface:
(a) B elow D .P.C .
1 cem ent 4 sand -
(b) A bove D .P.C .
1 lim e 2 sand A
1 lim e 1 sand 1 surkhi B or C
3 External plaster in localities where the subsoil
water is within 2.5 m of the ground
B elow D .P.C . 1 cem ent 3 sand -
4 Internal plaster in all localities
1 lim e 2 sand A
1 lim e 1 surkhi 1 sand B or C
Note: the ratio of lim e varies w ith % purity of lim e and these ratios m ay be suitably adjusted
depending upon local practice.
76
77
6.7 Defects in plastering
The follow ing defects m ay arise in plasterw ork:
6.7.1 Blistering of plastered surface
This is the form ation of sm all patches of plaster sw elling out beyond the plastered surface,
arising out of late slaking of line particles in the plaster.
6.7.2 Cracking
C racking consists of form ation of cracks or fissures in the plaster w ork resulting from the
follow ing reasons:
n Im perfect preparation of background.
n Structural defects in building.
n D iscontinuity of surface.
n M ovem ents in the background due to its therm al expansion or rapid drying.
n M ovem ents in the plaster surface itself, either due to expansion (in case of gypsum
plaster) or shrinkage (in case of lim e sand plaster).
n Excessive shrinkage due to application of thick coat.
n Faulty w orkm anship
6.7.3 Crazing
It is the form ation of a series of hair cracks on plastered surface, due to sam e reasons w hich
cause cracking.
6.7.4 Efflorescence
It is the w hitish crystalline substance that appears on the surface due to presence of salts in
plaster-m aking m aterials as w ell as building m aterials like bricks, sand, cem ent etc. and even
w ater. This gives a very bad appearance. It affects the adhesion of paint w ith w all surface.
Efflorescence can be rem oved to som e extent by dry brushing and w ashing the surface
repeatedly.
6.7.5 Flaking
It is the form ation of very loose m ass of plastered surface, due to poor bond betw een
successive coats.
6.7.6 Peeling
It is the com plete dislocation of som e portion of plastered surface, resulting in the form ation
of a patch. This also results from im perfect bond.
6.7.7 Popping
It is the form ation of conical hole in the plastered surface due to presence of som e particles,
w hich expand on setting.
M
O
D
U
L
E

3
78
79
6.7.8 Rust stains
These are som etim es form ed w hen plaster is applied on m etal laths.
6.7.9 Uneven surface
This is obtained purely due to poor w orkm anship.
78
79
7. Flooring
7.1 What is flooring?
The layer that separates the ground from the floor finish is called the flooring.
7.2 Components of flooring
n Sub-floor (also called base)
n Floor Finish
7.2.1 Sub floor
This is the w aterproofing layer
It prevents w ater from seeping up from the ground to the floor.
It also provides the solid bedding for the final finish. Thus, it m ust be
n Solid and hard, dense
n W aterproof
n A bsolutely level
7.2.2 Floor finish
This is the visible and usable floor. Thus, it m ust be:
n Easy to clean
n R esistant to dam pness
n D urable w ith long life
n H ard
n Easy to m aintain
7.3 Types of floors
7.3.1 Brick bat floor
M aterials used
n B rickbats as bedding layer (55m m )
n Sand in betw een brickbats
n C em ent m ortar (1:4) (20m m )
n C em ent slurry finish
M
O
D
U
L
E

3
80
81
Laying bricks into a bed of
sand
Placing the cement mortar
Filling the brick joints with
wet sand
Cleaning the frog of the
brick from wet sand for
better binding
Prepare the floor top finish Brick bat floor example
completed
Advantages:
n C heap
n D urable
n Easy to clean
Disadvantages:
n N ot 100% w aterproof
n N eeds good w orkm anship
n N ot very resistant to im pacts.
7.3.2 Concrete floor
M aterials used:
n C em ent - 1
n Sand 2
n A ggregate 4
n M ortar of 1 : 2 C em ent : Sand m ix is used for the finishng coat.
The thickness of theor is norm ally 1 .
For the bedding layer, tw o alternatives cn be used:
n B rickbats in 1 : 6 cem ent m ortar (3)
n Lean C oncrete B ed - 1 : 4 : 8 (3)
Notes:
n The aggregate w ould be a m ix of 12 m m dow n and 6 m m dow n chips in ratio of 1 : 1, for
the 1 floor of 1 : 2 : 4 PC C .
n PVC / G lass strips are inserted to form grids of m ax. 1m 1m . These strips are inserted
in the C oncrete Floor. The purpose is to m ake joints, to avoid large expanses of unjointed
floors. This helps in avoiding cracks, w hich m ay otherw ise form due to tem perature
variations.
80
81
Advantages of IPS Flooring:
n R easonable C ost
n Very hard and durable
n N o need to procure different m aterials
n Easy to clean and m aintain
n A ttractive colors can be added to give colored flooring, patterns etc.
Disadvantages:
n Surface cracks appear in areas of high tem perature variation.
7.3.3 Other common types of floors
Type Materials for Floor Finishing Where used Normally
Stone Slab Flooring
(R ough)
Kota Stone C uduppah
Stone etc. (m ainly
sandstones)
R ough O utdoors in Paving etc.
Stone Slab Flooring
(Polished)
Sand Stones:
Kota, M arble C uduppah
etc.
Polished Indoors, cost ranges from
R s. 30 - R s. 100 / sft can be
used in toilets etc.
M osaic or Terrazzo M arble/hand stone
chips are used as
aggregates in m ix of
1 : 2, laid in base of
1 : 3 C em ent sand
m ortar
Polish w ith
carborundum stone
and w ax
A nyw here, m ostly
indoors
C eram ic Tiles C eram ic tiles laid on
1 : 3 cem ent m ortar
Pre-polished W et areas, and on toi-
let / kitchen dados.
M
O
D
U
L
E

3
83
83
Children using construction site as play ground
Safety
M
O
D
U
L
E

4
85
85
Safety
M
O
D
U
L
E

4
Content
Principles of safety ............................................................................................86
1. Introduction...............................................................................................86
2. Rules to prevent accidents:......................................................................86
2.1 General rules: ............................................................................................86
2.2 Storage.......................................................................................................88
2.3 Conduct......................................................................................................88
2.4 Working conditions ...................................................................................88
2.4.1 C leanliness, hygiene & resting place:............................................88
86
87
Principles of safety
1. Introduction
Accidents do not happen,
accidents are made .
The m ain reasons for construction related accidents are carelessness, technical faults, inappro-
priate use of tools, w rong reaction of w orkers, abuse of alcohol, and m ost im portant no proper
aw areness about potential sources of accidents.
A construction site is the place w here people com e to w ork together m ainly to earn m oney
to support their fam ilies. A place w here people com e together for doing a living m ust be safe;
no econom ical consideration justifies an accident. W hat a great tragedy for a fam ily, if for the
reason of a preventable w orking accident, no m ore incom e is available.
Know ing the sources of potential and predictable accidents m eans that w e can prevent them .
It is the duly of a construction supervisor to know the potential sources of accidents and to
prevent them as far as possible.
2. Rules to prevent accidents:
2.1 General rules:
n O nly professionals should m ake electrical installations.
n N o electrical w ires w ould be allow ed to lie free on the ground.
n N o person w ithout a valid license should be allow ed to drive a tractor, truck or any other
vehicle at the construction site.
n N o fire shall be m ade at the construction site.
n N o ladder w ith structural default should be used. The supervisor is responsible to order for
its repair and m aintenance.
n Erect ladders in positions w here people do not have to w alk underneath them .
n W hen going up or dow n a ladder, alw ays face the ladder.
n D o not leave discarded tim ber w ith nails sticking out. Shuttering tim ber m ust alw ays be
collected and stored in one place.
n Special care needs to be taken for scaffolding w ork. The scaffolding m aterial needs to be
strong and w ell fixed.
86
87
n Scaffoldings need to be checked every day by the supervisor.
n Floor openings and floor holes m ust be covered or protected by a guardrail.
n Proper access path w ith side railings (claim ing stairs) needs to be constructed for carrying
m aterial from ground level to higher elevations.
n A lw ays bend dow n or cover the ends of vertical steel bars that stick out of concrete.
n W eights m ore than 50 kg. should not be carried by one person alone.
n Lifting stones, cem ent and other heavy building m aterials m ust not be m ade w ith a bent
back. A lw ays lift the w eight w ith a straight back.
n Prevent any m aterial from falling dow n that could hurt people or could dam age other
m aterials or construction.
No proper working platform for wall
painting made, workers at increased
risk of serious accident
Safety
M
O
D
U
L
E

4
Scaffolding not properly protected
from vehicles, workers at increased
risk of serious accident
88
89
2.2 Storage
n Storage of explosive and health hazardous m aterials should not be allow ed at the
construction site.
n B ricks or blocks shall not be piled up higher than 1 m at the storage as w ell at the
construction site.
n M aterial such as steel bars, tim ber, sand and cem ent should be stored in such a w ay, that
access to the construction site is not blocked.
2.3 Conduct
n N o alcohol consum ption should be allow ed at the construction site.
2.4 Working conditions
n For night w ork, proper lighting arrangem ents need to be in place.
n For stone cutting and chiselling w orks, the w orkers need to be instructed how to avoid
eye injuries
2.4.1 Cleanliness, hygiene & resting place:
n A person shall be m ade officially responsible for the cleaning of the construction site.
n A toilet, separate for m en and w om en m ust be provided for the construction w orkers.
n The construction site should be kept clean. W orkers need to be instructed that the toilet
m ust be used and that no urination etc. is allow ed inside the construction.
n A n official resting-place protected from rain and sunshine should be established at site.
n C lean drinking w ater should be provided at the resting-place as w ell as at the w orking
place.
n M others w ho attend to their children should do so at the official resting place only.
Pavement blocks dangerously piled
up, workers at increased risk of
accident
88
89
Remains of one story building collapsed during earthquake
Earthquake resistant
construction practices
M
O
D
U
L
E

5
90
91
90
91
Earthquake resistant buildings
A few selected Literature references
1. L&T Cement
M asonry construction by: Pradipta B anerji
R C C construction by: Shirish Patel
2. Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority: Series of Guidelines
2.1 G uidelines for R econstruction and new C onstruction of H ouses in Kachchh
Earthquake affected areas of G ujarat
(M ay 2001)
2.2 G uidelines for R econstruction and new C onstruction of H ouses in Kachchh
Earthquake affected areas of G ujarat
(June 2001)
2.3 G uidelines for C ontrol an Q uality of C onstruction in Earthquake affected
areas of G ujarat
(June 2001)
3. Shelter A HUDCO - HSMI Publication
Special issue: W orld D isaster R eduction D ay, O ctober 13. 1999
4. Indian Practical Civil engineers, Handbook
5. BASIN Publications:
Earth C onstruction, C R ATerre
A ppropriate B uilding M aterial, Skat C onsulting
Earthquake resistant construction practices
M
O
D
U
L
E

5

Basic Construction Training Manual Swiss Red Cross Skat Foundation

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Basic Construction Training Manual Swiss Red Cross Skat Foundation

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Basic Construction Training Manual

You might also like