Coastal Construction Manual

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Coastal Construction Manual
Federal Emergency Management Agency FEMA-55/ February, 1986
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This report was prepared under contract EMW-84-C-1738 with
the Federal Insurance Administration (FIA) of the Federal
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), with additional
support from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA), Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource
Management.
January 1986
FOREWORD
This document is the second edition of the Design and
Construction Manual for Residential Buildings in Coastal High
Hazard Areas ( Coastal Construction Manual) , developed by
the Federal Insurance Administration (FIA) of the Federal
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and published in
January 1931. It provides technical guidance on how to design
and construct buildings in areas subject to coastal flooding,
such that the potential risk of damages from both flood and
wind are minimized. The technical criteria contained in this
manual can be used to comply with the performance standards
of the National Flood Insurance Program. It is intended for use
by designers, builders, developers, community building
officials, and the homeowner. Changes to the 1981 manual
include:
Design guidance for breakaway wall enclosures

Design equations and procedures and listings of the
computer programs used in the manual

Revision of the design procedures to reflect the 1982 ANSI
standards and other recent design information

A chapter on larger structures (mid-rise and high-rise
buildings)

A sample construction code for coastal areas

A new section on the maintenance of coastal buildings

Additional information on construction cost
The intent of this manual is not to encourage building in
coastal flood plains. Rather, when such building does occur, it
is to help ensure that it be designed and constructed in a
manner that minimizes the potential for flood and wind
damage.
DISCLAIMER
The statements, recommendations, and procedures
contained in this manual are those of Dames & Moore and
Bliss & Nyitray, Inc., and do not necessarily reflect the views of
the U.S. Government in general or the Federal Emergency
Management Agency in particular. Dames & Moore and Bliss
& Nyitray, Inc., warrant that their services were performed with
the usual thoroughness and competence of the consulting
engineering profession, and no other warranty, either
expressed or implied, is included or intended.
This manual was developed to provide guidance and
minimum requirements for coastal residential structures. The
user must assume responsibility for adapting and/or
supplementing the information contained herein to meet the
particular requirements of a project. It is intended that this
manual complement state and local codes and ordinances,
whose provisions should prevail in the event of conflict.
TABLE OF CONTENTS v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii
FOREWORD iii
DISCLAIMER iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS v
LIST OF FIGURES xv
LIST OF TABLES xxi
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1-1
1.1 PURPOSE AND SCOPE 1-1
1.2 NATIONAL FLOOD INSURANCE PROGRAM 1-2
1.2. 1 Emergency Program 1-3
1.2.2 Regular Program 1-3
1.2.3 Flood Plain Management 1-3
1.2.4 V Zones 1-4
1.2.5 A Zones 1-4
1.3 BUILDING CODES 1-5
CHAPTER 2: COASTAL ENVIRONMENT 2-1
2.1 NORTH ATLANTIC COAST 2-3
2.2 MIDDLE ATLANTIC COAST 2-6
2.3 SOUTH ATLANTIC COAST 2-7
2.4 GULF COAST 2-8
2.5 PACIFIC COAST 2-12
2.6 HAWAIIAN COAST 2-13
vi Coastal Construction Manual
CHAPTER 3: SITE DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS 3-1
3.1 BUILDING CODE AND ZONING REQUIREMENTS 3-1
3.2 SITE LAYOUT 3-2
3.3 LANDSCAPING 3-2
3.4 DUNE PROTECTION 3-3
3.5 BULKHEADS 3-4
3.6 USE OF EARTHFlLL 3-6
CHAPTER 4: STRUCTURE DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS 4-1
4.1 ENVIRONMENTAL FORCES 4-1
4.1.1 Wind 4-1
4.1.2 Salt Air, Moisture, and Wind-Driven Rain 4-7
4.1.3 Water, Waves, and Debris 4-8
4.1.4 Effects of Forces on Higher and Larger Structures 4-9
4.2 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS 4-9
4.2.1 Wood 4-9
4.2.1.1 Piling 4-9
4.2.1.2 Main Supporting Members (Beams) 4-10
4.2.1.3 Other Wood Construction Members 4-10
4.2.1.4 Wood Preservatives 4-10
4.2.2 Masonry Materials and Concrete 4-11
4.2.3 Metals 4-11
4.2.3.1 Aluminum 4-11
4.2.3.2 Steel 4-11
4.2.3.3 Dissimilar Metals 4-11
Table of Contents vii
4.3 DESIGN DETAILS 4-11
4.3.1 Foundations 4-11
4.3.1.1 Soil Conditions 4-12
4.3.1.2 Piles 4-13
4.3.1.3 Posts 4-18
4.3.1.4 Piers 4-18
4.3.2 Framing 4-20
4.3.2.1 Framing Methods 4-20
4.3.2.2 Beams 4-21
4.3.2.3 Joists and Rafters 4-22
4.3.2.4 Subflooring 4-22
4.3.2.5 Studs 4-23
4.3.2.6 Wall Sheathing 4-23
4.3.2.7 Wall Bracing 4-24
4.3.2.8 Roof Details 4-24
4.3.3 Foundation Bracing 4-27
4.3.3.1 Knee Braces 4-29
4.3.3.2 Grade Beams 4-29
4.3.3.3 Truss Bracing 4-30
4.3.3.4 Shear Walls 4-31
4.3.4 Connections 4-31
4.3.4.1 Roof to Wall 4-33
4.3.4.2 Wall to Floor Joists 4-35
4.3.4.3 Floor Joist to Floor Beam 4-35
4.3.4.4 Floor Beam to Pile, Post, or Pier 4-35
viii Coastal Construction Manual
4.3.5 Breakaway Walls 4-41
4.3.5.1 Breakaway Wall Designs 4-42
4.3.5.2 Design Considerations for Breakaway Walls 4-45
4.3.6 Utilities 4-50
4.3.7 Wind and Storm Protection of Interior 4-52
4.3.7.1 Window Selection 4-52
4.3.7.2 Operable Shutters 4-53
4.3.7.3 Gable and Eave Vents 4-54
4.3.7.4 Roofing Materials 4-54
4.3.8 Maintenance 4-54
CHAPTER 5: LARGER STRUCTURES 5-1
5.1 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 5-1
5.2 FOUNDATIONS 5-2
5.3 SLABS AT GRADE 5-3
5.4 SUPERSTRUCTURE 5-4
5.5 ELEVATED FLOORS 5-7
5.6 EXTERIOR WALL SYSTEMS 5-8
5.7 RECOMMENDATIONS 5-9
CHAPTER 6: DESIGN PROCEDURES AND EXAMPLES 6-1
6.1 EXAMPLE 1--ELEVATION ON WOOD PILINGS 6-1
6.2 EXAMPLE 2--BRACING REQUIRED 6-11
6.3 EXAMPLE 3--BREAKAWAY WALLS 6-19
Table of Contents ix
APPENDIX A: DESIGN TABLES A-1
APPENDIX B: BRACING B-1
B.1 KNEE BRACING B-1
B.2 TRUSS BRACING B-1
B.2.1 Diagonals B-1
B.2.1.1 Lumber Diagonals B-2
B.2.1.2 Threadbar Diagonals B-4
B.2.2 Struts B-5
B.3 GRADE BEAMS B-6
APPENDIX C: DESIGN WORKSHEETS C-1
PILE DESIGN WORKSHEET 4 pp.
CONNECTION DESIGN WORKSHEET 2 pp.
BRACING DESIGN WORKSHEET 3 pp.
APPENDIX D: DESIGN EQUATIONS AND PROCEDURES D-1
D.1 PROCEDURE A-1: DOWNWARD LOADS PER PILE D-2
D.2 PROCEDURE A-2: HORIZONTAL WIND LOADS PER PILE D-3
D.3 PROCEDURE A-3: MINIMUM EMBEDMENT DEPTH OF PILES D-4
D.3.1 Square Piles D-4
D.3.1.1 Square Piles in Sand D-4
D.3.1.2 Square Piles in Clay D-6
D.3.2 Round Tapered Piles D-7
D.3.2.1 Round Piles in Sand D-7
D.3.2.2 Round Piles in Clay D-8
x Coastal Construction Manual
D.4 PROCEDURE A-4: MAXIMUM UNBRACED HEIGHT OF PILES D-9
D.4.1 Moment of Wave Forces D-10
D.4.2 Moment of Current Drag Forces D-11
D.4.3 Moment of Debris Impact Forces D-12
D.4.4 Moment of Wind Forces D-12
D.4.5 Allowable Bending Moment of Piles D-13
D.4.6 Maximum Unbraced Pile Height D-14
D.5 MAXIMUM UNBRACED HEIGHT FOR PILES SUPPORTING BREAKAWAY WALLS D-15
D.5.1 Moment of Wind Forces on Superstructure D-15
D.5.2 Moment of Breakaway Wall Forces D-15
D.5.3 Allowable Bending Moment in Piles D-15
D.5.4 Calculation of Maximum Unbraced Pile Height D-16
D.6 PROCEDURE A-5: UPLIFT LOADS PER FOOT OF WALL D-17
D.6.1 Rafter Connections D-17
D.6.2 Connections Between Stories D-19
D.6.3 Bottom Floor Connections (Two-story) D-20
D.7 PROCEDURE A-6: UPLIFT LOADS PER PILE D-21
D.7.1 Forces on Roof and Attic D-21
D.7.2 Uplift Forces on Second Story D-22
D.7.3 Uplift Forces on First Story D-22
D.7.4 Uplift at Top of Piles Due to Vertical Loads D-22
D.7.5 Uplift at Top of Piles Due to Moment D-23
D.7.6 Total Uplift at Top of Piles D-24
D.8 PROCEDURE B-1: HORIZONTAL WATER LOADS PER PILE D-25
D.8.1 Wave Forces D-26
Table of Contents xi
D.8.2 Current Drag Forces D-27
D.8.3 Debris Impact Forces D-28
D.8.4 Total Forces on Piles D-29
D.9 PROCEDURE B-2: LOADS TRANSFERRED TO FOUNDATION TRUSS MEMBERS D-30
APPENDIX E: COMPUTER PROGRAM LISTINGS E-1
DOWNLOAD E-2
UPNHORIZ E-3
EMBED E-5
UNBRACED E-6
CUBIC E-7
UNBR E-8
UPLIFT E-9
H2OLOADS E-11
TRUSS E-12
APPENDIX F: CONSTRUCTION COST F-1
F.1 FOUNDATIONS F-1
F.1.1 Wood Piles F-1
F.1.1.1 Types of Wood Piles F-1
F.1.1.2 Wood Pile Costs F-2
F.1.1.3 Pile Support F-4
F.1.2 Concrete Piles F-4
F.1.3 Pile Capsand Grade Beams F-4
F.1.4 Masonry and Concrete Piers F-4
F.1.5 Pile to Floor Beam Connections F-4
xii Coastal Construction Manual
F.2 STRUCTURAL BRACING F-4
F.2.1 Joist to Floor Beam Connection F-5
F.2.2 Stud Straps and Corner Bracing F-5
F.2.3 Roof Truss Connections F-5
F.3 ADDITIONAL COSTS F-5
F.3.1 Breakaway Walls F-6
F.3.2 Other Costs F-6
F.4 COST COMPARISON FOR ELEVATED AND NON-ELEVATED STRUCTURES F-6
APPENDIX G: SAMPLE COASTAL CONSTRUCTION CODE G-1
I. TITLE G-1
2. PURPOSE G-1
3. SCOPE G-2
4. DEFINITIONS G-2
5. ELEVATION STANDARDS G-3
6. DETERMINATION OF LOADING FORCES G-3
6.1 WATER LOADS G-3
6.2 WIND LOADS G-3
7. FOUNDATION STANDARDS G-4
7.1 PILE FOUNDATION DESIGN G-4
7.1.1 Pile Spacing G-4
7.1.2 Pile Embedment G-4
7.1.3 Column Action G-4
7.1.4 Pile Standards G-4
7.1.5 Pile Installation G-5
Table of Contents xiii
7.1.6 Bracing G-5
7.2 COLUMN FOUNDATION DESIGN G-5
8. ANCHORING STANDARDS G-5
8.1 CONNECTORS AND FASTENERS G-5
8.2 BEAM TO PILE CONNECTIONS G-5
8.3 FLOOR AND DECK CONNECTIONS G-6
8.4 EXTERIOR WALL CONNECTIONS G-6
8.5 CEILING JOIST/RAFTER CONNECTIONS G-6
8.6 PROJECTING MEMBERS G-6
9. ROOF SHEATHING G-6
10. PROTECTION OF OPENINGS G-7
11. USE OF SPACE BELOW THE LOWEST ELEVATED FLOOR G-7
11.1 BREAKAWAY WALL DESIGN STANDARDS G-7
11.2 CERTIFICATION OF BREAKAWAY WALLS G-7
12. UTILITIES G-8
13. CERTIFICATION REQUIREMENTS G-8
14. REFERENCE DOCUMENTS G-8
APPENDIX H: INDIVIDUALS CONTACTED DURING STUDY H-1
APPENDIX I: BIBLIOGRAPHY (References) I-1
LIST OF FIGURES xv
Figure 1-1 Home damaged by winds during Hurricane Elena 1-2
Figure 2-1 Hurricane experience of eastern United States, 1886-1970 2-4
Figure 2-2 The United States coastline 2-5
Figure 2-3 Representative beach profiles 2-7
Figure 2-4 Undermining of shallow supported foundations by beach erosion 2-10
Figure 2-5 Contrasting minor and major damage to two
adjacent houses during Hurricane Frederic 2-11
Figure 2-6 U-shaped structure damaged by Hurricane Frederic 2-11
Figure 2-7 Simple bulkhead 2-13
Figure 2-8 Typical bulkhead in Hawaii 2-14
Figure 2-9 Soil erosion potential 2-14
Figure 3-1 Typical dune reconstruction 3-3
Figure 3-2 Walkway structure and fencing protect the dune 3-3
Figure 3-3 Example of use of building setback requirements
to locate structures behind the primary dune 3-4
Figure 3-4 Zoning restrictions on coastal development 3-4
Figure 3-5 Erosion damage to individual bulkhead 3-5
Figure 3-6 Rock riprap used as a bulkhead 3-5
Figure 3-7 Concrete seawall with recurved face 3-6
Figure 4-1 Basic wind speed in miles per hour, 50-year recurrence interval 4-2
Figure 4-2 Wind overturning forces 4-3
Figure 4-3 Wind sliding and bending forces 4-4
Figure 4-4 Wind pressure on roof and eaves 4-4
Figure 4-5 Wind pressure on roof when wall opening occurs 4-5
xvi Coastal Construction Manual
Figure 4-6 Wind pressure on walls when wall opening occurs 4-5
Figure 4-7 Damage from internal pressure 4-6
Figure 4-8 Wind pressure on corner overhangs 4-6
Figure 4-9 Removal of house from foundation piles by wind forces 4-7
Figure 4-10 Waterborne debris deposited against foundation piling 4-8
Figure 4-11 Nearly intact settling of a house when piles lost capacity 4-12
Figure 4-12 Elevating with wood piles 4-13
Figure 4-13 Effect of scour plus wind and water forces on piles 4-14
Figure 4-14 Effect of storm forces on foundation system with
inadequate pile embedment 4-15
Figure 4-15 Pile embedment 4-15
Figure 4-16 Pile embedment using a drop hammer 4-16
Figure 4-17 Square piles set in preaugered holes 4-17
Figure 4-18 Sketch of foundation for house near Malibu Beach, California 4-18
Figure 4-19 Sketch of concrete masonry unit pier 4-19
Figure 4-20 Concrete masonry unit piers supporting reinforced
concrete framing platform 4-19
Figure 4-21 Floor beams bolted to wood piles with metal
straps tying floor joists to floor beams 4-20
Figure 4-22 Pole construction details 4-20
Figure 4-23 Typical pile, floor beam, floor joist arrangement,
showing bolted beam/pile connection and hurricane
clip connections to floor joists 4-21
List of Figures xvii
Figure 4-24 Laminated beam connected to round timber pile
using 1/2-inch steel plate, hot-dipped galvanized after fabrication 4-22
Figure 4-25 Wooden I-beam 4-23
Figure 4-26 Wall sheathing tie from roof to foundation 4-24
Figure 4-27 Corner wood bracing 4-25
Figure 4-28 Gable/overhang failure 4-25
Figure 4-29 Porch overhang damaged by wind uplift 4-26
Figure 4-30 Performance of braced piles at left vs. unbraced piles at right 4-26
Figure 4-31 Performance of braced piles in foreground vs. unbraced piles in background 4-27
Figure 4-32 Effects of Hurricane Frederic's wind and water forces on unbraced pile system 4-27
Figure 4-33 Knee braces 4-28
Figure 4-34 Wood grade beam in both directions 4-28
Figure 4-35 Slab undermined by storm scour 4-29
Figure 4-36 Perimeter grade beam provided additional stability 4-29
Figure 4-37 Slab on grade with thickened edge perimeter grade beam 4-30
Figure 4-38 Double level truss bracing system 4-30
Figure 4-39 Single level truss bracing system 4-31
Figure 4-40 Floor joists insufficiently attached to floor beams by end nailing alone 4-32
Figure 4-41 Metal strap roof anchor 4-33
Figure 4-42 Metal plate roof anchor 4-34
Figure 4-43 Metal hurricane clips 4-36
Figure 4-44 Wood joist anchors 4-36
xviii Coastal Construction Manual
Figure 4-45 Wood joist anchor installation 4-37
Figure 4-46 Double notched spaced beam to pile connection 4-37
Figure 4-47 Connection for built-up beam 4-37
Figure 4-48 Connection at single-notched pile 4-37
Figure 4-49 Spiked grid connection 4-38
Figure 4-50 Mortised gusset connection 4-38
Figure 4-51 Notched pile with gusset 4-38
Figure 4-52 Steel plate insert 4-38
Figure 4-53 Over notched wood pile 4-39
Figure 4-54 Failure of pile connections at floor beam and at knee brace 4-39
Figure 4-55 Steel reinforcing bar inadequate to attach floor beam to this pile 4-39
Figure 4-56 Masonry pier--strap anchor connection 4-40
Figure 4-57 Masonry pier--bolt through beam connection 4-40
Figure 4-58 Masonry pier--beam seat connection 4-40
Figure 4-59 Concrete masonry unit piers connected by galvanized clips to floor beams 4-40
Figure 4-60 Lattice enclosure under elevated structure 4-42
Figure 4-61 Storm damage during Hurricane Alicia 4-42
Figure 4-62 Lattice wall 4-43
Figure 4-63 Wood stud breakaway wall 4-44
Figure 4-64 Light-gauge metal stud breakaway wall 4-45
Figure 4-65 Masonry breakaway wall 4-46
Figure 4-66 a&b Effect of enclosure walls on waves 4-47
Figure 4-67 Pile spacing effect on distribution of wall loads 4-49
List of Figures xix
Figure 4-68 Bracing considerations 4-50
Figure 4-69 Heating/cooling unit elevated to above the BFE 4-52
Figure 4-70 Shutters for window protection 4-53
Figure 4-71 Plywood sheets used for window protection 4-53
Figure 4-72 Loss of roofing in Hurricane Elena 4-55
Figure 4-73 Corrosion of cast iron sewer trap in coastal environment 4-55
Figure 5-1 Typical pile/pile cap/column/grade beam connection 5-2
Figure 5-2 Pile to pile cap connection for high-rise foundations 5-3
Figure 5-3 Skeleton framed building under construction 5-3
Figure 5-4 Typical plan of high-rise building 5-3
Figure 5-5 Typical high-rise shear wall 5-4
Figure 5-6 Shear wall reinforcement 5-5
Figure 5-7 Typical high-rise floor slab section 5-5
Figure 5-8 Typical plan of low- to mid-rise structure 5-6
Figure 5-9 Typical section through low- to mid-rise bearing wall building 5-6
Figure 5-10 Mid-rise residential structure with bearing walls 5-7
Figure 5-11 High-rise structure with poured concrete bearing walls under construction 5-7
Figure 5-12 Two-way floor slab in skeleton framed building 5-8
Figure 5-13 Elevated first floor on high-rise structure, partially enclosed by lattice 5-8
Figure 5-14 Coastal construction with setback requirements 5-9
Figure 6-1 Site plan 6-1
xx Coastal Construction Manual
Figure 6-2 View from beach 6-2
Figure 6-3 Main level plan 6-2
Figure 6-4 Framing plan 6-3
Figure 6-5 Ground level plan 6-4
Figure 6-6 Example I, pile design worksheet 6-5
Figure 6-7 Example I, connection design worksheet 6-9
Figure 6-8 Example 2, pile design worksheet 6-12
Figure 6-9 Example 2, bracing design worksheet 6-16
Figure 6-10 Example 3, pile design worksheet 6-20
Figure A-1 Number of piles required A-1
Figure A-2 Concrete pier cross section A-45
Figure A-3 Grade beams and slabs A-45
Figure B-1 Truss normal to beach B-2
Figure B-2 Exterior diagonal to pile connection B-3
Figure B-3 Interior diagonal to pile connection B-4
Figure B-4 DYWIDAG threadbar diagonal connections B-5
Figure D-1 Water depth relationships D-10
Figure D-2 Resisting force--roof connections D-18
Figure D-3 Resisting force--story connections D-19
LIST OF TABLES xxi
Table 2-1 Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale 2-2
Table A-1 Downward Loads per Pile A-4
Table A-2 Horizontal Wind Loads per Pile A-5
Table A-3 Minimum Embedment Depth of Piles A-11
Table A-4 Maximum Unbraced Height of Piles A-13
Table A-4.1 Maximum Unbraced Height of Piles Supporting Breakaway Walls A-20
Table A-5 Uplift Loads per Foot of Wall A-21
Table A-6 Uplift Loads per Pile A-35
Table A-7 Capacity per Bolt of Floor Beam Connections A-42
Table A-8 Concrete Masonry Unit Piers A-43
Table A-9 Concrete Piers A-44
Table A-10 Fastener Capacities in Shear A-46
Table A-11 Fastener Schedule for Breakaway Walls A-47
Table B-1 Horizontal Water Loads per Pile B-7
Table B-2 Loads on Transverse Truss Members B-14
Table B-3 Allowable Loads for Single 2-by-8 Diagonals B-15
Table B-4 Allowable Loads for Single 3-by-8 Diagonals B-15
Table B-5 Allowable Strut Loads B-15
Table F-1 Pile Costs F-2
Table F-2 Costs for Components of Pile Foundations F-3
Table F-3 Costs for Piers and Shear Wall Foundations F-5
Table F-4 Costs for Other Components of Elevated Construction F-6
Table F-5 Breakaway Wall Costs F-7
Table F-6 Elevation Costs for 28-by-32-foot House F-8
Introduction 1-1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 PURPOSE AND SCOPE
This manual provides guidance for the design and
construction of coastal residential structures able to resist
damage from flood, wind, and erosion hazards. Included
herein are discussions of new residential structures--principally
detached single-family, attached single-family (townhouse),
and low-rise (three-story or less) multifamily houses.
Nonresidential structures of similar sizes, loads, and
construction can also be considered by interpreting the data
and procedures found in this manual, as can retrofitting of
existing structures.
This introductory chapter is followed by a general
description in Chapter 2 of the coastal regions of the United
States, weather conditions, some current construction
practices, and generalized shoreline construction
considerations. Chapter 3 presents general information and
recommendations on site design. Chapter 4 constitutes a
major portion of the manual; it describes forces to be resisted,
materials used, and many design and construction details. A
discussion of application of these coastal construction
concepts to larger structures is provided in Chapter 5. Design
procedures and worked design examples are presented in
Chapter 6 to demonstrate the use of the design tables in the
appendices. The appendices present the design data tables,
bracing details, detailed design equations and procedures,
computer program listings, construction cost information, a
sample coastal construction ode, references, individuals
contacted in researching this manual, and other pertinent
information.
This manual will be of assistance primarily to persons in
construction of modest (one- and two-story) residential
structures (and similar-sized nonresidential structures) in
coastal areas of the United States. Individual home owners,
building contractors, and architects or engineers can all apply
the information presented in this design manual. Using the
data included herein, a design professional may extrapolate for
residential (or nonresidential) structures slightly larger than the
one- and two-story houses considered in the design equations,
charts, and tables and described in the example solutions.
The construction details, design procedures, and charts
in this manual are based upon a comprehensive evaluation of
many existing beach houses, current construction practices
along U.S. coastlines, and various building codes applicable to
coastal construction. Practical designs of modest cost and
construction details are presented to provide for storm-resistant
residential structures.
Examination of both damaged homes (Figure 1-1) and
storm-resistant structures along the Atlantic and gulf coasts has
demonstrated the desirability of some of the construction
details included herein. On the Atlantic coast, public officials,
architects, engineers, and builders from Massachusetts to the
Florida Keys were interviewed. They contributed ideas,
comments, and recommendations on construction in coastal
high hazard areas. Similar information was gathered from
Florida to Texas along the gulf coast, California for the Pacific
coast. This manual presents a composite of recommended
and required construction details for the entire U.S. coastline.
Much information was obtained by evaluating the
damage in Alabama caused by Hurricane Frederic in
September 1979; Hurricane Alicia, which hit the Texas gulf
coast in August 1983; Hurricane Elena, which hit the gulf coast
in Florida to eastern Texas in September 1985; and
1-2 Coastal Construction Manual
Figure 1-1. Home damaged by winds during Hurricane Elena.
Hurricane Gloria, which in late September 1985 affected the
entire east coast before coming ashore on Long Island.
Firsthand investigations of the aftermaths of these storms,
together with other accounts of storm effects, investigations of
current practice, and personal site visits contributed to the
material contained in the manual.
Only modest variations in construction practice were
found from one geographic location to another. However, for
areas subject to higher winds and waves, special attention to
erosion and scour is necessary to ensure sufficient lateral
support to the foundations. Construction details such as grade
beams have been "borrowed"

from certain geographic areas to
handle this problem. Similarly, foundation bracing is
suggested for use in many coastal areas where additional
strength is required due to high wind and wave forces. When
structures are elevated more
to 12 feet above grade, a more substantial bracing system is
necessary. A system of trusses built between the elevating
piles or poles is recommended to resist lateral forces from wind
and waves.
1.2 NATIONAL FLOOD INSURANCE PROGRAM
Initiated by Congress in 1968, broadened and
strengthened by amendments in 1969, 1971, and 1973, the
National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) is designed to fulfill
one essential purpose: flood hazard mitigation through the
amount of property exposed to damage from flooding. The
program is administered by the Federal Insurance
Administration (FIA) of the Federal Emergency Management
Agency (FEMA), and its scope includes all communities
identified by FIA as containing flood hazard areas. To date
more than 17,500 communities have been so identified, of the
approximately 22,000 estimated to contain such areas.
The NFIP is based on the dual principles of making flood
insurance available to property owners in flood-prone areas,
and of requiring sound flood plain management in flood-prone
communities. As long as the community elects to participate in
the program, the program offers flood insurance protection for
buildings and their contents located in the community.
In return for making flood insurance available, the NFIP
requires affected communities to prudently regulate new
construction and development in special flood hazard areas.
These areas include all land inundated by the flood that has a
1 percent chance of being equalled or exceeded in any given
year. This event is known as the "base flood"

or "100 year
flood" and is used by virtually every Federal agency in the
administration of programs related to flood plains. In addition,
this same standard is required, either by
Introduction 1-3
law or regulation, in many states and is used administratively in
the operations of virtually every state's programs dealing with
the use of flood plains.
1.2.1 Emergency Program
The NFIP is administered in two phases: the Emergency
Program and the Regular Program.
The function of the Emergency Program is to make flood
insurance readily available to property owners throughout
flood-prone communities. The operation of the program is
simple and direct. FEMA notifies a community that it has been
identified as flood prone by providing the community with a
Flood Hazard Boundary Map (FHBM). Prepared from the best
available data, this map is a preliminary delineation of special
flood hazard areas within the community. A community
receiving such a map may participate in the program by
completing an application to FEMA. Upon approval of the
application, limited amounts of Federally subsidized insurance
become available in that community.
The limits of coverage for the initial or first-layer
insurance protection available under the Emergency Program
are $35,000 for single-family structures and $100,000 for all
other residential and nonresidential structures. Coverage for
the contents of structures may also be purchased. Up to
$10,000 per unit may be purchased for residential structures
and up to $100,000 per unit may be purchased for
nonresidential structures.
1.2.2 Regular Program
Once a community has qualified for the Emergency Phase of
the NFIP and insurance protection is available, an
extensive technical Flood Insurance Study of the flood hazards
in the community is conducted by an engineering contractor
for FEMA. This detailed study includes development of a
Flood Insurance Rate Map (FIRM) and is conducted at no cost
to the community. The flood elevations derived from this study
and the resulting FIRM are the basis on which the insurance
rates for the community are established and specific flood plain
management regulations formulated. Once a community
adopts the appropriate flood plain management regulations,
the community enters the Regular Program and additional
flood insurance coverage becomes available, but at actuarial
rates. These rates, based on the severity of the flood hazard,
are charged for additional or second-layer coverage for
existing structures and for all coverage for new structures. New
construction is that which is started after the effective date of
the FIRM or December 31,1974, whichever is later.
1.2.3 Plain Management
The specific flood plain management regulations that
must be adopted depend to some degree upon the data
developed in the detailed insurance study and provided to the
community by FEMA. Therefore, these regulations may be
adopted incrementally by the community as the necessary data
become available. For example, throughout the Emergency
Program the community is required to apply minimal flood plain
management regulations based on the FHBM and is required
to use reasonably any additional data that may be available
from other sources to establish the flood elevations.
However, after the Base Flood Elevations (BFE's) and
FIRM are available from FEMA, the community must adopt
regulations that will protect any new construction from
inundation during the 100 year flood.
FIRM's prepared for coastal communities depict the 100
year coastal flood plain and the elevations of the 100 year
flood. On this type of FIRM, the 100 year coastal flood plain is
divided into two adjacent zones that define the different
degrees of hazard present, and thus require different flood
plain management techniques to satisfy the damage reduction
requirements of the NFIP. The V zone (velocity zone) is that
portion of the coastal 100 year flood plain that would be
inundated by tidal surges with velocity wave action. Generally,
the V zone indicates the inland extent of a 3-foot breaking
wave, where the stillwater depth during the 100 year flood
decreases to less than 4 feet.
The A zone is that portion of the 100 year flood plain not
subject to wave action. However, the residual forward
momentum of the breaking wave may be present in this zone.
1.2.4 V Zones
The minimum requirements for construction in V zones
differ significantly from the minimum requirements for
construction in coastal A zones. In V zones, all new
construction and substantial improvements to existing
structures must be elevated on adequately anchored pilings or
columns so that the bottom of the lowest horizontal structural
members of the lowest floor (excluding the pilings and
columns) is at or above the BFE. A registered professional
engineer or architect must certify that the structure is securely
fastened to adequately anchored pilings or columns to
withstand velocity waters and hurricane wave wash forces. In
addition, the space below the lowest floor may be used solely
for parking of vehicles, building access, or storage and must
be free of obstructions, or may be enclosed with nonsupporting
breakaway walls, open wood lattice work, or insect
screening intended to collapse under wind and water loads
without damaging the elevated portion of the building or the
foundation.
FIRM's published for coastal communities include BFEs
that incorporate wave heights or wave runup associated with
the 100 year flood. Due to differing shoreline conditions,
FIRM's for east coast and gulf coast communities include wave
heights in BFE's, while FIRM's for west coast communities
include wave runup. Use of this manual is unaffected by which
wave characteristic was used for the applicable FIRM, and the
term wave height is generically used.
Additional NFIP standards for V zones require that fill not
be used for the structural support of new or substantially
improved structures, and that sand dunes and mangrove
stands may not be altered so as to increase the potential for
flood damage.
1.2.5 A Zones
In coastal A zones, the FIRM identifies the appropriate
100 year flood elevation. The A zone is that portion of the 100
year coastal flood plain subject to wave action of lesser
severity. It is important to note that because of momentum of
breaking waves, water may be moving at high velocities in this
zone, especially in the vicinity of the V zone/A zone interface.
At a minimum, new construction or substantial im-
provements of residential structures in coastal A zones must be
elevated so that the lowest floor (including basements) is at or
above the BFE. This elevation may be accomplished through
use of fill, raised foundations, or piles or columns.
Introduction 1-5
1.3 BUILDING CODES
FEMA's NFIP regulations and building code
requirements are essentially parallel efforts, both with the
purpose of providing well constructed and safe housing.
Because of its more specialized interests, FEMA has initiated
actions relating to construction improvements in flood prone
areas, and is continuing to work with code groups and other
interested parties. These actions include efforts to ensure
compatibility between NFIP regulations and guidelines and
code provisions (e.g., BOCA, Standard, and Uniform Codes),
and updating of publications such as this Coastal Construction
Manual and the Elevated Residential Structures manual.
Historically, building codes were developed
independently by communities to meet their specific needs.
Although many communities, and some states, continue to
have their own codes, most have now chosen to adopt (with
amendments) one of the three model building codes (Standard
(Southern Building Code Congress International, Inc., 1982);
BOCA (Building Officials and Code Administrators
International, Inc., 1984); and Uniform (International Congress
of Building Officials, 1984)). Each of these model codes has
language and provisions suitable to large regions of the
country--the Standard Code being in common use in the
South, the BOCA Code in the Midwest and East, and the
Uniform Code in the West. The model codes have been
extensively revised over the years to reflect new construction
materials and techniques, changing government regulations,
and increasing awareness in such areas as seismic-resistant
design and energy conservation.
Coastal construction codes have been adopted at the
state and local levels. Other states, in recognizing the needs of
coastal communities and counties for guidance in this area,
have made available coastal code language for adoption by
local jurisdictions. Appendix G to this manual provides a
sample coastal construction code that may be adopted, with
modifications as appropriate, by jurisdictions for whom state or
other regional guidance has yet to be provided.
Coastal Environment 2-1
Chapter 2
COASTAL ENVIRONMENT
Coastal design and construction are affected by a
number of natural and man-influenced factors. These include
the physiography, weather, development patterns, and
construction practices for a given coastal regime. This chapter
provides a general overview of these factors and their
relationship to or influence on residential construction in
coastal high hazard areas.
Coastal considerations in dwelling development mainly
involve the dynamic beach response to wave energy and water
levels. Long-term beach processes are beyond the scope of
this manual, but they form an important design checkpoint.
Many of our shorelines are moving or naturally eroding, and
man's actions to resist or alter these processes must be
undertaken with recognition of both the complexity of the
interrelationships and the tremendous energies involved.
Erosion of the shore can occur when material supply is
reduced and the dynamic beach profile is disrupted. Such
erosion is frequently caused when the area between the
source of littoral sand and the site under study is disrupted.
Such alterations include:
Damming of waterways that previously carried stream
erosion material to the shoreline.

Building of offshore structures such as breakwaters,
jetties, and groins.

Dredging of offshore channels.
Long-term, gradual shoreline loss and short-term, storm-
induced scour and erosion are both significant factors to be
considered when selecting and building on a coastal site.
Long-term erosion rates of 1 to 2 feet per
year are common along sandy shorelines, and even greater
rates are experienced in areas such as tidal inlets. These long-
term effects have a variety of causes, including the present
gradual raising of ocean levels due to climatic warming, and
dynamic beach processes such as alongshore transport of
sand and the accumulation of sand in tidal inlets, capes, jetties,
and various other natural and manmade shoreline features
(Rogers, 1982). There is concern that the rising sea level is
developing from long-range global climatic changes, that it is
permanent, not cyclic, and due (or at least related) to what is
known as the greenhouse effect. Long-term planning may
need to consider permanent sea level rise. The sediment
budget and coastal processes in an area should be analyzed
to establish historical shoreline behavior patterns and
determine housing setback distances.
Short-term erosion and scour at a site can be dramatic
over the course of a single storm or storm season. Once
exposed by erosion, bulkheads, pilings, and other manmade
structures are increasingly attacked by wave action and
several feet of scour can occur. Experience has generally
shown that it is best to locate structures well away from eroding
beaches to avoid the effects of erosion the structure's expected
lifetime. Where this is infeasible, foundations should be
designed for the anticipated erosion, rather than relying upon
erosion control structures such as seawalls, bulkheads, or rock
revetments. Erosion control structures should be built only in
areas where protection from an imminent hazard is required.
An assessment of the erosion and storm damage potential at
a site can be based on historical and other information
available through state coastal zone management agencies,
the Corps of Engineers, and state universities. Advisory
services such as Sea Grant, the county extension office, and
the Soil Conservation Service are good sources and also have
personnel familiar with
specific local conditions. Long-term residents should not be
overlooked as sources of historical flooding and damage
information.
Many of the above-named organizations have published
information available to assist the siting and construction of
coastal structures. The most inclusive and comprehensive
source to date is the "Living With The Shore" series by Duke
University Press, which when completed will include more than
20 books covering the Atlantic, Pacific, and Great Lakes
shorelines.
Beach profile response to storm activity over a short
period should be considered. Principal design criteria include
beach profile shape, probable storm surge, and incident wave
characteristics. Flat beaches signify little storm erosion and
relatively slight storm wave action due to the energy-
dissipation effect over the flat slope. Steep profiles are usually
associated with coarse beach sands and indicate an area
subject to more severe wave attack. Furthermore, a steeper
beach slope to backshore dunes promotes accelerated erosion
rates, particularly during periods of abnormally high tide; such
a situation warrants increased setback distances. Generally,
fine beach material and flat beaches are indicative of less
erosion and wave force, while coarse sand and steep beach
slopes indicate more forceful erosion and wave action.
However, significant erosion can be expected to occur under
hurricane conditions even on flat beach slopes.
A beach is constantly in a state of dynamic flux,
characterized by two modes of transport: littoral drift
alongshore and onshore-offshore movement. Incident wave
energy usually breaks onshore at a slight angle to the
shoreline, which results in a net component of energy along
the coast depending on the wave direction. This combination of
breaking waves and angular attack can transport considerable
amounts of sand alongshore.
Seasonal beach profile changes from erosion and accretion
are associated with the incident wave's height, period, and
shape characteristics. Short-period plunging storm waves
erode beaches, and longer-period prevailing spilling-type
waves cause accretion of foreshore and backshore areas. The
width of the beach berm and extent and dimensions of
backshore dunes determine the amount of natural storm
protection available to coastal dwellings.
To summarize, the particular beach characteristics, the
storm and surge history, and the beach profile response to
these factors determine desirable location and design of
dwelling units and their susceptibility to water level and wave
attack. In other words, it is more effective and less costly to
design so as to work with nature rather than trying to fight it.
For the purpose of characterizing some of the severe to
storms to which the U.S. coastline is subject, the Saffir-
Simpson Hurricane Scale is presented in Table 2-1. This
scale is used by the National Weather Service to give public
safety officials a continuing assessment of the potential for
wind and storm-surge damage from a hurricane in progress.
TABLE 2-1
SAFFIR-SIMPSON HURRICANE SCALE
Scale No. Winds Storm-Surge Potential
(Category) (mph) (ft) Damage
1 74-95 4-5 Minimal
2 96-110 6-8 Moderate
3 111-130 9-12 Extensive
4 131-155 13-18 Extreme
5 >155 >18 Catastrophic
A number of studies of tropical cyclones, including
hurricanes, have been made by the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). In one study for the
period 1886-1970 (Simpson and Lawrence, 1971), tropical
cyclones are divided into three categories. One category
includes all cyclones whose maximum (reported) sustained
winds were 40 mph (gale force) or higher; the second, includes
tropical cyclones with reported winds of 74 mph (hurricane
force) or higher; the third category "great hurricanes,"
characterizes storms with sustained winds of 125 mph or more.
Based on these data, areas with a high probability of
hurricanes (Figure 2-1) were identified, based on observed
past storm occurrences. Sectors not experiencing a "great
hurricane" during the period of study are not immune.
For discussion purposes, the coastline of the contiguous
48 states and Hawaii was divided into six regions and data
were collected on historical and current construction practices.
Information presented in this manual should be applicable to
almost all coastal areas of the United States. Each region has
unique general shoreline features, development patterns, and
its own storm history. This regionalization serves an additional
purpose of providing convenient geographic segments for
discussion. Construction and design considerations for Hawaii
are not fully included in this document, though a limited amount
of information is provided. The designated regions are listed
below and are based on the coastal classification scheme of
Terrell (1979):
North Atlantic Coast , the Maine-Canada border south
to Cape Cod.

Middle Atlantic Coast , Cape Cod south to the
Virginia-North Carolina border.

South Atlantic Coast , the Virginia-North Carolina
border south to the southern tip of Florida.
Gulf Coast , the southern tip of Florida west to Mexico.

Pacific Coast , the California-Mexico border north to
the Washington-Canada border.

Hawaiian Coast , the entire coastline of the Hawaiian
Islands.
General descriptions of these differing coastal
environments follow. Locations referenced in the text are
shown on Figure 2-2.
2.1 NORTH ATLANTIC COAST
The North Atlantic region comprises two general
segments in New England, characterized by their differences in
terrain and residential development. The natural division
between these two areas is Cape Elizabeth, Maine.
From the Maine-Canada border to Cape Elizabeth the
coastline is rocky, steep, and deeply incised with numerous
bays, estuaries, and islands. There are small areas of mudflat,
marshes, and shallow areas but generally the coast is of high
energy and experiences high tidal ranges. South of Cape
Elizabeth to Cape Cod, the shoreline grades from rocky to
sandy, especially south of Cape Ann. Beaches are generally of
high energy.
The southern portion of the North Atlantic coastline,
through Massachusetts, is heavily populated and
extensively developed. This portion of the coastline also
contains many older structures, some of which date from the
nineteenth century. Both the mainland and the barrier beaches
have been developed. Because of the desirability of the
properties involved, very small lots with minimal setbacks and
little space between residences have resulted.
Figure 2-1. Hurricane experience of eastern United States, 1886 to 1970.
Many residences have been winterized and are inhabited
year-round.
The northern portion of the area is much less developed,
consisting primarily of rugged terrain, scattered resort
residences, rural areas, and fishing villages. Where structures
are present, ocean and side yard setbacks are again minimal
and there is a tendency toward crowding. The northern portion
is much less susceptible to large seasonal influxes of
population than the southern portion.
Much of the development in both the northern and
southern portions of this region either predates construction
codes or was constructed under codes with few specific
provisions for coastal construction.
The northern New England area experiences a
moderate to severe climate, suffering from increasingly harsher
winters toward the north. Generally, north of Cape Cod,
Massachusetts, the northeaster is the most damaging event
and controls design. These are relatively slow moving storms,
with large amounts of precipitation and high winds, and are
primary cause of coastal flooding erosion. Hurricanes are not
as severe a threat as these winter storms.
In general, the Massachusetts coastal area has a
continuous fluctuation in weather elements due to its northern
latitude and the fact that it is situated in a path followed by low-
pressure systems. Statistics developed by the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers in Boston indicate that over the past 50-
year period, three or four northeaster-type storms have
occurred during each month between November and March.
These generally cause at least some damage, such as
shingles and shutters being blown away. Hurricanes in 1938
and 1954 as well as northeasters in 1972 and 1978 severely
affected the area.
Figure 2-2. The United States coastline.
2.2 MIDDLE ATLANTIC COAST
The Middle Atlantic Region also comprises two general
segments characterized by their differences in terrain and
development; the natural division is Montauk Point. The
coastline from Cape Cod to Montauk Point, including Long
Island Sound, is fairly irregular with several large islands, bays,
and sounds. The beaches are mainly sandy and are variously
characterized by high energy areas, marshy areas, barrier
islands, and dunes.
From Montauk Point to the Virginia-North Carolina
border, the coastline contains wide, sandy, high energy
beaches. Extensive marsh areas are protected by a series of
barrier islands with dune systems. Estuaries of varying sizes,
including Chesapeake Bay and Delaware Bay, are found
throughout this portion of the coast.
Development between Cape Cod and Montauk Point is
similar to that described above for the southern portion of the
North Atlantic coastline. The coastline south of Montauk Point
is characterized by resort towns, summer residence
communities, and state and Federal park lands and refuges. In
several areas, primarily near the mouths of major bays and
rivers, harbors have been developed that have fostered
considerable growth. Such population centers include New
York City, at the mouth of the Hudson River, and the Hampton
Roads, Virginia, area at the mouth of Chesapeake Bay.
Between these population centers, the coastline has a
distinctly rural character, with summer tourism the primary
commerce. Much of the land on which resort towns have
developed consists of barrier beaches.
Although nineteenth-century structures are at the core of
most of the towns, a large amount of construction began after
World War II and continues to date. Present-day construction is
primarily high-rise apartments and subdivision developments.
Generally, lot sizes are larger
than those in New England; side yard and especially
oceanside setbacks have long been in force, resulting in much
less crowded communities than farther north.
In New Jersey and New England, the U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers and some municipalities have attempted to halt
the landward advance of the ocean with seawalls. Such
defenses have not been particularly effective. In the
undeveloped coastal areas of Maryland and Delaware,
oceanside setbacks and the preservation of dunes have
generally prevented shoreline deterioration. In developed
areas, however, municipalities and the Corps of Engineers
have attempted to stem the littoral drift and erosion of the
beaches by constructing groins and jetties, and some
homeowners have built individual bulkheads.
The Middle Atlantic States coastline has historically
been subjected to numerous coastal storms severe enough to
inflict significant property damage. This region averages two
to three winter storms each year and an occasional hurricane.
The hurricane controls design along this reach of coastline. A
severe storm in 1962 caused damage along the Middle Atlantic
coast comparable to that inflicted by the February 1978
northeaster in Massachusetts.
The 1962 storm caused major damage to numerous
structures, resulting in revised building codes and
construction techniques. Because a major portion of the
structures in this area received some damage in 1962, newer
construction incorporates design and construction techniques
that can better resist storm damage. The performance of these
newer techniques in less severe recent storms has been
substantially better than in 1962. Performance has also been
improved in much of this area by restricting development
through setback regulations.
The Middle Atlantic States received a close call from
Hurricane Gloria in September 1985. Gloria had reached
winds of over 150 mph as it approached the United States from
the Caribbean; these winds had diminished only to 130 mph as
the storm skirted Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. The storm
remained offshore, missing the Maryland, Delaware, and New
Jersey coasts, finally coming ashore on Long Island. Hitting at
low tide with 100 mph winds, the storm damaged several
communities, including Fire Island, before passing into
Connecticut. For all its potential, Hurricane Gloria did only
modest damage, while providing valuable lessons in
emergency preparedness and evacuation planning.
2.3 SOUTH ATLANTIC COAST
The South Atlantic coastline comprises three general
segments: the Outer Banks from the Virginia-North Carolina
border to Cape Fear, the coastline and Sea Islands from Cape
Fear to St. Johns River, and East Florida from St. Johns River
to the southern tip of Florida. The Outer Banks reach contains
numerous long, narrow barrier islands characterized by
relatively steep, broad quartz sand beaches as shown on
Figure 2-3. These islands protect large landward sound
complexes and front against a turbulent, high energy sea.
The Sea Islands comprise numerous, irregularly
shaped small barrier islands that contain wide, low-sloped
quartz sand beaches. In many areas, the difference in width of
beach between high and low tide often exceeds 300 feet.
Behind the islands are expansive tide marshes that are highly
dissected by coastal plain rivers and distributaries. The barrier
islands of the East Florida segment are long and narrow, and
generally front high-salinity lagoons. The beaches are low-
lying and composed of calcareous sands. In the southern
portion of the Florida mainland, the continental shelf is narrow
and high-relief coral reefs dominate the nearshore area.
Limestone underlying the Florida mainland extends further
south in an
undersea ridge that forms the Florida Keys, a chain of 97 low-
lying islands. The average ground elevation in the Keys is
about 3 feet above sea level, and only a thin soil cover overlies
the limestone in most areas.
Figure 2-3. Representative beach profiles.
The South Atlantic region has a temperate climate that is
subject to the effects of coastal storms and occasional
hurricanes that produce high winds, above-normal tides, and
heavy rains. The most frequent storm types are winter cyclonic
storms travelling northeastward up the coast. These average
from eight to ten storms per year, many of which, according to
local residents, cause minor damage to residences and erode
appreciable amounts of beach. Hurricanes, while less
frequent, are the major cause of damage to residential
structures and thus are the controlling factor in design. The
area is vulnerable to tidal flooding, but tides greater than +8
feet mean low water (mlw) are rare; the highest recorded tide
level was 11.2 feet mlw, in August of 1893.
The Outer Banks of North Carolina, the coast near the
South Carolina-Georgia border, and the east coast of Florida
are the areas within the South Atlantic region most likely to be
struck by a hurricane. National building codes present their
highest coastal design wind speeds for the Outer Banks and
southern Florida.
Along this coastline, numerous resort developments
have been created within the past 15 to 20 years in areas
where there had been little or no development. Thus, an
increasing number of residences are being constructed that
are susceptible to coastal flooding damage. Hurricane Hazel
struck the North Carolina coast in 1954, prior to the era of
large-scale coastal development. During that storm, most
buildings on the barrier islands were destroyed by waves and
storm surge. In 1984, 30 years later, Hurricane Diana made
landfall on the North Carolina coast with sustained winds of
104 mph and gusts greater than 115 mph. However, only 2 to
4 percent of the existing buildings were damaged. Most
damage was minor (porches and overhangs) and only 10
buildings were judged to be total losses. Major causes were
not waves, erosion, or storm surge, but high winds (Rogers,
1985).
Most construction techniques now in use were derived
following Hurricane Hazel in 1954 and after the accelerated
development of the coastline of North Carolina and South
Carolina. Recent state and local controls are in effect and have
improved the quality of construction throughout this area.
These improvements can be attributed to two primary factors.
First, many areas are being developed as relatively exclusive
resort communities, leading to more expensive housing and
more local controls, such as architectural review boards. The
boards contribute to the control of natural vegetation, dune
protection, height and view restrictions, public access to
beaches, and a higher general quality of construction. In
addition, the fact that these residences are usually
engineer- or architect-designed custom homes contributes to
more carefully detailed joints and closer controls during the
construction process.
The ability of local building officials to interpret and
enforce the requirements for construction has also had an
effect on quality. Some jurisdictions have upgraded the
authority and professional status of their building officials. The
more strict building departments have been able to better
ensure better structures; loosely interpreted standards allow a
lower quality of construction.
Much of Florida's recent coastal development is high-
density construction such as hotels, high-rise apartments, and
commercial facilities (see Chapter 5). However, there are
coastal subdivisions not fully developed, some land subject to
subdivision, and isolated building lots in Florida's coastal high
hazard areas. The State of Florida and local jurisdictions have
also made substantial efforts to upgrade the quality of coastal
construction and inspection. One such effort is the adoption by
Florida of a Coastal Control Line, with the State limiting
construction seaward of the line.
2.4 GULF COAST
The gulf coast is routinely a target for hurricane activity,
and the area exhibits some of the highest probabilities of
tropical storm occurrence in the country. Within this region,
there are eight segments that can be characterized by their
differences in physiography. Each exhibits varying conditions
that determine susceptibility to storm-generated erosion, wave
action, and tides.
From Key West to Cape Romano the low relief coastline
is dominated by a multitude of small mangrove islands, tidal
channels, and extensive swamps. The continental shelf is
very broad, extending over 800 miles
offshore. Human development is minimal due to the
predominance of the Everglades. From Cape Romano to
Tarpon Springs, a transition occurs from a mangrove-
dominated coastline to sandy beaches and marshy bays
characteristic of the northern Gulf of Mexico. Exposed sandy
beaches with scattered mangrove stands and rocky areas are
predominant shoreline features along a series of barrier
islands protecting marshy embayments. The continental shelf
is broad and regular.
Continuing north to Lighthouse Point, the shoreline of
the Florida Big Bend is rugged and characterized by rocky
bottoms, very wide shallow areas, and extensive seagrass
beds, oyster bars, and marshes. The region surrounding the
Apalachicola Delta to Cape San BIas has an exposed
coastline partially protected by barrier islands and smooth
sandy beaches; protected bays are turbid with muddy bottoms.
From Cape San BIas to Petit Bois Pass, Alabama, the coast
comprises high energy sand beaches and an extensive system
of dunes and barrier islands. The shoreline is relatively steep
and the dunes rise sharply.
The Mississippi Delta, extending from Petit Bois Pass
west to Vermilion Bay, is characterized by an extensive and
wide marsh and barrier island system. The marshes contain
many lakes and bayous and are crossed by numerous stream
channels. From Vermilion Boy to Galveston Bay, the coast is
identified as a strandplain-chenier complex. The shoreline is
exposed without substantial barrier islands and is
characterized by a marshy plain with a series of long, low,
narrow brushy beach ridges that lie parallel to the coastline.
The Texas barrier island system extends from Galveston Bay to
the United States-Mexico border. This low-relief section is
characterized by an extensive lagoon system bordered by
long, narrow, sandy barrier islands. On the upper portion, to
Corpus Christi, marshes are common in the bays. The bays of
the southern portion have minimal freshwater inflow;
hypersaline
conditions predominate and submerged grass beds are
common.
Development along the gulf coast is quite variable.
Many areas, because of the inhospitable terrain or shoreline
protection (refuges and parks) are relatively undeveloped.
These include much of the Texas barrier island system, the
chenier plain, the Mississippi Delta, the Florida Big Bend, and
the mangrove swamps of southwest Florida. Development in
these areas usually occurs on the mainland behind the barrier
islands (e.g., Corpus Christi, Texas) or on the landward side of
extensive marsh systems (e.g., Lake Charles, Louisiana). A
notable exception is Galveston, Texas, which is built directly on
a barrier island.
On the other hand, the central Florida coast, the
panhandle of Florida, and coastal Alabama and Mississippi are
highly developed with beach communities and resorts.
Building has occurred both on the barrier islands and on the
mainland, although the bigger cities such as St. Petersburg
and Pensacola tend to be on the mainland, while resorts are
located on the barrier islands.
A wide range of housing types is found along the gulf
coast. Older structures abound on the gulf; however, a
significant amount of recent construction has taken place that
exhibits familiarity with current construction technology,
particularly with regard to elevated structures.
Two gulf coast areas can be distinctly identified as
having high hurricane probability. These are the areas around
Galveston, Texas, and Pensacola, Florida. Other areas also
appear to be prone to hurricane activity, specifically, the area
around the Florida Keys and the area south of New Orleans
near Grand Isle, Louisiana.
The Florida Panhandle has a moderate climate that is
occasionally influenced by hurricanes. There have been
nine seriously destructive hurricanes since 1879, the worst in
September 1879 and September 1926. The area from
PensacoIa, Florida, to Pascagoula, Mississippi, has also
experienced relatively frequent hurricane damage. Millions
of dollars of property damage in the Pensacola-Panama City,
Florida, area resulted when Hurricane Eloise passed through
the area in 1975. The heaviest damage was due to erosion
(scour) and occurred primarily to residences with slab-on-
grade first floors and other nonelevated structures that
depended on shallow footings for structural stability. The
beach profile, with its steeper slope and higher dune system, is
extremely susceptible to dune toe erosion and rapid dune
retreat during a short duration storm. Figure 2-4 shows a slab-
on-grade house on Santa Rosa Island, Florida, that was
undermined in a storm and is a total loss. Erosion has also
undermined the short post foundations supporting the porch on
the house in the foreground.
In September of 1979, Hurricane Frederic did
extensive damage to the Gulf Shores-Mobile, Alabama, areas
(Figures 2-5 and 2-6). Maximum sustained winds on land were
estimated at over 110 mph, with highest gusts reported at 145
mph. The peak storm surge of 12 feet at Gulf Shores, Alabama,
destroyed much of the island, while an 11-foot surge at
Dauphin Island destroyed the causeway connecting the island
to the mainland. The estimated damage total of $2.3 billion
makes Frederic the second most costly U.S. hurricane in
history.
Coastal areas near the Mississippi-Alabama border
were hit again in September 1985 by Hurricane Elena. Initially
projected to come ashore near Cedar Key in Florida, Elena
stalled for several days before moving westward, finally making
landfall in the Gulfport-Biloxi, Mississippi, area. Locations east
of the landfall received the most damage, primarily from wind,
although many
homes sited at the water's edge were damaged by waves,
erosion, and debris as well. Considerable wind damage was
reported, from loss of roofs, roof overhangs, porches, and
windows broken by flying debris.
Figure 2-4. Undermining of shallow supported foundations by
beach erosion.
Figure 2-5. Contrasting minor and major damage to two
adjacent houses during Hurricane Frederic.
The southern portion of the Texas coast has a marine
climate that is subject to major tropical storms and hurricanes.
Six hurricanes have occurred in the area since 1900; one of
these, in 1900, completely destroyed the City of Galveston.
Other damaging hurricanes have included Debra in 1959,
Carla in 1961, and Alicia in 1983. The City of Galveston, and
Galveston Island in particular, have frequently received
hurricane and storm damage. Storms causing high waves and
severe beach erosion occur almost annually on Galveston
Island. Because of exposure along both the gulf coast and
Galveston Bay, significant damage due to storm surge and
wave action has occurred in the past and could occur again.
Some protection has been provided through construction of the
Galveston reentrant
Figure 2-6. U-shaped structure damaged by Hurricane Frederic.
seawall by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Long term
erosion is, however, a problem in this area and is common at
both ends of the Galveston seawall.
Hurricane Alicia in August 1983 was the costliest
hurricane in U.S. history, mainly because its path included the
populated areas of Galveston and Houston on the Texas gulf
coast. Damage was estimated at as much as $3 billion; in
Galveston County, damage was estimated at $100 million.
Alicia severely damaged nearly 1,000 homes, and more than
100,000 claims for property damage were filed with insurance
companies. Several houses on Galveston Beach were
destroyed due to inadequate pile embedment and scour and
erosion. The majority of
damage, however, was caused by inadequate wind anchoring,
with resultant loss of roofs and collapsing of walls.
Because of the continual threat of hurricanes and severe
storms along the gulf coast, builders, designers, engineers,
and building officials in this area are generally familiar with
elevated structures and storm-resistant construction
techniques. Application of such techniques is much in
evidence, particularly in new construction.
2.5 PACIFIC COAST
The Pacific coast is composed of two basic segments:
the southern California coast from the U.S.-Mexican border to
Point Conception and the coasts of California, Oregon, and
Washington from Point Conception to the U.S.-Canadian
border.
The southern segment is characterized by a fairly
smooth coastline with long stretches of sandy beaches
interspersed with rocky headlands. Both low and high cliffs
border the landward side of the beaches while a few large
islands occur offshore; nearshore algae and kelp beds are
widespread.
The northern segment has mainly rocky, high-cliffed
beaches with numerous pocket beaches. North to Cape
Mendocino, extensive algal communities and kelp beds are
present. From Cape Mendocino to the Canadian border, the
coastline is moderately dissected with numerous rocky islands,
small bays, and estuaries with mudflats and eelgrass beds.
Although not subject to the same frequency of high
storm waves from major storms and hurricanes as the Atlantic
and gulf coasts, the Pacific coast experiences occasional
tropical cyclones and tsunamis. Some of these storms originate
near Japan and grow as they track across
the Pacific. In addition, tropical cyclones that form off the
Mexican coast occasionally travel north and affect southern
California. Tsunami activity has also been recorded; the most
damaging was in 1964, at Crescent City, California.
Storm surges are of limited magnitude on the Pacific
coast because of the great ocean depths close to shore.
Numerous hurricanes form off the west coast of Mexico, but
these tend to move seaward. Only rarely does one of these
hurricanes reach the extreme southern California coast, and
those that do are weak compared to east coast hurricanes.
Their intensity is limited by the cold temperature of the
underlying water surface and other factors. The hazards
controlling design for residential buildings along the Pacific
coast are storm waves and swells, possibly originating at
distant storm centers and having full access to the shore
because of the deep water, and seismic sea waves or
tsunamis.
In January and February 1983, intense storms moved
through the eastern north Pacific and struck the southern and
central California coast with heavy rains, gale force winds, high
tides, and heavy surf. These caused widespread shoreline
damage including beach erosion, flooding of shoreline
property, and damage to structures. In southern California,
more than 1,000 homes and businesses were damaged or
destroyed as well as several State highways and four
municipal piers. In northern California, over 1,400 homes and
businesses were damaged or destroyed.
Coastal development in California relies less on
elevation for protection than the more common practice of
constructing residences behind a bulkhead or seawall.
Typically, an entire row of structures is protected by one
common bulkhead. This consists of piles driven beneath the
anticipated scour line and sheeting placed and bolted to them.
Deadmen or anchor piles are used to resist rotation of the main
piles (Figure 2-7).
Most storm damage in this area is the result of scour, or
erosion, which undermines bulkhead or seawall supports, and
exposes to flooding the properties presumably protected by
them. The California coastline has historically had a higher
rate of erosion than other U.S. coastlines. This higher erosion
rate, coupled with the fact that many California homes are built
too close to the beach, has led to the well publicized
failures that accompany winter storms. Elevated houses have
not been immune to undercutting of the supporting piers or
piles by the often deep seated erosion.
In the northern portion of the Pacific Coast region,
development pressures are generally less intense, and land
use policies often prevent new coastal development.
2.6 HAWAIIAN COAST
The Hawaiian islands are the tops of a chain of
submerged volcanic mountains. As a result of the
mountainous terrain inland and a climate extremely
favorable to tourism, many of Hawaii's coastal areas have
been intensively developed. Hawaii has a varied coastline,
from rocky cliffs to wide sandy beaches; the more intensive
development has occurred along beach areas.
The Hawaiian coast is subject to flooding and wave
action not only from severe storms but also from tsunamis
seismic sea waves). For example, the 100-year flood
elevations around Oahu are those generated by tsunamis.
However, considerable beach erosion and some damage to
residential structures occur annually on the north and west
coasts of Oahu from low-pressure storm centers that may
remain offshore for several days. Severe weather is
uncommon in this area, and major storms and
thunderstorms are infrequent. In an average year, three storms
of tropical storm or hurricane intensity form in or propagate into
the central North Pacific. However, in the
Figure 2-7. Simple bulkhead.
Figure 2-8. Typical bulkhead in Hawaii.
years since World War II, only two have hit Hawaii directly: Dot
in 1959 and Iwa in 1982. Hurricane Dot caused property
damage slightly in excess of $5.7 million, principally on the
island of Kauai. Iwo struck the islands of Niihau, Kauai, and
Oahu; damage, due mainly to high surf
and winds gusting to 100 to 120 mph, was estimated at $234
million. Most of the significant damage was confined to a 2- to
3-mile-wide coastal fringe on Kauai. Approximately 13
percent of the homes and 55 to 60 percent of the hotel units in
this area were destroyed or damaged.
Two types of flood waves impact on the Hawaiian
coastline: low-pressure-center northwest storm waves and
tsunami waves. The low-pressure storm waves cause
significant damage to coastal construction as a result of beach
erosion by the continuous onslaught of waves during the storm.
A tsunami occurs less frequently, and only a few significant
waves impact the coast; however, the wave runup is
considerably greater during a tsunami because of the large
volume of water in each wave. This extended runup causes
severe erosion of the materials supporting structures well
inland when the wave recedes rapidly.
Figure 2-9. Soil erosion potential.
The tsunami wave is the critical element controlling
design on all coasts of the Hawaiian Islands. Tsunamis
originating in the Alaska-Aleutian area have struck northerly
exposed sites. Primary areas affected by tsunamis from the
north are Hilo on Hawaii and Hanalei Bay on Kauai; damage
may also occur to the northern shore of Oahu, between
Kahana Bay and Kaena Point. The 1957 tsunami did
considerable damage at Hanalei. However, the tsunami
having the greatest effect on the Hawaiian Islands was in 1946.
Other significant tsunamis in Hawaii since 1946 include:
November 1952, March 1957, May 1960, March 1964, and
November 1975.
Some tsunamis originate south of Hawaii and thus affect
southerly exposed sites. Although tsunamis originating near
Japan have not been a major problem, one such surge struck
the Kona Coast of Hawaii in 1896. There has not been any
significant damage in the State of Hawaii from tsunamis
originating near California or Mexico, but Peruvian and
Chilean earthquakes have caused considerable
tsunami damage along the southeastern coastline of
Hawaii.
In Hawaii, use of design and construction techniques to
resist flooding, wave action, and erosion is limited. Aesthetic
considerations and design tradition have had a significant
impact on the resistance to elevating the first floor. A few
elevated residences exist but these are exceptions rather than
the rule. Beach erosion and the subsequent exposure of
foundations are of great concern in several coastline areas.
As a result, constructing ads and other beach protection
devices is much more common than elevating structures.
Bulkheads are commonly used to protect residences on
shallow footings (Figure 2-8). Some structures on the northern
coast are constructed directly on the natural sand dune.
During low-pressure storms, the toe of the dune is eroded and
waves encroach on the oceanfront of the structures (Figure 2-
9).
Site Design Recommendations 3-1
Chapter 3
SITE DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS
3.1 BUILDING CODE AND ZONING REQUIREMENTS
Building codes and zoning ordinances are normally
enacted by local jurisdictions, either city or county. These
regulations are intended to control various aspects of a
community's physical development, such as construction
materials and practices, land use, minimum sizes of lots,
setbacks from streets and property lines, density of
development, parking requirements, and height and size
restrictions. Such controls are not limited to the urban context
and have been applied to all development areas including
rural lands. Coastal area management through the use of
building code and zoning ordinances is as critical to the
sensitive needs of this special environment as it is to the
commercial/retail cores of cities. The ordinances are needed to
ensure public safety, community development, and the integrity
of special areas.
Unfortunately, failure to enact or adequately enforce
such necessary controls has led to uncontrolled land
development in many coastal zones, particularly in regions
where beach front property has attracted residents for several
decades. Areas where building codes and zoning laws were
not in effect prior to development exhibit a beachfront cluttered
with construction; a broad range of often substandard
construction practices; buildings with only a few feet of
separation, typical of urban and suburban neighborhoods;
destruction of the primary dune and its inherent storm
protection; and the creation of both physical and visual barriers
to public access to the natural coastline.
Residential construction is the most common land use in
coastal communities, with the single-family house
predominating. There is, however, a general trend to multi-unit
buildings due to the high cost of coastal property. Virtually all
coastal areas now fall within the authority of local zoning and
building code ordinances. Many local jurisdictions have
imposed strict regulations on new development, particularly in
popular resort and retirement communities, which have
become perhaps the most active areas of construction in the
coastal high hazard zones.
Local authority often goes beyond the normal
regulations to include such items as architectural review,
protection of dunes and dune rebuilding, preservation of
indigenous vegetation, and limits on some architectural
features. A review of current building code and zoning
requirements is a first step in preparing for a new construction
project, or for an addition to or renovation of an existing
structure. This review should determine such requirements as:
Required construction materials and practices
Minimum lot size
Setbacks, including the space between structures
Height and size restrictions
Protection of natural features, including the primary
dune
Elevation requirements Access to the beach, both
physical and visual
Utilities protection
Sewerage facilities
The illustrations in this chapter demonstrate the building
code, zoning, and other concepts that must be applied to site
design in coastal areas. Building construction requirements
found in local building codes and
other regulations that may be imposed on coastal
construction, together with site design requirements, make up
the building permit process. Permits are issued only after
compliance with these requirements has been assured and is
properly documented. Generally, the project is subject to
inspection during construction by an authorized representative
of the local authority.
Building code and zoning requirements plus common
sense and experience have influenced site design practices
throughout the coastal areas of the nation. It should be
emphasized that building code and zoning requirements are
stated in terms of minimums. While these minimum
requirements have often become the accepted practice in the
local construction industry, these practices should always be
considered minimum acceptable requirements. Requirements
for specific structures, based on engineering considerations,
often exceed the code minimums and should be evaluated on
a case-by-case basis.
3.2 SITE LAYOUT
Site planning for coastal buildings should follow
standard planning criteria applicable to any site work, not
merely orientation based on flood flow. In layout of the site,
typical factors such as slopes, natural grades, drainage,
vegetation, orientation, zoning, and surrounding buildings must
all be considered, as well as direction of flood flow. Particular
care should be taken to observe the setback from the mean
high water line and other coastal zone management
requirements. Access to and evacuation from the building
should be a special consideration in flood hazard zones.
Hydrodynamic impacts may severely damage roadways and
walkways, leaving the property potentially unreachable by
rescue vehicles. If flood waters approach the BFE with all
surrounding land area inundated, rescue may only be possible
by boat or helicopter.
Consideration of existing neighboring structures, such
as residences, bulkheads, trees, and berms, is often
overlooked. Adjacent structures may benefit a particular site by
offering a screening effect or diversion. But these same
structures may be damaged by storms and become floating
objects capable of severe destruction. When it is practical and
possible to do so, the elevated structure should be aligned
parallel to the flood flow with the narrower dimension facing the
beach. This simply presents a smaller surface area upon which
a storm can act. The more surface area exposed, the greater
the likelihood of damage occurring.
It must be emphasized that hazards to coastal
construction come from the sea. The hazard may be reduced
by building farther from the shoreline. Building near the back
or street side of a beach front lot reduces as much as possible
the beach erosion problem.
3.3 LANDSCAPING
A feature not commonly considered to provide physical
protection from storm hazards is landscape treatment.
Some coastal jurisdictions and private developments require
planting and protection of indigenous vegetation to obtain
permits to build. This is normally limited to plant materials like
dune grass, sea oats, and some shrubs like mangrove.
Planting and maintaining vegetation, even in areas where no
such requirements exist, can be a good way to protect the
residence. Vegetation provides a more stable soil condition,
can trap windblown sand, and can even act to deflect high
winds and waves that are pounding the area. Larger materials
like shrubbery and trees can also deflect floating debris that
might otherwise impact the elevated foundation.
Landscaping may also provide a pleasant effect of
screening and reducing the visual impact of the elevated
building.
3.4 DUNE PROTECTION
Dunes provide a natural shoreline defense against
storm wave and water level attack and are often termed a
nonstructural coastal protection method. Programs for dune
rebuilding or enrichment are being conducted in many areas
as a preferred alternative to other protection methods, and
dune preservation regulations have been enacted. Figure 3-1
shows an example of a building site behind a reconstructed
dune. Although the protection to a structure located behind it
can be substantial, a dune should not be considered
indestructible and is subject to erosion and scour in major
storms.
Beach material is usually deposited in offshore bars
during storms and returns onshore after storm passage to
begin beach rebuilding. Sand is pushed shoreward by fair
weather winds and is gradually deposited on the beach.
Onshore winds then rebuild the dunes with sand from the
beach. This rebuilding process is diminished by the presence
of man-made obstructions.
Figure 3-1. Typical dune reconstruction
Existing dune fields should be maintained through
vegetation stabilization and sand fencing, which promote
additional dune growth and limit wind losses. The cutting of
roadways or paths through the dune line should be prohibited
and timber crossovers used instead, as shown on Figure 3-2.
In areas where no dunes exist and sufficient beach width is
present, dune construction using successive tiers of sand
fencing will promote further formation.
Dwellings should always be placed behind primary
dunes (Figure 3-3). Construction atop or in front of dunes is
extremely vulnerable to structural damage from storms and
should be prohibited. Figure 3-4 shows the overall constraints
on coastal structures due to zoning and setback requirements.
Figure 3-2. Walkway structure and fencing protect the dune.
Figure 3-3. Example of use of building setback requirements to
locate structures behind the primary dune.
Figure 3-4. Zoning restrictions on coastal development.
3.5 BULKHEADS
In a limited number of circumstances, bulkheads can be
effective in reducing storm damage and erosion if designed
properly. However, there are a number of reservations
concerning their use, including restrictions on their use in V
zones (velocity zones) to meet minimum elevation
requirements under the National Flood Insurance Program
(Section 1.2). Bulkheading on an individual lot basis should
be avoided. Because of the abrupt vertical transition in profile,
bulkheads generally promote toe scour and this can lead to
beach loss and steepening at sediment-starved beaches.
Experience has shown that erosion accelerates at adjacent
unprotected areas, possibly resulting in the flanking of
individual bulkheads as shown on Figure 3-5. Structural
solutions for coastal protection generally require multiple-site
implementation for maximum effectiveness.
Use of bulkheads in V zones should be limited to
remedial protection of existing structures where other
mitigating measures, such as elevating an existing building,
are considered infeasible. If used, they should be designed
only to withstand storm wash runup--the forward, high-velocity
remnant of a broken wave as it continues to run up on shore.
Direct wave attack is less effectively handled by bulkheading.
Only massive structures of concrete and/or stone can
adequately handle severe conditions. Use of bulkheading to
repel frequent events usually implies development too close to
the water, and the need for massive and expensive regional
erosion protection.
Where bulkheading is to be used, rock riprap is
recommended as the most effective protection from waves.
Because of its sloped surface, voids, and roughness, it
dissipates wave energy effectively. Riprap is flexible from a
structural standpoint; timber or rock riprap structures can be
designed for individual sites. Figure 3-6 shows a riprap
structure at Hilton Head, South Carolina.
Figure 3-5. Erosion damage to individual bulkhead.
The following items should be considered in bulkhead
design:
Foundation and backfill conditions

Exposure to wave action and scour

Availability and durability of materials

Cost.
Evaluation of these items will determine the structural materials
and geometry used for shore protection. The Shore Protection
Manual (USCOE, 1984) contains detailed information on this
subject.
Figure 3-6. Rock riprap used as a bulkhead.
Foundation conditions should be considered in terms of
compatibility with the structure, backfill loading, and passive
resistance. Flexible structures should be used for sandy
conditions, since the bulkhead wall's flexibility will lessen the
lateral force of the backfill compared to a rigid structure.
Bulkheads that require penetration for stability are not suitable
for rock bottoms. Vertical solid structures are subject to toe
erosion in sands and to a lesser extent in soft clays, and should
be protected from toe sliding effects due to bottom scour
induced by the wall itself. This scour can also cause settlement
and tipping with gravity structures. Scour problems can be
reduced by altering the geometry. A recurved wall shape
(Galveston type) as shown on Figure 3-7 directs wave runup
away from the toe of the wall and may lessen scour.
Figure 3-7. Concrete seawall with recurved face.
Wave action may determine the selection of structural
type and design geometry. Light structures such as timber
piles and lagging or small stone revetment are compatible with
small wave action. However, direct wave attack dictates more
massive structures, such as curved concrete seawalls
designed to dissipate wave energy by upward vertical
deflection. Calculation of wave forces, as summarized in the
Shore Protection Manual , determines the structural material
necessary to withstand the anticipated energy.
An important aspect of designing a shore protection
system is the selection of materials of adequate strength and
durability for the specific physical conditions of a site.
Consideration of initial cost plus maintenance will
determine the most economical design. Durable rock, readily
available and inexpensive in one area, may be too distant from
another.
Professional consultation is recommended to engineer a
functional structure properly. The Shore Protection Manual
summarizes the various analyses of coastal processes that
should be considered. Structural solutions to shore protection
should attempt to work with the existing natural forces; the
more one resists coastal dynamics, the greater is the
probability of encountering serious problems.
3.6 USE OF EARTHFILL
Constructing residential structures on engineered fill is
one means of elevating the living areas of the house a above
a required elevation in riverine flood plains. However, in
coastal zones the scouring action of waves can erode the fill
and expose the foundation to the point of failure. Even if
proper slopes are provided for the fill and protective measures
such as riprap, vegetation, or landscaping with grass are
applied to the seaward slopes, there will remain concern
regarding its adequacy. For these reasons, the use of earthfill
to elevate structures in coastal high hazard areas (V zones) is
prohibited by NFIP.
The use of earthfill for landscaping purposes may be
appropriate for some V zone locations. However, care must be
exercised to allow for the unobstructed flow of velocity waters
and wave action. Improperly located or large size earthfills
may ramp damaging waves into the elevated portion of a
structure.
In coastal A zones, the use of earthfill for elevation
should be restricted to those areas subject to minimal velocity
water and wave action, due to the potential for scour and
erosion.
Structure Design Recommendations 4-1
Chapter 4
STRUCTURE DESIGN
RECOMMENDATIONS
This section discusses the design of residential
structures to resist the effects of coastal winds and flood waters.
It includes an examination of various forces present in the
coastal environment, their range of magnitudes, and some
recommendations and sources of additional information. Data
are also presented on various construction materials for
residential structures in coastal high hazard areas, with
discussions of corrosion and the need for wood treatment.
The major portion of this chapter presents recommended
design details from the foundation to the roof. Acceptable
alternatives are presented wherever possible. One should
consider these recommendations as minimum requirements.
Local experience or site specific information should be used to
improve the quality of design and construction.
Several cautionary statements are appropriate,
however. The information presented in this manual is based
upon values of forces and properties of materials taken from
standard engineering references and conventional building
codes. A limited range of sizes and configurations for single-
family residences has been assumed for purposes of
establishing design criteria and tables (Appendices A and B).
Since this design manual attempts to inform
homeowners and builders in coastal regions throughout the
United States, site-specific situations have not been
addressed, only the general cases covered by building codes.
An example is the case of wind speeds, for which a realistic
range is considered after evaluating various building code
values. Generally, conservative approaches
and values have been used to provide conformance with most
applicable building codes throughout the United States.
The flood forces considered in this work include forces
generated by wave action. Water and wave forces are
calculated to be consistent with the wave crest elevations that
would be present during the base (100 year) flood, the event
that has a 1 percent chance of being equaled or exceeded in
any given year.
4.1 ENVIRONMENTAL FORCES
Conditions found in the coastal environments
described in Chapter 2 impose stresses on construction
materials that are not imposed in the inland environment. If
special precautions are not taken, deterioration of wood and
metal building components is accelerated. Masonry and
concrete are affected to a lesser degree except where noted.
4.1.1 WIND
A major concern in the design of residential structures in
coastal regions is the magnitude and effect of high winds
during storms. In this report, the basic wind design data and
procedures follow the recommendations included in National
Standards Institute Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and
Other Structures , ANSI A58.1-1982. A number of other
building codes are also referred to, including the Standard
Building Code, the BOCA Basic National Building Code, and
Uniform Building Code.
The wind velocities, pressures, and design coefficients
used in this report are those presented in ANSI A58.1-1982.
The recommended basic wind speed at a site should be the 50
year mean recurrence interval (Figure 4-1) times an
importance factor of 1.11 for correcting to a 100 year
Figure 4-1. Basic wind speed in miles per hour, 50-year recurrence interval.
recurrence interval in coastal areas. The design tables in
Appendix A were developed for a range of wind speeds from
80 to 140 mph, which satisfies nearly all coastal area
requirements. Because of the large forces exerted by winds
greater than 140 mph, various connections require spacial
attention. This is beyond the scope of this manual and a design
professional should be consulted.
The elevation above grade of the roof of the house is a
particularly important parameter in determining wind uplift
forces. As the roof height increases, there is an increased uplift
force on the rafter connections and related components down
through the foundations. The design tables include such load
increases, which can be significant on houses with a second
story or loft area and a first floor elevated 8 to 10 feet above
grade in order to be above the BFE. In some coastal areas, the
height of water plus waves may approach 20 feet; obviously,
the roof of a one-story house in this situation will be quite high.
Elevating above the base flood increases the
probability that the structure will overturn unless adequately
designed and constructed. Therefore, the design tables
require information regarding the heights above ground level
of various parts of the structure, so that the appropriate forces
can be considered in the design.
The following discussion and illustrations on how wind
forces act on a typical one-story house will be helpful to home
builders and other users of this design manual. Sketches are
provided so that these effects may be more easily understood.
Flowing wind exerts pressure on a structure and its
component parts. The horizontal pressure on the front wall and
a horizontal suction on the rear wall cause an overturning
effect, as shown in Figure 4-2. Also, these
wind pressures can slide the structure off its foundation, as
shown in Figure 4-3.
Since the wind speeds up as it flows over the roof, it
tends to suck the roof upward and off (Figure 4-4). Internal
pressures also change, especially if wind enters the building
through failed windows or doors. With an opening in the
windward wall, internal pressure increases; if an opening
Figure 4-2. Wind overturning forces.
Figure 4-3. Wind sliding and bending forces.
occurs in a side or leeward wall, internal pressure decreases.
Figure 4-5 shows how these forces could combine with uplift
forces to blow off the roof. Figure 4-6 shows how the
combination of built-up wind pressure inside the structure and
suction pressure on the side walls and rear wall tends to
explode the walls. A house on Dauphin
Figure 4-4. Wind pressure on roof and eaves.
Island, Alabama, that received major damage from winds
during Hurricane Elena is shown on Figure 4-7. The home had
a large porch on the windward side that was lifted totally off the
structure, probably in part due to internal pressures. The house
also has several large sliding windows that were damaged,
and part of the roof was lost.
A common myth about hurricane resistance is that
windows should be left open to equalize internal and external
pressures. In reality, if a wind enters a windward opening, the
increased internal pressure on roof and walls is much more
likely to cause damage than if the wind is acting only
externally. The houses that best resisted Hurricane Alicia's
highest wind forces invariably had storm-shuttered windows
and doors that remained intact.
Figure 4-5. Wind pressure on roof when wall opening occurs.
The important factors in minimizing wind damage to a
building generally are use of shutters to keep the building
envelope intact, and adequate anchorage to transmit wind
forces from the roof down through the foundations. At a
minimum, buildings should have windows that are rated for the
design wind speed at the site. For further protection against
window breakage from debris impact, storm shutters are
strongly recommended.
Figure 4-6. Wind pressure on walls when wall opening occurs.
Figure 4-7. Damage from internal pressure.
Particularly high wind pressures occur at corners of a
house, at and under roof eaves, and at the peak of the roof
(Figure 4-B). This is caused by the patterns of wind flow at
these critical points. This design manual provides guidance in
the connection details necessary to resist wind forces.
High wind forces tend to stress the connections between
structural members, such as those connecting posts and piles
to beams and those connecting beams to joists and vertical
supports. Such stresses cause a progressive weakening of
these connections to the point where failure is possible. Figure
4-9 shows a house that was separated from its foundation
platform during Hurricane Alicia.
It cannot be overemphasized that attention to
connection details for rafters, joists, and stud walls (at corners
and at bottom and top plates) can reduce wind damage. When
the structure is tied together as an integral unit it can better
resist dynamic forces such as those due to wind, floodwater,
waves, and even earthquake. For this reason, there should be
a continuous series of positive connections from the roof rafters
down through the walls to the first floor joists, supporting
beams and piles, or other foundation system. Joist anchors,
well-nailed plywood sheathing, metal straps, bolts through floor
beams and piles, and similar connections all contribute to a
wind-and flood-resistant structure. These elements are
addressed in more detail later in the chapter.
Figure 4-8. Wind pressure on corner overhangs.
Figure 4-9. Removal of house from foundation piles by wind forces.
4.1.2 Salt Air, Moisture, and Wind-Driven Rain
Coastal areas have a highly corrosive atmospheric
environment resulting from inland transport of salt spray by the
wind, combined with generally higher moisture levels in the air.
These corrosive conditions can extend several miles inland,
but are most severe close to the sea. The undersides of
elevated structures are particularly vulnerable to salt spray,
because the exposed surfaces are not washed by rain and stay
damp longer due to their sheltered location.
Moisture with a high salt content is extremely corrosive
to ferrous metals and mill-finish or nonanodized aluminum. It
also tends to increase swelling and shrinking
cycles, rot, and insect activity in wood. Galvanizing is the most
common protective coating for steel fixtures. Bolts, nails, and
other hardware items are usually hot-dipped galvanized
following fabrication. The steel plate connectors--often referred
to in coastal areas as "hurricane clips"--described in this
manual are commonly manufactured from pregalvanized
sheet. These connectors perform well in protected locations,
such as the interior of a building, but have only a limited
lifespan in exposed areas. Heavier weight connectors that are
hot-dipped galvanized after fabrication are preferred in
exposed areas. All metal connectors are subject to
corrosion over the life of a structure. Routine inspections
and maintenance (see Section 4.3.8) are necessary to
ensure the continuing serviceability of connections.
Wind-driven rain has been a continuing problem in
coastal areas under storm conditions. Commonly available
windows, doors, and roof ventilators were designed for inland
locations and have been found to leak from the wind-driven
rain of coastal storms. This problem has been recognized;
storm-rated products are now available and should be
specified for all new and replacement applications. Careful
inspection of a coastal building should be conducted to identify
potential water pathways through the building's exterior
envelope, and sealants and caulking applied where
necessary.
The combination of high winds and moist salt-laden air
can also have a damaging effect on masonry construction by
weakening mortar bond and permitting moisture penetration.
Although concrete is less affected by the coastal environment
than other construction materials, special precautions such as
increasing the thickness of concrete cover over the
reinforcement should be taken to prevent moisture from
reaching the reinforcing steel through the hairline cracks
present in all concrete. Rusting of the steel may cause staining
and could contribute to
spalling of the concrete and exposure of the reinforcement.
Additional precautions for the coastal environment are
especially important for larger buildings (Chapter 5) due to the
extensive use of reinforced concrete in these structures.
4.1.3 Water, Waves, and Debris
Structures located in coastal environments are
subject to a number of loads and natural forces associated with
severe storms, including the 100 year flood. If the site is in the
V zone, the wave crest elevation of the 100 year flood will be a
critical design parameter that must be determined.
The water forces on the piles that elevate structures
above the ground are primarily the momentum of water
impinging on the pile and the drag force in the direction of the
velocity of the water. Similar forces act on breakaway or lattice
walls, stairways, and utilities below elevated structures. One
must therefore consider the stillwater storm tide elevation as
well as the associated wave action (wave crest elevation). In V
zones both flowing water and save action are to be considered,
while in A zones only a save height less than 3 feet is
considered in addition to flowing water.
The home builder and/or designer should obtain the
Base Flood Elevation for his site by referring to the FIRM for the
community. Use of the water depth plus wave height as shown
on the FIRM is an important factor since the design tables rely
on water depth plus wave height to determine lateral forces
and the proper flood-resistant design.
The velocity of coastal flood waters can result in
movement of debris, which includes portions of houses, utility
poles, fences, etc., such as the debris shown adjacent to a
house in Alabama following Hurricane Elena (Figure 4-10).
These objects may collide with residential structures; the
resulting impact loads are a function of velocity of the object
(assumed equal to the velocity of the water) and the time
required to stop (decelerate) the object upon impact. The
deceleration time is in turn related to the distance over which
deceleration occurs, which is considered equal to pile
deflection upon impact. This design manual has provided for
the collision of a 300-pound object moving at surface water
velocity and decelerating over a maximum distance of 0.5 foot.
The collision is assumed to occur against one pile at the
highest elevation of the flood waters.
Figure 4-10. Waterborne debris deposited against foundation piling.
Note also that larger debris, such as that shown in Figure 4-10,
can wedge against foundation piling and bracing, increasing
water forces on the foundation system.
4.1.4 Effects of Forces on Higher and Larger Structures
This report includes design of residential structures
elevated up to 22 feet above grade to provide for the bottom of
the lowest structural beam to be above the BFE. About one
story of elevation is required in many areas. If the clear height
needed is less than about 8 feet, it is likely that the builder may
still elevate the structure to about one story to provide parking
and storage under the house.
For structures required to be elevated more than about
12 feet above grade, forces on the supporting piles increase
rapidly with increasing height. Uplift forces will be higher
because wind suction increases as roof height increases.
Also, the overturning forces against the piles will be greater
from both wind and water. Therefore, the piles must be longer,
stronger, and better braced, and will be more expensive in
terms of material and installation. For these greater heights
trussed bracing may be required. Design data for this bracing
and determination of the need for it are included later in this
manual. Due to the complexities of the design, a qualified
architect or engineer could be helpful in designing these
higher structures.
Similar considerations are necessary for building
structures larger than a two-story house. For example, the
forces on a three- or four-story motel are much larger than
those considered in this report. This is because the uplift
forces on a higher roof are larger and because the frontal area
of walls is greater and receives a larger wind force tending to
overturn the structure or move it laterally. Consultation with a
qualified professional architect or engineer is recommended.
The procedures in
Chapter 5 of this design manual demonstrate the approach to
be used. However, the details of design, including magnitude
of forces, selection of pile type and method of installation, and
size of beams and connections all require specific attention
beyond the scope of the design guidance and tables included
in this manual. This is also true when wind speeds exceed 140
mph, in which case this manual cannot be used alone and
professional help is needed.
4.2 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
Wood is the most available and most commonly used
material for one- or two-family residential structures in the
coastal environment. With proper selection and design, wood
can handle most loadings and spans. Steel and concrete
materials are used on a limited basis. Since most steels
corrode severely when placed near the ocean, the use of steel
requires caution and a thorough understanding of its
characteristics. Certain alloy steels are available, but their use
is advised only with the assistance of a qualified professional.
Likewise, concrete can be used as a construction material,
but the cost of forming and the special nature of connections
must be considered. Precast concrete may be suitable for
beams and other structural members. Residences elevated
more than 15 feet above ground may be built more
economically with precast concrete piles and beams because
wood piles need to be longer (embedded deeper) and require
a substantial bracing system.
4.2.1 Wood
4.2.1.1 Piling. The properties desirable in piles include
sufficient strength and straightness to carry the weight of the
structure, withstand pile-driving forces at installation, and resist
the bending stresses of wind and waves. Southern
yellow pine, Douglas-fir, and oak are among the principal
species used for piling, but western red cedar and numerous
other species also are used.
Decay resistance and ease of penetration by
preservatives are particularly important. Pilings that support
the foundations of buildings should be pressure treated with
wood preservative to a retention suitable for ground contact.
4.2.1.2 Main Supporting Members (Beams). The main
supporting beams attached to piling, posts, masonry piers, or
walls in turn carry the floor joists and subflooring. These
members are either solid timbers, such as 4-by-10's, or are
built up using standard framing lumber such as two, three, or
four 2-by-10's spiked or bolted together. Where beams are
built up using a good grade of lumber for the laminated
members, the strength of the built-up beam may equal that of a
solid member. All members of the built-up beam should be
continuous between supports, as splices materially reduce
strength. Built-up members should include only one splice at
any one location. The ends and tops of built-up members
should not be directly exposed to the weather. Lumber that
has been pressure treated for exposure but not for ground
contact is recommended for beams and decks.
4.2.1.3 Other Wood Construction Members. Floor joists,
studs, bridging, blocking, soles, sills, and plates are not
required to be preservative treated, although such treatment
may be helpful in regions of highest decay and insect
infestation.
4.2.1.4 Wood Preservatives. Any wood members used for
pilings and floor beams, whether exposed or enclosed, solid or
built-up, must be treated with chemicals or preservatives to
resist insect infestation, dry rot, decay fungi, and the effects of
exposure to salt air and water. It
is important to remember that this environment has as great a
tendency to harm concealed beams as those left exposed.
Enclosed beams may in fact be in more danger, since they lack
the ventilation that would allow collected moisture to evaporate
and are not exposed to rain water to wash away precipitated
salt compounds.
Good wood preservatives, thoroughly applied with
standard retentions and with the wood satisfactorily penetrated,
substantially increase the life of wood structures. On this basis,
the annual cost of treated wood in service is substantially
below that of similar wood without treatment. Wood
preservatives fall into two general classes: oils, such as
creosote and petroleum solutions of pentachlorophenol; and
waterborne salts, such as chromated copper arsenate (CCA).
The degree of protection obtained depends on the kind
of preservative used and the thoroughness of application.
Some preservatives are more effective than others and some
are more adaptable to certain use requirements. Furthermore,
the wood is well protected only when the preservative
substantially penetrates it. Some methods of treatment assure
better penetration of various species of wood, particularly of the
heartwood, which generally resists preservative treatment
more than sapwood.
Generally, the type of preservative used and the need
for substantial penetration of the wood is of crucial importance
only in applications where the wood is directly exposed to
saltwater, such as wood used for piers or bulkheads. House
foundations are somewhat more protected and should be
inundated only rarely, so the marine borer problem is less
relevant. Pressure treatment suitable for ground contact is
appropriate for pilings supporting residential structures, and
pressure treatment of wood suitable for uses lacking ground
contact is appropriate for all elevated members.
4.2.2 Masonry Materials and Concrete
In general, masonry materials and concrete perform well
in the coastal environment. Adequate reinforcing must be
provided to withstand stresses and, as mentioned earlier,
coverage of reinforcement must be sufficient to reduce the
danger of salt water reaching the steel and consequent rusting
and staining. Special care should be taken in the quality of
concrete and masonry units and of mortar used to reduce voids
in surfaces and between joints in masonry work.
4.2.3 Metals
4.2.3.1 Aluminum. Construction elements or assemblies such
as doors, windows, gutters, downspouts, and flashings made
from mill-finish (uncoated) aluminum sheet or extrusions
deteriorate rapidly from corrosion in the coastal environment.
The heavier anodizing finish (0.7 mil) is recommended.
Nevertheless, moving parts, hardware, hinges, sliding doors
and windows, and jalousie operators require additional
maintenance. A heavy vinyl finish on these components offers
protection approximately equal to the anodizing finish.
4.2.3.2 Steel. Exposed structural steel shapes, beams, pipes,
channels, and angles undergo very rapid corrosion and their
use should be avoided in the coastal environment. Small
connecting devices such as bolts, angles, bars, and straps
should be hot-dipped galvanized after fabrication and coated
with a protective paint after installation. Heavy, hot-dipped
galvanizing can last 20 to 30 years in the coastal environment.
Standard galvanized sheet metal joist hangers and other
connecting devices deteriorate more rapidly despite their
galvanized coating and require additional protective coatings
and more frequent replacement. Small anchoring devices,
nails, spikes, bolts, and lag screws should, whenever possible,
be hot-dipped
galvanized. Where sheet metal clips and hangers are used,
the special nails should also be galvanized.
Regular inspection, maintenance, and replacement of
corroded metal parts are necessary when steel is used in the
coastal environment. When selecting new or replacement
hardware, consideration should be given to use of 304 or 316
stainless steel, Monel, or other more corrosion-resistant
materials. As noted by Rogers (1985b), the higher initial cost of
these materials may well be offset by lower future maintenance
costs.
4.2.3.3 Dissimilar Metals. When two different metals are in
contact in the corrosive coastal air, rapid corrosion of one of the
metals can occur. Cathodic protection systems use this
principle to advantage by attaching bars of zinc or other
sacrificial material to the steel structure to be protected.
Usually, however, the corrosion between dissimilar metals
occurs when they are inadvertently placed in contact by the
builder or owner. For example, the use of brass screws (which
are suitable for fastening steel) to attach an aluminum frame
will result in rapid corrosion of the aluminum. Whenever
possible, the use of dissimilar metals together should be
avoided unless the safety of the combination ion has been
researched. Aluminum screws would have been preferred in
the example. Stainless steel reacts less with aluminum than
brass and would have been an acceptable alternative. Monel
should not be used with either aluminum or galvanized steel.
4.3 DESIGN DETAILS
4.3.1 Foundations
Several types of foundations are suitable for supporting
elevated residential structures in coastal high hazard areas.
Tapered cylindrical or square wood piles are the most common
foundation. Another popular but
structurally weak method of elevation uses wood posts resting
on a spread footing. A variation of this is reinforced masonry
piers resting on spread footings or concrete grade beams
under a concrete slab. In some locations shear walls of
reinforced masonry or concrete at right angles to the beach
(and thus parallel to the likely flow of flood waters) have been
used. In some instances concrete piles or steel piles have
been used, particularly for structures larger than a two-story
residence. Various foundation types are discussed below in
more detail, together with the role of soil conditions in
foundation selection and design.
4.3.1.1 Soil Conditions. An important parameter for
foundation design that must be established early in the layout
and design of a structure is the depth and quality of the soil or
rock at the building site. Sand is the dominant soil deposit in
most coastal areas. However, in some areas clay underlies a
thin (several foot) layer of sand. The mechanism and
distribution of strength for supporting piles in clay differ from
those in sand. Generally, clay soils provide greater capacity
with less penetration than sandy soils. Some builders use a
water jet to insert piles into sand; this technique alone is not
sufficient to allow piles to penetrate clay, which normally
requires an auger or pile driver. The design tables in Appendix
A include pile capacity for each of four types of soil: medium
dense sand, loose sand, medium stiff clay, and soft clay.
Clay also performs differently from sand under wave
action and is affected little by scour. The depth of scour of
sandy soils under wave action is difficult to predict accurately,
but can be several feet from severe storms. It is important that
piles supporting residences on sandy shorelines penetrate a
minimum distance into the ground to provide resistance to wind
and water loads even after extensive scour from a storm has
occurred.
Pile penetration depths in sand should allow for scour of
both loose and dense sand from around the pile foundation as
well as temporary liquefaction of some of the sand near the
surface during storm conditions. Figure 4-11 shows a house
that settled nearly intact when the piles lost their support
through scour or liquefaction.
There are other rules of thumb that can assist in the
evaluation of soil conditions at a building site. Loose sand is
penetrated with a 1/2-inch reinforcing rod pushed by hand.
Medium dense sand is easily penetrated with a 1/2-inch
reinforcing rod driven with a 5-pound hammer. Although
denser sands may exist at a site, under storm wave action it is
expected that loosening of the sand and scour will occur; the
design tables in the appendices reflect this. If clay is
Figure 4-11. Nearly intact settling of a house when piles lost capacity.
present at a site, a sample should be obtained. It is classified
as soft clay if it is easily molded by the fingers and medium stiff
clay if molding by the fingers requires strong pressure.
If soil boring data are available, classification into the
soil categories listed above is possible from the standard
penetration test. This involves driving a 2-inch-diameter, thick-
walled tube sampler by a 140-pound weight dropping 30
inches onto the drill rod. The number of blows per foot to drive
the sampler is counted and is a rough indicator of soil
consistency. In sands, 10 blows per foot (bpf) or fewer indicate
a loose sand. Higher blow counts indicate medium dense
sand for purposes of this design manual. Soft clays are those
with 4 or fewer bpf, so higher blow counts would indicate
medium stiff clays. Boring data from adjacent or nearby sites
may be useful in establishing the general soil conditions
underlying a site. For example, soils on barrier islands are
often more uniform than at inland locations. Adjacent sites the
same distance from shore would likely have similar subsurface
conditions. When interpreted with care, data from nearby sites
can be quite useful.
Rock is encountered at or near the ground surface along
some portions of coastline, and specific local foundation
practices have evolved to provide the required lateral and uplift
resistance in V zones. In the Florida Keys, for example, it is
common to install foundation systems socketed into the
relatively soft limestone by augering or drilling several feet into
the rock, then filling the socket with concrete. Reinforcing steel
in the socket extends into the piers above. Where harder rock
is encountered, such as in New England, steel dowels are
grouted into holes drilled in the rock and used to anchor
conventional piers.
Figure 4-12. Elevating with wood piles.
4.3.1.2 Piles
Pile Selection. Wood piles are probably the most widely
used foundation for elevated residential structures (Figure 4-
12). In some locations, square timbers are preferred over
round piles because of cost, availability, and ease of framing
and connecting the structural beams to the piles. The most
popular sizes are 10-inch and 8-inch square, rough-sawn
members. The latter size is the minimum size generally
approved for use in coastal high hazard areas. In regions
where the design wind speed is greater than 100 miles per
hour, the row of residences fronting on the beach should have
10-by-10 piles if square timbers are used. These
provide greater resistance against uplift and lateral forces than
8-by-8's. Current practice in some locales already requires the
larger piles.
Tapered timber piles with a circular cross section are
frequently used in coastal areas. Generally, these are
available in longer lengths than square timbers, and for lengths
greater than about 25 feet it may be necessary to use tapered
piles. When longer piles are required, many builders prefer the
round piles because they can provide greater cross section
area, peripheral area, and stiffness than square sections,
particularly the B-by-B timbers. A minimum tip diameter of
about 8 inches is recommended for tapered piles.
Figure 4-13. Effect of scour--wind and water forces on piles.
Availability may be the controlling factor in selecting a
member; locally available products, stocked by local material
dealers, are usually the most cost-effective materials. If both
square and round shapes are equally available, the square
provides some advantages; it is easier to frame beams into, is
easier to plumb while driving, and is usually straighter and
more uniform in appearance. The additional cost of the
dressed square pilings may be overshadowed by their
increased workability and availability at most lumber dealers.
Round piles are, however, available in larger sections and
longer lengths.
Concrete piles are commonly used in coastal areas
when higher capacity or longer length is required. Their
application is mainly on mid- to high-rise structures, although
circumstances may occasionally warrant their use on smaller
residential structures. Concrete piles are precast offsite, with
either conventional or prestressed reinforcement, and are
available in a variety of sizes and lengths.
Pile Embedment. Piles must resist downward loads
due to the weight of the structure, its contents, and its
occupants. The piles must also resist upward loads due to
wind uplift. Wind and water impose lateral (horizontal) forces,
which piles resist by bearing against the soil. Therefore, piles
should be well seated in fairly dense soil. Figure 4-13 shows
piles with inadequate embedment; the piles rotated but did not
break at ground level. Inadequate embedment was likely the
cause of the leaning shown in Figure 4-14. The figures and
tables provided in this design manual recommend depths of
pile penetration into various types of soil as dictated by the
wind and flood water conditions anticipated, the size of the
building being constructed, and the number, spacing, and
arrangement of piles used.
Figure 4-14. Effect of storm forces on foundation system with
inadequate pile embedment.
The depth of potential scour during the design storm will
vary for each coastal location. It is critical that piles be
embedded well below the scour depth to provide adequate
foundation support during a storm. Historical data on local
scour may be helpful in determining the embedment depth, as
described in Chapter 3. Standard construction practice for
pile embedment depth is inadequate in many coastal areas.
Rules of thumb, such as "piles should be embedded as much
below ground as above ground" generally underestimate the
required pile embedment and have not taken scour into
consideration.
Determining an appropriate embedment depth requires
consideration of several factors (see Figure 4-15), such as:
Pile depth necessary to resist vertical, uplift, and
horizontal loads
Anticipated scour depth or elevation at the site
Existing ground elevation
Base flood elevation
Figure 4-15. Pile embedment.
To provide minimum embedment criteria for coastal
construction, it is recommended that piles in the V zone
penetrate sand to at least a tip elevation of -5 msl (5 feet below
mean sea level) if the Base Flood Elevation is +10 msl or less.
If the house must be elevated above +10 msl (expected height
of water plus waves) then the pile tips should penetrate at least
to -10 msl. Many communities have adopted the rule of thumb
that piles should be embedded to -10 msl, which may be
inadequate, depending on location. This standard should be
considered as one criterion only, and the tables provided in
this manual should be consulted to determine if deeper
embedment is necessary.
The soil surrounding the embedded piles provides the
principal resistance at the ground line to lateral
displacement resulting from horizontal wind and water loads.
Additional resistance can be achieved by using horizontal
bracing (grade beams) as discussed in Section 4.3.3.2.
Pile Installation. A major consideration in the
effectiveness of pile foundations is the method for inserting
the pile into the ground. This can determine the amount of
resistance to load the piles will have. The best procedure for
insertion is the use of a pile driver, which uses leads to hold the
pile in position while a single- or double-acting hammer
(delivering between 5,000 and 15,000 foot-pounds of energy)
drives the pile into the ground.
The pile driver method, while cost-effective for a
development with a number of houses being constructed at
one time, can be expensive for a single residence. A drop
hammer (Figure 4-16 is a modest alternative to the pile driver.
The drop hammer consists of a heavy weight (several hundred
pounds) that is raised by a cable attached to a power-driven
winch. The weight is then dropped 5 to
Figure 4-16. Pile installation using a drop hammer.
15 feet onto the end of the pile. The advantage of driving the
pile compared to other methods that will be mentioned is that
the driving operation forces soil outward from around the pile,
densifying the soil and causing increased friction along the
sides of the pile, which provides greater pile load resistance.
Figure 4-17. Square piles set in preaugered holes.
A disadvantage of pile driving, particularly with light
equipment, is that final pile locations and orientation can vary,
depending on the driving conditions. This can complicate
subsequent construction of floor beams and bracing, though it
is not usually a significant problem in coastal areas underlain
by relatively uniform sand and clay
layers. Large buried material such as logs, gravel bars, and
abandoned foundations can result in pile installation
difficulties, whatever method is used. It is prudent to inquire
about subsurface conditions at the site of a proposed structure
prior to committing to the type of pile or the installation method.
A much less desirable but frequently used method of
inserting piles into sandy soil is "jetting." Jetting involves
forcing a high pressure stream of water through a pipe
advanced alongside the pile. The water blows a hole in the
sand into which the pile is continuously pushed or dropped
until the required depth is reached. Many contractors then tamp
sand into the cavity around the pile and pound on the and of
the pile with the heaviest sledge hammer or other weight
available. Unfortunately, jetting loosens not only the soil
around the pile but also the soil below the tip. Therefore, only a
low load capacity is attained, and the piles must be inserted
deeper into the ground than if they were driven. If piles are
jetted into position at a site considered to have medium dense
sand present, pile lengths and embedment depth should be
calculated assuming that loose sand is present.
If the soil is sufficiently clayey or silty, a hole may be
excavated by an auger or other means. The hole will stay
open long enough to drop in a pile (Figure 4-17). Even some
sands have enough clay or silt to permit the digging or drilling
of a hole. Sand or pea gravel may then be poured and tamped
into the cavity around the pile. Final driving is performed with a
sledge hammer or large weight. Again, this does not provide
as good load resistance as driving the pile into the ground.
If precast concrete piles or steel piles are used for
foundation support and elevation, only a regular pile driver with
leads and single- or double-acting hammer should be used.
The hammer should deliver at least 15,000 foot-pounds of
energy. Steel piles are less desirable because of
Figure 4-18. Sketch of foundation for house near Malibu Beach, California.
corrosion problems. Concrete piles can be practical when
combined with either precast concrete floor beams or with
wood floor beams as shown in Figure 4-18. Such a structural
system can be efficient, economical, and weather and storm
resistant. Proper connections between piles and floor beams
and between floor joists and floor beams are necessary.
4.3.1.3 Posts. Wood posts are not recommended in coastal
high hazard areas (V zones) or coastal A zones subject to
wave forces and/or scour and erosion. This is because wood
posts have low resistance to lateral forces, and there is
potential for undermining of the foundation or footing
supporting the post.
Wood posts can be used in locations where the
anticipated wind and flood water forces are low enough to be
resisted by a simpler substructure system. The bottoms of the
posts should be bolted to metal straps or angles that are firmly
attached to the foundation. The foundation may consist of
reinforced concrete spread footings, usually with a reinforced
concrete slab, or it may be a concrete pile or pier cast in place
in the ground with adequate penetration to resist the applied
loads. If the posts have good knee bracing or are otherwise
laterally supported, they can resist the lateral forces of slow-
moving flood waters (not waves) as well as winds of
moderately high velocity.
4.3.1.4 Piers. In some areas it is common to use reinforced
masonry piers to elevate residential structures. If used in V
zones or coastal A zones, piers must be properly reinforced
and adequately anchored to a foundation that extends to
sufficient depth to resist scour and lateral forces. Generally, a
likely place for pier construction is back from the beach, or in
other areas where flood waters move in and out with low
velocity, such as small bays.
Figure 4-19. Sketch of concrete masonry unit pier.
One region where piers are commonly used in V zones
is the Florida Keys. Foundations there are socketed several
feet into holes augered in the limestone, and then either
concrete or reinforced masonry piers are used to elevate the
first floor.
At locations protected from scour and erosion, piers may
be founded on conventional spread footings, grade beams, or
slabs on grade. The pier acts as a beam cantilevered from the
base slab, and grade beams or footings resist horizontal
bending caused by wind and water forces (Figure 4-19).
Therefore, a substantial spread footing or grade beam with
reinforcing steel dowels extending into the pier to resist tensile
stresses is required.
Figure 4-20. Concrete masonry unit piers supporting concrete
framing platform.
Footings should be at least 3 feet square and embedded at
least 2 feet below grade. The grade beams should be at least
12 inches deep below the base slab all around the perimeter of
the house, with similar beams under the slab running at right
angles to the beach and parallel to the direction of potential
water flow. The grade beams should be at least 18 inches wide
and have at least two 5/8-inch-diameter bars top and bottom. If
clay occurs within 2 feet of the footing or grade beam, a
professional should design the foundations to provide
adequate vertical and lateral resistance. The required
reinforcement for various pier sizes under ranges of wind and
associated water loads is provided in Appendix A. The slab on
grade should be concrete with suitable steel mesh
reinforcement.
Figure 4-21. Floor beams bolted to wood metal straps tying floor
joists to floor beams.
Wherever piers are used in coastal areas, there should
be a positive connection at the top of the pier from the concrete
in the hollow-core masonry units to the floor beams. This
connection may be reinforcing steel dowels cast into a
concrete floor beam (Figure 4-20) or it may be a well-anchored
metal strap bolted through the floor beam (Figure 4-19).
4.3.2 Framing
Once the required elevation is achieved by the methods
described in the preceding section, the next step is to frame the
floor, wall, and roof systems. The framing provides the
structural support or skeleton for the remainder of the building
and is made up of the floor
beams, floor joists, wall studs and plates, roof (ceiling) joist,
and wall and floor sheathing.
4.3.2.1 Framing Methods. The most common framing method
presently in use is platform construction. This method is
suitable for all the foundation systems previously discussed
and is in widespread use throughout the country for residential
construction. Platform construction in the beach environment
primarily means bringing the elevating
Figure 4-22. Pole construction details.
foundation, either piles or piers, up to the first-floor level (Figure
4-21). Between these supports span the floor beams, to which
the floor joist framing is connected. A diaphragm or wood floor
system ties the floor joists together to form the platform. A
platform is constructed for each floor surface. Once the platform
is built, walls, subsequent floors, and the roof are framed above
the platform and properly connected to it.
The other framing method used in residential
construction is pole construction. This system differs mainly in
that the foundation members (usually piles) are extended
above the level of the first floor to the roof framing (Figure 4-
22). Floor and roof beams then are framed directly to these
members, securely anchoring the entire structure. This
technique can be very effective in resisting severe storm
conditions, as it ties the structure together throughout its height
and increases the ability to resist laterally applied forces.
These systems are usually more successful using square wood
piles for the foundation m. Compared to cylindrical piles,
square shapes make framing easier and better accommodate
interior partitioning.
Pole framing can provide an unusual structure and
architecturally stimulating spaces both inside and outside.
Pole frame houses have the disadvantage that errors or
Difficulties in pile installation can result in pile spacings and
orientations that make subsequent framing and finishing of
the house difficult. However, careful measurement and
other precautions during pile installation can generally prevent
such problems. The best pole framing designs are those that
have ample tolerance for pile installation error.
4.3.2.2 Beams. The primary floor beams spanning between
supports should preferably span in the direction parallel to he
flow of potential flood water and wave action. This orientation
(normally at right angles to the beachfront
Figure 4-23. Typical pile, floor beam, floor joist arrangement,
showing bolted beam/pile connection and hurricane clip
connections to floor joists.
allows the lowest transverse member perpendicular to flow to
be the floor joist. Thus, in an extreme flood the beams would
not be subjected to the full force of the storm water along their
more exposed surfaces. This also reduces the potential for
floating debris to overturn the structure and places the lowest
obstacle to flow above the floor beam.
Typically these beams are either built-up members
(Figure 4-23) made from two "two-by" pieces of lumber (i.e., two
2-by-10's or two 2-by-12's) or are solid members such as 4-by-
10's or 4-by-12's. Solid beam members often are more difficult
to obtain and are not always available at local lumber outlets.
Solid beams do, however, offer higher fiber stress ratings in
relation to built-up beams of a similar nominal size. Therefore,
a solid member is capable of larger load than a member built
up to the same dimensions. In many areas, "glulam" (glued-
laminated)
Figure 4-24. Laminated beam connected to round timber pile using
1/2-inch steel plate, hot-dipped galvanized after fabrication.
members, pressure treated, are available and suitable for use
in place of solid members (Figure 4-24).
Residential structures in coastal high hazard areas
typically range from 20 to 40 feet in the dimension parallel to
flood flow. Since floor beams in those lengths are difficult to
find and hard to handle, it is common to use splices (Figure 4-
23). Splices may occur in several places and should be
located directly over supports. Figure 4-23 also shows metal
joist anchors tying floor joists to the floor beam.
4.3.2.3 Joists and Rafters. A type of joist coming into
increasing use is the wooden I-beam, manufactured with
structural wood flanges and a structural plywood web (Figure
4-25). I-beam joists are lighter and can be produced in longer
lengths than standard lumber; the thin
webs simplify the installation of wiring and plumbing the webs.
Depths of the beams typically range from 8 to 20 inches (in 2-
inch increments), with flange widths up to about 2-1/2 inches.
Typically available lengths range up to 36 feet. Web stiffeners
may be required at bearing points. The individual
manufacturer's recommendations should be followed with
regard to handling, web stiffening, and selection of size for a
required span.
In the velocity zone, cross bridging of all floor joists is
recommended due to the additional load factors related to the
structure's elevation. The elevation makes the floors
(particularly the first floor) more accessible to uplift wind forces,
as well as to the forces of moving water, wave impact, and
floating debris.
Cross bridging methods are included here because
local building codes may not require this desirable practice.
The following are cross bridging recommendations:
Nominal 1-by-3's at 8-foot-on-center maximum
Solid bridging same depth as joist at 8-foot-on-center
maximum.
4.3.2.4 Subflooring. Presently, two common methods are in
use for subfloor construction. These are the use of nominal 1-
by-4 or 1-by-6 boards placed diagonally over the floor joist
(either tongue-and-groove or square-edge with expansion
space between boards) and the use of plywood subflooring to
create a floor diaphragm. When a plywood subfloor is
planned, guidelines for thickness and methods of attachment in
relation to joist spacing can be obtained from the "Plywood
Construction Guide" of the American Plywood Association.
Due to the high-moisture environment, plywood used as
subflooring material must incorporate exterior glue as the
adhesive between each layer. Information describing
the glue system can be found in the grade stamp on each
sheet of plywood.
Subflooring is typically nailed directly to the floor joists.
In coastal high hazard areas, nailing with annular ring nails or
deformed shank nails is recommended. These nails provide
extra strength against pulling out when the floor system is
exposed to loads other than gravity. Their holding ability is
substantially greater than common or galvanized nails when
stressed by wind, velocity flooding, or wave impact.
A system of nailing and adhesive application of plywood
with tongue-and-groove joints along the long edges of the
sheet avoids the need for blocking along these edges. This
system produces a more level floor and offers a stronger
diaphragm action to resist horizontal wave forces.
4.3.2.5 Studs. Most commonly used are 2-by-4 wood studs,
16 inches on center. Recently, in areas where cold weather is
anticipated, 2-by-6 studs have been used to permit 50 percent
thicker wall insulation. Metal studs have been used for some
time on larger structures and are now becoming common on
low-rise, multifamily structures and, to a lesser extent, on
single-family residences. The general configurations of metal
stud walls are similar to the equivalent wood stud wall.
4.3.2.6 Wall Sheathing. Plywood is the most typical sheathing
in use for exterior walls. The major advantages of plywood are
that it braces the wall framing to resist racking stresses and
forms a continuous tie from floor beam to top plate when
properly installed (Figure 4-26).
Plywood used for sheathing structures elevated not
more than 10 feet should be exterior grade and not less than
15/32 inch thick. Nailing should be with 6d nails, spaced 6
inches along the edges of the panel and 12 inches on
intermediate studs.
Figure 4-25. Wooden I-beam.
Structures elevated more than 10 feet should be
sheathed with 3/4-inch exterior grade plywood, nailed with 8d
nails, spaced 6 inches on edges and 12 inches on
intermediate studs. Deformed shank or annular ring nails and
plywood with exterior glue are recommended, as described
above in the subflooring section.
Figure 4-26. Wall sheathing tie from roof to foundation.
4.3.2.7 Wall Bracing. Wood frame walls must be braced to
resist wind forces, which can cause racking. Bracing of vertical
walls is typically a building industry standard, with several
methods in common use. Wind forces present in the coastal
high hazard environment lend more significance to this bracing
than in other areas. Additional wind loadings and lateral forces
of both moving water and wave action add to the total loads on
a building and are particularly significant factors in bracing
vertical walls.
Typical wall bracing methods are a let-in diagonal wood
brace, diagonal boards, and plywood (Figure 4-27). One
method similar to the let-in diagonal brace in common use
today is a light gauge, galvanized steel strap nailed diagonally
to each stud at the outside corners of framed walls. Plywood
sheathing is the recommended method for wall bracing, and
placement of plywood sheets and nailing should follow
recommendations of the American Plywood Association, using
annular ring nails. Plywood sheathing should cover the bottom
plate and floor joist and the top plate of the wall, as shown on
Figure 4-27. If the height from joist to top plate is greater than
8 feet, panels of approximately equal size should be cut to
span the height, rather than using one 8-foot panel with a fill-in
of a few inches. Plywood sheathing should be used at all
corners and should extend at least 4 feet in each direction from
each corner.
4.3.2.8 Roof Details. Roof trusses are nearly universally used
today for roof framing, and can be purchased in either stock or
custom sizes and shapes. They are typically made from 2-by-
4's and 2-by-6's, with the larger members used for longer
spans. Older homes and some remodeling projects have used
the traditional construction with individual rafters cut from 2-by-
6's or 2-by-8's. Trusses and rafters are spaced at either 16
inches or 24 inches, and sheathed with plywood. Heavier
plywood is generally used for the 24-inch truss or rafter
spacing. Trusses or rafters generally extend 1 or 2 feet over
the exterior walls at both the eaves
Figure 4-27. Corner wood bracing.
Figure 4-28. Gable/overhang failure.
and gable ends. Gable end extensions often use a hanging
rafter that is essentially supported by the roof sheathing and
trim.
The shape and structural details of a roof are important
due to the significant wind forces affecting this part of the
structure. Loss of all or part of a roof will result in significant
damage to the building and contents, and can result in the total
failure or collapse of the entire superstructure. Even among
those remaining intact, some roof types have been shown to
provide less obstruction to wind, exhibit better structural
integrity, and be less prone to shingle loss and water leaks
than others.
Of the traditional sloping roof designs, hip roofs appear
to perform best, as they do not present any flat
faces to the wind regardless of wind direction. These sloping
faces also add to the performance of the roofing material.
Gable roofs are the most common roof design and
generally perform well, provided the gable ends of the roof are
constructed properly. Gable ends are vulnerable to damage
due to the significant wind uplift forces at the roof peak,
compounded by structurally weak gable vent devices that often
blow out in storms. Figure 4-2B shows a structure damaged
by Hurricane Elena when the gable area failed.
Additional rigidity and stability of a gable roof framing
system can be provided by installing 2-by-4 blocking on 2-foot
centers between the roof rafters or
Figure 4-29. Porch overhang damaged by wind uplift.
trusses for about 8 feet at each end of the house. This will not
only strengthen the roof but will provide additional nailing
surface for roof sheathing materials. Using construction
adhesives in addition to nails when installing roof sheathing
will also improve uplift resistance.
Older flat roofs have not performed well in severe
storms. Heavy rainfall causes ponding on the roofs, often
resulting in water infiltration and interior water damage.
Additionally, flat roofs are susceptible to uplift suction forces
from high winds, causing loss of roofing material.
Less commonly used designs have often not performed
well, due to overlooked areas of weakness. Gambrel or "barn"
roofs, for example, have a mid-roof slope change at which
plywood decking cannot be lapped to strengthen the
4-30. Performance of braced piles at left vs. unbraced piles at right.
Figure 4-31. Performance of braced piles in foreground vs.
unbraced piles in background.
joint. One gambrel roof observed by Rogers (1985) was well
joined at the wall connection around the exterior but failed at
the slope change and at the peak.
Roof overhangs and porches are common in coastal
construction and require careful detailing when used.
Overhangs on the water side of a structure provide a shaded
seating area and an unencumbered view of the water. Ceiling
and roof framing members are extended to provide structural
support for the overhang. If column supports are used, they
are commonly only lightly attached. Design of overhangs and
porches is particularly important due to the large wind uplift
forces on overhangs. Failures of overhangs 2 feet or less in
width have been
Figure 4-32. Effect of Hurricane Frederic's wind and water forces
pile system.
reported (Rogers, 1985), and damage to porches surveyed in
the same study was extensive. Figure 4-29 shows a large
porch overhang that was damaged by wind uplift forces.
4.3.3 Foundation Bracing
Bracing of the foundation piles that elevate coastal zone
residences can be very effective in minimizing storm damage.
As mentioned throughout this manual, connections of structural
elements are critical. Bolting--not nailing--is necessary at all
joints. The size of bracing members is important. Bracing
members should be considered as critical to the structural
resistance of a foundation system as are the piles and the floor
beams. The sizing of bracing
Figure 4-33. Knee braces.
members and connections is discussed in more detail in
Appendix B.
Figure 4-30 shows two adjacent elevated buildings. The
nearer light-colored building had bracing, which can be seen
more clearly in Figure 4-31. Note that wave action during
Hurricane Frederic has scoured about 4 feet of sand from
under these buildings, as can be seen by examining paint lines
and discoloration on the piles. The light-colored building's
foundation piles remain essentially vertical. However, its
neighbor did not have bracing, so the piles lean backward from
the beach as is visible in Figure 4-31 and shown more clearly
from the east end of the building in Figure 4-32. It is also
possible that the piles of the building in Figure 4-32 were
inadequately embedded.
Figure 4-34. Wood grade beam in both directions.
It must be emphasized that bracing members alone do
not make an elevated residence storm resistant. Properly
sized piles, adequate pile embedment, and good connections
from the floor beams to the roof are all essential to making a
building damage resistant. No weak links can be permitted in
coastal construction, or storm resistance is reduced or
eliminated.
It also should be noted that the use of bracing or grade
beams below the BFE is questioned by some designers,
because these members obstruct flow and have a potential for
increasing erosion. Alternative methods for providing
resistance to the lateral forces of wind and water are available.
One such alternative is the use of battered piles around the
perimeter of the structure; batter piles
are more difficult to install but have greater lateral resistance
than vertical piles. Another alternative, where a deck is to be
constructed, is to utilize the lateral resistance of the piles
supporting the deck to supplement the piles supporting the
house itself. Strong structural connections are required to
provide this support, however.
4.3.3.1 Knee Braces. For residences elevated to about 8 or
10 feet, diagonal bracing or knee braces can be effective in
supporting the pile against the lateral forces of wind and water.
Tables in the appendices of this manual can assist in
determining when bracing is required. But even when
calculations may permit the omission of bracing, it is good
practice to strengthen the foundation system with some
bracing. Knee braces, shown in
Figure 4-35. Slab undermined by storm scour.
Figure 4-33, can be effective in supporting the piles against
lateral forces, providing the brace is substantial with good
connections. Suggested types and sizes of bracing members
and connections are included in Appendix B.
4.3.3.2 Grade Beams. An important part of bracing piles is
providing some support at the ground line. This may come from
tying the piles together in both directions with wood grade
beams, such as 8-by-8's firmly attached to the piles (Figure 4-
34). Reinforced concrete grade beams, as part of a slab on
grade, are also suitable. Figures 4-35 and 4-36 show slabs
that were undermined by scour but remain in place to support
the piles against lateral forces. It would be better to have the
slab thickened at the edge and also extending out and around
the exterior piles, as shown in Figure 4-37.
Figure 4-36. Perimeter grade beam provided additional stability.
Figure 4-37. Slab on grade with thickened edge perimeter grade beam.
Some designers believe an underhouse concrete slab
should not be tied to piles or grade beams but purposely
allowed to settle with changes in ground elevation without
affecting the piling. This idea has some validity, particularly if
erosion is expected. There is also a difference of opinion
among designers regarding the use of grade beams. Their use
may improve the lateral resistance of pile foundations;
however, they may increase the wave forces on the foundation
and the scour around the foundation. This manual
recommends the use of grade beams because they function to
strengthen the piling during the worst part of severe storms.
Disadvantages of
Figure 4-38. Double level truss bracing system.
potentially increased scour are normally more than offset by
the stiffer foundation system.
4.3.3.3 Truss Bracing. When a house must be elevated
about 10 feet or more above grade, and particularly when the
design wind speed is 100 mph or greater, more substantial
bracing may be necessary and it must be designed
carefully. Figure 4-38 shows a double-level truss system
constructed perpendicular to the beach to resist water waves
and wind on structures elevated 12 feet or more above grade.
Figure 4-39 shows a single-level truss bracing system that can
be used when a house is elevated to about 12 feet above
grade.
Some details of truss member forces, size of members,
and connection details are included in Appendix B. It is
obvious that houses elevated to greater heights require more
bracing and this increases the costs of the foundation
supporting system. Details of the member connection plates
and number and size of bolts are also presented in Appendix
B.
4.3.3.4 Shear Walls. Another kind of structure for resisting
lateral forces is shear wall construction. A shear wall is
generally made of reinforced concrete or reinforced concrete
masonry. It acts as a deep beam in resisting forces in the
plane of the wall. This type of construction is quite substantial
and can be expensive relative to the types mentioned
previously. If there is need to resist winds on the order of 100
mph or more, and if water waves will act on the structure, there
is probably a need for a deep foundation. The shear walls
must be firmly attached through grade beams to the piles. This
becomes expensive for single-family residences. However, for
motels and apartment or commercial buildings the design
professional may provide an economical combination of shear
walls and piles, possibly of concrete.
Shear wall concepts are described in Chapter 5;
however, the details of such designs require an engineer and
are not included in this manual.
4.3.4 Connections
One of the most critical aspects of building in a coastal
high hazard area is the method of connecting the structural
members. A substantial difference exists between
conventional connections in typical construction and those
required to withstand coastal forces and environmental
conditions. Construction in noncoastal areas must support
loads imposed by the weight of the building materials (dead
load), weight of people and objects
(live load), and modest loads imposed by wind. Under normal
conditions and with typical methods of attachment (toe nailing
and anchor bolts), these loads acting downward through
gravity hold the building's structural framework together.
However, these loads represent only a portion of the
loads imposed on any structural system in the high hazard
coastal zones. Additional forces are applied to these structures
by wind, velocity flooding, wave impact, and floating debris.
The structural systems must be capable of withstanding these
loads and still support the structure and its occupants. Building
codes and common sense guide the and/or builder to firmly
connect the roof to the walls, the walls to the floor joists, the
floor joists to the floor beams, and the floor beams to the
foundation.
Figure 4-39. Single level truss bracing system.
Figure 4-40. Floor joists insufficiently attached to floor beams by
end nailing alone.
A vital feature of any acceptable anchorage system is
that it be continuous from foundation through floor framing,
walls, and even roof framing in order that all portions of the
structural framework are mechanically tied together.
In the coastal area, anchorage devices are exposed not
only to additional loads but also to a corrosive and destructive
environment that can rapidly deteriorate and destroy
improperly protected materials. Extra precautions must be
taken to ensure these devices will continue to perform over an
extended time period. Though extra precautions in design,
detailing, and workmanship are necessary, most appropriate
anchorage methods are common to the carpentry trade.
Basically, they include the use of bolts, metal straps, tie rods,
mechanical
fasteners, and several other items that, when properly
designed for coastal conditions, meet performance criteria.
Each of the previously discussed means of achieving
elevation allows several successful methods for tying the main
floor beams to the foundation. Some methods are unique to a
particular foundation system, while others apply to several
types of elevated foundations with little or no modification. An
anchorage system should meet the following criteria:
Withstands all anticipated forces without structural
failure.

Continues to perform satisfactorily when materials
are wet, as well as under wetting and drying
conditions.

Is protected to withstand corrosive conditions without
loss of strength for many years, preferably for the
lifetime of the building.

Is readily available and requires only normal
carpentry for installation.
This section of the design manual presents some of the
recommended details for connections. Methods of anchoring
the foundation to the floor, floor to walls, and walls to roof are
discussed. Design tables in Appendix A include the average
uplift forces per foot of wall at various locations throughout the
structure. With this information the designer/builder is able to
determine the need for and type of connectors that provide
adequate resistance to wind and water forces.
It is emphasized that simple nailing, especially toe
nailing, is not acceptable for wood construction in the coastal
high hazard areas. Figure 4-40 shows floor joist and floor
beam connections that failed during Hurricane
Frederic. Generally, galvanized metal straps or other metal
joist anchors (with nails) or specially designed wood-to-wood
connectors are used. In joining wood members subject to
dynamic loads from wind, waves, or earthquake, it is important
to have strong connections. Bolts, lag bolts, or nails at right
angles to the direction of force (not toe or end nailing) are used
to provide the greatest resistance and reserve, or factor of
safety. Sketches of various connections are included here for
locations of special concern.
4.3.4.1 Roof to Wall. Probably the most critical structural
connections are those between the roof and walls. The roof
connections are critical because at that level there can be
relatively large wind uplift forces combined with the dead load
of the roof itself. Also, these connections of roof structure to
stud walls are limited in number; at most they can occur at
every roof rafter or truss. At lower levels in the house one can
use nailed plywood sheathing in addition to strap connections
on the stud walls to resist uplift forces.
It is most important that toe nailing alone not be used for
connecting roof rafters to the top plate of the walls. This is
because the pull out resistance of toe nails is low, partially due
to the tendency to split the wood in the toe-nailed member. A
number of galvanized metal connectors, such as those shown
in Figures 4-41 and 4-42, have been developed that place the
nails in a preferred orientation to best resist uplift and lateral
forces. Manufacturers provide brochures with the necessary
design information. The local design professional, builder, or
building supplier can provide information regarding the
capacity of various connectors when properly used.
The capacity of these connections directly depends on
the number of nails and their individual capacity to resist loads
transverse to their axis. Pull out resistance along the axis is not
used; rather, the nails are placed at
Figure 4-41. Metal strap roof anchor.
Figure 4-42. Metal plate roof anchor.
right angles (perpendicular) to the wood members. The
capacity of various size nails and other connectors to resist the
forces in such connections is given in Appendix A. The number
of nails counted in figuring the total connection capacity of a
given joint is the lower number, which may occur on either side
of the joint. For example, in the connection of a roof rafter to
the top plate of a wall, if five nails are driven in the roof rafter
and four in the top plate, the capacity of the connection is
limited by the four nails on the lower side of the joint, into the
plate.
Tables in Appendix A present the uplift forces that must
be resisted at the roof-to-wall connection as a function of
design wind speed and the width and length of the house. The
data are given as the average force per foot of wall. If the roof
rafters or roof trusses are spaced at more than 1 2 inches on
center (a common spacing is 16 inches on center), the uplift
forces are calculated by the following formula:
rafter spacing in inches
forces = (force per foot) x 12 inches
This provides the uplift force to be resisted by the connection of
roof rafter to top plate of the wall. For example, with 16-inch
rafter spacing, the force per foot of wall would be multiplied
(increased) by the ratio of 16/12, or 1.33.
The uplift forces and required connections at the exterior
ends of the roof rafters or trusses described above and given in
the referenced design tables are based on only the exterior
walls resisting uplift forces and no interior walls being tied to
the roof by straps or other metal connectors. To supplement
the exterior connections, it is also effective to have a positive
connection from the ridge line of the roof down through interior
stud walls to the
floor system and subsequently the foundation. This is
particularly helpful in higher winds.
For the higher design wind speeds the uplift forces are
great and may require special connections or, at the least,
several of the standard connectors at each rafter. Also, roof
rafters or trusses should be spaced not more than 16 inches on
center unless special connections are provided. It is likely that
a design professional, an engineer or architect, will be needed
to design against these higher wind speeds.
Recommendations in this design manual are not
sufficiently specific nor all-inclusive to cover fully all design of
connections or other structural elements for design wind
speeds higher than 140 mph. However, such high wind
speeds are limited to a small portion of the U.S. coastline.
Moreover, the information in this publication can be of
assistance to the design professional even in this most severe
wind environment.
4.3.4.2 Wall to Floor Joists. Exterior walls are used as
tension members to transfer wind uplift forces at the roof down
to the resistance provided by the foundation of piles or spread
footings. The plywood sheathing should be well nailed into the
top plate of the stud wall and at the bottom into the floor joists
and band beams. It is not adequate merely to nail the plywood
sheathing to the bottom plate of the stud wall because the
bottom plate nails to the floor joists may pull out. If the
sheathing does not extend to the bottom of the floor joists, it is
necessary to use galvanized metal strap connections from the
exterior wall studs to the floor joists. The capacity of these
connections depends on the number of nails used. As
mentioned above, manufacturers' brochures are used by
designers and builders to ascertain the connectors' capacity
and thus the spacing required.
4.3.4.3 Floor Joist to Floor Beam. Below the first-floor level, a
positive connection to resist wind uplift forces is required
between the floor joists and the floor beams. The necessity for
positive connections at this and other levels of a coastal
structure was shown in Figure 4-21. Hurricane wind uplift
forces raised the structure slightly, stretching the metal straps,
which then bulged as shown when the winds subsided. Metal
connectors have been developed by manufacturers that
provide efficient nail arrangements to resist the uplift forces
(Figure 4-43).
A good wood connection detail has also been
developed (Figure 4-44). The advantage of this detail over
other methods for anchoring these members together is in the
use of wood rather than corrosion-susceptible steel as the
connecting unit. Further details on wood joist anchors are
available in a pamphlet from University of North Carolina, Sea
Grant Publications (1984). Properly treated wood blocking,
with annual maintenance and preservative applied to cut ends,
will perform as designed for a substantially longer time than
steel connectors. As mentioned earlier, the number and size of
nails into the floor joist or floor beam governs the uplift capacity
of the connection.
4.3.4.4 Floor Beam to Pile, Post, or Pier. A major connection
is made between the floor beam and its support. In many
locations, this support is a pile embedded some distance into
the ground and extending far enough above the ground to
elevate the bottom of the floor beam above the BFE. The piles,
as described previously in this chapter, are frequently tapered
round wood members with a top diameter (at the floor beam
level) of about 11 inches or more. Many builders prefer to use
square, rough-sawn piles, either 10 by 10 or 8 by 8 inches in
size. Where the lateral forces and potential for erosion due to
flood waters are less severe than near the ocean beach, wood
posts or reinforced concrete masonry unit piers may be used.
Appendix A presents the uplift capacity of various size
bolts used to connect through floor beams to piles or posts.
Note that washers should be used under all nuts and bolt
heads bearing directly on wood. Figures 4-43 through 4-52
show typical connections, including metal straps on the sides
of floor beams and piles and floor beams notched into the
sides of piles. Care must be taken in designing and
constructing these connections.
For the steel plate connection illustrated in Figure 4-
52, a 1/4-inch-thick steel plate is inserted into the top of the
pile. The plate may be predrilled for the bolts and galvanized
after drilling for maximum corrosion protection. A built-up
beam is then bolted through the plate at each pile as indicated.
This connection provides a much stiffer joint and reduces the
"pull out" potential as compared to a bolt through wood only.
This detail would be particularly effective in areas where uplift
forces from extremely high winds are likely. An as-built
example of a steel plate connector is shown in Figure 4-24.
The 1/2-inch-thick connector was hot-dipped galvanized
after fabrication.
Figure 4-53 shows a double-notched pile at a house
under construction. Only 25 percent of the pile area remains;
with water impact, the pile likely would fail at the base of the
stub. Generally, the pile should be notched only enough to
provide a shelf for supporting the beam, and total notching
should not exceed 50 percent of the pile cross section.
Figure 5-54 shows weak connections between piles and floor
beams that failed during a storm. Figure 4-55 shows a steel
reinforcing bar that was used unsuccessfully to tie floor beam
to pile. Connections of floor beams to masonry piers are
illustrated in Figures 4-56 through 4-59.
Other methods not shown here are not necessarily
excluded, but the advice of a qualified professional should be
sought before their use.
Figure 4-43. Metal hurricane clips.
Figure 4-44. Wood joist anchors.
Figure 4-45. Wood joint anchor installation.
Figure 4-46. Double notched spaced
beam to pile connection.
Figure 4-47. Connection for built-up beam.
Figure 4-48. Connection at single notched pile.
Figure 4-49. Spiked grid connection.
Figure 4-50. Mortised gusset connection.
Figure 4-51. Notched pile with gusset.
Figure 4-52. Steel plate insert.
Figure 4-53. Over notched wood pile.
Figure 4-54. Failure of pile connections at floor beam
and at knee brace.
Figure 4-55. Steel reinforcing bar inadequate
to attach floor beam to this pile.
Figure 4-56. Masonry pier - strap anchor
connection.
Figure 4-57. Masonry pier - bolt through
beam connection.
Figure 4-58. Masonry pier - beam seat
connection.
Figure 4-59. Concrete masonry unit piers connected by galvanized
clips to floor beams.
4.3.5 Breakaway Walls
Elevation of a structure on a properly designed
foundation reduces the potential for water damage from
flooding. When the space below the lowest elevated floor is
maintained free of solid obstructions as well, the potential for
damage from waves or debris is further reduced. In recognition
of the desirability of using the sheltered space beneath
elevated structures, NFIP regulations permit certain limited
uses of enclosed space below the BFE. Uses such as parking
of vehicles, building access, or storage are permitted, as long
as the walls of any enclosures are designed as "breakaway."
A breakaway wall is a wall that is not part of the structural
support of the building, intended through its design and
construction to collapse under specific lateral (wind and
water) loading conditions without causing collapse,
displacement, or other structural damage to the elevated
portion of the building or supporting foundation system.
To ensure that breakaway walls withstand forces from
wind and everyday use, yet collapse under storm conditions,
current NFIP regulations require that a breakaway wall shall
have a design safe loading resistance of not less than 10 and
no more than 20 pounds per square foot. The regulations
allow walls with a greater loading resistance under certain
conditions, and when the design is certified by a registered
professional engineer or architect. The need for greater
loading resistance could be a result of design requirements or
required by local or State codes. In either case, the designer
must certify both of the following:
Breakaway wall collapse shall result from a water
load less than that which would occur during the
base flood.
The elevated portion of the building and
supporting foundation system shall not be subject
to collapse, displacement, or other
structural damage due to the effects of wind and
water loads acting simultaneously on all building
components (structural and nonstructural).
Maximum wind and water loading values to be used
in this determination shall each have a I percent
chance of being equaled or exceeded in any given
year (100 year mean recurrence interval).
The uses that owners make of the sheltered space
beneath elevated homes has historically led to a wide range of
enclosure designs, from insect screening to heavy
conventional walls.
Screening and lattice work are the lowest strength
enclosures and when properly constructed can serve their
intended function with little effect on the structural loadings on
the house. These walls provide partial protection and
security for items stored under an elevated structure. Lattice
work is often used for architectural purposes, as shown by
Figure 4-60, to visually tie the house to its surroundings.
While screening and lattice provide some protection for
vehicles and stored items from salt spray and other
environmental conditions, full protection from the elements can
only be provided by a solid wall. Walls providing this
protection from the elements can be designed to withstand
certain wind and water loads and to break away or fail when
design loads are exceeded.
Construction of walls stronger than the structural frame
of the building was designed to withstand will jeopardize the
integrity of the structure under storm conditions. This
strengthening of the walls (i.e., by using extra fasteners) so that
they do not break away before damaging the structure may
occur during initial construction or as a result of later
modifications by the
Figure 4-60. Lattice enclosure under elevated structure.
owner. Strong walls would allow excessive scour and
damaging wave runup during severe storms, while weaker
walls will break away before these effects become significant.
In accordance with the current NFIP regulations, which
provide the specific guidance stated above, this manual
recommends that only screening, lattice work, or light
breakaway walls be constructed below residential structures,
unless specifically designed by a registered professional
engineer or architect. As Figure 4-61 (of storm damage during
Hurricane Alicia) shows, structures can survive major storms
relatively intact when ground-level enclosure walls break
away.
4.3.5.1 Breakaway Wall Designs
Screening. One means for partially or fully enclosing
the area below the BFE is installation of metal or synthetic
screening to provide insect protection and minimal security.
Screening is fastened to pilings by nails, staples, or nailed
moldings, and will fail under small loads imposed by wind,
velocity water, or moving debris. Replacement costs are very
low.
Lattice. Lattice work can be used for minimal
enclosures beneath an elevated structure. If fabricated using
light materials and properly connected to the foundation,
lattice will break away under small water loads. No portion of
the lattice wall should overlap the piles supporting the elevated
structure. The wall should be butt-connected to the piles.
Figure 4-61. Storm damage during Hurricane Alicia.
Figure 4-62 shows a lattice wall design using light
crisscross lattice that is available premade and sold in 4-by-8-
foot sheets. As shown in the figure, a 2-by-4 top plate is
permanently nailed into the floor beam and a 2-by-4 bottom
plate is permanently attached to the grade beam. Wall studs (2
by 4's) are toe-nailed into the top and bottom plate using two
8d nails. The premade lattice (1/4

by 1-1/2 inches) is nailed to
the frame using galvanized nails. This wall will have a
working strength of approximately 10 psf and will fail as a
result of material failure in the lattice.
Lattice walls that use larger (i.e., 1-by-4 to 1-by-8)
boards have greater inherent strength than crisscross lattice,
even when the open/solid space ratio is the same. While the
light lattice wall will fail in the lattice material even if the frame
is overbuilt, the stronger lattice wall likely will fail at the
connections under a much higher loading. Because of the
difficulty in accurately predicting the material strength of
heavier lattice walls, it is recommended that the wall be
designed to fail at the connections. The wall attachment
concept and nailing systems for these heavier lattice walls are
the same as described below for wood stud walls.
Wood Stud Walls. Most solid breakaway walls under
elevated single-family residences are of wood stud
construction. A wood stud breakaway wall design is shown in
Figure 4-63. Permanent top and bottom plates (2 by 4) are
respectively nailed to the floor beam and grade beam with
permanent high strength fasteners or nails. A 2-by-4
breakaway frame that consists of studs (toe-nailed with two 10d
nails) and top and bottom nailer plates is attached to the
permanent top and bottom plates with nails sized and spaced
to give the required lateral capacity. Care should be taken that
the 10d nails do not penetrate into the permanent top and
bottom plates. The frame is then covered with plywood or other
sheathing that is either
Figure 4-62. Lattice wall.
Figure 4-63. Wood stud breakaway wall.
butted to the piles or allows for a small clearance. The
sheathing must not overlap the permanent plates or the
piles.
It is planned that the walls would be placed as a unit and
then nailed as prescribed at the top and bottom to permanent
nailer plates already securely attached to the floor system and
grade beam or slab. The permanent nailer plate is an essential
component of the wall system and provides a predictable point
of attachment for the wall. The wall is designed to fail at the
nailed connections to the permanent nailer plate. Various
sizes and spacings of the nails could be used to achieve the
desired resistance to lateral load. The capacities of 8d through
16d common nails in shear are shown on Table A-11. Table A-
12 provides a nailing schedule for normal combinations of
breakaway wall height and pile spacing to result in a wall with
a design safe loading resistance between 10 and 20 psf.
Metal Stud Walls. Metal studs, which have been
commonly used on larger structures, are now being used more
frequently on low-rise multifamily structures and to a lesser
extent on single-family residences. Unless properly
galvanized, metal studs will corrode rapidly in the coastal
environment.
Figure 4-64 shows a light-gauge metal stud wall design.
The wall attachment concept and nailing system is the same as
the wood stud wall design discussed above. Fastener
capacities for the self-tapping screws commonly used to attach
the metal stud wall to the more firmly secured wood nailer also
are shown on Table A-11, and a fastener schedule for common
wall height/pile spacings is shown on Table A-12. Note that
the failure capacity of metal stud wall systems can be more
accurately determined than for wood systems and a lower
safety factor can be used.
Masonry Walls. Full masonry walls for enclosures
under structures are common in larger buildings, though in
south Florida they are used in all types of structures. Masonry
walls can be constructed either unreinforced or reinforced.
Figure 4-65 shows a wall that can be constructed with or
without reinforcement. The pins at the top of the wall are to
maintain the stability of the wall under design wind loadings.
The sides and top of the wall must not have bonded contact to
the structure. If unreinforced, the wall will likely fail in shear in
the mortar prior to shearing the retaining pins. An
unreinforced masonry wall with mortared joints, constructed as
shown in Figure 4-65, will have a design safe loading
resistance of about 20 psf (assuming an 8-foot-high wall and
1,800 psi Type S mortar), and would meet NFIP criteria for
breakaway walls.
If reinforced, the wall is restrained by dowel pins at the
top and reinforcing bars at the bottom. The placement of dowel
pins and reinforcing bars permits a more accurate
determination of the strength of the wall before failure occurs.
Failure will begin with the pins shot into the main structure
rather than with the mortar in the wall. This is due to the
reinforcing. Once the pins fail, the wall will cantilever with the
reinforcing bars at the bottom of the wall, providing additional
resistance to failure until the wall's capacity is reached. The
lateral capacity of the reinforced masonry wall will vary
depending on the size and spacing of the reinforcing bars.
Because the loading resistance of a reinforced masonry wall
exceeds NFIP criteria, such walls should be used only when
designed by a registered professional engineer or architect.
4.3.5.2 Design Considerations for Breakaway Walls. A
number of design considerations are required when a solid
enclosure wall, or even a partially open wall, is placed
Figure 4-64. Light gauge metal stud breakaway wall.
Figure 4-65. Masonry breakaway wall.
beneath the BFE. Governing the design process are the
following primary concerns:
Enclosure walls must be constructed to withstand
loading forces from moderately high winds, with a
normal factor of safety. At a minimum, this load
capacity would be the design wind load required by
the local building code. If the code-required design
load is greater than the 20 psf allowed by NFIP
regulations, the code should prevail.

At high wind speeds and/or under water loading, the
wall must fail without causing damage to the
foundation or superstructure, either from lateral
loading or wave runup/ramping into the rest of the
structure. This is the failure load or ultimate load
capacity of the wall.

For small enclosures or relatively close pile
spacings, it can be assumed that all piles within the
enclosed area resist wind and water loads against
walls below the BFE. For larger enclosures or wider
pile spacing, only a limited number of piles can be
brought into action to resist lateral loading. Additional
bracing will be required for front row piles supporting
the wall receiving water loading.

Solid enclosure walls below the BFE increase
potential for wave scour at grade beams and piles,
particularly for stronger walls.
Wind Forces. Design for breakaway walls must
consider wind forces on the house superstructure, which are
transmitted to and resisted by the foundation system, as well as
wind forces on the breakaway wall, which are also transmitted
to the house frame and foundations until the lateral resistance
of the wall or its fasteners is exceeded.
The wind load on a breakaway wall is considered to be applied
as a uniform load per square foot of vertical wall, which can be
resolved into a resultant load applied along the fastened
edge(s) of the wall.
Wind direction during storm events is often from
offshore. However, in design of houses and breakaway walls,
the wind should be assumed to blow potentially from any
lateral direction relative to the house.
Water Forces. In addition to wind loads on the entire
house, water loads on the portions of the structure below the
BFE must be considered. These water loads include both
simple hydrostatic pressure from a slow rise in stillwater depth
and the forces of waves against the structure. The BFE for a
given area is the maximum height of stillwater plus waves
above which a structure must be elevated, as illustrated in
Figure 4-66a. When the area below the BFE is obstructed by a
wall, wave runup occurs on the wall. In this case, illustrated in
Figure 4-66b, water reaches the BFE on the wall when the
stillwater plus unobstructed waves remain well below the BFE.
To prevent water damage to floor beams and suspended
utilities, breakaway walls should be designed to fail when or
before wave runup reaches the BFE.
Structural Considerations. Designing for ultimate
capacity requires that the breakaway wall strength at failure be
predetermined, and that sizes and spacings of components be
selected to assure failure at the desired location and loading. It
is not sufficient for enclosure walls to merely break away; they
must do so predictably.
The best enclosure wall designs use simple construction
techniques, materials, and connections. Recommended
breakaway wall concepts that meet these requirements were
described in the previous section.
Figure 4-66 a&b. Effect of enclosure walls on waves.
Connections. Breakaway walls should be constructed
such that they are fastened to the structural frame on two
opposite ends only, either top-and-bottom fastening or
fastening on each side. Under lateral loading they will then
bend in one plane only, stressing the connections
approximately equally. Top-and-bottom connections are
preferred and are recommended in this report for three
reasons. First, while wind forces are essentially uniform over a
flat wall, water forces will be concentrated at the bottom of the
wall as the water rises. It is appropriate structurally to have
the lower edge remain firmly connected at lower water levels
and its connections reach their ultimate capacity uniformly
across the bottom as the water rises. Second, stud walls are
generally installed with the studs vertical, and should be flexed
along the length of the studs. Third, and most importantly,
loads on breakaway walls need to be directed into the floor
system of the first elevated floor, in order to assure distribution
of the loads to adjacent piles. Side fastening would direct too
great a portion of the total load into the piles on the loaded
wall.
Included in the above considerations is the basic
premise that, unless designed by a registered professional,
breakaway walls should be proportioned such that wall
strength is governed by the wall's connections to the pile
foundation/grade beam system and to the bottom of the
elevated floor system. Experience has shown that it is more
reliable--and much easier--to design connections to fail at a
specified level of force rather than have the wall material fail
internally.
Working/Ultimate Strength of Fasteners. The safety
factor that is used in design depends on the materials used
and the accuracy with which one knows the design loads and
material properties. To compensate for these uncertainties,
working (or safe) load capacities of materials and connections
are generally taken
conservatively. The "design safe loading resistance" referred
to in the NFIP regulations corresponds to a working capacity.
The collapse or ultimate resistance of a wall would be higher,
corresponding to the factor of safety appropriate to the wall
materials and fasteners used. Table A-10 provides working
and ultimate strength values for fasteners that could be used
for breakaway wall connections.
It is important to note the effect of the different of safety
on the overall safe and ultimate capacities breakaway walls.
That is, walls of different construction, designed to the same
standard for safe capacity, will have different ultimate
capacities because of their differing factors of safety.
Distribution of Wall Loads. For breakaway walls, wind
and water loads cannot be distributed equally among the piles
under a structure. Compared to the upper superstructure, the
floor beams and joists are an insufficiently stiff system for
transfer of lateral loads over any distance. It is therefore
reasonable to limit load distribution to among those piles in the
enclosed area, and to further limit distribution if piles are widely
spaced. A breakaway wall connected to a well-constructed
floor system and to a grade beam system can transfer water or
wind loads on the wall laterally for about 8 feet maximum.
Therefore, only piles that are within an enclosed area, and
within 8 feet of the outside walls of such enclosed space, may
share the lateral loads equally with other piles within the
enclosed space.
For wider pile spacing perpendicular to the direction of
loading, only those piles supporting the loaded breakaway
wall, plus those piles attached to the breakaway walls parallel
to the direction of flow, carry the lateral forces. This provides
some extra margin of safety if the floor system does resist the
pile deflection and distributes the
forces to other piles, which are not directly subjected to the
water loads. The application of these recommendations to
three example pile configurations is shown in Figure 4-67.
It must further be noted that, in general, water loadings
can be assumed to act in a direction perpendicular to the
shoreline, but considerable variation can occur. Wind can
occur from any direction. Therefore, the determination of the
number of piles that would resist lateral loads from wind or
waves should include consideration of loading both
perpendicular and parallel to the shoreline. This would be
true particularly for structures that are not aligned normal to
the general orientation of the shoreline.
Bracing Considerations for Breakaway Walls. For any
house with enclosure walls below the BFE, there is an
advantage of having floor beams span in the direction of the
water flow. This is because the floor beams can assist the
frontmost piles, laterally loaded by water against a wall, to
transfer the load back to the tops of piles several rows back
from the breakaway wall. If the floor beams run transverse to
the direction of water flow, as shown in Figure 4-68, a
compression strut (an 8-by-8 or three 2-by-12's, for example)
should be placed between the tops of all piles assumed to
carry the water loads.
A similar approach should be taken for grade beams.
Typical practice is to construct grade beams around the
building perimeter only. Grade beams should also be
installed on the interior of a building in both directions for all
piles considered to carry the breakaway wall load. For the
example structure shown in Figure 4-68, this
recommendation would require installation of four interior
grade beams. These beams will also serve to provide proper
support for attachment of the interior breakaway walls.
EXAMPLE A
12' SPACING OF PILES
EXAMPLE B
8' SPACING OF PILES
EXAMPLE C
10' SPACING OF PILES
Figure 4-67. Pile spacing effect on distribution of wall loads.
PREFERRED DIRECTION
FOR FLOOR BEAMS
Compression struts as shown
are required when floor
beams are parallel to
shoreline
Figure 4-68. Bracing consideration.
Knee braces have the desirable characteristic of
strengthening both the individual piles to which they are
attached and the structure in general. The overall need for
knee braces or other bracing is determined using Table A-4.
The strengthening effect of knee braces on individual piles
would be especially important for front row piles supporting
breakaway walls subject to water loading, and would assist the
piles in resisting shear forces. The front row piles should be
considered separately from the overall structure's need for
bracing, and knee braces in the direction parallel to expected
water forces are a minimum requirement for front row piles that
support breakaway walls. Where knee braces or other bracing
is used in the same plane with breakaway walls, care should
be taken that the bracing does not impede the breakaway
capability of the walls.
4.3.6 Utilities
Structures in the coastal high hazard areas are
commonly served by combinations of electricity, water supply,
sanitary sewerage, gas (natural or bottled), and telephone.
Typical installations for these utilities expose them to potential
damage from flooding and wave impact. In the case of an
elevated first floor, the connection from an underground utility
line to the floor above further exposes the line to possible
damage and/or contamination by flooding and wave action.
Underground services are also susceptible to damage when
scour and erosion of the protective soil cover leave them
exposed during flooding.
Disruption of these utility services can leave a structure
uninhabitable following a storm. Damage to these systems can
create many dangerous conditions, such as contamination of
drinking water, discharge of effluent from sewer lines, rupture
of gas lines, and fires and/or shock from damaged electrical
systems or frozen electrical meters.
Recommendations for the protection of these systems are
based on the following criteria:
Major utilities and mechanical equipment should
be protected from inundation by the base flood.

Utility connections and underground services must
be capable of withstanding forces imparted by a
velocity flood condition, without damage or
contamination of other resources.

The structure should remain habitable following
flooding, with necessary systems for habitation
(water, sanitary sewer, and electric power) operating
properly.
The most vulnerable section of any utility line is the
portion between the incoming underground service and the
entrance to the elevated first floor. This section is exposed for
the full height of elevation and thus is susceptible to damage.
A minimum amount of protection can be obtained by
locating these utility risers on the sides of interior piles or piers
away from the ocean front. This will minimize damage from
wave impact or floating debris. A more secure method is to
place all vertical utility lines within a protective, floodproof
enclosure attached to the side of interior piles or piers away
from the beach. This enclosure should be securely fastened to
the pile and should not be more than 2 feet wide unless
designed by a professional engineer or architect. Such an
enclosure will impart additional loads to the pile to which it is
attached.
For an enclosure larger than 2 feet, the supporting pile
or piles must be designed to withstand the additional loads
beyond the maximum design loads for which the pile system is
designed, requiring either increased pile size or bracing. In
addition, potentially damaging effects of wave runup on the
floor beams adjoining the enclosure at maximum wave
elevation must be considered. Scour around the base of a
larger permanent enclosure will also be increased and may
require deeper pile embedment.
The incoming power service should be firmly secured to
the structure, but fastened in such a manner that if the wires are
pulled from the house, the building's protective envelope is not
damaged. Several cases have been observed where the
downed wires have removed sheathing, allowing rain entry.
The entry cable should then be connected through the utility
company's meter system, above the BFE. However, this
requirement is often in direct conflict with the power company's
policy regarding the reading of meters and their location. If
elevated connections are not possible, the utility line should be
connected within a waterproof enclosure. All distribution
panels or other major electrical equipment should also be
located above the BFE. Branch circuit wiring should be fed
from the first-floor ceiling downward to keep wiring out of the
first floor and above expected flood water heights.
All mechanical equipment (furnaces, hot water
heaters, air-conditioning, water softeners) should be
elevated above the BFE. Figure 4-69 shows an elevated air
conditioning unit. Where possible, heating/cooling units on the
exterior of a structure should be located on the landward side,
where they would be sheltered from salt spray but exposed to
rainfall that will rinse accumulated salt. Heating and/or cooling
systems using ductwork to carry tempered air should be
provided with emergency openings at the lowest elevations
and a minimum slope on
horizontal duct runs, allowing the system to drain should it
become submerged.
Elevation of utilities to protect them from water damage
is becoming an established practice. Elevated utilities such as
exterior heat exchangers and roof-mounted solar heating
equipment are also particularly vulnerable to wind damage.
Many standard units have mounting fasteners that are
inadequate for coastal areas. Straps, tie-bolts, or other
auxiliary hold-downs should be installed if in doubt.
4.3.7 Wind and Storm Protection of Interior
It is estimated that loss of window glass caused a large
portion of the wind and wind-driven rain damage from
Hurricanes Alicia, Gloria, and Elena. Even moderate storms or
routine high winds can cause large losses of glass in buildings
along the coast. Many beach residences have large openings
with glass facing the beach that are susceptible to such
damage. Broken glass or other unprotected openings may
allow rainwater, seawater, and high winds to enter the
structure, all of which can increase losses. Water damage may
ruin furniture and carpets and eventually damage finishes and
structural members.
Wind allowed into an elevated structure increases the
uplift load on the structure as it applies pressure to the ceiling
and wall surfaces. Many structural failures such as that shown
in Figure 4-7 have resulted from window and door failures and
subsequent loss of the roof and interior walls from wind
pressure. Therefore, openings in a building should have
special protective coverings available that can be quickly and
easily used when storms approach and when the building is
not occupied during the off-season.
Figure 4-69. Heating/cooling unit elevated to above the BFE.
Several features may be incorporated into an elevated
structure's design that offer protection from wind, moving water,
and debris during a storm. Most of these features involve ideas
that are simple to execute, are normally associated with beach
houses anyway, and add relatively little, if anything, to the cost.
These also can offer tighter security during the off-season for
residences not occupied on a year-round basis.
4.3.7.1 Window Selection. Coastal structures are commonly
constructed with large window areas on the water side to
maximize the view from the interior of the structure. Double-
and multiple-section sliding glass doors often extend across
the entire front of a house. These arrangements have been
found to leak excessively in the
wind-driven rain of coastal storms and are vulnerable to
damage from windborne debris. Improved window designs
now available greatly reduce water infiltration, and highly rated
windows should be specified for all new construction or
window replacements. Generally, for both strength and water
resistance, multiple-panel sliding glass windows should be
avoided, and individual panel widths should be limited to 3
feet. Door and window openings limited to no more than 30
percent of a wall's area are recommended.
4.3.7.2 Operable Shutters. Exterior shutters over window
openings protect against wave and wind action while
simultaneously providing vandalism protection during the off-
season. Shutters may take several forms.
Figure 4-70. Shutters for window protection.
Figure 4-71. Plywood sheets used for window protection.
For small openings the traditional wood louvered shutter
will offer some protection. Additional protection may be
realized by using 1/2-inch plywood attached to the back of the
shutter, which will take the direct forces from the storm (Figure
4-70). These shutters, when secured from inside, offer security
as well. This method allows coverage of fairly large areas of
continuous glass and of sliding glass doors.
Some form of protection of glassed openings is strongly
recommended for all coastal structures. Precut plywood
panels can be fabricated and stored onsite. There is generally
sufficient warning of impending storms to allow the 1 or 2 hours
required to install protective panels. Figure 4-71 shows
plywood panels being removed from a house with
a large glassed area following a hurricane. As an alternative,
manufacturers now offer permanent roll-up protective panels
that can be manually or electrically deployed. Some are even
offered with sensors for automatic deployment. Manual
overrides should be provided for any system, however, for use
in the event of a power failure. Also, panels of any kind should
not block emergency egress from the structure.
4.3.7.3 Gable and Eave Vents. Attic ventilation is important to
both a house and its occupants, to remove trapped heat and
humidity. Gable vents have been found to be leak-prone
because standard designs that provide adequate protection
inland are vulnerable to wind-driven rain in coastal locations.
Similarly, inexpensive wind-turbine attic vents have failed
during storms, leaving large holes in the roof. Selection of attic
ventilators should be performed carefully, checking both the
wind rating and the overall quality of construction and
connections.
Customized units should be prepared where necessary.
One owner reported by Rogers (1985) custom built louvered
vents with a louver width twice what is available as standard;
even so, he was able to reduce rain infiltration substantially but
not eliminate it. Eave vents provide ventilation of under-roof
space while being less vulnerable to wind and wind-driven
rain than vents installed on flat vertical surfaces. These vents
are typically made from aluminum mesh, backed by aluminum
screen. Heavy gauge or coated metal or plastic vents are
preferred.
4.3.7.4 Roofing Materials. Experience has shown that
although loss of roofing material in high winds (as shown in
Figure 4-72) may cause little direct structural damage,
subsequent water damage to the house may be substantial.
Use of quality materials, such as self-sealing, heavyweight
shingles, is a prudent investment.
4.3.8 Maintenance
All structures exposed to the elements deteriorate with
time; this process is greatly accelerated in the coastal
environment. Deterioration of structural members, fasteners,
vents, utilities, and other components may go unnoticed until
failure occurs during a storm.
The best defense against deterioration is to use quality
methods and materials during initial construction. Rot-resistant
or pressure-treated lumber should be used at all directly
exposed locations, and conventional lumber should be field
coated with stain or other preservative. All exposed steel
should be hot-dipped galvanized, preferably after fabrication.
Stainless steel should be substituted where possible. Weather-
resistant fixtures should be used if available. If possible, all
underside beams and floor joists of an elevated house should
be protected by sheathing.
Regular, at least yearly, inspections should be made of
any coastal structure, with particular attention to structural
connections. Items that should be inspected include, but are
not limited to, the following:
Pilings . Inspect each piling from top to bottom for
evidence of rot or damage. Select a few
representative piles and dig down 1 to 2 feet to
observe the soundness of the piles. Check all knee
braces and other bracing.

Pile-Floor and Beam-Floor Joist Connections . Check
tightness of representative pile-beam bolts, and
inspect all other exposed metal fasteners or
connectors for corrosion. Replace or supplement
any that show deep-seated corrosion. Typical
maximum life of fabricated metal connectors under
exposed conditions is 5 to 10 years.
Figure 4-72. Loss of roofing in Hurricane Elena.
Operable Shutters, Lift-Up Decks, and Other
Protective Devices . A "dry run" of all devices that
must be manually activated to provide protection
should be conducted at least once each season. If a
structure is to be unattended for an extended period,
all protective devices should be in place before
leaving. Operate all shutters and lift-up devices, and
lubricate joints and locks if appropriate.

Attic Vents, Attic Fans, Chimney Covers . Check for
loosening, corrosion, or structural cracking that could
fail under high winds, giving water a pathway to the
house interior.

Heating/Air Conditioning Units . Units should be
periodically hosed with freshwater to remove salt
accumulation. When not used for extended periods,
they should be rinsed, allowed
Figure 4-73. Corrosion of cast iron sewer trap in coastal environment.
to thoroughly dry, coated with a light aerosol oil, and
covered with plastic sheeting or other watertight
cover.
Metal Chimneys . Use of insulated metal chimneys
for fireplaces and stoves is widespread, and most
chimneys have galvanized exteriors, internal
spacers, and caps. Although most chimneys are
boxed in with wood sheathing, salt spray and wind-
driven rain can enter through the top cap area.
Inspection of the chimney should be performed at
least annually in conjunction with chimney cleaning.

Utilities . Inspect all tie-downs, supports, and hangers
and the general condition of all exposed wiring and
piping. Figure 4-73 shows a sewer trap that should
be replaced before a leak develops.
Larger Structures 5-1
Chapter 5
LARGER STRUCTURES
In the first edition of this manual, emphasis was placed
on the design of light, single-family residential structures. In
updating and expanding this second edition, it is felt that a brief
discussion of larger, more substantial buildings would be of
interest and benefit to design professionals, potential buyers of
condominium units, building officials, and others interested in
the design and construction of larger mid- to high-rise
structures located in coastal high hazard areas. This
discussion will deal generally with more substantial buildings
in excess of two stories in height. Those considered will
include the mid-rise structures from three to seven stories and
high-rise structures of eight stories or more. Buildings of this
nature designed for construction in coastal high hazard zones
are subject to the same devastating forces of nature--both wind
and water--as the smaller structures discussed at greater
length in this manual.
5.1 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Most coastal area design criteria apply equally to both
low-rise and mid- to high-rise structures. The intention of
regulatory criteria is to promote safe construction at reasonable
cost, while protecting the shoreline area to the maximum
practical extent. General siting criteria discussed in Chapter 3,
such as setback and dune preservation regulations, apply to
mid- and high-rise structures.
Ground level obstructions to flow are also subject to
restriction. Enclosures for habitation at grade are prohibited
beneath mid- and high-rise structures in coastal
high hazard areas, and nonessential enclosures such as
entrances, lobbies, parking areas, and storage areas must
have breakaway walls. Below-grade construction (as for
parking) is prohibited because of the flooding potential.
In addition to regulatory criteria, many features of coastal
area design and construction have evolved through
experience and should be considered when developing plans
for a coastal property. For example, thicker concrete cover
over reinforcing steel is commonly used in coastal areas to
provide added corrosion protection to the steel. Salt air has
been found to defeat the "weathering" feature of special steel
that can be left exposed in inland areas, by causing excessive
weathering and flaking of the weathered surface. Additionally,
the likelihood during their useful lives of inundation and/or
wave damage to decks, bulkheads, swimming pools, and
other ground level construction should be anticipated.
Design of mid- and high-rise structures in coastal
regions must consider forces from wind or water that produce
very large lateral loads, due to the large surface areas of these
structures. These loads tend to dictate the most appropriate
structural systems. The foundation and framing systems must
be able to cost-effectively resist the lateral forces from wind and
water as well as the vertical forces from dead and live loads.
In high-rise structures, lateral forces created by wind are
generally far greater than those generated by water. Wind
pressures therefore provide the governing design parameters
for larger structures. Even broken or breaking waves do not
govern the design of the primary structural frame of a high-rise
building when compared to those forces created by hurricane
force winds on large surface
areas. These are somewhat different conditions from those
governing the design of low-rise structures, where water forces
on the parts of the structure below the BFE can be a significant
portion of total lateral loads.
In a mid-rise structure greater than about four stories,
wind is again a controlling factor in the design of the structural
frame, but water may play a significant role in the design of the
lower walls of the building. In structures of three or four
stories, the effects of breaking or broken waves will be a major
consideration, in addition to the requirements imposed by high
winds.
5.2 FOUNDATIONS
Foundation systems for mid- and high-rise structures are
typically pile foundations that are embedded deeply below
existing ground elevations to provide a safety margin against
scour, as well as the required greater pile carrying capacity.
Large load capacity is necessary because of the much higher
gravity loads, as well as the large lateral loads on high- or mid-
rise structures.
High-rise buildings produce column loads far greater
than those of even the most sophisticated low-rise buildings.
Therefore, support must be provided by high-capacity, deeply
embedded foundations, usually piles. A 12-story residential
building commonly has column loads of 250 to 300 tons at the
foundation; loads of such magnitude generally require pile
groups for adequate support. These pile groups are formed
into a single element by a pile cap of reinforced concrete upon
which a building column is supported. Figure 5-1 shows a
typical pile group and pile cap, and the connections of the
reinforcement to the column and grade beam. A partially
completed pile cap for a three-pile group is shown in Figure 5-
2.
Figure 5-1. Typical pile/pile cap/column/grade beam connection.
The most common types of piling used for the support of
mid- to high-rise structures are precast/prestressed concrete,
cast-in-place concrete, steel, and timber. Precast concrete or
steel piles are usually driven with a large power (diesel or
steam) hammer to safe capacities of 50 to 100 tons. Timber is
used at much lower capacities (maximum 25 tons per pile),
primarily in smaller mid-rise structures.
In zones of reduced velocity and wave action, strip
foundations or combined footings and mat foundations are
occasionally used. These foundations must be buried to an
adequate depth to protect against scour. If strip foundations a-
re used, they should be oriented perpendicular to the shoreline
(i.e., parallel to the expected flow of flood waters and waves).
5.3 SLABS AT GRADE
Floor slabs placed at ground level fall into two basic
categories for mid- to high-rise structures. Slabs that provide
for parking areas or light traffic usage are typically supported
only by the ground and are thin (4-inch) concrete slabs with
minimal reinforcing in the form of welded wire mesh. The slabs
are supported directly on the soil present at the site (usually a
compacted sand), and in the event of a storm they are
expected to be undermined and lost. The other category
includes slabs that are essential to the safe functioning of the
structure, and must resist storm forces and erosion. These are
slabs in storage areas, stairwells, mechanical rooms, etc.,
whose necessary or useful functions are deemed desirable to
have as a permanent element of the building. In this case they
are
Figure 5-2. Pile to pile cap connection for high-rise foundations.
(Note: Cap reinforcement not yet placed)
Figure 5-3. Skeleton framed building under construction.
Figure 5-4. Typical plan of high-rise building.
NOTE: FOR CLARITY, HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL
REINFORCING IN THE SHEAR WALL
IS NOT SHOWN. (SEE FIGURE 5-6)
Figure 5-5. Typical high-rise shear wall.
structurally designed, reinforced slabs, supported directly on
pilings or indirectly on grade beams that are in turn supported
on pilings.
Grade beams such as the one shown in Figure 5-1are
used not only to support structural ground floor slabs and walls
but also to tie together individual piles or two-pile groups,
which would otherwise be structurally unstable in at least one
direction. They are also used to increase lateral resistance of a
pile foundation system. In addition, grade beams (sometimes
called "strap beams") may be used to tie together columns that
form a part of a moment-resisting wind frame.
5.4 SUPERSTRUCTURE
The superstructure in most high-rise and some mid-rise
buildings is generally of the type of construction known as a
skeleton frame. This framework of columns, beams, and slabs
forms the skeleton of the building, which is then infilled with
walls and partitions. The building under construction in Figure
5-3 has a skeleton frame. The most common framing material
for high-rise construction in coastal areas is reinforced
monolithic or poured-in-place concrete. Structural steel framed
buildings are occasionally used.
Figures 5-4 through 5-7 illustrate the key features of
high-rise construction. A typical skeleton high-rise is shown in
plan in Figure 5-4. This building might be constructed as
follows:
Precast concrete piles are formed into pile caps, as
shown in Figure 5-5. These pile caps support reinforced
concrete columns, which in turn support a two-way
reinforced concrete slab (flat plate as shown in Figure 5-
7). Shear walls would be placed at strategic locations
within the building, generally
replacing two or more columns. Figure 5-6 shows the
heavy reinforcement required for shear walls. The stair
and elevator cores might be framed with beams and
columns designed to carry both gravity and lateral loads.
High-rise buildings of more than seven stories generally
incorporate shear walls to provide for the transfer to the
foundation system of the lateral forces resulting from wind and
water loads. The shear walls are generally reinforced
concrete walls 8, 10, or 12 inches in thickness, and are
positioned in the building such that wind loads are equally
divided among the walls. Wind loads are transferred to the
shear walls by means of the floor diaphragm systems, which
act as deep beams. The shear walls then act as cantilever
beams fixed at their base to carry loads down to the
foundations. These shear walls are subjected to a variable
shear that is greatest at the base, a
Figure 5-6. Shear wall reinforcement.
Figure 5-7. Typical high-rise floor slab section.
bending moment that causes tension at the loaded edge and
compression at the far edge, and an axial compression due to
ordinary gravity loading of the building.
In addition to shear walls, reinforced beam and column
frames may take a portion of the wind load so that the shear
walls do not have to do all of the work. Indeed, the floors
themselves and their supporting columns interact with the
shear walls to provide resistance to the lateral forces. This
interaction is the basis for modern efficient high-rise design.
For mid-rise buildings that do not utilize bearing walls, the
lateral forces are frequently taken by a combination of the slabs
and columns, and/or the beam and column moment-resisting
frames.
Bearing wall construction is very common for low- to
mid-rise structures, although among the taller mid-rise
Figure 5-8. Typical plan of low- to mid-rise structure.
structures there are probably as many skeleton framed
buildings as bearing wall buildings. Bearing walls can be a
very efficient means of construction in coastal regions. Bearing
walls provide not only for transferring gravity loads to the
foundation but also for very efficient lateral-force-resisting
elements to transfer wind and/or water loads to the
foundations.
A typical low- to mid-rise bearing wall building is shown
in plan in Figure 5-8. The bearing walls are aligned in the
direction of the primary water forces, although the building is
designed for wind from any direction and water
forces over a range of angles to the shoreline. A section
through the structure is shown on Figure 5-9, and illustrates
the reinforcement and connections between the foundations,
bearing walls, and first elevated floor. A system of bearing
walls typically consists of reinforced masonry or poured
concrete; the building illustrated in Figure 5-9 is reinforced
masonry.
Figure 5-9. Typical section through low- to mid-rise bearing wall building.
Figure 5-10. Mid-rise residential structure with bearing walls.
Figure 5-10 shows a typical mid-rise condominium or
apartment structure with grade level parking. Note that in this
example the habitable floors are constructed using bearing
walls, while the elevated platform is supported on reinforced
concrete columns and beams. Figure 5-lI shows a taller
structure under construction that utilizes bearing walls; in this
case the walls are poured concrete. Wood is a less frequently
used structural material in mid-rise construction and is
seldom found in structures over four stories high. Even heavy
timber is generally inefficient for these larger structures.
5.5 ELEVATED FLOORS
Typical floor systems consist of poured-in-place, re-
inforced concrete or composite precast concrete, in which
a portion of the floor is precast and a portion poured in place.
The reinforced concrete floors typically used in
conjunction with bearing walls are one-way, in which the
primary reinforcing is in one direction and supported by the
bearing walls. In skeleton construction, the floor slabs are
typically two-way reinforced (flat plate) slabs, in which there are
no supports other than the columns and occasionally spandrel
(perimeter) beams. Figure 5-12 shows a two-way slab in a
skeleton framed building. Note the masonry infill wall under
construction on the upper floor.
The first elevated living floor in some mid-rise buildings
may consist of a series of beams supported by the foundation
piles. These beams (shown in Figure 5-9) are monolithic with
the reinforced concrete slab, providing a heavy diaphragm
through which the lateral forces are
Figure 5-11. High-rise structure with poured concrete bearing walls
under construction.
Figure 5-12. Two-way slab in skeleton framed building.
transmitted to the piles. This system ties all of the piles together
through this first-level diaphragm. The bottom of such a floor
system should be considered to be exposed to weather, which
would require greater concrete cover in accordance with the
American Concrete Institute (ACI) Code. It is also essential to
securely connect the beams to the foundation piles.
5.6 EXTERIOR WALL SYSTEMS
The exterior wall systems used on the larger structures may be
masonry or metal stud with a finish of either
Figure 5-13. Elevated first floor on high-rise structure, partially enclosed by
lattice.
stucco or composite material, of which there are several brands
on today's market. These walls must be designed to resist the
lateral forces imposed by hurricane winds. Most of the
governing codes provide adequate requirements for the
anchoring of masonry walls.
In utilizing metal studs, normal design criteria using
code-specified loads will provide an adequate design;
however, care must be taken in selecting proper techniques for
fastening metal studs to a structural frame. Too often selection
of the fastening is left to the installer, and this can lead to poorly
designed walls that will fail under hurricane or severe wind
loads.
Figure 5-14. Coastal construction with setback requirements.
More test data are required on the use of some of the
fastening methods for exterior walls, such as powder-activated
drive pins, into various substrates. The effect of the length of
the pin, its diameter, the power of the shot, etc., all affect the
capacity of the fastener. It is necessary, in the absence of
adequate test data, that manufacturers' recommended
standards and a safety factor of 10 be applied to all powder-
activated fasteners into concrete. The use of expansion bolts or
other such devices also must be looked at carefully by the
designer, not left up to the installer. Here again, adequate
safety factors, as recommended by the manufacturer (typically
4), should be followed closely.
For exterior walls below the first living floor, the
breakaway wall design described elsewhere in this manual
should be followed, as illustrated by lattice enclosures in
Figure 5-13. Exceptions include walls enclosing elevators,
stairwells, and other essential areas, which should be
designed to resist the anticipated lateral loads.
Interior walls are frequently stud partitions, metal or
wood, although metal is used almost exclusively in mid- and
high-rise structures. These partitions should be installed
according to governing codes.
5.7 RECOMMENDATIONS
It is essential when designing a mid-rise or high-rise
structure, particularly in a coastal area, that an experienced
design professional be in charge of the design of such a
building. Particularly for high-rise buildings, the design team
often includes a geotechnical engineer and a coastal engineer.
In addition to structural aspects discussed above,
consideration must be given to subsurface conditions, erosion
potential, and other site-specific conditions affecting design.
There also should be a requirement that a capable individual
be responsible for observing the construction of the building.
It is also important, as with smaller structures, that
setback and dune protection provisions of local codes be
observed, as illustrated in Figure 5-13. Although in compliance
with minimum setback requirements, mid- and high-rise
structures such as those shown in Figure 5-14 are vulnerable
to major storms.
Design Procedures and Examples 6-1
Chapter 6
DESIGN PROCEDURES
AND EXAMPLES
This chapter presents three design examples that detail
the step-by-step procedures for using the data and design
tables in the appendices of this manual. The residential
structure chosen for these examples is a one-story house 24
feet wide and 40 feet long, with a wood pile foundation system.
The general site layout and tentative house plans are shown in
Figures 6-1 through 6-5.
The initial example is a one-story residential structure for
which a foundation system is designed to be substantial
enough not to require bracing. The second example is the
same house with a lighter foundation system, which requires
bracing. The third example considers the effects on the
foundation system of a breakaway wall installed below the
BFE.
Procedures follow those outlined on the design
worksheets presented in Appendix C, and follow the design
recommendations discussed in Chapter 4. Sample
worksheets illustrating these design examples appear with the
descriptions of the design procedures.
6.1 EXAMPLE 1--ELEVATION ON WOOD PILINGS
The owner or builder must determine the governing
zoning and building code requirements, property line
clearances, easements, and site restrictions. The next step is to
obtain the best available information on the severity of the flood
hazard, specifically the design wind speed and the Base Flood
Elevation for the building site. In this example, the design wind
speed is 110 mph and the BFE requires a clearance above
grade of 7 feet (that is, the BFE
Figure 6-1. Site Plan
Figure 6-2. View from beach.
Figure 6-3. Main level plan.
minus the site elevation equals 7). Soil conditions should be
investigated to determine proper pile lengths. Local building
officials are usually aware of general site and soil conditions;
soil borings will provide the most reliable information. For this
design example the soil is assumed to be medium dense sand,
and piles will be driven rather than jetted into place. (If piles
were to be jetted, loose sand conditions should be used in the
calculations.)
Entering all the data mentioned above on the Pile
Design Worksheet (Figure 6-6) enables step-by-step use of the
information in Appendix A. From Figure A-1, the possible
combinations of numbers of piles in each direction are
determined. In the 24-foot width, parallel to the beach, either
three piles at 12-foot spacing or four piles at 8-foot spacing can
be used, so this is entered onto the worksheet. The design
tables are based upon equal spacing of piles, with 8-foot
spacing the minimum and 12 feet the maximum spacing. For
the length of 40 feet, either five piles at 10-foot spacing or six
piles at 8-foot spacing may be considered, and this is entered
onto the form. The total number of piles could thus be 15, 18,
20, or 24. The reason for considering several pile
arrangements is that the pile embedment and bracing
requirements are reduced when more piles are used. A final
decision is best made after looking at several pile
arrangements.
From Table A-1, the downward load per pile can be
determined for a one-story house for the various numbers of
piles to be considered. For example, for the configuration
three piles wide by six piles long, 18 piles total, the downward
force on each pile is 5,598 pounds. The values for the various
pile arrangements are entered on the checklist.
Figure 6-4. Framing plan.
Figure 6-5. Ground level plan.
The pile embedment depth is next determined using
Table A-3. The data are presented for three types of piles:
square 10-by-10 or 8-by-8-inch piles, or round piles with a tip
diameter of 8 inches. Interpolating in Table A-3 shows that for
the 18-pile group and 5,598-pound downward load, the
required pile penetration is 10.9 feet for an 8-by-8, 10.0 feet for
a 10-by-10, and 12.8 feet for the round pile. Since this is a
beachfront house, 8-by-8 piles should not be used, and only
10-by-10 or round piles are appropriate. (The 8-by-8 data will
be carried forward, however, to demonstrate use of the tables.)
Remember that, to accommodate scour, the pile tip must be at
least at -5 msl if the BFE (including wave height) is less than
+10 msl, and the tip must be at least down to -10 msl if the BFE
is +10 msl or higher. Note that recommendations in this
manual should be considered minimum requirements;
deeper embedment is most beneficial.
The horizontal wind load per pile is obtained from Table
A-2. For the 18-pile case the load per pile is 915 pounds.
Again, the values for the various pile arrangements are entered
on the design worksheet form.
Next, one must check that the pile is capable of resisting
horizontal forces without bracing. A grade beam between all
piles is required. This may be wood or reinforced concrete,
securely connected to the piles. Table A-4 presents data on
maximum unbraced height of piles above grade for the design
wind speed considered (with associated water and debris
forces), so that allowable shear and bending stress in the pile
is not exceeded. For example, to resist a horizontal wind force
of 915 pounds, the 8-by-8 pile can extend 6.0 feet above grade
without bracing, the 10-by-10 about 8.6 feet, and the round pile
about 8.0 feet. Since the clear elevation of the bottom of floor
beams is 7 feet above grade, the pile combinations requiring
bracing are all four of those using 8-by-8 square piles.
FIGURE 6-6
DESIGN EXAMPLE 1
PILE DESIGN WORKSHEET
1 of 4
General Building Information
Width 24 feet
Length 40 feet
Number of Stories 1
Type of Soil MED DENSE SAND
Clearance Above Grade 7 feet
Design Wind Speed 110 miles per hour
Number of Piles Required (Figure A-1)
Along Width 3 or 4
Along Length 5 or 6
Combination (Width/Length) 3/5 or 3/6 or 4/5 or 4/6
Total Number (Width x Length) 15 or 18 or 20 or 24
Downward Load Per Pile (Table A-1) 6717 or 5598 or 5038 or 4198 pounds
Pile Embedment Depth (Table A-3)
(No enclosure below BFE)
8x8 Square Pile 12.4 or 10.9 or 10.1 or 10.0 feet
8-inch Tip Round Pile 14.6 or 12.8 or 11.8 or 10.4 feet
Horizontal Wind Load Per Pile (Table A-2) 1098 or 915 or 823 or 686 pounds
FIGURE 6-6 (continued)
DESIGN EXAMPLE 1
PILE DESIGN WORKSHEET (CONTINUED)
2 of 4
Maximum Unbraced Height of Pile (Table A-4)
Is Bracing Required? (Does clearance above grade exceed maximum unbraced pile height?)
8x8 Square Pile YES YES YES YES
10x10 Square Pile NO NO NO NO
8-inch Tip Round Pile NO NO NO NO
Information on Enclosure Below BFE NO ENCLOSURE
Width x Length __x__ or __x__ or __x__ or __x__ feet
Piles/Spacing Along Width __/__ or __/__ or __/__ or __/__
Piles/Spacing Along Length __/__ or __/__ or __/__ or __/__
No. of Piles in Enclosure ____ ____ ____ ____
No. of Piles Carrying Load ____ ____ ____ ____
Regulatory Breakaway Wall 10 to 20 psf
Pressure
Wall Height ____ feet
DESIGN EXAMPLE 1
3 of 4
Load Resistance of Breakaway Walls NO BREAKAWAY WALLS
Selected Fastener Size
No. Fasteners per Loaded Panel ____ or ____ or ____ or ____
(Table A-11)
Ultimate Capacity per Fastener ____ pounds
(Table A-10)
Panel Ultimate Capacity ____ or ____ or ____ or ____ pounds
(No. fasteners x ultimate capacity each)
Total Breakaway Wall Capacity ____ or ____ or ____ or ____ pounds
(Panel Ultimate Capacity No. Loaded Panels)
Horizontal Load per Pile at Breakaway N/A ____ or ____ or ____ or ____ pounds
Wall Collapse
(Total Wall Capacity No. of Piles Carrying Load)
Horizontal Load on Top Fasteners N/A ____ or ____ or ____ or ____ pounds
(Horizontal Load 2)
Combined Horizontal Load per Pile N/A ____ or ____ or ____ or ____ pounds
(Wind + Top Fastener Loads)
Maximum Unbraced Height of Pile (Table A - 4.1) N/A
(Enclosure below BFE)
8x8 Square Pile ____ or ____ or ____ or ____ feet
8-inch Tip Round Pile ____ or ____ or ____ or ____ feet
DESIGN EXAMPLE 1
4 of 4
Is Bracing Required? (Does clearance above grade exceed maximum unbraced pile height?) NO BRACING
(Enclosure Below BFE)
8x8 Square Pile ____ ____ ____ ____
10x10 Square Pile ____ ____ ____ ____
8-inch Tip Round Pile ____ ____ ____ ____
Summary Information on Piles to be Used for Building
Number of Piles Selected
Along Width 3
Along Length 6
Total Number (Width x Length) 18
Size of Pile 10x10
Pile Embedment Depth 10.0 feet
Is Bracing Required? NO (if yes, see 'Bracing Design Worksheet')
FIGURE 6-7
DESIGN EXAMPLE 1
CONNECTION DESIGN WORKSHEET
1 of 2
General House Information
Width 24 feet
Length 40 feet
Number of Stories 1
Connections Between Floors
Uplift Loads per Foot of Wall (Table A-5)
Roof Connection 322 pounds per foot
Second Floor Connection N/A pounds per foot
First Floor Connection 300 pounds per foot
Connectors Selected Based on Manufacturers' Data (see Chapter 4.3.5)
Type TECO ANCH ORS
Spacing 16 inches
DESIGN EXAMPLE 1
CONNECTION DESIGN WORKSHEET (CONTINUED)
2 of 2
Floor Beam Connection
Number of Piles Required (Figure A-1) 3/5 or 3/6 or 4/5 or 4/6
Combination (Width/Length)
Downward Load per Pile (Table A-1)
100% of Load 6717 or 5598 or 5038 or 4198 pounds
50% of Load 3359 or 2799 or 2519 or 2099 pounds
Uplift Load per Pile (Table A-6) 3039 or 2591 or 2280 or 1943 pounds
Capacity per Bolt of Selected Floor Beam
Connection (Table A-7) 1450 pounds
Type of Connection STRAP
Beam
Bolt Diameter 3/4 inches
Number of Bolts 2
Pile
Bolt Diameter 3/4 inches
Number of Bolts 1
At this point in the design, for this house without
enclosures below the BFE, it is possible to select the pile
arrangement that is preferred and economical. However, the
connections of the floor beams to the piles may influence the
decision. Therefore, let us determine the forces on some of the
connections that must be designed (see Connection Design
Worksheet, Figure 6-7).
Table A-5 presents the net uplift forces that must be
resisted by connections at the various levels of a house: roof,
second floor, and first floor. The data are presented as uplift
load per foot so that one can decide on the type of connector.
For our example the upward force at the roof line is 322
pounds per foot along two walls, so the roof members must be
connected to the top of the stud wall to resist this load.
Similarly, the upward force at the first floor is 300 pounds per
foot; wall anchor straps and joist anchors to floor beams are
required to resist this force.
One must also provide a positive connection of floor
beam to pile to resist upward wind loads. Table A-6 gives the
uplift force per pile that must be provided for in the design of
the connection. For the 18 piles of the design example, the
uplift force is 2,591 pounds; suitable bolts are needed. Table
A-7 gives the capacities of various connections of floor beams
to piles. Figures in Chapter 4 illustrate the various connections
listed in Table A-7. A reasonable connection to select for the
loads to be resisted in the 18-pile case would be a strap with
two bolts of 3/4 inch at the beam and one 3/4-inch bolt at the
pile. This would not be adequate for the 15-pile case, and thus
may influence the selection of an appropriate pile system for
the house.
One can finalize the pile selection, based upon the
several arrangements that will work, by choosing that which is
considered the most suitable in terms of cost and aesthetics.
For example, a reasonable selection would be
18 of the 10-by-10 piles, with three piles widthwise and six
lengthwise. The piles would be embedded to at least 10.0 feet
below grade, with an overall pile length of 17 feet.
6.2 EXAMPLE 2--BRACING REQUIRED
This example will consider the same house and pile
configurations evaluated in Example 1. However, in this case
the BFE will be assumed higher and clearance above grade
will be assumed as 11 feet, in order to illustrate use of the
Bracing Design Worksheet in Appendix C.
The Pile Design Worksheet is completed as in Example
1, except this time the clearance above grade is 11 feet (Figure
6-8). Pile configurations, downward load per pile, and pile
embedment depth are the same as Example 1. Horizontal
wind loads per pile are increased by a factor of 1.07 for the
increased building height above grade, as noted in Table A-2.
Maximum unbraced height of piles resisting the input wind load
and associated water load is again obtained from Table A-4. In
this example, clearance above grade exceeds maximum
unbraced height, and bracing is required for all pile systems
being considered.
Proceeding to the Bracing Design Worksheet (Figure 6-
9), house information and maximum unbraced pile heights are
repeated for ease of reference. If clearance above grade (pile
height) exceeds maximum unbraced height by 4 feet or less,
knee braces can be used. For purposes of this example, it will
be assumed that 8-by-8 square is the only readily available
pile type in the area. (In reality, as noted in Chapter 4, larger
piles are generally recommended for the first row of houses
from shore.) Since pile height exceeds maximum unbraced
height for all configurations of the 8-by-8 piles, bracing will be
required.
FIGURE 6-8
DESIGN EXAMPLE 2
1 of 4
Width 24 feet
Length 40 feet
Number of Stories 1
Along Width 3 or 4
Along Length 5 or 6
DESIGN EXAMPLE 2
2 of 4
8-inch Tip Round Pile YES YES YES YES
Information on Enclosure Below BFE NO ENCLOSURE
Width x Length __x__ or __x__ or __x__ or __x__ feet
Piles/Spacing Along Width __/__ or __/__ or __/__ or __/__
Piles/Spacing Along Length __/__ or __/__ or __/__ or __/__
No. of Piles in Enclosure ____ ____ ____ ____
No. of Piles Carrying Load ____ ____ ____ ____
Pressure
Wall Height ____ feet
DESIGN EXAMPLE 2
3 of 4
Load Resistance of Breakaway Walls NO BREAKAWAY WALLS
Selected Fastener Size
No. Fasteners per Loaded Panel ____ or ____ or ____ or ____
(Table A-11)
Ultimate Capacity per Fastener ____ pounds
(Table A-10)
Panel Ultimate Capacity ____ or ____ or ____ or ____ pounds
Total Breakaway Wall Capacity ____ or ____ or ____ or ____ pounds
Horizontal Load per Pile at Breakaway N/A ____ or ____ or ____ or ____ pounds
Wall Collapse
Horizontal Load on Top Fasteners N/A ____ or ____ or ____ or ____ pounds
(Horizontal Load 2)
Combined Horizontal Load per Pile N/A ____ or ____ or ____ or ____ pounds
Maximum Unbraced Height of Pile (Table A - 4.1) N/A
8-inch Tip Round Pile ____ or ____ or ____ or ____ feet
DESIGN EXAMPLE 2
4 of 4
Is Bracing Required? (Does clearance above grade exceed maximum unbraced pile height?) NO BRACING
8x8 Square Pile ____ ____ ____ ____
10x10 Square Pile ____ ____ ____ ____
8-inch Tip Round Pile ____ ____ ____ ____
Along Width 3
Along Length 6
Size of Pile 8x8
Is Bracing Required? YES (if yes, see 'Bracing Design Worksheet')
FIGURE 6-9
DESIGN EXAMPLE 2
BRACING DESIGN WORKSHEET
1 of 3
Width 24 feet
Length 40 feet
Number of Stories 1
Can Knee Braces Be Used? (Is clearance above grade minus maximum unbraced height 4 feet or less?)
8x8 Square Pile NO or NO or NO or NO
10x10 Square Pile YES or YES or YES or YES
8-inch Tip Round Pile YES or YES or YES or YES
If Knee Bracing Cannot Be Used, Continue on for Truss Bracing
DESIGN EXAMPLE 2
BRACING DESIGN WORKSHEET (CONTINUED)
2 of 3
Horizontal Water Loads per Pile (Table B-1)
8x8 Square Pile 2738 pounds
10x 10 Square Pile ____ pounds
8-inch Tip Round Pile ____ pounds
Horizontal Wind Loads per Pile (Table A-2) 1175 or 979 or 881 or 734 pounds
Combined Horizontal Loads per Pile (Wind + Water)
8x8 Square Pile 3913 or 3717 or 3619 or 3472 pounds
10x10 Square Pile ____ or ____ or ____ or ____ pounds
8-inch Tip Round Pile ____ or ____ or ____ or ____ pounds
Truss Width = B = Pile Spacing Along Length 10 or 8 or 10 or 8 feet
A/B Ratio for Diagonal Members (Figure B-I) 1.1 or 1.4 or 1.1 or 1.4 feet
Loads on Transverse Members (Table B-2)
Struts
Diagonals
DESIGN EXAMPLE 2
3 of 3
Information on Bracing to be Used for Selected Pile Combination
Strut Size (Table B-5) 4x8
Diagonals (Tables B-3 and B-4)
Single or Double D oubl e
Size 2x8
"A" Bolt (yes/no) YES
Horizontal water loads per pile are obtained from Table
B-1 and combined with horizontal water loads from Table A-2.
This is the input load for Table B-2. For the A/B ratio for this
table, A is the pile height and B is the pile spacing, as indicated
by Figure B-1. A single level of truss bracing can be used for
pile heights up to about 12 feet, above which a double level
should be used. Loads on the struts and diagonals are then
interpolated from Table B-2 for the given combined loads and
A/B ratios.
Based on these loads in the truss members, the size of
members can be selected from Tables B-3, B-4, and B-5. For
this example, the strut should be at least 4-by-8 or equivalent
(Table B-5). For the 18-pile case, the diagonal load of 9,592
pounds exceeds the capacity of a single 3-by-8 with one "A"
bolt (9,000-pound capacity, Table B-4). The diagonal load
could be carried by a double 2-by-8 with one "A" bolt;
alternatively, the designer could consider one of the other pile
configurations, which do not require doubling the beams. To
complete the Pile Design Worksheet, if the 18-pile combination
is chosen, it is recorded as the selected combination of 8-by-8
piles, with pile embedment depth of at least 10.9 feet.
Connection design is then checked as in Example 1.
6.3 EXAMPLE 3--BREAKAWAY WALLS
In this example, the same one-story house from
Example 1 is to have part of the space below the BFE enclosed
by breakaway walls. These walls are to be designed to break
away before the storm forces applied to the walls become large
enough to damage the house foundation system.
The Pile Design Worksheet (Figure 6-10) is filled out
similarly to Example 1, up through the determination of whether
above-grade bracing is required without
breakaway walls. For the pile combinations being considered
for the house, several breakaway enclosure areas can be
considered as illustrated on the worksheet. The number of
piles attached to or enclosed by the walls is then recorded.
The number of piles carrying the load of the breakaway walls is
considered to be those piles attached to or within 8 feet of the
wall.
Regulatory breakaway wall pressure is the range of
working load within which breakaway walls must be designed,
presently specified by NFIP as between 10 and 20 psf, unless
the walls and the effects of the walls on the overall structure are
designed by a registered engineer or architect. Wall height is
the height of each panel (7 feet in this example).
Load resistance of each breakaway wall panel is
considered to be the total capacity of the fasteners, which are
installed along the top and bottom of the panel. Table A-11
gives the range of total number of fasteners per panel that will
result in a wall with a design safe loading resistance between
10 and 20 psf; these numbers are developed for several
common wall sizes directly from the fastener capacities in
Table A-10.
If 10d nails are considered for this example, the number
required per panel is selected from Table A-11 and noted on
the worksheet. (Choosing the minimum number of nails
minimizes the load applied to the piles before breakaway wall
collapse.) The pile spacing is that along the wall directly
loaded by the storm forces.
The total load resisted by the breakaway wall before
collapse equals the ultimate capacity of all the fasteners on all
the directly loaded panels. Ultimate capacity per fastener is
given in Table A-10. This value times the number of fasteners
per panel times the number of loaded panels gives total
breakaway wall capacity. Dividing by
FIGURE 6-10
DESIGN EXAMPLE 3
1 of 4
Width 24 feet
Length 40 feet
Number of Stories 1
Number of Piles Required (Figure A-I)
Along Width 3 or 4
Along Length 5 or 6
DESIGN EXAMPLE 3
2 of 4
Information on Enclosure Below BFE
Width x Length 24 x 20 or 12 x 32 or 16 x 30 or 16 x 32 feet
Piles/Spacing Along Width 3 / 12 or 2 / 12 or 3 / 8 or 3 / 8
Piles/Spacing Along Length 3 / 10 or 5 / 8 or 4 / 10 or 5 / 8
No. of Piles in Enclosure 9 10 12 15
No. of Piles Carrying Load 7 10 12 15
Pressure
Wall Height 7.0 feet
DESIGN EXAMPLE 3
3 of 4
Load Resistance of Breakaway Walls
Selected Fastener Size 10d
No. Fasteners per Loaded Panel 10 or 10 or 6 or 6
(Table A-11)
Ultimate Capacity per Fastener 425 pounds
(Table A-10)
Panel Ultimate Capacity 4250 or 4250 or 2550 or 2550 pounds
Total Breakaway Wall Capacity 8500 or 4250 or 5100 or 5100 pounds
Horizontal Load per Pile at Breakaway 1214 or 425 or 425 or 340 pounds
Wall Collapse
Horizontal Load on Top Fasteners 607 or 213 or 213 or 170 pounds
(Horizontal Load 2)
Combined Horizontal Load per Pile 1705 or 1128 or 1036 or 856 pounds
Maximum Unbraced Height of Pile (Table A - 4.1)
DESIGN EXAMPLE 3
4 of 4
Along Width 3
Along Length 6
Size of Pile 10x10
Is Bracing Required? NO (if yes, see 'Bracing Design Worksheet')
the number of piles carrying the load (previously determined)
gives the maximum load per pile at the moment of collapse.
In order to evaluate whether the foundation system can
withstand the forces applied to the enclosure walls before they
break away, the combined horizontal loads which produce
moment about the pile base must be considered. This
combined load consists of the half of the breakaway wall load
applied at the top of the pile (the other half is applied at the
bottom, producing no moment), plus the wind load on the
superstructure. For this combined load, Table A-4.l gives the
maximum height a pile can extend above grade without
bracing. If house clearance above grade exceeds this height,
bracing is required.
In this example, none of the configurations of pile types
and enclosure areas considered are found to require bracing
against the breakaway wall loads. Therefore a foundation
system of 10-by-10 piles such as that selected in Example 1
will withstand the loads transmitted to the piles before
breakaway wall collapse. As in Example 1, connections
should be checked and may influence the foundation
configuration selected.
For all breakaway walls, whether or not bracing is
indicated by these calculations, knee braces should be
installed on the front row piles attached to the wall directly
loaded by the storm forces, to assist in load distribution. In
addition, if floor beams do not run in the direction of the
expected water loading, compression struts should be installed
in the direction of loading between the tops of all piles
assumed to carry the water load.
Design Tables A-1
Appendix A
DESIGN TABLES
In this appendix are presented tables for use in
designing residential structures in coastal high hazard areas.
Their use is explained and demonstrated in Chapter 6, and
many of the concepts on which they are based are discussed
in Chapter 4. The computer programs that generate the tables
are presented in Appendix E.
The data in these tables represent a range of typical
house dimensions, 20 to 40 feet in width (parallel to beach) or
length (perpendicular to beach), and one or two stories in
height. Each story is assumed to be 9 feet high. The roof is
assumed to be sloped 3 horizontal to 1 vertical, with ridge
parallel to the wind, and with 2-foot eaves all around. Unless
provided for otherwise, the clearance from ground to lowest
structural member of the house frame is assumed to be 8 feet.
Input design wind speeds are intended to be those specified by
the local building code or those given by ANSI for a 100 year
mean recurrence interval.
FIGURE A-1 NUMBER OF PILES REQUIRED
This figure permits one to read off the
number of piles that will be required for each
dimension of a house. It is assumed that piles are
equally spaced, with a minimum spacing of 8 feet
and a maximum spacing of 12 feet. For example,
if the length of a side is 32 feet, one can use four
piles at about 10-foot-8-inch spacing or five piles
at 8-foot spacing.
Figure A-1. Number of piles required.
A-2 Coastal Construction Manual
TABLE A-1 DOWNWARD LOADS PER PILE
This table presents the design loads from
the house that each pile must support and
leads to the selection of pile embedment
depth.
TABLE A-2 HORIZONTAL WIND LOADS PER PILE
This table presents the design loads from
wind that each pile must withstand and leads
to a determination of the type of bracing the
piles may need.
ABLE A-3 MINIMUM EMBEDMENT DEPTH OF PILES
This table presents the minimum depths
to which piles must be placed in order to
support the indicated loads.
TABLE A-4 MAXIMUM UNBRACED HEIGHT OF PILES
This table presents the maximum height
above grade a pile can be used without
horizontal bracing being necessary.
TABLE A-4.1 MAXIMUM UNBRACED HEIGHT OF PILES
SUPPORTING BREAKAWAY WALLS.
TABLE A-5 UPLIFT LOADS PER FOOT OF WALL
This table presents the design wind loads
applied to the connectors between floors.
TABLE A-6 UPLIFT LOADS PER PILE
This table presents the design loads due
to wind that the floor beam to pile connection
must resist in order to keep the house on the
piles.
TABLE A-7 CAPACITY PER BOLT OF FLOOR BEAM
CONNECTIONS
This table presents design loads for
various sizes of bolts and various types of floor
beam connections.
TABLE A-8 CONCRETE MASONRY UNIT PIERS
This table presents the reinforcing steel
requirements for these piers. Since wind from
a hurricane can occur in most directions,
square piers with the same reinforcements in
all four faces should be used. Matching
vertical steel dowels should be anchored in
the footing or grade beam.
TABLE A-9 CONCRETE PIERS
This table presents the reinforcing steel
requirements for these piers. Since wind can
occur in most directions from a hurricane,
square piers with the same reinforcements in
all four faces should be used. Matching
vertical steel dowels should be anchored in
the footing or grade beam.
Design Tables A-3
FIGURE A-2 CONCRETE PIER CROSS SECTION
This graphic illustrates and provides
supplementary information to Table A-9.
FIGURE A-3 GRADE BEAMS AND SLABS
Nominal reinforcement is required in
grade beams and slabs, as shown in this
diagram. Grade beams should be firmly
anchored to piers or piles, whether concrete or
wood.
TABLE A-10 FASTENER CAPACITIES IN SHEAR
Working and ultimate capacities (in
pounds) are provided for No. 6, S-I2 screws
and for nail sizes 8d through 16d, both lateral
and toe nailed. Capacity for the common size
dowel pin used in masonry walls is also
provided.
TABLE A-11 FASTENER SCHEDULE FOR
BREAKAWAY WALLS
The ranges of total numbers of fasteners
needed to achieve a design safe loading
resistance between 10 and 20 pounds per
square foot are provided for combinations of
wall height and pile spacing. The tables cover
nail sizes from 8d to 16d (for wood stud walls)
and No. 6, S-12 screws (for metal stud walls).
TABLE A-1
DOWNWARD LOADS PER PILE (POUNDS)
FOR ONE-STORY HOUSES
WIDTH (FEET) 20 24 24 28 32 36 32 36 40 40
LENGTH NUMBER
(FEET) OF PILES 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6
20 3 4971 5872 4404 5079 5754 6430 4603 5144 5684 4736
24 3 5872 6936 5202 6001 6800 7598 5440 6078 6717 5598
24 4 4404 5202 3902 4501 5100 5699 4080 4559 5038 4198
28 4 5079 6001 4501 5192 5884 6575 4707 5260 5813 4844
32 4 5754 6800 5100 5884 6668 7452 5334 5961 6588 5490
36 4 6430 7598 5699 6575 7452 8328 5961 6662 7364 6136
32 5 4603 5440 4080 4707 5334 5961 4267 4769 5271 4392
36 5 5144 6078 4559 5260 5961 6662 4769 5330 5891 4909
40 5 5684 6717 5038 5813 6588 7364 5271 5891 6511 5426
40 6 4736 5598 4198 4844 5490 6136 4392 4909 5426 4521
FOR TWO-STORY HOUSES
WIDTH (FEET) 20 24 24 28 32 36 32 36 40 40
LENGTH NUMBER
(FEET) OF PILES 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6
20 3 6682 7925 5944 6876 7808 8740 6246 6992 7737 6448
24 3 7925 9400 7050 8157 9264 10370 7411 8296 9181 7651
24 4 5944 7050 5288 6118 6948 7778 5558 6222 6886 5738
28 4 6876 8157 6118 7079 8040 9001 6432 7200 7969 6641
32 4 7808 9264 6948 8040 9132 10224 7305 8179 9052 7544
36 4 8740 10370 7778 9001 10224 11447 8179 9157 10136 8446
32 5 6246 7411 5558 6432 7305 8179 5844 6543 7242 6035
36 5 6992 8296 6222 7200 8179 9157 6543 7326 8108 6757
40 5 7737 9181 6886 7969 9052 10136 7242 8108 8975 7479
40 6 6448 7651 5738 6641 7544 8446 6035 6757 7479 6232
NOTE: SEE APPENDIX INTRODUCTION FOR ASSUMED HOUSE DIMENSIONS.
Design Tables A-5
TABLE A-2
HORIZONTAL WIND LOADS PER PILE (POUNDS) IN 80 MPH WINDS
WIDTH (FEET) 20 24 24 28 32 36 32 36 40 40
LENGTH NUMBER
(FEET) OF PILES 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6
20 3 781 967 726 873 1028 1190 822 952 1088 906
24 3 781 967 726 873 1028 1190 822 952 1088 906
24 4 586 726 544 655 771 892 617 714 816 680
28 4 586 726 544 655 771 892 617 714 816 680
32 4 586 726 544 655 771 892 617 714 816 680
36 4 586 726 544 655 771 892 617 714 816 680
32 5 469 580 435 524 617 714 493 571 653 544
36 5 469 580 435 524 617 714 493 571 653 544
40 5 469 580 435 524 617 714 493 571 653 544
40 6 391 484 363 436 514 595 411 476 544 453
WIDTH (FEET) 20 24 24 28 32 36 32 36 40 40
LENGTH NUMBER
(FEET) OF PILES 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6
20 3 1477 1804 1353 1606 1867 2136 1494 1709 1930 1608
24 3 1477 1804 1353 1606 1867 2136 1494 1709 1930 1608
24 4 1108 1353 1015 1205 1400 1602 1120 1282 1448 1206
28 4 1108 1353 1015 1205 1400 1602 1120 1282 1448 1206
32 4 1108 1353 1015 1205 1400 1602 1120 1282 1448 1206
36 4 1108 1353 1015 1205 1400 1602 1120 1282 1448 1206
32 5 886 1082 812 964 1120 1282 896 1025 1158 965
36 5 886 1082 812 964 1120 1282 896 1025 1158 965
40 5 886 1082 812 964 1120 1282 896 1025 1158 965
40 6 739 902 677 803 934 1068 747 854 965 804
NOTES: 1. THESE VALUES APPLY FOR CLEARANCE ABOVE EXISTING GRADE OF 8 FEET OR LESS. FOR CLEARANCES
GREATER THAN 8 FEET, LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO 14 FEET, MULTIPLY THESE VALUES BY 1.07. FOR
CLEARANCES GREATER THAN 14 FEET, LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO 22 FEET, MULTIPLY THESE VALUES BY 1.13.
2. SEE APPENDIX INTRODUCTION FOR ASSUMED HOUSE DIMENSIONS.
TABLE A-2 CONTINUED
WIDTH (FEET) 20 24 24 28 32 36 32 36 40 40
LENGTH NUMBER
(FEET) OF PILES 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6
20 3 989 1225 918 1105 1301 1506 1041 1205 1377 1147
24 3 989 1225 918 1105 1301 1506 1041 1205 1377 1147
24 4 742 918 689 829 975 1130 780 904 1033 860
28 4 742 918 689 829 975 1130 780 904 1033 860
32 4 742 918 689 829 975 1130 780 904 1033 860
36 4 742 918 689 829 975 1130 780 904 1033 860
32 5 593 735 551 663 780 904 624 723 826 688
36 5 593 735 551 663 780 904 624 723 826 688
40 5 593 735 551 663 780 904 624 723 826 688
40 6 494 612 459 552 650 753 520 602 688 574
WIDTH (FEET) 20 24 24 28 32 36 32 36 40 40
LENGTH NUMBER
(FEET) OF PILES 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6
20 3 1870 2284 1713 2033 2363 2704 1891 2163 2443 2036
24 3 1870 2284 1713 2033 2363 2704 1891 2163 2443 2036
24 4 1402 1713 1285 1525 1773 2028 1418 1622 1832 1527
28 4 1402 1713 1285 1525 1773 2028 1418 1622 1832 1527
32 4 1402 1713 1285 1525 1773 2028 1418 1622 1832 1527
36 4 1402 1713 1285 1525 1773 2028 1418 1622 1832 1527
32 5 1122 1370 1028 1220 1418 1622 1134 1298 1466 1222
36 5 1122 1370 1028 1220 1418 1622 1134 1298 1466 1222
40 5 1122 1370 1028 1220 1418 1622 1134 1298 1466 1222
40 6 935 1142 856 1017 1182 1352 945 1081 1222 1018
Design Tables A-7
TABLE A-2 CONTINUED
HORIZONTAL WIND LOADS PER PILE (POUNDS) IN 100 MPH WINDS FOR
ONE-STORY HOUSES
WIDTH (FEET) 20 24 24 28 32 36 32 36 40 40
LENGTH NUMBER
(FEET) OF PILES 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6
20 3 1221 1512 1134 1364 1606 1859 1284 1487 1700 1416
24 3 1221 1512 1134 1364 1606 1859 1284 1487 1700 1416
24 4 915 1134 850 1023 1204 1394 963 1115 1275 1062
28 4 915 1134 850 1023 1204 1394 963 1115 1275 1062
32 4 915 1134 850 1023 1204 1394 963 1115 1275 1062
36 4 915 1134 850 1023 1204 1394 963 1115 1275 1062
32 5 732 907 680 818 963 1115 771 892 1020 850
36 5 732 907 680 818 963 1115 771 892 1020 850
40 5 732 907 680 818 963 1115 771 892 1020 850
40 6 610 756 567 682 803 930 642 744 850 708
WIDTH (FEET) 20 24 24 28 32 36 32 36 40 40
LENGTH NUMBER
(FEET) OF PILES 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6
20 3 2308 2819 2114 2510 2917 3338 2334 2670 3016 2513
24 3 2308 2819 2114 2510 2917 3338 2334 2670 3016 2513
24 4 1731 2114 1586 1882 2188 2503 1750 2003 2262 1885
28 4 1731 2114 1586 1882 2188 2503 1750 2003 2262 1885
32 4 1731 2114 1586 1882 2188 2503 1750 2003 2262 1885
36 4 1731 2114 1586 1882 2188 2503 1750 2003 2262 1885
32 5 1385 1691 1269 1506 1750 2003 1400 1602 1810 1508
36 5 1385 1691 1269 1506 1750 2003 1400 1602 1810 1508
40 5 1385 1691 1269 1506 1750 2003 1400 1602 1810 1508
40 6 1154 1409 1057 1255 1459 1669 1167 1335 1508 1257
TABLE A-2 CONTINUED
WIDTH (FEET) 20 24 24 28 32 36 32 36 40 40
LENGTH NUMBER
(FEET) OF PILES 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6
20 3 1477 1829 1372 1650 1943 2250 1554 1800 2057 1714
24 3 1477 1829 1372 1650 1943 2250 1554 1800 2057 1714
24 4 1108 1372 1029 1238 1457 1687 1166 1350 1542 1285
28 4 1108 1372 1029 1238 1457 1687 1166 1350 1542 1285
32 4 1108 1372 1029 1238 1457 1687 1166 1350 1542 1285
36 4 1108 1372 1029 1238 1457 1687 1166 1350 1542 1285
32 5 886 1098 823 990 1166 1350 933 1080 1234 1028
36 5 886 1098 823 990 1166 1350 933 1080 1234 1028
40 5 886 1098 823 990 1166 1350 933 1080 1234 1028
40 6 739 915 686 825 971 1125 777 900 1028 857
WIDTH (FEET) 20 24 24 28 32 36 32 36 40 40
LENGTH NUMBER
(FEET) OF PILES 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6
20 3 2793 3411 2559 3037 3531 4039 2824 3231 3650 3041
24 3 2793 3411 2559 3037 3531 4039 2824 3231 3650 3041
24 4 2095 2559 1919 2278 2648 3029 2118 2423 2737 2281
28 4 2095 2559 1919 2278 2648 3029 2118 2423 2737 2281
32 4 2095 2559 1919 2278 2648 3029 2118 2423 2737 2281
36 4 2095 2559 1919 2278 2648 3029 2118 2423 2737 2281
32 5 1676 2047 1535 1822 2118 2423 1695 1939 2190 1825
36 5 1676 2047 1535 1822 2118 2423 1695 1939 2190 1825
40 5 1676 2047 1535 1822 2118 2423 1695 1939 2190 1825
40 6 1397 1706 1279 1519 1765 2019 1412 1616 1825 1521
Design Tables A-9
TABLE A-2 CONTINUED
WIDTH (FEET) 20 24 24 28 32 36 32 36 40 40
LENGTH NUMBER
(FEET) OF PILES 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6
20 3 1758 2177 1633 1964 2312 2677 1850 2142 2448 2040
24 3 1758 2177 1633 1964 2312 2677 1850 2142 2448 2040
24 4 1318 1633 1225 1473 1734 2008 1387 1606 1836 1530
28 4 1318 1633 1225 1473 1734 2008 1387 1606 1836 1530
32 4 1318 1633 1225 1473 1734 2008 1387 1606 1836 1530
36 4 1318 1633 1225 1473 1734 2008 1387 1606 1836 1530
32 5 1055 1306 980 1178 1387 1606 1110 1285 1469 1224
36 5 1055 1306 980 1178 1387 1606 1110 1285 1469 1224
40 5 1055 1306 980 1178 1387 1606 1110 1285 1469 1224
40 6 879 1089 816 982 1156 1339 925 1071 1224 1020
WIDTH (FEET) 20 24 24 28 32 36 32 36 40 40
LENGTH NUMBER
(FEET) OF PILES 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6
20 3 3324 4060 3045 3614 4201 4806 3361 3845 4343 3619
24 3 3324 4060 3045 3614 4201 4806 3361 3845 4343 3619
24 4 2493 3045 2284 2711 3151 3605 2521 2884 3257 2715
28 4 2493 3045 2284 2711 3151 3605 2521 2884 3257 2715
32 4 2493 3045 2284 2711 3151 3605 2521 2884 3257 2715
36 4 2493 3045 2284 2711 3151 3605 2521 2884 3257 2715
32 5 1994 2436 1827 2169 2521 2884 2017 2307 2606 2172
36 5 1994 2436 1827 2169 2521 2884 2017 2307 2606 2172
40 5 1994 2436 1827 2169 2521 2884 2017 2307 2606 2172
40 6 1662 2030 1522 1807 2101 2403 1681 1923 2172 1810
GREATER THAN 8 FEET, LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO 14 FEET. MULTIPLY THESE VALUES BY 1.07. FOR
TABLE A-2 CONTINUED
WIDTH (FEET) 20 24 24 28 32 36 32 36 40 40
LENGTH NUMBER
(FEET) OF PILES 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6
20 3 2063 2555 1916 2305 2714 3142 2171 2514 2873 2394
24 3 2063 2555 1916 2305 2714 3142 2171 2514 2873 2394
24 4 1547 1916 1437 1729 2035 2357 1628 1885 2155 1795
28 4 1547 1916 1437 1729 2035 2357 1628 1885 2155 1795
32 4 1547 1916 1437 1729 2035 2357 1628 1885 2155 1795
36 4 1547 1916 1437 1729 2035 2357 1628 1885 2155 1795
32 5 1238 1533 1150 1383 1628 1885 1303 1508 1724 1436
36 5 1238 1533 1150 1383 1628 1885 1303 1508 1724 1436
40 5 1238 1533 1150 1383 1628 1885 1303 1508 1724 1436
40 6 1032 1278 958 1153 1357 1571 1086 1257 1438 1197
WIDTH (FEET) 20 24 24 28 32 36 32 36 40 40
LENGTH NUMBER
(FEET) OF PILES 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6
20 3 3901 4765 3574 4242 4931 5641 3945 4513 5098 4248
24 3 3901 4765 3574 4242 4931 5641 3945 4513 5098 4248
24 4 2926 3574 2680 3182 3699 4231 2959 3385 3823 3186
28 4 2926 3574 2680 3182 3699 4231 2959 3385 3823 3186
32 4 2926 3574 2680 3182 3699 4231 2959 3385 3823 3186
36 4 2926 3574 2680 3182 3699 4231 2959 3385 3823 3186
32 5 2341 2859 2144 2545 2959 3385 2367 2708 3059 2549
36 5 2341 2859 2144 2545 2959 3385 2367 2708 3059 2549
40 5 2341 2859 2144 2545 2959 3385 2367 2708 3059 2549
40 6 1951 2382 1787 2121 2466 2821 1973 2257 2549 2124
GREATER THAN 8 FEET, LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO 14 FEET. MULTIPLY THESE VALUES BY 1.07. FOR
Design Tables A-11
TABLE A-2 CONTINUED
WIDTH (FEET) 20 24 24 28 32 36 32 36 40 40
LENGTH NUMBER
(FEET) OF PILES 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6
20 3 2393 2963 2223 2674 3147 3644 2518 2916 3332 2776
24 3 2393 2963 2223 2674 3147 3644 2518 2916 3332 2776
24 4 1795 2223 1667 2005 2361 2733 1888 2187 2499 2082
28 4 1795 2223 1667 2005 2361 2733 1888 2187 2499 2082
32 4 1795 2223 1667 2005 2361 2733 1888 2187 2499 2082
36 4 1795 2223 1667 2005 2361 2733 1888 2187 2499 2082
32 5 1436 1778 1334 1604 1888 2187 1511 1749 1999 1666
36 5 1436 1778 1334 1604 1888 2187 1511 1749 1999 1666
40 5 1436 1778 1334 1604 1888 2187 1511 1749 1999 1666
40 6 1196 1482 1111 1337 1574 1822 1259 1458 1666 1388
WIDTH (FEET) 20 24 24 28 32 36 32 36 40 40
LENGTH NUMBER
(FEET) OF PILES 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6
20 3 4525 5526 4145 4920 5719 6543 4575 5234 5912 4927
24 3 4525 5526 4145 4920 5719 6543 4575 5234 5912 4927
24 4 3393 4145 3108 3690 4289 4907 3431 3926 4434 3695
28 4 3393 4145 3108 3690 4289 4907 3431 3926 4434 3695
32 4 3393 4145 3108 3690 4289 4907 3431 3926 4434 3695
36 4 3393 4145 3108 3690 4289 4907 3431 3926 4434 3695
32 5 2715 3316 2487 2952 3431 3926 2745 3140 3547 2956
36 5 2715 3316 2487 2952 3431 3926 2745 3140 3547 2956
40 5 2715 3316 2487 2952 3431 3926 2745 3140 3547 2956
40 6 2262 2763 2072 2460 2860 3271 2288 2617 2956 2463
CLEARANCES GREATER THAN 14 FEET, LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO 22 FEET. MULTIPLY THESE VALUES BY 1.13.
TABLE A-3
MINIMUM EMBEDMENT DEPTH OF PILES (FEET)
VERTICAL MEDIUM DENSE SAND LOOSE SAND MEDIUM STIFF CLAY SOFT CLAY
LOAD 8x8 10x10 8INCH 8X8 10x10 8INCH 8X8 10x10 8INCH 8X8 10X10 8INCH
(POUNDS) PILES PILES TIP PILES PILES TIP PILES PILES TIP PILES PILES TIP
3000 10.0 10.0 10.0 13.4 10.0 15.5 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
3500 10.0 10.0 10.0 15.0 11.3 17.3 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
4000 10.0 10.0 10.0 16.5 12.5 18.9 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.5 10.0 10.0
4500 10.0 10.0 10.8 17.9 13.7 20.4 10.0 10.0 10.0 12.0 10.0 10.9
5000 10.0 10.0 11.7 19.3 14.8 21.8 10.0 10.0 10.0 13.5 10.1 12.1
5500 10.7 10.0 12.6 20.6 15.9 23.2 10.0 10.0 10.0 15.0 11.3 13.4
6000 11.4 10.0 13.4 21.9 17.0 24.5 10.0 10.0 10.0 16.5 12.5 14.6
6500 12.1 10.0 14.2 23.1 18.0 25.8 10.0 10.0 10.0 18.0 13.7 15.8
7000 12.8 10.0 15.0 24.3 19.0 27.0 10.2 10.0 10.0 19.5 14.9 16.9
7500 13.5 10.0 15.8 25.4 20.0 28.1 11.0 10.0 10.1 21.0 16.1 18.1
8000 14.2 10.5 16.5 26.6 21.0 29.2 11.8 10.0 10.8 22.5 17.3 19.2
8500 14.9 11.1 17.2 27.6 21.9 30.3 12.7 10.0 11.4 24.0 18.5 20.4
9000 15.5 11.6 17.9 28.7 22.8 31.3 13.5 10.1 12.1 25.5 19.7 21.5
9500 16.1 12.1 18.6 29.7 23.7 32.4 14.3 10.8 12.8 27.0 20.9 22.6
10000 16.8 12.6 19.3 30.7 24.5 33.3 15.2 11.5 13.5 28.5 22.1 23.7
10500 17.4 13.1 19.9 31.7 25.4 34.3 16.0 12.1 14.2 30.0 23.3 24.8
11000 18.0 13.6 20.5 32.7 26.2 35.2 16.8 12.8 14.8 31.5 24.5 25.9
11500 18.5 14.0 21.1 33.6 27.0 36.1 17.7 13.5 15.5 33.0 25.7 26.9
12000 19.1 14.5 21.7 34.5 27.8 37.0 18.5 14.1 16.1 34.5 26.9 28.0
12500 19.7 15.0 22.3 35.4 28.6 37.9 19.3 14.8 16.8 38.0 28.1 29.0
13000 20.2 15.4 22.9 36.3 29.4 38.7 20.2 15.5 17.4 37.5 29.3 30.1
NOTE: FOR PILES IN SAND, ADD ANTICIPATED SCOUR DEPTH. IF LOCAL SCOUR DATA ARE NOT AVAILABLE,
ADD SCOUR DEPTH OF 4 FEET FOR FIRST ROW HOUSES, 2 FEET FOR INLAND HOUSES.
Design Tables A-13
TABLE A-4
MAXIMUM UNBRACED HEIGHT OF PILES (FEET) IN 80 MPH WINDS
AND FLOOD FORCES
HORIZONTAL 8-INCH TIP PILES
WIND LOADS 8X8 10X10 WITH EMBEDMENTS OF
(POUNDS) PILES PILES 10 FT 20 FT 30 FT
400 8.1 10.2 9.8 11.1 12.2
500 7.8 10.1 9.5 10.8 11.9
600 7.6 9.9 9.2 10.5 11.7
700 7.3 9.7 8.9 10.2 11.5
800 7.1 9.5 8.6 10.0 11.2
900 6.9 9.3 8.3 9.7 11.0
1000 6.6 9.2 8.0 9.5 10.8
1100 6.4 9.0 7.8 9.2 10.6
1200 6.2 8.8 7.5 9.0 10.3
1300 6.0 8.6 7.2 8.7 10.1
1400 5.8 8.5 7.0 8.5 9.9
1500 5.6 8.3 6.8 8.3 9.7
1600 5.4 8.1 6.5 8.1 9.5
1700 5.3 8.0 6.3 7.8 9.3
1800 5.1 7.8 6.1 7.6 9.1
1900 4.9 7.7 5.9 7.4 8.9
2000 4.8 7.5 5.7 7.2 8.7
2100 4.6 7.4 5.6 7.1 8.5
2200 4.5 7.2 5.4 6.9 8.3
2300 4.3 7.1 5.2 6.7 8.2
2400 4.2 6.9 5.1 6.5 8.0
NOTES: 1. WATER AND DEBRIS LOADS ASSOCIATED WITH THE INPUT WIND LOADS ARE INCLUDED IN THE CALCULATION OF
UNBRACED HEIGHTS.
2. PILE HEIGHT ABOVE GRADE IS ASSUMED EQUAL TO DESIGN WATER HEIGHT. IF TOP OF PILE IS ABOVE BFE, USE THIS
TABLE OR CALCULATE HIGHER ALLOWABLE UNBRACED HEIGHT BY PROCEDURE IN APPENDIX D.
TABLE A-4 CONTINUED
AND FLOOD FORCES
500 7.8 10.0 9.4 10.7 11.9
600 7.5 9.8 9.1 10.4 11.8
700 7.3 9.8 8.8 10.2 11.4
800 7.0 9.5 8.5 9.9 11.2
900 8.8 9.3 8.2 9.7 11.0
1000 6.6 9.1 8.0 9.4 10.7
1100 6.4 8.9 7.7 9.2 10.5
1200 6.2 8.8 7.4 8.9 10.3
1300 5.9 8.6 7.2 8.7 10.1
1400 5.8 8.4 6.9 8.5 9.9
1500 5.8 8.3 6.7 8.2 9.7
1600 5.4 8.1 6.5 8.0 9.4
1700 5.2 7.9 6.3 7.8 9.2
1800 5.0 7.8 6.1 7.6 9.1
1900 4.9 7.6 5.9 7.4 8.9
2000 4.7 7.5 5.7 7.2 8.7
2100 4.6 7.3 5.5 7.0 8.5
2200 4.4 7.2 5.3 6.8 8.3
2300 4.3 7.0 5.2 6.7 8.1
2400 4.2 6.9 5.0 6.5 8.0
2500 4.1 6.8 4.9 6.3 7.8
2600 4.0 6.6 4.8 6.2 7.6
2700 3.8 6.5 4.6 6.0 7.5
2800 3.7 6.4 4.5 5.9 7.3
2900 3.6 6.2 4.4 5.7 7.2
3000 3.5 6.1 4.3 5.6 7.0
3100 3.5 6.0 4.1 5.5 6.9
UNBRACED HEIGHTS.
Design Tables A-15
TABLE A-4 CONTINUED
AND FLOOD FORCES
600 7.3 9.7 8.9 10.2 11.5
700 7.1 9.5 8.6 10.0 11.2
800 6.9 9.3 8.3 9.7 11.0
900 6.6 9.1 8.0 9.5 10.8
1000 6.4 9.0 7.8 9.2 10.6
1100 6.2 8.8 7.5 9.0 10.3
1200 6.0 8.6 7.3 8.7 10.1
1300 5.8 8.4 7.0 8.5 9.9
1400 5.6 8.3 6.8 8.3 9.7
1500 5.4 8.1 6.6 8.1 9.5
1600 5.3 8.0 6.3 7.9 9.3
1700 5.1 7.8 6.1 7.6 9.1
1800 4.9 7.6 5.9 7.4 8.9
1900 4.8 7.5 5.8 7.3 8.7
2000 4.6 7.3 5.6 7.1 8.5
2100 4.5 7.2 5.4 6.9 8.3
2200 4.4 7.1 5.2 6.7 8.2
2300 4.2 6.9 5.1 6.5 8.0
2400 4.1 6.8 4.9 6.4 7.8
2500 4.0 6.6 4.8 6.2 7.7
2600 3.9 6.5 4.7 6.1 7.5
2700 3.8 6.4 4.5 5.9 7.3
2800 3.7 6.3 4.4 5.8 7.2
2900 3.6 6.1 4.3 5.6 7.0
3000 3.5 6.0 4.2 5.5 6.9
3100 3.4 5.9 4.1 5.4 6.8
3200 3.3 5.8 4.0 5.3 6.6
3300 3.2 5.7 3.9 5.1 6.5
3400 3.2 5.6 3.8 5.0 6.4
3500 3.1 5.5 3.7 4.9 6.2
3600 3.0 5.4 3.6 4.8 6.1
3700 2.9 5.3 3.5 4.7 6.0
3800 2.9 5.2 3.4 4.6 5.9
UNBRACED HEIGHTS.
TABLE A-4 CONTINUED
AND FLOOD FORCES
WIND LOADS 8x8 10x10 WITH EMBEDMENTS OF
900 6.3 8.8 7.6 9.1 10.4
1000 6.1 8.6 7.4 8.8 10.2
1100 5.9 8.5 7.1 8.6 10.0
1200 5.7 8.3 6.9 8.4 9.8
1300 5.5 8.1 6.6 8.1 9.5
1400 5.3 8.0 6.4 7.9 9.3
1500 5.2 7.8 6.2 7.7 9.2
1600 5.0 7.7 6.0 7.5 9.0
1700 4.8 7.5 5.8 7.3 8.8
1800 4.7 7.4 5.6 7.1 8.6
1900 4.5 7.2 5.5 6.9 8.4
2000 4.4 7.1 5.3 6.8 8.2
2100 4.3 6.9 5.2 6.6 8.0
2200 4.2 6.8 5.0 6.4 7.9
2300 4.0 6.7 4.9 6.3 7.7
2400 3.9 6.5 4.7 6.1 7.6
2500 3.8 6.4 4.6 6.0 7.4
2600 3.7 6.3 4.5 5.8 7.2
2700 3.6 6.2 4.3 5.7 7.1
2800 3.5 6.1 4.2 5.6 7.0
2900 3.4 5.9 4.1 5.4 6.8
3000 3.4 5.8 4.0 5.3 6.7
3100 3.3 5.7 3.9 5.2 6.5
3200 3.2 5.6 3.8 5.1 6.4
3300 3.1 5.5 3.7 5.0 6.3
3400 3.0 5.4 3.6 4.9 6.2
3500 3.0 5.3 3.6 4.7 6.1
3600 2.9 5.2 3.5 4.6 5.9
3700 2.8 5.1 3.4 4.6 5.8
3800 2.8 5.0 3.3 4.5 5.7
3900 2.7 4.9 3.3 4.4 5.6
4000 2.7 4.9 3.2 4.3 5.5
4100 2.6 4.8 3.1 4.2 5.4
4200 2.6 4.7 3.1 4.1 5.3
4300 2.5 4.6 3.0 4.0 5.2
4400 2.5 4.5 2.9 4.0 5.1
4500 2.4 4.5 2.9 3.9 5.1
4600 2.4 4.4 2.8 3.8 5.0
4700 2.3 4.3 2.8 3.8 4.9
4800 2.3 4.3 2.7 3.7 4.8
4900 2.2 4.2 2.7 3.6 4.7
5000 2.2 4.1 2.6 3.6 4.7
5100 2.2 4.1 2.6 3.5 4.6
5200 2.1 4.0 2.6 3.5 4.5
5300 2.1 3.9 2.5 3.4 4.4
5400 2.1 3.9 2.5 3.3 4.4
5500 2.0 3.8 2.4 3.3 4.3
NOTES: 1. WATER AND DEBRIS LOADS ASSOCIATED WITH THE INPUT WIND LOADS
ARE INCLUDED IN THE CALCULATION OF UNBRACED HEIGHTS.
2. PILE HEIGHT ABOVE GRADE IS ASSUMED EQUAL TO DESIGN WATER
HEIGHT. IF TOP OF PILE IS ABOVE BFE, USE THIS TABLE OR CALCULATE
HIGHER ALLOWABLE UNBRACED HEIGHT BY PROCEDURE IN APPENDIX
D.
Design Tables A-17
TABLE A-4 CONTINUED
AND FLOOD FORCES
700 6.9 9.3 8.4 9.8 11.0
800 6.7 9.1 8.1 9.5 10.8
900 6.5 9.0 7.8 9.3 10.6
1000 6.2 8.8 7.6 9.0 10.4
1100 6.0 8.6 7.3 8.8 10.2
1200 5.8 8.5 7.1 8.6 9.9
1300 5.7 8.3 6.8 8.3 9.7
1400 5.5 8.1 6.6 8.1 9.5
1500 5.3 8.0 6.4 7.9 9.3
1600 5.1 7.8 6.2 7.7 9.1
1700 5.0 7.7 6.0 7.5 8.9
1800 4.8 7.5 5.8 7.3 8.7
1900 4.7 7.4 5.6 7.1 8.6
2000 4.5 7.2 5.4 6.9 8.4
2100 4.4 7.1 5.3 6.7 8.2
2200 4.3 6.9 5.1 6.6 8.0
2300 4.1 6.8 5.0 6.4 7.9
2400 4.0 6.7 4.8 6.2 7.7
2500 3.9 6.5 4.7 6.1 7.5
2600 3.8 6.4 4.6 5.9 7.4
2700 3.7 6.3 4.4 5.8 7.2
2800 3.6 6.2 4.3 5.7 7.1
2900 3.5 6.0 4.2 5.5 6.9
3000 3.4 5.9 4.1 5.4 6.8
3100 3.3 5.8 4.0 5.3 6.7
3200 3.3 5.7 3.9 5.2 6.5
3300 3.2 5.6 3.8 5.0 6.4
3400 3.1 5.5 3.7 4.9 6.3
3500 3.0 5.4 3.6 4.8 6.2
3600 3.0 5.3 3.5 4.7 6.0
3700 2.9 5.2 3.5 4.6 5.9
3800 2.8 5.1 3.4 4.5 5.8
3900 2.8 5.0 3.3 4.4 5.7
4000 2.7 4.9 3.2 4.4 5.6
4100 2.7 4.8 3.2 4.3 5.5
4200 2.6 4.8 3.1 4.2 5.4
4300 2.6 4.7 3.1 4.1 5.3
4400 2.5 4.6 3.0 4.0 5.2
4500 2.5 4.5 2.9 4.0 5.1
4600 2.4 4.5 2.9 3.9 5.0
HEIGHT. IF TOP OF PILE IS ABOVE BFE. USE THIS TABLE OR
CALCULATE HIGHER ALLOWABLE UNBRACED HEIGHT BY PROCEDURE
IN APPENDIX D.
TABLE A-4 CONTINUED
AND FLOOD FORCES
1000 5.9 8.5 7.1 8.6 10.0
1100 5.7 8.3 6.9 8.4 9.8
1200 5.5 8.1 6.7 8.2 9.5
1300 5.3 8.0 6.4 7.9 9.3
1400 5.2 7.8 6.2 7.7 9.2
1500 5.0 7.7 6.0 7.5 9.0
1600 4.8 7.5 5.9 7.3 8.8
1700 4.7 7.4 5.7 7.1 8.6
1800 4.6 7.2 5.5 7.0 8.4
1900 4.4 7.1 5.3 6.8 8.2
2000 4.3 6.9 5.2 6.6 8.1
2100 4.2 6.8 5.0 6.4 7.9
2200 4.1 6.7 4.9 6.3 7.7
2300 3.9 6.5 4.7 6.1 7.6
2400 3.8 6.4 4.6 6.0 7.4
2500 3.7 6.3 4.5 5.8 7.3
2600 3.6 6.2 4.4 5.7 7.1
2700 3.5 6.1 4.2 5.6 7.0
2800 3.4 5.9 4.1 5.4 6.8
2900 3.4 5.8 4.0 5.3 6.7
3000 3.3 5.7 3.9 5.2 6.6
3100 3.2 5.6 3.8 5.1 6.4
3200 3.1 5.5 3.7 5.0 6.3
3300 3.1 5.4 3.7 4.9 6.2
3400 3.0 5.3 3.6 4.8 6.1
3500 2.9 5.2 3.5 4.7 5.9
3600 2.9 5.1 3.4 4.6 5.8
3700 2.8 5.0 3.3 4.5 5.7
3800 2.7 4.9 3.3 4.4 5.6
3900 2.7 4.9 3.2 4.3 5.5
4000 2.6 4.8 3.1 4.2 5.4
4100 2.6 4.7 3.1 4.1 5.3
4200 2.5 4.6 3.0 4.1 5.2
4300 2.5 4.5 3.0 4.0 5.1
4400 2.4 4.5 2.9 3.9 5.1
4500 2.4 4.4 2.8 3.8 5.0
4600 2.3 4.3 2.8 3.8 4.9
4700 2.3 4.3 2.7 3.7 4.8
4800 2.3 4.2 2.7 3.6 4.7
4900 2.2 4.1 2.6 3.6 4.7
5000 2.2 4.1 2.6 3.5 4.6
5100 2.1 4.0 2.6 3.5 4.5
5200 2.1 3.9 2.5 3.4 4.4
5300 2.1 3.9 2.5 3.4 4.4
5400 2.0 3.8 2.4 3.3 4.3
5500 2.0 3.8 2.4 3.2 4.3
5600 2.0 3.7 2.4 3.2 4.2
5700 1.9 3.7 2.3 3.2 4.1
5800 1.9 3.6 2.3 3.1 4.1
5900 1.9 3.6 2.3 3.1 4.0
6000 1.9 3.5 2.2 3.0 4.0
6100 1.8 3.5 2.2 3.0 3.9
6200 1.8 3.4 2.2 2.9 3.8
6300 1.8 3.4 2.1 2.9 3.8
D.
Design Tables A-19
TABLE A-4 CONTINUED
AND FLOOD FORCES
1200 5.3 8.0 6.5 7.9 9.3
1300 5.2 7.8 6.2 7.7 9.1
1400 5.0 7.6 6.0 7.5 8.9
1500 4.8 7.5 5.9 7.3 8.8
1600 4.7 7.4 5.7 7.1 8.6
1700 4.6 7.2 5.5 7.0 8.4
1800 4.4 7.1 5.3 6.8 8.2
1900 4.3 6.9 5.2 6.6 8.0
2000 4.2 6.8 5.0 6.4 7.9
2100 4.1 6.7 4.9 6.3 7.7
2200 3.9 6.5 4.7 6.1 7.6
2300 3.8 6.4 4.6 6.0 7.4
2400 3.7 6.3 4.5 5.8 7.2
2500 3.6 6.2 4.4 5.7 7.1
2600 3.5 6.1 4.3 5.6 7.0
2700 3.5 5.9 4.1 5.4 6.8
2800 3.4 5.8 4.0 5.3 6.7
2900 3.3 5.7 3.9 5.2 6.6
3000 3.2 5.6 3.8 5.1 6.4
3100 3.1 5.5 3.8 5.0 6.3
3200 3.1 5.4 3.7 4.9 6.2
3300 3.0 5.3 3.6 4.8 6.1
3400 2.9 5.2 3.5 4.7 5.9
3500 2.9 5.1 3.4 4.6 5.8
3600 2.8 5.0 3.4 4.5 5.7
3700 2.7 4.9 3.3 4.4 5.6
3800 2.7 4.9 3.2 4.3 5.5
3900 2.6 4.8 3.1 4.2 5.4
4000 2.6 4.7 3.1 4.1 5.3
4100 2.5 4.6 3.0 4.1 5.2
4200 2.5 4.5 3.0 4.0 5.2
4300 2.4 4.5 2.9 3.9 5.1
4400 2.4 4.4 2.9 3.8 5.0
4500 2.3 4.3 2.8 3.8 4.9
4600 2.3 4.3 2.7 3.7 4.8
4700 2.3 4.2 2.7 3.6 4.7
4800 2.2 4.1 2.7 3.6 4.7
4900 2.2 4.1 2.6 3.5 4.6
5000 2.1 4.0 2.6 3.5 4.5
5100 2.1 3.9 2.5 3.4 4.5
5200 2.1 3.9 2.5 3.4 4.4
5300 2.0 3.8 2.4 3.3 4.3
5400 2.0 3.8 2.4 3.3 4.3
5500 2.0 3.7 2.4 3.2 4.2
5600 1.9 3.7 2.3 3.2 4.1
5700 1.9 3.6 2.3 3.1 4.1
5800 1.9 3.6 2.3 3.1 4.0
5900 1.9 3.5 2.2 3.0 4.0
6000 1.8 3.5 2.2 3.0 3.9
6100 1.8 3.4 2.2 2.9 3.8
6200 1.8 3.4 2.1 2.9 3.8
6300 1.8 3.3 2.1 2.9 3.7
6400 1.7 3.3 2.1 2.8 3.7
6500 1.7 3.2 2.0 2.8 3.7
6600 1.7 3.2 2.0 2.7 3.6
6700 1.7 3.2 2.0 2.7 3.6
6800 1.6 3.1 2.0 2.7 3.5
6900 1.6 3.1 1.9 2.6 3.5
7000 1.6 3.1 1.9 2.6 3.4
7100 1.6 3.0 1.9 2.6 3.4
7200 1.6 3.0 1.9 2.5 3.3
7300 1.5 2.9 1.8 2.5 3.3
7400 1.5 2.9 1.8 2.5 3.3
2.PILE HEIGHT ABOVE GRADE IS ASSUMED EQUAL TO DESIGN WATER
D.
TABLE A-4.1
MAXIMUM UNBRACED HEIGHT OF PILES
SUPPORTING BREAKAWAY WALLS (FEET)
COMBINED 8-INCH TIP PILES
LOAD 8X8 10x10 WITH EMBEDMENTS OF
PER PILE (LB) PILES PILES 10 FT 20 FT 30 FT
700 17.6 34.3 21.0 28.8 38.3
800 15.4 30.0 18.3 25.2 33.5
900 13.7 26.7 16.3 22.4 29.8
1000 12.3 24.0 14.7 20.1 26.8
1100 11.2 21.8 13.3 18.3 24.4
1200 10.2 20.0 12.2 16.8 22.3
1300 9.5 18.5 11.3 15.5 20.6
1400 8.8 17.2 10.5 14.4 19.1
1500 8.2 16.0 9.8 13.4 17.9
1600 7.7 15.0 9.2 12.6 16.7
1700 7.2 14.1 8.6 11.8 15.8
1800 6.8 13.3 8.2 11.2 14.9
1900 6.5 12.6 7.7 10.6 14.1
2000 6.1 12.0 7.3 10.1 13.4
2100 5.9 11.4 7.0 9.6 12.8
2200 5.6 10.9 6.7 9.1 12.2
2300 5.3 10.4 6.4 8.8 11.6
2400 5.1 10.0 6.1 8.4 11.2
2500 4.9 9.6 5.9 8.1 10.7
2600 4.7 9.2 5.6 7.7 10.3
2700 4.6 8.9 5.4 7.5 9.9
2800 4.4 8.6 5.2 7.2 9.6
2900 4.2 8.3 5.1 6.9 9.2
3000 4.1 8.0 4.9 6.7 8.9
3100 4.0 7.7 4.7 6.5 8.6
3200 3.8 7.5 4.6 6.3 8.4
3300 3.7 7.3 4.4 6.1 8.1
3400 3.6 7.1 4.3 5.9 7.9
3500 3.5 6.9 4.2 5.8 7.7
3600 3.4 6.7 4.1 5.6 7.4
3700 3.3 6.5 4.0 5.4 7.2
3800 3.2 6.3 3.9 5.3 7.1
3900 3.2 6.2 3.8 5.2 6.9
4000 3.1 6.0 3.7 5.0 6.7
4100 3.0 5.9 3.6 4.9 6.5
4200 2.9 5.7 3.5 4.8 6.4
Design Tables A-21
TABLE A-5
UPLIFT LOADS PER FOOT OF WALL (POUNDS) IN 80 MPH WINDS
ACTING ON ROOF CONNECTIONS OF ONE-STORY HOUSES
LENGTH W I D T H ( F E E T )
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 67 74 81 88 96 104 113 122 131 141 152
22 65 72 78 85 93 100 108 116 125 134 144
24 64 70 76 83 90 97 104 112 120 128 137
26 63 69 75 81 88 94 101 109 116 124 132
28 62 68 73 80 86 92 99 106 113 120 128
30 61 67 72 78 84 90 97 104 110 117 125
32 60 66 71 77 83 89 95 102 108 115 122
34 60 65 71 76 82 88 94 100 106 113 119
36 59 64 70 75 81 87 93 99 105 111 117
38 59 64 69 75 80 86 91 97 103 109 116
40 58 63 69 74 79 85 91 96 102 108 114
ACTING ON ROOF CONNECTIONS OF TWO-STORY HOUSES
LENGTH W I D T H (F E E T )
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 78 86 94 102 111 120 130 140 151 162 174
22 76 84 91 99 107 116 125 134 144 154 165
24 75 82 89 97 104 112 121 130 139 148 158
26 73 80 87 94 102 110 118 126 134 143 153
28 72 79 86 93 100 107 115 123 131 139 148
30 71 78 85 91 98 105 113 120 128 136 144
32 71 77 83 90 97 104 111 118 126 133 141
34 70 76 83 89 96 102 109 116 124 131 139
36 69 76 82 88 95 101 108 115 122 129 137
38 69 75 81 87 94 100 107 114 120 127 135
40 68 74 81 87 93 99 106 112 119 126 133
ACTING ON FIRST FLOOR OF ONE-STORY HOUSES
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 98 105 112 119 126 133 139 146 153 160 167
22 90 96 103 109 115 122 128 134 140 146 153
24 83 89 95 101 107 113 118 124 130 136 141
26 78 83 89 94 100 105 111 116 121 127 132
28 73 78 84 89 94 99 104 109 114 119 124
30 69 74 79 84 89 94 99 103 108 113 118
32 66 71 76 80 85 89 94 99 103 108 112
34 63 68 72 77 81 86 90 94 99 103 107
36 61 65 70 74 78 82 87 91 95 99 103
38 59 63 67 71 76 80 84 88 92 96 99
40 57 61 65 69 73 77 81 85 89 92 96
TABLE A-5 CONTINUED
UPLIFT LOADS PER FOOT OF WALL (POUNDS) IN 80 MPH WINDS, CONTINUED
ACTING ON SECOND FLOOR OF TWO-STORY HOUSES
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 54 57 61 64 68 71 75 79 82 86 90
22 45 48 51 54 57 61 64 67 70 74 77
24 38 41 44 46 49 52 54 57 60 63 66
26 33 35 37 39 42 44 46 49 52 54 57
28 28 30 32 33 36 38 40 42 44 46 49
30 24 25 27 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42
32 20 21 23 24 26 27 29 30 32 34 36
34 17 18 19 20 21 23 24 26 27 29 30
36 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 23 24 26
38 12 12 13 14 15 15 17 18 19 20 21
40 9 10 10 11 12 12 13 14 15 16 17
ACTING ON FIRST FLOOR OF TWO-STORY HOUSES
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 189 199 208 218 227 236 245 253 261 270 278
22 162 171 180 188 197 205 212 220 228 235 242
24 141 149 157 164 172 179 186 193 200 206 213
26 123 130 137 144 151 157 163 170 176 182 188
28 108 114 121 127 133 139 144 150 156 161 167
30 95 101 107 112 118 123 128 133 138 143 149
32 84 89 95 99 104 109 114 119 123 128 133
34 75 79 84 88 93 97 101 106 110 114 118
36 66 71 75 79 83 87 91 94 98 102 106
38 59 63 66 70 74 77 81 84 88 91 95
40 53 56 59 62 66 69 72 75 79 82 85
Design Tables A-23
TABLE A-5 CONTINUED
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 138 151 165 179 193 208 223 239 256 273 291
22 135 148 161 174 187 201 216 231 246 262 279
24 133 145 157 170 183 196 210 224 239 254 269
26 131 143 155 167 180 192 206 219 233 247 262
28 129 141 152 164 177 189 202 215 228 242 256
30 128 139 151 162 174 186 199 211 224 237 251
32 127 138 149 160 172 184 196 208 221 233 246
34 125 136 148 159 170 182 194 206 218 230 243
36 125 135 146 157 169 180 192 203 215 227 240
38 124 134 145 156 167 178 190 201 213 225 237
40 123 134 144 155 166 177 188 200 211 223 235
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 153 167 182 197 212 228 245 262 280 299 318
22 149 163 177 191 206 222 237 254 270 288 305
24 147 160 173 187 202 216 231 247 262 279 295
26 144 157 171 184 198 212 226 241 256 272 287
28 143 155 168 181 195 208 222 236 251 266 281
30 141 153 166 179 192 205 219 232 247 261 276
32 140 152 164 177 190 203 216 229 243 257 271
34 138 151 163 175 188 200 213 226 240 253 267
36 137 149 161 174 186 198 211 224 237 250 264
38 137 148 160 172 184 197 209 222 235 248 261
40 136 147 159 171 183 195 208 220 233 245 258
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 162 173 183 193 202 212 221 231 240 249 259
22 153 163 172 182 191 200 209 218 226 235 244
24 146 155 164 173 182 190 199 207 215 224 232
26 140 149 158 166 175 183 191 199 207 214 222
28 135 144 153 161 169 177 184 192 200 207 214
30 132 140 148 156 164 172 179 186 194 201 208
32 128 137 145 152 160 167 175 182 189 196 203
34 126 134 142 149 157 164 171 178 185 192 199
36 124 131 139 147 154 161 168 175 182 188 195
38 122 129 137 144 152 159 166 172 179 186 192
40 120 128 135 143 150 157 164 170 177 183 189
TABLE A-5 CONTINUED
LENGTH W I D T H ( F E E T)
(FEET) 20 22 24 28 28 30 32 34 38 38 40
20 106 112 118 123 129 134 140 145 151 156 162
22 97 102 107 113 118 123 128 133 138 143 148
24 89 94 99 104 109 113 118 122 127 132 136
26 83 88 92 97 101 105 110 114 118 123 127
28 78 82 87 91 95 99 103 107 111 118 119
30 74 78 82 86 89 93 97 101 105 108 112
32 70 74 78 81 85 88 92 96 99 103 106
34 67 71 74 78 81 84 88 91 94 98 101
36 64 68 71 74 78 81 84 87 90 94 97
38 62 65 68 71 75 78 81 84 87 90 93
40 60 63 66 69 72 75 78 81 84 87 90
(FEET) 20 22 24 28 28 30 32 34 38 38 40
20 288 303 317 330 343 356 368 380 392 403 415
22 257 270 283 296 308 319 331 342 352 363 373
24 231 244 256 267 278 289 300 310 320 330 339
26 210 222 233 244 254 264 274 283 293 302 311
28 193 204 214 224 234 243 252 261 270 279 287
30 178 188 198 207 216 225 234 242 250 259 267
32 165 175 184 193 202 210 218 226 234 241 249
34 154 163 172 181 189 197 204 212 219 226 234
36 145 154 162 170 177 185 192 199 206 213 220
38 137 145 153 160 168 175 182 189 195 202 208
40 129 137 145 152 159 166 172 179 185 192 198
Design Tables A-25
TABLE A-5 CONTINUED
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 218 238 259 280 301 323 346 370 394 419 445
22 214 233 253 273 294 315 336 359 381 405 429
24 210 229 248 267 287 308 328 350 371 394 417
26 207 225 244 263 282 302 322 342 363 385 406
28 205 223 241 259 278 297 317 336 357 377 398
30 202 220 238 256 274 293 312 331 351 371 391
32 201 218 236 253 271 290 308 327 346 366 385
34 199 216 234 251 269 287 305 323 342 361 380
36 198 215 232 249 267 284 302 320 339 357 376
38 196 213 230 247 265 282 300 317 336 354 372
40 195 212 229 246 263 280 297 315 333 351 369
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 236 257 279 302 325 349 373 399 425 452 479
22 231 252 273 295 317 339 363 387 411 436 462
24 227 247 268 289 310 332 354 377 400 424 449
26 224 243 264 284 305 326 347 369 392 415 438
28 221 240 260 280 300 321 342 363 385 407 429
30 219 238 257 277 296 317 337 358 379 400 422
32 217 235 254 274 293 313 333 353 374 395 416
34 215 234 252 271 290 310 329 349 369 390 410
36 213 232 250 269 288 307 326 346 366 386 406
38 212 230 249 267 286 305 324 343 362 382 402
40 211 229 247 265 284 302 321 340 359 379 398
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 234 248 262 275 288 300 313 325 337 349 361
22 224 237 250 263 275 287 299 311 322 334 345
24 216 229 242 254 266 277 289 300 311 322 333
26 210 223 235 247 258 269 280 291 302 312 323
28 205 218 229 241 252 263 274 285 295 305 315
30 201 213 225 237 248 258 269 279 289 299 309
32 198 210 222 233 244 255 265 275 285 295 304
34 196 207 219 230 241 251 262 272 281 291 300
36 193 205 217 228 239 249 259 269 279 288 298
38 192 204 215 226 237 247 257 267 277 286 295
40 190 202 214 225 235 246 256 265 275 284 294
TABLE A-5 CONTINUED
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 165 173 181 189 197 204 212 219 227 234 242
22 154 162 170 177 185 192 199 206 213 220 227
24 146 154 161 168 175 182 189 195 202 208 215
26 140 147 154 161 167 174 180 187 193 199 205
28 134 141 148 155 161 167 173 179 185 191 197
30 130 137 143 149 156 162 168 173 179 185 191
32 126 133 139 145 151 157 163 168 174 180 185
34 123 129 136 142 147 153 159 164 170 175 180
36 120 127 133 138 144 150 155 161 166 171 176
38 118 124 130 136 141 147 152 158 163 168 173
40 116 122 128 134 139 145 150 155 160 165 170
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 399 419 438 456 473 490 506 522 538 553 567
22 362 381 399 415 432 447 462 477 492 506 519
24 332 350 367 382 398 413 427 441 454 467 480
26 308 325 340 355 370 384 397 410 423 436 448
28 288 303 318 333 347 360 373 385 397 409 421
30 270 286 300 314 327 340 352 364 376 387 398
32 256 270 284 297 310 322 334 346 357 368 379
34 243 257 271 283 296 308 319 330 341 352 362
36 233 246 259 271 283 295 306 317 327 337 348
38 223 236 249 261 272 284 294 305 315 325 335
40 215 228 240 252 263 274 284 295 305 314 324
Design Tables A-27
TABLE A-5 CONTINUED
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 306 334 362 391 421 451 483 515 548 582 617
22 300 327 355 382 411 440 470 500 531 563 596
24 295 322 348 375 403 431 459 488 518 549 580
26 291 317 343 369 396 423 451 479 507 537 567
28 288 313 338 364 390 417 444 471 499 527 556
30 285 310 335 360 386 411 438 464 491 519 547
32 282 307 331 356 381 407 433 459 485 512 539
34 280 304 329 353 378 403 428 454 480 506 533
36 278 302 326 350 375 400 424 450 475 501 527
38 277 300 324 348 372 397 421 446 471 496 522
40 275 298 322 346 370 394 418 443 468 493 518
LENGTH W I D T H (F E E T)
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 327 357 387 418 450 482 515 550 585 621 658
22 321 350 379 409 439 470 502 534 567 601 636
24 316 344 372 401 430 460 491 522 553 586 619
26 311 339 366 395 423 452 481 511 542 573 605
28 308 335 362 389 417 445 474 503 533 563 594
30 305 331 358 385 412 440 468 496 525 554 584
32 302 328 354 381 408 435 462 490 518 547 576
34 300 325 351 378 404 431 458 485 513 541 569
36 297 323 349 375 401 427 454 481 508 535 563
38 296 321 346 372 398 424 450 477 503 531 558
40 294 319 344 370 395 421 447 473 500 526 553
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 313 331 349 366 382 398 414 430 445 460 475
22 302 320 336 353 369 384 399 414 429 443 457
24 294 311 327 343 358 373 388 402 417 430 444
26 287 304 320 336 351 365 380 394 407 421 434
28 282 299 315 330 345 359 373 387 400 413 426
30 278 295 310 326 340 354 368 382 395 408 421
32 275 291 307 322 337 351 365 378 391 404 416
34 273 289 305 320 334 348 362 375 388 401 413
36 271 287 303 318 332 346 360 373 386 399 411
38 269 286 301 316 331 345 359 372 385 397 410
40 268 284 300 315 330 344 358 371 384 396 409
TABLE A-5 CONTINUED
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 229 241 251 262 272 282 292 302 311 321 330
22 218 229 239 249 259 269 278 287 296 305 314
24 209 220 230 239 249 258 267 276 285 293 302
26 202 212 222 232 241 250 258 267 275 284 292
28 197 207 216 225 234 243 251 260 268 276 284
30 192 202 211 220 229 237 246 254 262 270 277
32 188 198 207 216 225 233 241 249 257 265 272
34 185 194 204 212 221 229 237 245 253 260 268
36 182 192 201 210 218 226 234 242 250 257 264
38 180 189 198 207 216 224 232 239 247 254 262
40 178 187 196 205 214 222 230 237 245 252 259
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 522 548 572 595 617 639 659 679 699 718 736
22 479 503 526 548 569 589 608 627 646 664 681
24 444 467 489 510 530 549 567 585 603 620 636
26 416 438 459 479 498 516 534 551 568 584 600
28 392 414 434 453 471 489 506 523 539 554 569
30 373 393 413 431 449 466 483 499 514 529 544
32 356 376 395 413 430 447 463 478 493 508 522
34 342 361 380 397 414 430 446 461 476 490 504
36 330 349 367 384 400 416 432 446 461 475 488
38 319 338 355 372 388 404 419 434 448 461 475
40 310 328 346 362 378 393 408 423 436 450 463
Design Tables A-29
TABLE A-5 CONTINUED
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 403 439 476 514 552 592 832 673 716 759 804
22 395 430 466 502 539 577 615 655 695 736 778
24 389 423 458 493 529 565 602 640 679 718 758
26 384 417 451 485 520 556 592 628 665 703 742
28 379 412 445 479 513 548 583 618 654 691 728
30 375 408 440 474 507 541 575 610 645 681 717
32 372 404 436 469 502 535 569 603 637 672 707
34 369 401 433 465 497 530 563 597 630 665 699
36 367 398 430 461 493 526 558 591 625 658 692
38 364 395 427 458 490 522 554 587 619 653 686
40 362 393 424 455 487 518 550 582 615 648 681
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 428 466 506 546 586 628 671 715 760 806 853
22 420 457 495 533 573 613 653 695 738 781 826
24 413 449 486 524 562 600 640 680 721 762 805
26 407 443 479 516 553 590 628 667 706 747 787
28 403 438 473 509 545 582 619 657 695 734 773
30 399 433 468 503 539 575 611 648 685 723 761
32 395 429 464 498 533 568 604 640 677 714 751
34 392 426 460 494 528 563 598 634 670 706 743
36 390 423 456 490 524 558 593 628 663 699 735
38 387 420 453 487 520 554 589 623 658 693 729
40 385 418 451 484 517 551 585 619 653 688 723
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 400 423 444 465 485 505 525 544 563 581 600
22 388 410 431 451 471 490 509 527 545 563 580
24 379 400 421 441 460 479 497 515 532 549 566
26 372 393 413 433 452 470 488 506 523 539 556
28 367 388 408 427 446 464 482 499 516 532 548
30 363 383 404 423 441 460 477 494 511 527 543
32 359 380 400 420 438 456 474 491 507 523 539
34 357 378 398 418 436 454 472 488 505 521 537
36 355 376 397 416 435 453 470 487 504 520 535
38 354 375 396 415 434 452 469 486 503 519 535
40 353 375 395 415 433 452 469 486 503 519 535
TABLE A-5 CONTINUED
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 300 314 328 342 354 367 379 392 404 416 427
22 288 302 315 328 340 353 364 376 388 399 410
24 278 292 305 317 330 341 353 364 375 386 397
26 271 284 297 309 321 333 344 355 366 376 387
28 265 278 290 303 314 326 337 348 358 368 379
30 260 273 285 297 309 320 331 342 352 362 372
32 256 269 281 293 305 316 327 337 348 358 367
34 253 266 278 290 301 313 323 334 344 354 364
36 240 263 275 287 299 310 321 331 341 351 361
38 248 261 273 285 297 308 318 329 339 349 359
40 246 259 271 283 295 306 317 327 337 347 357
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 657 688 719 747 775 801 826 851 875 898 921
22 607 637 666 693 709 744 768 792 814 836 858
24 567 596 623 649 674 698 721 744 765 787 807
26 534 562 588 614 638 661 683 705 726 746 766
28 507 534 560 584 608 630 652 673 693 713 732
30 485 511 536 560 583 605 626 646 666 685 703
32 466 492 516 539 562 583 604 624 643 662 680
34 450 475 499 522 544 565 585 605 623 642 660
36 436 461 484 507 528 549 569 588 607 625 643
38 424 449 472 494 515 536 555 574 593 611 628
40 414 438 461 483 504 524 544 563 581 598 616
Design Tables A-31
TABLE A-5 CONTINUED
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 508 553 600 647 695 744 794 846 898 852 1008
22 498 542 587 633 679 726 774 823 873 924 977
24 490 533 577 621 666 712 758 805 853 902 952
26 484 526 569 612 655 700 745 791 837 884 932
28 478 520 562 604 647 690 734 778 824 869 916
30 474 514 556 597 639 682 725 768 812 857 902
32 469 510 550 591 633 675 717 759 803 846 891
34 466 506 546 586 627 668 710 752 794 837 881
36 463 502 542 582 622 663 704 745 787 829 872
38 460 499 538 578 618 658 699 740 781 822 864
40 457 496 535 575 614 654 694 735 775 816 858
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 537 585 634 684 735 787 840 894 950 1007 1065
22 527 574 621 669 718 768 819 871 923 978 1033
24 519 564 610 657 705 753 802 852 902 954 1007
26 512 557 602 647 693 740 788 836 885 935 986
28 506 550 594 639 684 730 776 823 871 920 969
30 501 544 588 632 676 721 767 813 859 906 954
32 497 539 582 626 669 714 758 803 849 895 942
34 493 535 578 620 664 707 751 795 840 886 931
36 490 531 573 616 658 701 745 789 833 877 922
38 487 528 570 612 654 696 739 782 826 870 914
40 484 525 566 608 650 692 734 777 820 864 907
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 495 522 548 573 598 622 645 668 691 713 735
22 481 508 533 558 582 605 628 650 672 693 714
24 471 497 523 547 570 593 615 537 658 679 699
26 464 490 515 539 562 584 606 627 648 668 688
28 458 484 509 533 556 578 600 621 641 661 681
30 454 480 505 529 552 574 595 616 637 656 676
32 451 477 502 526 549 571 593 613 634 653 673
34 449 475 500 524 547 569 591 612 632 652 671
36 448 474 499 523 546 569 590 611 631 651 670
38 447 473 498 522 546 568 590 611 632 651 671
40 446 473 498 523 546 569 591 612 632 652 672
TABLE A-5 CONTINUED
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 377 395 412 428 444 460 475 490 504 519 533
22 364 381 398 413 429 444 458 473 487 501 514
24 353 370 387 402 417 432 446 460 474 487 500
26 345 362 378 393 408 423 437 450 464 477 490
28 339 355 371 387 402 416 430 443 456 469 482
30 334 350 366 382 396 410 424 437 451 463 476
32 330 346 362 377 392 406 420 433 446 459 471
34 326 343 359 374 389 403 417 430 443 456 468
36 324 341 357 372 387 401 415 428 441 453 466
38 322 339 355 370 385 399 413 426 439 452 464
40 320 337 353 369 384 398 412 425 438 451 463
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 803 842 878 913 946 978 1008 1038 1067 1095 1122
22 746 783 817 851 882 913 942 970 998 1024 1050
24 700 735 769 801 831 861 889 916 942 968 993
26 662 697 730 761 790 818 846 872 898 922 946
28 632 665 697 727 756 784 810 836 861 885 908
30 606 639 670 700 728 755 781 806 831 854 877
32 585 617 648 677 705 731 757 781 805 828 851
34 567 599 629 657 685 711 736 760 784 807 829
36 552 583 613 641 668 694 719 743 766 789 810
38 538 569 599 627 653 679 704 728 751 773 795
40 527 558 587 614 641 667 691 715 738 760 782
Design Tables A-33
TABLE A-5 CONTINUED
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 621 677 733 790 849 908 969 1032 1095 1161 1228
22 610 663 718 773 830 887 945 1005 1066 1128 1191
24 600 653 706 760 814 870 926 983 1042 1101 1162
26 592 644 696 748 802 856 910 966 1022 1080 1138
28 585 636 687 739 791 844 897 951 1006 1062 1118
30 580 630 680 731 782 834 886 939 993 1047 1102
32 575 624 674 724 774 825 877 929 981 1034 1088
34 570 619 668 718 767 818 868 920 971 1023 1076
36 566 615 663 712 762 811 861 912 963 1014 1066
38 563 611 659 708 756 805 855 905 955 1006 1057
40 580 608 655 703 752 800 849 899 948 998 1049
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 655 714 773 834 895 958 1022 1088 1155 1224 1295
22 643 700 757 818 875 936 997 1060 1124 1189 1256
24 633 688 744 801 859 917 977 1037 1099 1161 1225
26 625 879 734 789 846 902 960 1019 1078 1139 1200
28 618 671 725 779 834 890 946 1004 1061 1120 1180
30 612 664 717 771 825 879 935 991 1047 1104 1162
32 606 658 711 763 817 870 925 980 1035 1091 1148
34 602 653 705 757 810 863 916 970 1025 1080 1135
36 598 649 700 751 803 856 909 962 1015 1070 1124
38 594 645 695 746 798 850 902 954 1007 1061 1115
40 591 841 691 742 793 844 896 948 1000 1053 1106
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 597 629 660 690 719 747 775 802 829 855 881
22 582 613 644 673 702 729 756 783 808 834 859
24 571 602 632 661 689 716 743 769 794 818 843
26 563 594 624 653 681 707 733 759 784 808 831
28 557 589 618 647 675 701 727 752 777 801 824
30 553 584 614 643 671 697 723 748 772 796 819
32 550 582 612 640 668 695 721 746 770 794 817
34 548 580 610 639 667 694 720 745 769 793 816
36 547 579 609 638 866 693 720 745 769 793 816
38 546 578 609 638 667 694 720 746 770 794 818
40 546 578 609 639 668 695 722 747 772 796 820
TABLE A-5 CONTINUED
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 460 482 502 522 541 559 577 595 613 630 647
22 445 466 486 506 524 542 560 577 594 610 627
24 434 455 475 494 512 530 547 564 580 596 612
26 425 446 466 485 503 520 537 554 570 585 601
28 419 439 459 478 496 513 530 546 562 578 593
30 413 434 454 472 490 508 524 541 557 572 587
32 409 430 449 468 486 504 521 537 553 568 583
34 406 427 446 465 483 501 518 534 550 565 580
36 403 424 444 463 481 499 516 532 548 564 579
38 401 422 442 462 480 498 515 531 547 563 578
40 400 421 441 461 479 497 514 531 547 563 578
(FEET) 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
20 961 1007 1050 1092 1131 1169 1205 1240 1274 1307 1339
22 895 940 981 1021 1059 1095 1130 1163 1196 1227 1258
24 843 886 926 965 1001 1036 1070 1102 1133 1164 1193
26 801 843 882 919 955 989 1021 1053 1083 1113 1141
28 767 807 845 882 916 950 982 1012 1042 1071 1099
30 738 778 815 851 885 918 949 979 1008 1037 1064
32 714 753 790 825 859 891 922 952 981 1008 1036
34 694 732 769 804 837 869 899 929 957 985 1012
36 876 715 751 785 818 850 880 909 938 965 992
38 662 699 735 770 802 834 864 893 921 948 975
40 649 687 722 756 789 820 850 879 907 934 961
Design Tables A-35
TABLE A-6
UPLIFT LOADS PER PILE (POUNDS) IN 80 MPH WINDS
WIDTH (FEET) 20 24 24 28 32 36 32 36 40 40
LENGTH NUMBER
(FEET) OF PILES 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6
20 3 695 836 627 737 853 974 682 779 882 735
24 3 655 785 588 689 794 905 636 724 816 680
24 4 549 659 495 580 670 765 536 612 691 576
28 4 527 631 473 554 637 725 510 580 654 545
32 4 518 617 463 540 620 704 496 563 633 527
36 4 517 614 461 536 614 695 491 556 623 519
32 5 438 522 392 458 526 597 421 478 538 448
36 5 434 517 387 451 518 586 414 469 527 439
40 5 436 517 388 451 516 583 413 466 522 435
40 6 374 444 333 388 444 502 355 402 450 375
WIDTH (FEET) 20 24 24 28 32 36 32 36 40 40
LENGTH NUMBER
(FEET) OF PILES 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6
20 3 1759 2111 1583 1852 2127 2408 1702 1926 2157 1797
24 3 1419 1700 1275 1489 1708 1933 1367 1546 1730 1442
24 4 1296 1555 1166 1363 1565 1771 1252 1417 1586 1322
28 4 1075 1286 965 1126 1291 1461 1033 1169 1308 1090
32 4 903 1078 808 942 1079 1219 863 975 1091 909
36 4 764 909 682 793 907 1024 725 819 915 763
32 5 815 974 730 852 976 1104 781 883 988 823
36 5 694 827 620 722 826 933 661 747 835 696
40 5 593 704 528 613 701 791 561 633 707 589
40 6 538 640 480 558 638 720 511 576 644 537
TABLE A-6 CONTINUED
WIDTH (FEET) 20 24 24 28 32 36 32 36 40 40
LENGTH NUMBER
(FEET) OF PILES 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6
20 3 1861 2381 1786 2220 2700 3226 2160 2581 3039 2533
24 3 1763 2232 1674 2063 2490 2955 1992 2364 2767 2306
24 4 1475 1879 1410 1746 2116 2520 1693 2016 2368 1973
28 4 1424 1797 1348 1656 1993 2360 1595 1888 2206 1838
32 4 1405 1759 1319 1609 1924 2266 1539 1813 2107 1756
36 4 1408 1750 1312 1590 1891 2214 1513 1771 2049 1708
32 5 1186 1489 1117 1366 1639 1934 1311 1547 1802 1502
36 5 1181 1473 1105 1343 1601 1880 1281 1504 1743 1453
40 5 1191 1475 1106 1336 1585 1852 1268 1482 1710 1425
40 6 1022 1268 951 1151 1368 1601 1095 1281 1481 1234
WIDTH (FEET) 20 24 24 28 32 36 32 36 40 40
LENGTH NUMBER
(FEET) OF PILES 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6
20 3 3338 4160 3120 3783 4494 5252 3595 4202 4848 4040
24 3 2876 3573 2679 3241 3841 4482 3073 3586 4131 3443
24 4 2535 3155 2366 2866 3401 3973 2721 3178 3665 3055
28 4 2242 2782 2086 2521 2986 3483 2389 2786 3209 2674
32 4 2030 2511 1883 2270 2683 3124 2146 2499 2873 2395
36 4 1872 2308 1731 2081 2454 2852 1963 2281 2619 2183
32 5 1775 2199 1649 1990 2355 2743 1884 2195 2525 2105
36 5 1632 2015 1511 1819 2148 2499 1719 1999 2297 1914
40 5 1523 1874 1405 1687 1988 2308 1591 1847 2119 1766
40 6 1341 1652 1239 1489 1756 2040 1405 1632 1874 1561
Design Tables A-37
TABLE A-6 CONTINUED
WIDTH (FEET) 20 24 24 28 32 36 32 36 40 40
LENGTH NUMBER
(FEET) OF PILES 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6
20 3 2596 3291 2468 3044 3676 4365 2941 3492 4089 3408
24 3 2527 3169 2377 2904 3477 4098 2782 3278 3814 3178
24 4 2085 2630 1973 2423 2914 3449 2331 2759 3221 2684
28 4 2061 2575 1931 2352 2809 3302 2247 2642 3066 2555
32 4 2077 2574 1931 2334 2769 3236 2215 2589 2988 2490
36 4 2121 2610 1957 2351 2773 3223 2218 2579 2962 2468
32 5 1738 2161 1621 1965 2338 2739 1870 2191 2535 2113
36 5 1764 2178 1633 1968 2327 2712 1862 2170 2498 2082
40 5 1807 2217 1663 1992 2344 2719 1875 2175 2493 2078
40 6 1542 1896 1422 1707 2012 2337 1609 1870 2146 1789
WIDTH (FEET) 20 24 24 28 32 36 32 36 40 40
LENGTH NUMBER
(FEET) OF PILES 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6
20 3 4508 5594 4195 5066 5996 6986 4797 5589 6429 5357
24 3 4008 4951 3714 4469 5273 6127 4218 4901 5625 4687
24 4 3472 4300 3225 3889 4597 5350 3678 4280 4918 4099
28 4 3164 3903 2927 3518 4146 4813 3317 3851 4415 3679
32 4 2955 3630 2723 3262 3833 4438 3067 3551 4062 3385
36 4 2813 3442 2582 3082 3612 4171 2889 3337 3809 3174
32 5 2551 3139 2354 2824 3324 3853 2659 3082 3530 2941
36 5 2416 2962 2222 2657 3118 3605 2494 2884 3296 2747
40 5 2323 2838 2128 2537 2969 3425 2376 2740 3125 2604
40 6 2025 2477 1858 2217 2597 2998 2078 2399 2737 2281
TABLE A-6 CONTINUED
WIDTH (FEET) 20 24 24 28 32 36 32 36 40 40
LENGTH NUMBER
(FEET) OF PILES 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6
20 3 3409 4297 3223 3955 4755 5624 3804 4499 5251 4376
24 3 3373 4206 3154 3833 4569 5362 3655 4290 4971 4142
24 4 2759 3461 2596 3171 3798 4476 3038 3580 4165 3471
28 4 2766 3436 2577 3122 3711 4344 2969 3475 4017 3348
32 4 2821 3477 2608 3136 3703 4309 2963 3447 3964 3303
36 4 2909 3561 2671 3193 3749 4339 2999 3472 3972 3310
32 5 2349 2904 2178 2628 3111 3629 2489 2903 3346 2788
36 5 2409 2958 2219 2660 3131 3633 2505 2906 3333 2777
40 5 2490 3039 2280 2718 3184 3677 2547 2942 3359 2799
40 6 2118 2591 1943 2322 2724 3151 2179 2521 2883 2402
WIDTH (FEET) 20 24 24 28 32 36 32 36 40 40
LENGTH NUMBER
(FEET) OF PILES 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6
20 3 5803 7179 5384 6486 7659 8903 6127 7123 8177 6815
24 3 5260 6477 4858 5828 6857 7946 5485 6357 7277 6064
24 4 4510 5568 4176 5021 5920 6873 4736 5498 6305 5254
28 4 4184 5142 3857 4620 5429 6285 4344 5028 5750 4792
32 4 3978 4869 3652 4359 5106 5893 4084 4714 5378 4481
36 4 3854 4697 3523 4190 4893 5631 3914 4505 5126 4271
32 5 3408 4179 3135 3747 4395 5080 3516 4064 4641 3867
36 5 3284 4010 3008 3583 4191 4830 3353 3864 4402 3668
40 5 3209 3904 2928 3478 4055 4661 3244 3729 4238 3531
40 6 2782 3389 2542 3022 3527 4058 2822 3247 3693 3077
Design Tables A-39
TABLE A-6 CONTINUED
WIDTH (FEET) 20 24 24 28 32 36 32 36 40 40
LENGTH NUMBER
(FEET) OF PILES 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6
20 3 4298 5399 4049 4953 5937 7003 4749 5602 6522 5435
24 3 4299 5340 4005 4851 5764 6746 4611 5396 6237 5198
24 4 3497 4370 3277 3991 4764 5600 3812 4480 5198 4332
28 4 3537 4378 3283 3965 4698 5484 3758 4387 5059 4216
32 4 3635 4464 3348 4015 4726 5484 3781 4387 5031 4192
36 4 3772 4603 3452 4115 4817 5561 3854 4449 5077 4231
32 5 3017 3717 2788 3353 3957 4603 3166 3683 4233 3527
36 5 3114 3812 2859 3417 4011 4641 3209 3713 4247 3539
40 5 3236 3939 2954 3513 4103 4727 3283 3781 4307 3589
40 6 2749 3352 2514 2994 3504 4042 2803 3234 3688 3073
WIDTH (FEET) 20 24 24 28 32 36 32 36 40 40
LENGTH NUMBER
(FEET) OF PILES 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6
20 3 7219 8915 6686 8040 9478 11002 7582 8802 10091 8409
24 3 6631 8146 6110 7315 8590 9937 6872 7949 9085 7571
24 4 5645 6955 5216 6260 7368 8539 5894 6832 7822 6518
28 4 5300 6499 4874 5827 6834 7896 5467 6317 7211 6009
32 4 5098 6225 4668 5560 6498 7485 5198 5988 6817 5681
36 4 4993 6071 4553 5403 6295 7229 5036 5784 6567 5472
32 5 4347 5318 3988 4757 5569 6423 4455 5138 5857 4881
36 5 4233 5157 3868 4598 5365 6170 4292 4936 5612 4676
40 5 4179 5072 3804 4507 5243 6014 4194 4811 5456 4547
40 6 3610 4388 3291 3903 4546 5219 3636 4175 4739 3949
TABLE A-6 CONTINUED
WIDTH (FEET) 20 24 24 28 32 36 32 36 40 40
LENGTH NUMBER
(FEET) OF PILES 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6
20 3 5266 6597 4948 6038 7222 8503 5778 6802 7905 6588
24 3 5306 6574 4930 5958 7064 8251 5651 6601 7615 6346
24 4 4300 5359 4019 4882 5816 6822 4653 5458 6322 5268
28 4 4376 5403 4052 4882 5772 6724 4618 5379 6191 5160
32 4 4520 5539 4154 4970 5839 6762 4671 5409 6192 5160
36 4 4710 5736 4302 5117 5979 6890 4784 5512 6280 5233
32 5 3744 4602 3452 4141 4878 5663 3903 4530 5198 4331
36 5 3882 4741 3556 4241 4968 5737 3974 4590 5241 4367
40 5 4048 4917 3688 4377 5103 5868 4083 4695 5338 4448
40 6 3435 4179 3135 3726 4351 5011 3481 4009 4565 3804
WIDTH (FEET) 20 24 24 28 32 36 32 36 40 40
LENGTH NUMBER
(FEET) OF PILES 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6
20 3 8760 10802 8102 9730 11457 13285 9166 10628 12173 10144
24 3 8122 9962 7472 8932 10475 12102 8380 9682 11052 9210
24 4 6880 8464 6348 7608 8943 10353 7154 8282 9472 7893
28 4 6514 7975 5981 7140 8361 9648 6689 7718 8801 7334
32 4 6317 7699 5774 6866 8013 9217 6410 7373 8383 6986
36 4 6232 7565 5674 6722 7820 8968 6256 7174 8134 6778
32 5 5369 6556 4917 5856 6845 7884 5476 6307 7179 5983
36 5 5266 6405 4804 5701 6642 7628 5314 6102 6928 5773
40 5 5233 6342 4756 5626 6536 7485 5228 5988 6781 5651
40 6 4511 5474 4105 4862 5653 6481 4523 5185 5876 4897
Design Tables A-41
TABLE A-6 CONTINUED
WIDTH (FEET) 20 24 24 28 32 36 32 36 40 40
LENGTH NUMBER
(FEET) OF PILES 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6
20 3 6311 7890 5918 7209 8609 10121 6887 8097 9398 7832
24 3 6393 7906 5929 7153 8468 9875 6774 7900 9102 7585
24 4 5167 6426 4820 5845 6952 8142 5561 6514 7535 6279
28 4 5281 6509 4882 5871 6931 8063 5545 6450 7414 6178
32 4 5476 6698 5024 6001 7039 8141 5632 6513 7445 6204
36 4 5723 6958 5219 6199 7234 8324 5787 6659 7577 6314
32 5 4529 5557 4168 4993 5872 6807 4698 5446 6239 5199
36 5 4710 5743 4308 5130 6001 6921 4800 5537 6314 5261
40 5 4925 5974 4480 5310 6183 7100 4946 5880 6451 5376
40 6 4175 5073 3804 4516 5267 6057 4213 4846 5510 4592
WIDTH (FEET) 20 24 24 28 32 36 32 36 40 40
LENGTH NUMBER
(FEET) OF PILES 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6
20 3 10424 12840 9630 11554 13593 15749 10875 12599 14420 12016
24 3 9731 11922 8942 10678 12510 14440 10008 11552 13175 10980
24 4 8213 10092 7569 9063 10642 12310 8514 9848 11253 9378
28 4 7824 9568 7176 8556 10010 11539 8008 9231 10516 8763
32 4 7632 9291 6968 8276 9648 11086 7718 8869 10073 8394
36 4 7570 9178 6883 8146 9466 10844 7573 8675 9826 8188
32 5 6471 7893 5920 7042 8222 9461 6578 7569 8607 7173
36 5 6381 7751 5814 6892 8020 9201 6416 7361 8348 6957
40 5 6372 7712 5784 6834 7931 9073 6344 7259 8211 6843
40 6 5484 6646 4985 5896 6849 7843 5479 6274 7104 5920
TABLE A-7
CAPACITY PER BOLT (POUNDS) OF FLOOR BEAM CONNECTIONS
Connection Type 1--Use 100 percent of downward load
Type of Bolt Diameter in Inches
Connection 5/8 3/4 7/8 1 1-1/4
Spiked Grid - 3800 - 4100 -
Beam to Unnotched Pile 700 930 1100 1250 1500
Connection Type II--Use greater of the following: 100 percent of uplift load
or
50 percent of downward load
Type of Bolt Diameter in Inches
Connection 5/8 3/4 7/8 1 1-1/4
Notched Pile 700 880 990 1080 1270
Spaced Beam 970 1080 1190 1300 1520
Steel Plate (beam) 700 930 1100 1250 1500
Insert (pile) 1200 1720 2335 3070 4770
Gusset (beam) - 1450 2300 3000 4200
(pile) - 3700 5000 6500 10200
Strap (beam) - 1450 2300 3000 4200
(pile) - 3700 5000 6500 10200
Design Tables A-43
TABLE A-8
CONCRETE MASONRY UNIT PIERS
REINFORCING REQUIREMENTS
Without Inspection 100 MPH 110 MPH WIND 120 MPH WINDS 130 MPH WINDS
CMU f'm = 1500 psi 7'CLR 10'CLR 12' CLR 7'CLR 10' CLR 12' CLR 7' CLR 10' CLR 12' CLR 7' CLR 10' CLR 12' CLR
12" x 16"* 4- #8 4- #11 4- #9 4- #10 4- #10
8- #7 8- #8 8- #8
16" x 16" 4- #8 8- #10 4- #9 8- #8 4-#10
8- #7 8- #8 12- #7 8-#9
24" x 24" 4- #6 4- #10 8- #10 4- #6 4- #10 8- #11 4- #7 4- #11 4-#8 8-#10
8- #5 8- #8 8- #5 8- #9 8- #6 8- #9 8-#7
*Steel for 12" x 16" CMU Piers is based on moment acting about major axis (t = 16").
TIE REQUIREMENTS
12" x 16" CMU PIER 16" x 16" CMU PIER 24" x 24" CMU PIER
7'CLR 10'CLR 12' CLR 7'CLR 10' CLR 12' CLR 7' CLR 10' CLR 12' CLR
#2T @ 12" #2T @ 6" #2T @ 6" #2T @ 12" #2T @ 12" #2T @ 6" Use four standard truss type masonry
reinforcing corner pieces every course.
CMU PIER TYPES
TABLE A-9
CONCRETE PIERS
REINFORCING REQUIREMENTS
f'c = 2.5 ksi 100 MPH WIND 110 MPH WIND 120 MPH WIND 130 MPH WIND
fy = 40 ksi 7'CLR 10'CLR 12' CLR 7'CLR 10' CLR 12' CLR 7' CLR 10' CLR 12' CLR 7' CLR 10' CLR 12' CLR
12" x 12" 4- #8 4- #11* - 4- #9 8- #10 - 4- #10 - - 4- #10 - -
8- #7 8- #9* 8- #7 8- #8* 8- #8
12- #6 12- #8* 12- #6 12- #7* 12- #7
16" x 16" 4- #8 4- #10 4- #11 4- #8 4- #10 8- #10 4- #8 4- #11 8- #11* 4- #9 8- #10 8- #11*
8- #6 8- #8 8- #9 8- #7 8- #9 12- #9* 8- #7 8- #9 12- #9* 8- #7 12- #8 12- #10*
12- #7 12- #6 12- #7 12- #6 12- #8 12- #6
f'c = 2.5 ksi
fy = 60 ksi
12" x 12" 4- #7 4- #9 - 4- #8 4- #10 - 4- #8 4- #11* - 4- #9 - -
8- #6 8- #8* 8- #6 8- #8* 8- #7 8- #9* 8- #7
12- #7* 12- #7* 12- #6 12- #8* 12- #6
16" x 16" 4- #7 4- #8 4- #10 4- #7 4- #9 4- #10 4- #7 4- #9 4- #11 4- #7 4- #10 4- #11
8- #5 8- #7 8- #8 8- #5 8- #7 8- #8 8- #6 8- #8 8- #9 8- #6 8- #8 8- #9
12- #6 12- #7 12- #7 12- #5 12- #6 12- #8 12- #5 12- #7 12- #8
*
Steel percentage exceeds 4%.
Tie Requirements 12" x 12" Pier Pier 16" x 16" Pier Concrete Pier Types
For #5 Longitudinal Bars #3T @ 10" #3T @ 10"
For #6 " " #3T @ 12" #3T @ 12"
For #7 " " #3T @ 12" #3T @ 14"
For #8 thru #10 " " #3T @ 12" #3T @ 16"
For #11 " " #4T @ 12" #4T @ 16"
Design Tables A-45
CONCRETE PIER NOTES:
1. Indicated steel area to be placed in each
column face subject to moment.
2. Steel for a 16-inch by 12-inch column based
on moment acting only about sections major
axis (t=16)
3. Use No. 3 ties at 16 inches on center.
4. Normally, use square piers with the same
reinforcement in all faces
Figure A-2. Concrete pier cross section.
GRADE BEAM
A
s
= A
s
= 0.62 in
2
(2-#5 Top and Bottom)
f
c
= 3000 psi
f
y
= 60000 psi
Provide dowels from grade beam into pier to
match pier vertical reinforcing
SLAB
Four inch slab with 6"x6" welded wire fabric
(No.6/No.6) placed on top of slab
Figure A-3. Grade beams and slabs.
TABLE A-10
FASTENER CAPACITIES IN SHEAR
(nails, screws, and dowel pins)
NAILS (WOOD STUD WALL) SCREWS--SELF TAPPING (METAL STUD WALL)
Working Ultimate Screw Working Ultimate
Nail Capacity (lb) Capacity (lb)
a
Size (In) Capacity (lb) Capacity (lb)*
Size Lateral Toe Nail Lateral Toe Nail No. 6 153 382
8
d 78 65 390 325 S-12
(
57
)b (285) dia =0.106
10d 94 78 470 390
(85) (425) Source: Sweets 5.3/in P.10
*
Safety factor = 2.5
12d 94 78 470 390
DOWEL PINS (MASONRY WALL)
16d 107 89 535 445
Dowel Depth of Concrete Ultimate
____________________ Size Penetration Strength Capacity
Source: Timber Construction Manual, AITC, 1974 (in) (in) (psi) (lb)
a
Safety factor =5 dia=0.145 1-1/8 3,000 1,966
b
Reduced values used in this report because 8d and 10d nails Source: Laboratory Test data on Hilti Fasteners by Abbot
do not develop full strength in two 2x4s. A. Hanks, 1972.
Design Tables A-47
TABLE A-11
FASTENER SCHEDULE FOR BREAKAWAY WALLS
NAILS (WOOD STUD WALL)
Breakaway Wall Height (feet)
6 7 8 9
Nail Size 8d 10d 12d 16d 8d 10d 12d 16d 8d 10d 12d 16d 8d 10d 12d 16d
Pile Spacing
(feet)
8 8/15 6/10 5/9 - 9/17 6/12 6/10 5/9 - 7/13 7/12 6/10 - 8/15 7/14 7/12
10 10/19 7/13 6/12 6/10 - 8/15 7/13 6/12 - 9/17 8/15 7/14 - 10/19 9/17 8/15
12 - 8/16 8/14 7/12 - 10/18 9/16 8/14 - - 10/19 9/17 - - - 10/19
NOTES:
1) Table indicates the range of total (top and bottom) nails that will result in a wall with a design safe loading resistance between
10 and 20 PSF.
2) Where an odd number of nails is shown, put the extra nail at the bottom.
3) Values for other wall heights or pile spacings can be interpolated.
Example: A 7-foot-high breakaway wall installed between piles spaced 10 feet apart should be fastened with no less than 8(4 top, 4 bottom)
and no more than 15 (7 top, 8 bottom) 10d nails.
SCREWS (METAL STUD WALL)
Breakaway Wall Height (feet)
6 7 8 9
Pile Spacing
(feet)
8 4/5 4/6 4/7 5/8
10 4/6 5/8 5/9 6/11
12 4/8 6/10 6/11 7/13
NOTES:
1) Table is used in same manner as nail table above.
2) Based on No. 6, S-12 screws.
Bracing B-1
Appendix B
BRACING
Chapter 4 included a discussion of pile bracing. It was
pointed out that in many cases, particularly when the design
wind speed is more than 100 mph, at least simple diagonal
bracing (Figure 4-3 1) or knee braces (Figure 4-33) may be
required. For high elevated houses or extreme design wind
speeds truss bracing may be needed, as shown in Figures 4-
38 and 4-39.
A truss bracing system consists of two types of members,
referred to as diagonals and struts. These members can be
sized and connected to the piles using the information
provided in this appendix. The design loads, which the
members and connections must withstand, are obtained by
adding together the horizontal wind load, Table A-2, for the
appropriate wind speed, number of stories, house dimensions,
and number of piles, with the horizontal water load, Table B-1,
for the appropriate wind speed, location, size of pile, and pile
height above grade required. Once the combined horizontal
load acting on one pile is determined, Table B-2 may be used
to determine the design load for diagonals and struts.
In order to select the proper diagonal design load from
Table B-2, one needs to compute the A/B ratio for trusses
perpendicular to the shoreline. A and B are the vertical and
horizontal distances between connections of the diagonal,
respectively, as shown in Figure B-1. Design loads for
diagonals and their connections are presented in Table B-2 for
A/B ratios ranging from 1.0 to 1.5.
The procedures for sizing diagonals, struts, and their
connections to the piles are presented below, together with
discussions of knee braces and grade beams. Grade beams
are horizontal members connecting the piles in both directions
at ground surface, and are recommended in all situations, that
is, with and without truss or knee bracing.
B.1 KNEE BRACING
Knee braces provide adequate bracing when the
difference between pile height and maximum unbraced pile
(from Tables A-4 or A-4.1) is 4 feet or less. For such conditions
the full cross-bracing obtained from a truss is not required, and
knee braces can impart the necessary rigidity to the elevated
structure. They should used for at least the first row of piles
supporting a breakaway wall, to assist in transmitting loads to
the floor and other piles.
Knee braces are relatively short members. They may be
2-by-8 lumber or larger and are bolted to the sides of the pile
with two 5/8-inch bolts (minimum) at each ion. In some cases
the builder may prefer to fit the ace under the floor beam
framing directly into, or against the pile. In this case, a 4-by-4
or larger brace is connected to the pile by one 5/8-inch
(minimum) lag screw. Knee braces should be sloped about
one horizontal to one vertical.
B.2 TRUSS BRACING
In cases where a truss bracing system is needed,
indicated by Tables A-4 and A-4.l, the diagonals, struts, and
connections are designed as follows.
B.2.1 Diagonals
Dimension lumber or steel threadbars may be used for
diagonals, depending on the forces acting on the diagonals.
For practicality and balanced designs, dimension lumber
equivalent to Number 2 Southern Pine in
B-2 Coastal Construction Manual
Figure B-1. Truss normal to beach.
strength, consisting of 2-by-8 or 3-by-8 members, is
recommended for the diagonals. These diagonals may consist
of one member or two members for a given direction of loading.
When two members are required to form a diagonal, they are
placed on either side of the pile, since the connections have
been designed for double shear in these cases. The maximum
allowable tensile load in double 3-by-8 lumber diagonals is
15,000 pounds and 13,000 pounds, for A/B ratios of
approximately 1.4 and 1.0, respectively. For tensile loads
greater than these, DYWIDAG (Dyckerhoff and Widmann,
Inc., 529 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y., 10017) threadbars
are recommended. The wood members and connections
required to resist such loads would be cumbersome.
B.2.1.1 Lumber Diagonals. The allowable loads for single
member diagonals are given in Tables B-3 for 2-by-8 and B-4
for 3-by-8 members and various connection details, as
illustrated in Figures B-2 and B-3. In order to determine
allowable loads for double member diagonals, the loads in
Tables B-3 and B-4 should be doubled. The smallest
allowable load given for a particular connection/member
combination governs the design.
For example, for a 2-by-8 single diagonal without "A"
bolts at the exterior pile connection, the allowable design load
on the member as a result of the pile connection is 4,100
pounds, even though the allowable load at the
Bracing B-3
exterior pile connection, in the case of an A/B ratio of 1.0, is
5,500 pounds and the allowable load at the interior pile
connection (splice in diagonal) is 5,700 pounds.
The allowable design load for this case could be
increased to 5,500 pounds by adding one 7/8-inch-diameter
"A" bolt to the exterior pile connection. The apparent significant
imbalance in allowable member and connection loads for the
case without "A" bolts at the exterior pile connection is justified
to simplify the design for a seemingly infinite number of design
conditions. For the case in point, changing the "B" bolts from
11/4 inches to 1 inch in diameter results in a decrease of the
allowable exterior connection load to 4,200 pounds and an
increase of the allowable diagonal member load to 4,500
pounds, thereby resulting in approximately the same allowable
design load. Therefore, the use of 1-1/4-inch-diameter bolts for
this condition is less than optimum, but justifiable when
simplifying the design to satisfy a large number of design
conditions.
Note that 1-inch-diameter "B" bolts would be insufficient
to develop the 5,500 pounds if one "A" bolt were used.
Therefore, the use of galvanized 1 1/4-inchdiameter and 7/8-
inch-diameter bolts is recommended for all lumber connection
details where "B" bolts and "A" bolts are specified, respectively.
Side plates to be used with diagonal members, as shown
in Figures B-2 and B-3, are to consist of galvanized steel plates
having a yield strength of 36 kips per square inch, or
equivalent plates as available from standard suppliers of
timber connectors. The minimum thickness for galvanized
plates is 1/4 inch for both exterior and interior pile connections.
The corresponding minimum plate widths
Figure B-2. Exterior diagonal to pile connection.
Figure B-3. Interior diagonal to pile connection.
are 7 inches for exterior and 2/2 inches for interior ions. These
widths should be increased by 1 inches with sheared edges.
Plate end distances, as measured from the center of the
hole nearest the plate end, should be a minimum of 7 inches
for exterior pile connections for the end adjacent to the B
bolts. For plate ends adjacent to the "A" bolts, the minimum
recommended end distance is 11/2 inches. At interior pile
connections (diagonal splices), the first bolt should be at least
6 inches from the end of the lumber. Side plates at interior
connections should be sized to allow for a 1-inch space
between the two ends of the adjoining lumber diagonals.
Bolts at exterior pile connections should be of adequate
length to accommodate the single or double diagonals, steel
plates, and nuts. Note that the end of each member is fitted
with one steel side plate on each side of member. At interior
joints, the length of the bolt to be increased to accommodate
the diagonal members required for stability when loads are
applied from the opposing direction; that is, each leg of the
truss will contain a cross brace. Crossing diagonals are to be
bolted at their center crossing points, as shown in Figure B-3.
Efforts should be made to connect diagonals to piles within one
diagonal member depth below the strut, to avoid excessive
joint eccentricities.
B.2.1.2 Threadbar Diagonals. DYWIDAG threadbars can be
used to resist diagonal tensile loads greater than those
permitted for 3-by -8 lumber members. The use of these bars
rather than conventional threaded bars is suggested because
of the large thread rolled on the threadbars. These large
threads are expected to weather the environment much better
than fine machine threads, which is important for load-carrying
capacity as well as for retensioning the bars. The threadbars
and fittings, which
Bracing B-5
are readily available, are made of high strength steel (ASTM
A722-75) and mild steel (ASTM A615-75).
DYWIDAG representatives can assist in determining the
proper threadbar size and the hardware required for a specific
application. A diagonal consisting of one #7 threadbar (7/8-
inch-diameter, Grade 60 steel) has a yield strength of 36,000
pounds and is sufficient to resist the largest tensile loads
resulting in diagonals from the maximum applied combined
horizontal load in Table B-2. These components should be
protected from corrosion by a coating of suitable paint or
equivalent. A routine maintenance program to inspect and
maintain these members and fittings should be followed.
Alternatively, a suitable factor of safety could be provided in the
threadbars and fittings to permit a reduced cross sectional area
attributable to corrosion. A factor of safety of at least 1.5 is
recommended for threadbars resisting loads in excess of 1
3,000 pounds. Fittings should be lubricated to permit
tensioning as required.
Threadbars should be secured to piles using a base
plate, wedge washer, and hex nut (Figure B-4). The
threadbars should pass through the center of the pile in holes
having diameters approximately 1/8 to 1/4 inch larger than the
maximum diameter of the threadbar, to permit alignment of the
bars. Threadbars should be secured to the piles as close to
the pile-to-strut or pile-to-grade beam joint as possible without
interfering with the horizontal members. It is important to
minimize the eccentricity of these connections at interior piles
while keeping the plane of the cross bracing near the center of
the truss. Details of exterior and interior pile joints within
DYWIDAG diagonals are shown in Figure B-4.
B.2.2 Struts
The compressive load resulting on the struts from the
combined horizontal load per pile is shown in Table B-2.
Figure B-4. DYWIDAG threadbar diagonal connections.
Timber sizes to resist the compressive loads shown in Table B-
2 are given in Table B-S. Timbers range in size from 4-by -4 to
8-by-8, and are assumed to consist of Number 2 Southern Pine
or equivalent strength wood.
The struts in the truss system should be cut to fit snugly
between piles. Wood shims can take up any space left open.
They should be connected with galvanized timber connectors
(hangers), such as those available from TECO or Simpson.
Struts, 4-by-4 up to 4-by-8 in size, can be connected by nailing
through the connectors. When 6-by-6 or 8-by-8 struts are
required, use 1/4-inch-thick angles top and bottom of the strut
with eight 3/4-inch lag bolts, four into the strut and four into the
pile (see the
marketing literature from manufacturers of timber connectors).
B.3 GRADE BEAMS
In all cases, piles should be braced at the ground line by
either a wood grade beam, a reinforced concrete grade beam,
or a concrete slab deepened and well reinforced at the edges.
These at-grade supports should be attached firmly to the pile to
provide support even if earth is scoured from beneath the
grade beam/slab.
If wood grade beams are used, the members and
connections should be identical to the members and
connections selected for the struts.
Bracing B-7
TABLE B-1
HORIZONTAL WATER LOADS PER PILE (POUNDS) IN 80 MPH WINDS
PILE 8-INCH TIP PILES
HEIGHT 8x8 10x10 WITH EMBEDMENTS OF
(FEET) PILES PILES 10 FT 20 FT 30 FT
10.0 2164 2645 1538 1683 1827
10.5 2343 2869 1659 1817 1975
11.0 2531 3104 1786 1958 2130
11.5 2726 3348 1918 2104 2291
12.0 2929 3602 2055 2256 2458
12.5 3140 3865 2197 2415 2632
13.0 3359 4139 2345 2579 2813
13.5 3586 4423 2498 2749 3000
14.0 3821 4716 2657 2925 3194
14.5 4064 5020 2821 3107 3394
15.0 4314 5333 2990 3295 3601
15.5 4573 5657 3164 3489 3815
16.0 4840 5990 3344 3689 4034
16.5 5114 6333 3530 3895 4261
17.0 5396 6686 3720 4107 4494
17.5 5687 7049 3916 4325 4733
18.0 5985 7421 4117 4548 4979
18.5 6291 7804 4324 4778 5232
19.0 6605 8197 4536 5013 5491
19.5 6927 8599 4753 5255 5757
20.0 7257 9011 4976 5502 6029
20.5 7595 9434 5204 5756 6307
21.0 7940 9866 5437 6015 6593
21.5 8294 10308 5676 6280 6884
22.0 8656 10760 5920 6551 7183
NOTE: WATER LOADS INCLUDE WAVE FORCES, CURRENT DRAG FORCES, AND IMPACT FORCES OF 300-POUND DEBRIS.
TABLE B-1 CONTINUED
10.0 2192 2675 1564 1709 1854
10.5 2372 2900 1685 1844 2002
11.0 2560 3135 1812 1985 2157
11.5 2755 3379 1944 2131 2319
12.0 2959 3634 2081 2284 2486
12.5 3170 3898 2224 2443 2661
13.0 3390 4172 2372 2607 2842
13.5 3617 4457 2526 2778 3029
14.0 3852 4751 2685 2954 3224
14.5 4095 5054 2849 3136 3424
15.0 4347 5368 3018 3325 3631
15.5 4605 5692 3193 3519 3845
16.0 4872 6026 3373 3719 4065
16.5 5147 6369 3559 3925 4292
17.0 5430 6723 3750 4137 4525
17.5 5721 7086 3946 4355 4765
18.0 6019 7459 4147 4579 5011
18.5 6326 7842 4354 4809 5264
19.0 6640 8235 4566 5045 5524
19.5 6963 8638 4784 5287 5790
20.0 7293 9051 5007 5534 6062
20.5 7631 9474 5235 5788 6341
21.0 7977 9907 5469 6048 6627
21.5 8331 10349 5708 6313 6919
22.0 8693 10802 5952 6585 7217
Bracing B-9
TABLE B-1 CONTINUED
10.0 2275 2763 1639 1786 1933
10.5 2456 2990 1762 1922 2082
11.0 2644 3226 1889 2063 2238
11.5 2841 3471 2022 2211 2400
12.0 3046 3727 2160 2364 2569
12.5 3258 3993 2303 2524 2744
13.0 3479 4269 2452 2689 2926
13.5 3707 4554 2606 2861 3115
14.0 3944 4850 2766 3038 3310
14.5 4188 5155 2931 3221 3511
15.0 4440 5470 3101 3410 3719
15.5 4700 5795 3277 3605 3934
16.0 4968 6130 3458 3806 4155
16.5 5244 6475 3644 4013 4382
17.0 5528 6830 3835 4226 4617
17.5 5820 7195 4032 4445 4857
18.0 6119 7569 4235 4670 5105
18.5 6427 7954 4442 4900 5358
19.0 6742 8348 4655 5137 5619
19.5 7066 8752 4874 5379 5885
20.0 7397 9167 5097 5628 6159
20.5 7737 9591 5326 5882 6439
21.0 8084 10025 5561 6143 6725
21.5 8439 10469 5800 6409 7018
22.0 8802 10922 6045 6681 7318
TABLE B-1 CONTINUED
10.0 2366 2861 1723 1871 2020
10.5 2548 3088 1846 2008 2170
11.0 2738 3326 1974 2150 2327
11.5 2936 3573 2108 2299 2490
12.0 3142 3831 2247 2453 2660
12.5 3356 4098 2391 2614 2836
13.0 3577 4375 2541 2780 3019
13.5 3807 4662 2696 2952 3209
14.0 4045 4959 2856 3130 3405
14.5 4290 5266 3022 3314 3607
15.0 4543 5582 3193 3504 3816
15.5 4805 5909 3369 3700 4032
16.0 5074 6246 3551 3902 4254
16.5 5351 6592 3738 4110 4482
17.0 5636 6948 3930 4324 4718
17.5 5929 7315 4128 4544 4959
18.0 6230 7691 4331 4769 5208
18.5 6539 8077 4540 5001 5462
19.0 6855 8473 4753 5238 5724
19.5 7180 8878 4972 5482 5991
20.0 7513 9294 5197 5731 6266
20.5 7853 9720 5427 5987 6547
21.0 8202 10155 5662 6248 6834
21.5 8558 10601 5902 6515 7128
22.0 8922 11056 6148 6788 7429
Bracing B-11
TABLE B-1 CONTINUED
10.0 2466 2967 1814 1965 2115
10.5 2650 3197 1938 2102 2267
11.0 2841 3436 2067 2246 2424
11.5 3040 3685 2202 2395 2589
12.0 3247 3944 2342 2551 2760
12.5 3462 4213 2487 2712 2937
13.0 3685 4492 2637 2879 3121
13.5 3916 4780 2793 3052 3312
14.0 4155 5079 2955 3232 3509
14.5 4402 5387 3121 3417 3712
15.0 4657 5706 3293 3608 3922
15.5 4919 6034 3470 3805 4139
16.0 5190 6372 3653 4008 4362
16.5 5468 6720 3841 4216 4592
17.0 5755 7078 4034 4431 4828
17.5 6049 7446 4233 4652 5071
18.0 6351 7824 4437 4879 5320
18.5 6661 8211 4646 5111 5576
19.0 6979 8609 4861 5350 5839
19.5 7305 9016 5081 5594 6108
20.0 7639 9434 5306 5845 6383
20.5 7981 9861 5537 6101 6665
21.0 8331 10298 5773 6363 6954
21.5 8688 10745 6014 6631 7249
22.0 9054 11202 6261 6906 7550
TABLE B-1 CONTINUED
10.0 2575 3083 1914 2066 2219
10.5 2760 3314 2039 2205 2371
11.0 2952 3555 2169 2350 2530
11.5 3153 3806 2304 2500 2696
12.0 3362 4067 2445 2657 2868
12.5 3578 4338 2591 2819 3047
13.0 3803 4618 2743 2987 3232
13.5 4035 4909 2899 3162 3424
14.0 4275 5209 3062 3342 3622
14.5 4524 5519 3229 3528 3827
15.0 4780 5839 3402 3720 4038
15.5 5044 6170 3580 3918 4256
16.0 5316 6509 3764 4122 4480
16.5 5596 6859 3953 4332 4711
17.0 5883 7219 4147 4548 4949
17.5 6179 7589 4347 4770 5192
18.0 6483 7968 4552 4997 5443
18.5 6794 8358 4762 5231 5700
19.0 7114 8757 4978 5471 5964
19.5 7441 9166 5199 5716 6234
20.0 7777 9585 5425 5968 6510
20.5 8120 10015 5657 6225 6794
21.0 8471 10453 5894 6488 7083
21.5 8830 10902 6136 6758 7380
22.0 9197 11361 6384 7033 7682
Bracing B-13
TABLE B-1 CONTINUED
10.0 2692 3208 2021 2176 2331
10.5 2879 3441 2147 2316 2485
11.0 3073 3684 2278 2462 2645
11.5 3275 3937 2415 2613 2812
12.0 3485 4200 2556 2771 2985
12.5 3703 4472 2704 2934 3165
13.0 3929 4755 2856 3104 3352
13.5 4163 5047 3014 3279 3545
14.0 4405 5350 3177 3461 3744
14.5 4655 5662 3346 3648 3950
15.0 4913 5984 3520 3841 4163
15.5 5178 6316 3699 4041 4382
16.0 5452 6658 3884 4246 4607
16.5 5733 7010 4074 4457 4840
17.0 6023 7371 4269 4674 5078
17.5 6320 7743 4470 4897 5324
18.0 6625 8124 4676 5126 5575
18.5 6938 8516 4887 5360 5834
19.0 7259 8917 5104 5601 6099
19.5 7588 9328 5326 5848 6370
20.0 7925 9749 5553 6101 6648
20.5 8270 10180 5786 6359 6932
21.0 8622 10621 6024 6624 7223
21.5 8983 11072 6268 6894 7521
22.0 9352 11533 6516 7171 7825
TABLE B-2
LOADS ON TRANSVERSE TRUSS MEMBERS (POUNDS)
COMBINED A/B RATIO FOR DIAGONAL MEMBERS
HORIZONTAL STRUTS
LOAD 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
1000 1500 2121 2230 2343 2460 2581 2704
1500 2250 3182 3345 3515 3690 3871 4056
2000 3000 4243 4460 4686 4920 5161 5408
2500 3750 5303 5575 5858 6150 6452 6760
3000 4500 6364 6690 7029 7381 7742 8112
3500 5250 7425 7805 8201 8611 9032 9465
4000 6000 8485 8920 9372 9841 10323 10817
4500 6750 9546 10035 10544 11071 11613 12169
5000 7500 10607 11150 11715 12301 12903 13521
5500 8250 11667 12265 12887 13531 14194 14873
6000 9000 12728 13379 14058 14761 15484 16225
6500 9750 13789 14494 15230 15991 16775 17577
7000 10500 14849 15609 16402 17221 18065 18929
7500 11250 15910 16724 17573 18451 19355 20281
8000 12000 16971 17839 18745 19681 20646 21633
8500 12750 18031 18954 19916 20912 21936 22985
9000 13500 19092 20069 21088 22142 23226 24337
9500 14250 20153 21184 22259 23372 24517 25690
10000 15000 21213 22299 23431 24602 25807 27042
10500 15750 22274 23414 24602 25832 27097 28394
11000 16500 23335 24529 25774 27062 28388 29746
11500 17250 24395 25644 26945 28292 29678 31098
12000 18000 25456 26759 28117 29522 30968 32450
Bracing B-15
TABLE B-3
ALLOWABLE LOADS FOR SINGLE 2-BY-8 DIAGONALS
Joint at Joint at
Exterior Interior 2x8 Member
A/B Pile Pile No "A" One "A"
Ratio (pounds) (pounds) Bolt Bolt
1.00 6500 5700 4100 5500
1.43 7500 5700 4100 5500
Notes on Tables B-3 and B-4:
I. A and B are defined in Figure B-1; "A" bolts are identified
in Figure B-2.
2. Two 1 1/4-inch-diameter bolts ("B" bolts) are used to
connect diagonals to piles at exterior joints.
3. Bolts at interior joint consist of 7/8-inch-diameter bolts,
installed in a single row along the center of the diagonal.
Require three bolts per diagonal, spaced 3 inches apart;
require one bolt to connect diagonals to pile. See
Section B.2.1.1 for edge and end distances.
4, All member ends are reinforced with metal side plates
on both sides of member as described in text.
5. Member loads are determined at critical net section
through diagonal connection.
TABLE B-4
ALLOWABLE LOADS FOR SINGLE 3-BY-8 DIAGONALS
Exterior Interior 3x8 Member
A/B Joint Joint No "A" One "A"
Ratio (pounds) (pounds) Bolt Bolt
1.00 6500 10000 6700 9000
1.43 7500 10000 6700 9000
TABLE B-5
ALLOWABLE STRUT LOADS
Allowable Strut
Load (pounds) Size
3000 4x4
4800 4x6
6300 4x8
16000 6x6
16000 8x8
C-1
Appendix C
DESIGN WORKSHEETS
1 of 4
Width ______ feet
Length ______ feet
Number of Stories ______
Type of Soil ______________
Clearance Above Grade ______ feet
Design Wind Speed ______ miles per hour
Number of Piles Required (Figure A-I)
Along Width ______ or ______
Along Length ______ or ______
Combination (Width/Length) ___/___ or ___/___ or ___/___ or ___/___
Total Number (Width x Length) ______ or ______ or ______ or ______
Downward Load Per Pile (Table A-1) ______ or ______ or ______ or ______ pounds
8x8 Square Pile ______ or ______ or ______ or ______ feet
8-inch Tip Round Pile ______ or ______ or ______ or ______ feet
Horizontal Wind Load Per Pile (Table A-2) ______ or ______ or ______ or ______ pounds
2 of 4
8x8 Square Pile ______ ______ ______ ______
10x10 Square Pile ______ ______ ______ ______
8-inch Tip Round Pile ______ ______ ______ ______
Information on Enclosure Below BFE
Width x Length ___X___ or ___X___ or___X___ or ___X___ feet
Piles/Spacing Along Width ___/___ or ___/___ or ___/___ or ___/___
Piles/Spacing Along Length ___/___ or ___/___ or ___/___ or ___/___
No. of Piles in Enclosure ______ ______ ______ ______
No. of Piles Carrying Load ______ ______ ______ ______
Pressure
Wall Height ______ feet
3 of 4
Load Resistance of Breakaway Walls
Selected Fastener Size ______
No. Fasteners per Loaded Panel ______ or ______ or ______ or ______
(Table A-11)
Ultimate Capacity per Fastener ______ pounds
(Table A-10)
Panel Ultimate Capacity ______ or ______ or ______ or ______ pounds
Total Breakaway Wall Capacity ______ or ______ or ______ or ______ pounds
Horizontal Load per Pile at Breakaway ______ or ______ or ______ or ______ pounds
Wall Collapse
Horizontal Load on Top Fasteners ______ or ______ or ______ or ______ pounds
(Horizontal Load 2)
Combined Horizontal Load per Pile ______ or ______ or ______ or ______ pounds
Maximum Unbraced Height of Pile (Table A - 4.1)
4 of 4
8x8 Square Pile ______ ______ ______ ______
10x10 Square Pile ______ ______ ______ ______
8-inch Tip Round Pile ______ ______ ______ ______
Along Width ______
Along Length ______
Total Number (Width x Length) ______
Size of Pile ______
Pile Embedment Depth ______ feet
Is Bracing Required? ______ (if yes, see 'Bracing Design Worksheet')
CONNECTION DESIGN WORKSHEET
1 of 2
General House Information
Width ______ feet
Length ______ feet
Connections Between Floors
Uplift Loads per Foot of Wall (Table A-5)
Roof Connection ______ pounds per foot
Second Floor Connection ______ pounds per foot
First Floor Connection ______ pounds per foot
Connectors Selected Based on Manufacturers' Data
Type ____________
Spacing ______ inches
CONNECTION DESIGN WORKSHEET (CONTINUED)
2 of 2
Floor Beam Connection
Number of Piles Required (Figure A-1) ___/___ or ___/___ or ___/___ or ___/___
Combination (Width/Length)
Downward Load per Pile (Table A-1)
100% of Load ______ or ______ or ______ or ______ pounds
50% of Load ______ or ______ or ______ or ______ pounds
Uplift Load per Pile (Table A-6) ______ or ______ or ______ or ______ pounds
Capacity per Bolt of Selected Floor Beam
Connection (Table A-7) ______ pounds
Type of Connection ____________
Beam
Bolt Diameter ______ inches
Number of Bolts ______
Pile
Bolt Diameter ______ inches
Number of Bolts ______
BRACING DESIGN WORKSHEET
1 of 3
Width ______ feet
Length ______ feet
Clearance Above Grade ______ feet
Combination (Width/Length) ___/___ or ___/___ or ___/___ or ___/___
Can Knee Braces Be Used? (Is clearance above grade minus maximum unbraced height 4 feet or less?)
8x8 Square Pile ______ or ______ or ______ or ______
10x10 Square Pile ______ or ______ or ______ or ______
8-inch Tip Round Pile ______ or ______ or ______ or ______
If Knee Bracing Cannot Be Used, Continue on for Truss Bracing
2 of 3
Horizontal Water Loads per Pile (Table B-1)
8x8 Square Pile ______ pounds
10x 10 Square Pile ______ pounds
8-inch Tip Round Pile ______ pounds
Horizontal Wind Loads per Pile (Table A-2) ______ or ______ or ______ or ______ pounds
Combined Horizontal Loads per Pile (Wind + Water)
8x8 Square Pile ______ or ______ or ______ or ______ pounds
8-inch Tip Round Pile ______ or ______ or ______ or ______ pounds
Truss Width = B = Pile Spacing Along Length ______ or ______ or ______ or ______ feet
A/B Ratio for Diagonal Members (Figure B-1) ______ or ______ or ______ or ______
Loads on Transverse Members (Table B-2)
Struts
Diagonals
3 of 3
Information on Bracing to be Used for Selected Pile Combination
Strut Size (Table B-5) ______
Diagonals (Tables B-3 and B-4)
Single or Double ______
Size ______
"A" Bolt (yes/no) ______
Design Equations and Procedures D-1
Appendix D
DESIGN EQUATIONS AND
PROCEDURES
The engineering procedures and equations used to
develop the design tables in Appendices A and B are
presented in this appendix. Use of these procedures allows a
designer to develop and evaluate individual designs which
may not be encompassed by the typical designs addressed by
the tables.
For ease of organization, the design procedures herein
are presented in the order of and referenced to the design
tables. In general, each supporting equation is presented
descriptively, then with variable names and
actual values that were used to produce the tables. With the
assumptions clearly stated, a designer can readily substitute
alternative assumptions and values in order to evaluate a
specific design.
Variable names used in the equations generally
correspond directly to those used in the computer programs
(Appendix E) for the design tables. A few names have been
changed slightly for clarity in presentation of the equations.
D-2 Coastal Construction Manual
D.1 PROCEDURE A-1: DOWNWARD LOADS PER PILE
This procedure calculates downward loads per pile resulting from dead and frequently applied (non-storm) live loads. The
building is assumed to have 2-foot eaves.
Roof + attic load = (plan area) (unit dead + live pressures)
DATTIC = (width + 4) (length + 4) (44 psf)
Second floor load = (plan area) (unit pressure)
D2ND = (width) (Length) (38.5 psf)
First floor load = (plan area) (unit pressure)
DIST = (width) (length) (48.5 psf)
Total vertical load = VLOAD = DATTIC + D2ND + DIST
Load per pile = (total vertical load) (number of piles)
VPlLE = VLOAD/(NPW x NPD)
Note: For one-story buildings, D2ND = 0.
D.2 PROCEDURE A-2: HORIZONTAL WIND LOADS PER PILE
This procedure evaluates total horizontal wind load on the building, resolved into a horizontal load applied to the top of each
pile. The building is assumed to have 9-foot stories; the roof ridge is parallel to the wind, sloped 3:1, with 2-foot eaves.
QH = Horizontal wind pressure on story being considered, for design wind velocity from building code (psf)
W = Building width perpendicular to wind direction (ft)
Horizontal Force on attic = (vertical surface area) (wind pressure)
HATTlC = (W
2
/12) (QH)
Horizontal Force on 2nd story H2ND = (W x 9) (QH)
Horizontal force on 1st story = HIST = (W x 9) (QH)
Total horizontal load = HLOAD = HATTIC + H2ND + HIST
Horizontal load per pile = (total load) (number of piles)
NPILE = HLOAD/(NPW x NPD)
Note: For the total horizontal load on a one-story building, omit H2ND and revise wind pressures for reduced building height.
D.3 PROCEDURE A-3: MINIMUM EMBEDMENT DEPTH OF PILES
This procedure calculates the minimum embedment depth of a pile required to safely carry a given vertical load. Soil types
considered are sand and clay. Pile types considered are 8-and 10-inch square and 8-inch tip round tapered.
S = surface area per unit length of pile
= 10 inches x 4/12 inches per foot = 10/3 square feet for 10-inch square pile
= 8 inches x 4/12 inches per foot = 8/3 square feet for 8-inch square pile
(D+TH) = (8/12 + TH) for 8-inch tip round tapered pile
T = increase in radius per length of tapered pile = typically 0.5 inch/10 feet = 1/240
K = lateral earth pressure coefficient
= buoyant unit weight of sand (pcf)
= friction angle between wood and soil (degrees)
FS = factor of safety
H = embedment depth of pile (feet)
P = allowable vertical load on pile (pounds)
Cl = clay adhesion to wood (psf)
D.3.1 Square Piles
D.3.1.1 Square Piles in Sand. Bearing capacity, P, in sand is calculated as
P = frictional capacity + tip capacity
= 1/2 H
2

K tan x S/FS + 1/2 HN
q
A/FS
Solve for H in quadratic equation:
(1/2 KS tan /FS)H
2
+(1/2 HN
q
A/FS)H-P=0 (1)
For loose sand, choosing typical soil parameters = 50 pcf, K = 0.6, = 20, N
q
= 33, equation (1) becomes:
(1/2 x 50 x 0.6 x S tan 20/FS) H
2
+ (1/2 x 50 x 33 x A/FS) H - P = 0
Substituting values for S and A corresponding to pile size and letting FS = 2.5
(1/2 x 50 x 0.6 x 8/3 x tan 20/2.5) H
2
+ (1/2 x 50 x 33 x 0.44/2.5) H - P = 0 for 8-inch piles
and
(1/2 x 50 x 0.6 x 10/3 x tan 20/2.5) H
2
For medium dense sand, choosing typical parameters = 65 pcf, K = 0.9, = 23, N
q
(1/2 x 65 x 0.9 x S tan 23/FS) H
2
+
(1/2 x 65 x 65 x A/FS) H - P = 0
Substituting values for S and A corresponding to pile size, with FS = 2.5
(1/2 x 65 x 0.9 x 8/3 x tan 23/2.5) H
2
and
(1/2 x 65 x 0.9 x 10/3 x tan 23/2.5) H
2
D.3.1.2 Square Piles in Clay. Bearing capacity P in clay is calculated as
P = adhesion capacity + tip capacity
= S x H x Cl/FS + Cl x N
c
x A/FS
where soil cohesion approximately equals soil-pile adhesion.
H= ( P x FS) - (Cl x N
c
x A ) (2)
S x Cl
For soft clay, choosing typical values Cl = 250 pcf and N
c
= 9, and letting FS = 2, equation (2) becomes:
H = 2P - (250 x 9 x 0.44 ) for 8-inch piles in soft clay
8/3 x 250
H= 2P - (250 x 9 x 0.69 ) for 10-inch piles in soft clay
10/3x250
For medium stiff clay, choosing typical values Cl = 450 pcf and Nc = 9, with FS = 2, equation (2) becomes:
H = 2P - (450 x 9 x 0.44 ) for 8-inch piles in medium stiff clay
8/3 x 450
H= 2P - (450 x 9 x 0.69 ) for 10-inch piles in medium stiff clay
10/3x450
D.3.2 Round Tapered Piles
D.3.2.1 Round Piles in Sand. Bearing capacity is calculated as
P = frictional capacity + tip capacity
= 1/2 H
2
K tan x S/FS+1/2 HNq

A/FS
= 1/2 H
2

K tan x (D + TH)/FS + 1/2 HNqA/FS
= T K tan
H
3
+

D

K tan
H
2
+ NqA
H
2 x FS 2 x FS 2 x FS
Solve for H in cubic equation:
T K tan
H
3

+

D

K tan
H
2
+ NqA
H - P = 0
2 x FS 2 x FS 2 x FS (3)
For loose sand, choosing typical soil parameters = 50 pcf, K = 0.6, 20, Nq = 33, equation (3) becomes:
T x 50 x 0.6 tan 20
H
3
+ D x 50 x 0.6 tan 20
H
2
+ 50 x 33A
H - P = 0
Substituting pile taper T = 1/240, tip diameter D = 8 inches, tip area A = 0.35 square feet, and FS = 2.5:
1/240 x x 50 x 0.6 tan 20
H
3
+ 0.33 x 50 x 0.6 tan 20
H
2

+ 50x33x0.35
H - P

= 0 for 8-inch tip piles
5 5 5
For medium dense sand, choosing typical values = 65 pcf, K = 0.9, = 23
o
, N
q
T x 65 x 0.9 tan 23
H
3
+ D x 65 x 0.9 tan 23
H
2
+ 65 x 65A
H - P = 0
Substituting the selected pile characteristics and letting FS = 2.5:
1/240 x x 65 x 0.9 tan 23
H
3

+ 0.33 x 65 x 0.9 tan 23
H
2
+ 65 x 65 x 0.35
H - P

= 0 for 8-inch tip piles
5 5 5
D.3.2.2 Round Piles in Clay. Bearing capacity is calculated as
P = adhesion capacity + tip capacity
= (S x H x Cl/FS) + (Cl x Nc X A/FS)
= (D + TH) x H x Cl/FS + Cl x Nc x A/FS
where soil cohesion approximately equals soil-pile adhesion.
Solve for H in quadratic equation:
T Cl
H
2
+
D Cl
H

+
Nc A x Cl
- P = 0
(4)
FS FS FS
For soft clay, choosing typical soil parameters Cl = 250 pcf and Nc = 9 and with FS = 2, equation (4) becomes:
T x 250
H
2
+
D x 250
H+
9A x 250
- P = 0
2 2 2
Substituting T = 1/240, D = 8 inches, and A = 0.35 square feet:
/240 x 250
H
2
+
0.67 x 250
H

+
9 x 0.35 x 250
- P = 0

for 8-inch tip piles
2 2 2
For medium stiff clay, choosing typical Cl = 450 pcf, equation (4) becomes:
1240x 450
H
2
+
0.67 x 450
H+
9 x 0.35 x 450
- P = 0

for 8-inch tip piles
2 2 2
Notes for all piles:
1. Minimum 10-foot embedment is recommended for all piles.
2. These are the embedment depths required for adequate support of vertical loads. It is essential to provide additional
embedment in erosion-prone areas. Depth of potential scour should be researched locally; if no local information is available,
assume 4 feet of scour in sand and add to above embedments for first row of houses from shore. For inland houses assume 2
feet of scour in sand and add to above embedments.
3. Required embedment to resist lateral loads was also evaluated. For the assumed soil types and minimum 10-foot
embedment, vertical capacity as calculated above was determined to be the governing criterion for embedment.
D.4 PROCEDURE A.4: MAXIMUM UNBRACED HEIGHT OF PILES
This procedure calculates maximum unbraced height of a pile by equating allowable bending moment in the pile to moment
generated by water and debris forces on the pile and wind forces on the building.
F
m
= wave force on pile (pounds)
M
m
= moment of wave force around pile base (foot-pounds)
F
d
= current drag force on pile (pounds)
M
d
= moment of current drag force around pile base (foot-pounds)
F = debris impact force on pile (pounds)
M = moment of debris impact force around pile base (foot-pounds)
LOAD = applied wind load at top of pile (pounds)
M
w
= moment of wind force around pile base (foot-pounds)
M
p
= allowable bending moment in pile (foot-pounds)
DIA = diameter of pile (inches)
H
w
= design water height = minimum pile height above existing grade (feet)
H
p
= actual pile height above existing grade (feet)
D.4.1 Moment of Wave Forces
Wave force on a pile is derived in Procedure B-1, yielding
F
m
= 14.255 (DIA/12) H
w
2
for round piles
= 23.758 (DIA/12) H
w
2

for square piles
Moment around base of pile (1984 Shore Protection Manual ) is:
M
m
= (F
m
)(1.11d)
where d = H
w
/1.546

(see Figure D-1)
M
m
=(F
m
)(0.178 H
w
)
= 10.235 (DIA/12) H
w
3

for round piles
= 17.058 (DIA/12) H
w
3

for square piles
Water depth =
minimum pile height =
H
W
wave height
above stillwater
= 0.7 H
b
H
W
= (BFE) - (ground surface elevation) = d + 0.7 H
b
= H
b + 0.7 H
b
0.78
+ 1.982 H
b
Figure D-1. Water depth relationships.
D.4.2 Moment of Current Drag Forces
Current drag force on a pile is derived in Procedure B-1, yielding:
F
d
= C
D
H
W
(DIA/12) v
2
For wind speed 80 mph, assume water velocity v = 3 knots = 5.06 ft/sec:
F
d
= C
D
H
W
(DIA/12) (5.06)
2
Moment arm is 1/2 H
W
, so moment around base of pile is:
M
d
= C
D
H
W
2
(DIA/24) (5.06)
2
For wind speed > 80 mph, assume v = 5.06 ft/sec in lower 3/4 of water column and v = 0.057 W
s
in upper 1/4,
F
d
= 3/4 (C
D
H
W
) (DIA/12) (5.06)
2
+ 1/4 (C
D
H
W
) (DIA/12) (0.0587 W
s
)
2
Moment arm of lower 3/4 of water column is (3/8) H
W
, and moment arm of upper 1/4 is (7/8) H
W
. Thus moment around base of
pile is:
M
d
= (3/8) (3/4) (C
D
H
W
2
) (DIA/12) (5.06)
2
+ (7/8) (1/4) (C
D
H
W
2
) (DIA/12) (0.0587 W
s
)
2
= (C
D
H
W
2
) (DIA/12) (7.201 + 0.000754 W
s

2
)
with C
D
= 1.2 for round, 2.0 for square.
M
d
= H
W
2
(DIA/12) (8.641 + 0.000905 W
s
2
) for round piles
= H
W
2

(DIA/12) (1 4.402 + 0.00151 W
s
2
) for square piles
D.4.3 Moment of Debris Impact Forces
Debris impact force on a pile is derived in Procedure B-1. For an assumed 300-Ib debris load,
F = 238.6 lb for wind speed 80 mph
= 0.032 W
s
2

lb for wind speed > 80 mph
Debris is assumed to impact at top of pile at maximum water height, so moment arm around base of pile is equal to pile height
H
w
:
M = F x H
W
= 238.6 H
W
for wind speed 80 mph
= 0.032 W
s
2

H
W
for wind speed > 80 mph
D.4.4 Moment of Wind Forces
Resolution of wind forces on the building into horizontal loads applied to the top of a pile is described in Procedure
A-2. Moment arm around base of pile is equal to pile height H
p
, which is equal to or greater than water height H
w
.
M
W
= LOAD x H
p
D.4.5 Allowable Bending Moment of Piles
Allowable bending moment of a pile is expressed as:
M
p
= 1.33 /y
where 1.33 = factor of allowable stress increase for transient loads
= allowable tensile stress (psf)
= section modulus (ft
4
)
Y = distance to section centroid (ft) For round pile:
For round pile:
=
(DIA/12)
4

64
Y = 1/2 (DIA/12)
Assuming = 1850 psi = 1850 x 144 psf (disregarding relatively small uplift forces), then
Mp = 1.33(1850 x 144)
( DIA/ 12)
4
/(DIA/24 )
64
=
1.33(1850) (DIA)
3

384
For square pile:
=
(DIA/12)
4

12
Y = 1/2 (DIA/12)
Assuming = 1300 psi = 1300 x 144 psf (disregarding uplift forces), then
M
p
= 1.33 (1300x 144)
(DIA/12)
4

/ (DIA/24)

12
=
1.33(1300) (DIA)
3

72
D.4.6 Maximum Unbraced Pile Height
Pile height (= water height H
W
) is solved by equating allowable bending moment in pile to applied moment around base of
pile.
M
p
= M
m
+ Md + M + M
W
0 = M
m
+ Md + M + M
W
- M
p
This results in a cubic equation to be solved for pile height.
NOTES:
1. Results presented in Table A-4 are based on the assumption that pile height above grade H
p
equals maximum design
water height Hw (at BFE). For cases where H
p
> H
w
, H
w
should be expressed as a fraction of H
p
, so the above equations
can be solved for Hp, resulting in a higher allowable unbraced height.
2. If Table A-4 indicates that bracing is required, a designer may reduce some of the conservatism by reducing wave force
Fm in above equations by up to 25 percent. This is realistic because the full force of a breaking wave is likely to occur
against only one row of piles at a time, and will be distributed to other piles by the grade beams and floor frame.
D.5 PROCEDURE A-4.1: MAXIMUM UNBRACED HEIGHT FOR PILES SUPPORTING BREAKAWAY WALLS
This procedure calculates maximum unbraced height of a pile supporting a breakaway wall by equating allowable bending
moment in a pile to moment generated by wind forces on the superstructure and water and wind forces on the breakaway wall at the
moment of breakaway wall collapse.
D.5.1 Moment of Wind Forces on Superstructure
Resolution of wind forces on the building into horizontal loads applied to the top of a pile are described in Procedure
A-2. Moment arm around the base of the pile is equal to pile height H
p
:
M
W
= (wind load per pile) (H
p
)
D.5.2 Moment of Breakaway Wall Forces
Calculation of maximum forces on a breakaway wall per pile are described in the Pile Design Worksheet, based on the
allowable load range of 10 to 20 psf specified by NFIP. Moment arm around the base of the pile for half of the load (resisted by the top
fasteners) is equal to pile height H
p
. Moment arm for the half of the load resisted by the bottom fasteners is zero.
M
b
= 1/2 (breakaway wall ultimate capacity per pile) (H
p
) + 0
D.5.3 Allowable Bending Moment in Piles
The allowable bending moment of a pile, as derived in Procedure A-4, is expressed as:
M
p
=
1.33(1850) (DIA)
3

for round piles

384
=
1.33(1300)(DIA)
3

for square piles

72
D.5.4 Calculation of Maximum Unbraced Pile Height
Pile height H
p
is solved for by equating allowable bending moment in a pile to applied moment around the base of the pile.
M
p
= M
W
+ M
b
= (H
p
) (wind load per pile + 1/2 breakaway wall ultimate capacity per pile)
Solving for H
p
:
H
p
= 1.33 (1850) (DIA)
3

/384 (wind load + 1/2 wall capacity) for round piles
= 1.33(1300)(DIA)
3
/72 (wind load + 1/2 wall capacity) for square piles
D.6 PROCEDURE A.5: UPLIFT LOADS PER FOOT OF WALL
This procedure produces wind-induced uplift load values per foot of wall at connections between stories of one- and two-story
buildings. The building is assumed to have 9-foot stories; the roof ridge is parallel to the wind, sloped 3:1, with 2-foot eaves.
QH = horizontal wind pressure on story being considered, from building code (psf)
QV = vertical uplift pressure on roof (psf)
QU = vertical uplift pressure on exposed underside of building (psf)
W = building width perpendicular to wind direction (feet)
L = building length parallel to wind direction (feet)
Uplift loads at each connection level are sum of vertical uplift minus dead loads plus uplift resulting from moment due to
horizontal loads.
D.6.1 Rafter Connections
Roof uplift = (roof surface area) (wind uplift pressure)
VIROOF = (W + 4) (L + 4) (QV)
Dead load of roof and attic = (plan area) (unit dead load)
DATTIC = (W + 4) (L + 4) (14 psf)
Horizontal force on attic = (vertical surface area) (wind pressure)
HIATIC - (W
2
/12) (QH)
Moment due to horizontal force = (force) (moment arm to centroid)
MIATIC = (HIATIC) (W/18)
Summation of uplift on rafter connections, along two lengths of house (see Figure D-2):
( roof uplift) - (dead load )
+(vertical surface area) (wind pressure)
connected length
NIATIC =
VIROOF - DATTIC
+
MIATIC
2L (2/3)L
2
Note: Wind pressures based on ANSI A58.1 - 1982 vary with building height. Therefore, uplift on roof connections differs for one-and
two-story buildings.
D.6.2 Connections Between Stories
Roof uplift on two-story roof = V2ROOF = (W + 4) (L + 4) (QV)
Dead load of second story = (plan area) (unit dead load)
D2ND = (W) (L) (8.5 psf)
Dead load of roof and attic = DATTIC = (W + 4) (L + 4) (14 psf)
Horizontal force on second story = (vertical surface area) (wind pressure)
H2ND = (W x 9) (QH)
Horizontal force on attic = H2ATIC = (W
2
/12) (QH)
Moment due to total horizontal force above connections = (force) (moment arm)
M2ND = (H2ND x 4.5) (H2ATIC x (W/18 + 9))
Summation of uplift on connections, around full perimeter (see Figure D-3):
roof uplift - total dead load + vertical force resisting applied moment
perimeter
K2ND =
VIROOF - (DA TTIC + D2ND)
+
M2ND
2L + 2W L (W + 2L/3)
applied moment = MIATIC = resisting moment = (2) (1/2 FL) (2/3L)
maximum force F = MIATIC/ (2/3L
2
)
Figure D-2. Resisting force - roof connections.
applied moment = M2ND = resisting moment = (2) (1/2 FL) (FW)(L)
maximum force F = M2ND/ (L)(W = 2/3L)
Figure D-3. Resisting force - story connections.
D.6.3 Bottom Floor Connections (Two-story)
V2ROOF = (W + 4) (L + 4) (QV)
Dead load of 1st story = (plan area) (unit dead load)
DIST =(W x L)(8.5psf)
D2ND = W x L (8.5 psf)
DATTIC = (W + 4) (L + 4) (14 psf)
Horizontal force on 1st story = (vertical surface area) (wind pressure)
HlST2 = (W x 9) (QH)
H2ND = (W x 9) (QH)
H2ATIC = (W
2
/12) (QH)
Vertical uplift on exposed underside = (surface area) (wind pressure)
VUNDER = (W x L) (QU)
Moment due to total horizontal force = (force) (moment arm)
MIST2=(HIST2 x 4.5)+(H2ND x 13.5)+(H2ATIC x (W/18+18))
Summation of uplift on connections, around full perimeter (see Figure D-3):
roof uplift + underside uplift - dead load
+ vertical force resisting applied moment
perimeter
NIST2 =
V2ROOF + VUNDER - (DATTIC + D2ND + DIST)
+
MIST1
2L + 2W L (W + 2L/3)
Note: For bottom floor uplift on a one-story building, omit second story dead loads and horizontal forces, and revise wind pressures
and moment arms.
D.7 PROCEDURE A-6: UPLIFT LOADS PER PILE
This procedure calculates uplift loads per pile resulting from wind forces on the building. The building is assumed to have 9-foot
stories; roof ridge is parallel to wind, sloped 3:1, with 2-foot eaves.
QH = Horizontal wind pressure on story being considered, for design wind velocity from building code (psf)
QV = Vertical uplift pressure on roof (psf)
QU = Vertical uplift pressure on exposed underside of building (psf)
W = Building width perpendicular to wind direction (feet)
L = Building length parallel to wind direction (feet)
NPW = Number of piles along building width
N = Number of piles along building length
F
o
= Maximum uplift per pile due to moment (pounds)
Uplift loads at top of piles are sum of vertical uplift minus dead loads plus uplift resulting from moment due to horizontal loads.
D.7.1 Forces on Roof and Attic
Vertical uplift on roof = (surface area) (wind pressure)
V2ROOF = (W + 4) (L + 4) (QV)
Dead load of roof, attic = (plan area) (unit pressure)
DATTIC = (W + 4) (L + 4) (14 psf)
Horizontal force on attic = (vertical surface area) (wind pressure)
H2ATIC =
W
2
(QH)

12
D.7.2 Uplift Forces on Second Story
Dead load of second story = (plan area) (unit pressure)
D2ND = (W x L) (8.5 psf)
Horizontal force on second story = (vertical surface area) (wind pressure)
H2ND = (W x 9) (OH)
D.7.3 Uplift Forces on First Story
Dead load of first story = (plan area) (unit pressure)
DIST = (W x L) (8.5 psf)
Horizontal force on first story = (vertical surface area) (wind pressure)
HIST2 = (W x 9) (QH)
Vertical uplift on exposed underside of building = (exposed surface area) (wind pressure)
VUNDER = (W x L) (QU)
D.7.4 Uplift at Top of Piles Due to Vertical Loads
Total vertical load = roof uplift + underside uplift - dead loads
VLOAD2 = V2ROOF + VUNDER -(DATTIC + D2ND + DIST)
Vertical load per pile = total vertical load/number of piles
VPILE2 = VLOAD2/(NPW + N)
D.7.5 Uplift at Top of Piles Due to Moment
Moment about top of piles = (summation of horizontal forces) (moment arms)
MMENT2 = (H2ATIC x (W/18 + 18)) + (H2ND x 13.5) + (HIST2 x 4.5)
For each row of piles parallel to applied wind moment MMENT2, we want to solve for maximum resisting force F
o
, which
occurs at outermost piles. The force in each interior pile is proportional to its distance from centroid (see Figure D-4, a and b).
Total moment on row of piles = summation of (F x moment arm),
where moment arm = (spacing) (number of spaces to centroid)
Moment
row
=2 F
o
x 1/2
L
(N-1)+2F
1
x 1/2
L
(N-3)+2F
2
x 1/2
L
(N-5) +...
N-1 N-1 N-1
In terms of F
o
, from Figure D-4:
Moment
row

= F
o
x
L
(N-1) +
F
o
(N-3) L
(N-3)+
F
o
(N-5) L
(N-5) +...
N-1 N-1 N-1 N-1 N-1
Total moment MMENT2 = (Moment
row
) (NPW)
Solving for F
o
:
where ( N - x)
2

terms are added in numerator until (N - x) 0
(N- 1)
2
elevation
length L
(# piles = N)
plan
Figure 4-a. Applied moment on pile row.
# pile bays along length L = N-1
F
1
= (spacing)(1/2)(#bays - 2) = (N-1)-2
F
o
(spacing)(1/2)(#bays) N-1
F
2
= (N-1) -4 etc.
F
o
N-1
Figure 4-b. Resisting forces along pile row.
D.7.6 Total Uplift at Top of Piles
Total uplift per pile = (uplift due to vertical loads) + (uplift due to moment)
NVMAX2 = VPILE2 + F
o
Note: For one-story buildings, omit D2ND and H2ND, and revise wind pressures and moment arms for reduced height.
D.8 PROCEDURE B-1: HORIZONTAL WATER LOADS PER PILE
This procedure calculates horizontal water loads per pile for varying wind speeds. Maximum water loads include
inertial and drag forces of waves, current drag forces, and impact forces of waterborne storm debris.
F
m
= wave force (pounds)
D = pile width or diameter (feet)
DIA = pile width or diameter (inches)
= unit mass of water (lb-sec
2
/ft)
g = gravitational acceleration (ft/sec
2
)
H
b
= wave height (feet)
H
W
= total water depth = minimum pile height (feet)
H
p
= actual pile height (feet)
F
d
= current drag force (pounds)
A = projected area of pile = H
W
x DIA/12 for square or round (square feet)
W
s =
wind speed (mph)
D.8.1 Wave Forces
For shallow water breaking waves, force on round pile (1984 Shore Protection Manual) :
F
m
C
D
x 1/2 gD H
b
2
with C
D
= 1.75 for breaking wave
= (1.75) (1/2) (2) (32.2) (DIA) (H
b
2
)
= 56 ( DIA ) H
b
2
12
Expressing H
b
in terms of total water depth H
W
(see Figure D-1):
F
m
= 56 (DIA/12) H
W
/1.982)
2
= 14.255 (DIA/12) H
W
2

for round piles
For square piles, multiply by ratio of current drag coefficients (2.0 square/1.2 round):
F
m
= 14.255 (2.01/1.2)(DIA/12) H
W
2
= 23.758 (DIA/12) H
W
2

for square piles
D.8.2 Current Drag Forces
Drag force due to currents (1984 Shore Protection Manual) :
F
d
= 1/2 C
D
Av
2
For wind velocity of 80 mph or less, assume water column velocity = 3 knots = 5.06 ft/sec.
F
d
= (1/2) (2) C
D
H
W
(DIA/12) (5.06)
2
with C
D
= 2.0 for square piles
= 1.2 for round piles
For wind velocity greater than 80 mph, assume water velocity of lower 3/4 of water column is 5.06 ft/sec. Assume water velocity
in upper 1/4 of water column is affected by wind shear and is equal to 4 percent of wind speed W
s
.
V 3/4 = 5.06
V 1/4 =0.04 x W
s
mph x 88ft/sec = 0.0587 W
s
60 mph
F
d
3/4 = 3/4 (1/2 x 2 x C
D
x H
W
x (DIA/12) x 5.06
2
)
= 3/48 x C
D
x H
W
x DIA x (5.06)
2
F
d
1/4 = 1/4 (1/2 x 2 x C
D
x H
W
x (DIA/12) x (0.0587 W
s
)
2
)
= 1/48 (C
D
H
W
) (DIA) (0.0587 W
s
)
2
Total F
d
= F
d
3/4 + F
d
1/4
= 1/48 x C
D
x H
W
x DIA (3 x (5.06)
2
+ (0.0587 W
s
)
2
)
with C
D
= 2.0 for square piles
= 1.2 for round piles
D.8.3 Debris Impact Forces
Using basic relations of deflection, velocity, and acceleration:
Deflection S = 1/2 at
2

and a = v/t
So, S = 1/2 (v/t)t
2
t = 2S/v
Impact force F = m dv
dt
= m v/(2S/v)
If we consider a 300-pound debris load, moving with the velocity of the water surface for various wind speeds, and an
allowable pile deflection of 0.5 feet,
F = 300 v
32.2 (l/v)
= 9.32 v
2
= 9.32 (5.06)
2
= 238.6 lb for wind speed 80 mph
= 9.32 (0.0587 W
s
)
2

= 0.032 W
s
2

lb for wind speed > 80 mph
D.8.4 Total Forces on Piles
Maximum water loads per pile = wave forces + current forces + debris impact forces
= F
m
+ F
d
+ F
D.9 PROCEDURE B-2: LOADS TRANSFERRED TO FOUNDATION TRUSS MEMBERS
This procedure evaluates loads imparted to horizontal and diagonal bracing members resulting from longitudinally applied
horizontal loads (applied parallel to truss).
Horizontal strut load = 1.5 (applied horizontal load)
STRUT = 1.5 (load)
Diagonal load = (strut load)
diagonal length
strut length
DIAG = STRUT x
Computer Program Listings E-1
Appendix E
COMPUTER PROGRAM LISTINGS
E-2 Coastal Construction Manual
Construction Cost F-1
Appendix F
CONSTRUCTION COST
A variety of construction methods, as presented in this
manual, exist for elevating residential structures in coastal high
hazard areas, and for reducing wind and water damage to
these houses in severe storms. Implementation of these
construction methods, however, can be expected to increase
the cost of the structure over conventional at-grade)
construction. These costs are dependent upon site conditions,
material costs, and labor costs and will differ in various regions
of the country and even among contractors in the same area.
Reported costs were found a vary considerably, reflecting both
real differences in costs of construction and differences in how
costs are allocated.
To provide some guidance as to the magnitude of .costs
that can be expected, ranges of costs have been determined
for various methods of elevation and structure protection.
Values of "average" or "typical" cost are given where possible.
These costs, presented in detail below, include all material,
labor, and installation costs and are the cost to the consumer.
Sources for this information include local building contractors,
state and local officials, and various cost estimating
publications.
The cost information presented here serves only to give
the reader a general idea of the costs of coastal storm-resistant
construction. These data cannot be directly applied to
estimating costs of a structure in a specific community. For this,
extensive contacts with local suppliers and contractors will be
necessary.
F. 1 FOUNDATIONS
As discussed in Section 4.3.1 of this manual, foundation
systems for residential structures in coastal high hazard areas
typically consist of piles or a combination of below-ground piles
and above-ground piers. Costs are presented in the following
subsections (F.1.1 through F.1.6) for various components of
these foundation systems, including the piles, pile caps, grade
beams, piers, and pile-to-beam connections.
F.1.1 Wood Piles
F.1.1.1 Types of Wood Piles. Pile foundations, specifically
wood pile foundations, are the most commonly used method
for elevating residential structures in coastal high hazard
areas. The piles may terminate at the ground surface or extend
upward to the floor beam or roof. Two different types of wood
piles are typically employed--circular and square in cross
section. The selection of "round" (tapered cylindrical) or square
piles is usually made on the basis of required depth of
embedment, local availability, and custom and does not
generally represent a cost evaluation. Square piles usually
have dimensions of 8 by 8 or 10 by 10 inches, and round piles
are usually 8 inches in tip diameter with a 12-inch butt. The
choice of method for installing piles--drilling, jetting, or driving--
also tends to be a matter of local custom and soil conditions. A
number of factors affect the cost of positioning piles, such as
the availability of contractors capable of doing this work, costs
of mobilizing equipment onsite, and the type of soils to be
encountered in driving. For example, in certain areas on the
West Coast where reported pile costs are highest, large
boulders that would prevent pile driving must often be removed
before piles can be embedded.
F-2 Coastal Construction Manual
F.1.1.2 Wood Pile Costs. The range of costs determined for
typical sizes and lengths of square and round wood piles are
presented in table F-1. The costs for installing the piles--by
jetting, driving, or a combination of these methods--are
presented in Table F-2. It was determined that pile installation
can be expected to cost between $90
and $381 per pile for 18-to 30-foot piles (i.e., about $5 to $13
per linear foot, installed)). Installation costs typically range
from about $2 per linear foot for straightforward installation to
$15 per linear foot for difficult installation (e.g., boulders).
TABLE F-1
Pile Costs
*
Dimensions Member
Type (inches) Length (ft) $/ft $/Member
Square Timber 8x8-inch 18 5-10.50 90-188
Square Timber 10x10-inch 24 8.70-15.90 209-381
Round Timber 8-inch-dia. 18 7.50-12.70 135-229
Precast Concrete 10x10-inch 18-30 6.80-16.00 68-160
Precast Concrete 12x12-inch 18-30 9-16.00 90-160
Poured-in Place Concrete Variable 8 8-9.50 65-76
__________________
*All costs are 1985 cost to consumer for installed piles.
TABLE F-2
COSTS FOR COMPONENTS OF PILE FOUNDATION
COMPONENT TYPE DIMENSIONS COST ($)
Embedment Drive Piles Not Applicable 2.20-15.00/linear foot
Embedment Jet Piles Not Applicable 1.70-3.40/linear foot
Pile Support Knee Bracing Two-2"x4" or 2"x6" 17.00-27.00/pile
Members
Pile Support Diagonal Bracing Two-2"x6" or 2"x8" 11.00-24.00/set
Members
Grade Beam Reinforced Concrete 8x 16-inch to 7.70-27.50/ft
24x 24-inch
Pile Cap Reinforced Concrete Variable 45-330/pile
Timber Pile to Floor Beam Galvanized Bolts 1/2-inch-dia
.
2.50-4.00/bolt
Connections to 1 1/4-inch-dia.
F.1.1.3 Pile Support. Piles are often supported with additional
knee or diagonal bracing between the piles. Knee bracing
typically consists of two 2-by-8-inch boards or one 4-by-4 inch
timber bolted to the pile and floor beam,

and can be expected
to cost between $17 and $27 per pile. Diagonal bracing may
consist of two 2-by-8-inch 3-by-8-inch planks or metal rods
connected between the piles. The cost for wood diagonal
bracing between two piles was determined to be between $11
and $24. These costs have been included on Table F-2.
F.1.2 Concrete Piles
Precast concrete piles may also be used for foundation
support and are installed using a pile driver. At certain sites,
subsurface conditions preclude the driving of piles. A method is
used in the Florida Keys by which holes are augered and
poured-in-place piles are formed. As presented on Table F- 1,
costs for precast piles were determined to be between $7 and
$16 per linear foot for ) 10-by-10-inch piles and between $9
and $16 per linear foot for 12-by-12-inch piles. Costs of $8 to
$9.50 per linear foot were determined for piles developed by
the poured-in-place method.
F.1.3 Pile Caps and Grade Beams
A variation of the pile foundation system includes concrete
or wooden piles terminating just below the ground surface and
covered with a pile cap. A grade beam is poured over the pile
caps and connected to the piers elevating the structure to
ensure stability of the building. pile cap costs are dependent
upon the pile dimensions and resultant cap dimensions
required, but range in cost between $45 and $330 per pile.
Reinforced grade beams range in size from 8 by I 6 inches to
24 by 24 inches and in cost from $7.70 to $27.50 per linear
foot. Costs for these two aspects of pile foundations are
presented in Table F-2.
F.1.4 Masonry and Concrete Piers
To elevate the structure above the pile/grade beam
system, masonry or concrete piers may be employed.
Reinforced concrete masonry piers for which cost data are
available are typically 8 by 16 inches or 12 by 12 inches and
range in price between $2 and $14 per linear foot (including
footing cost). Reinforced concrete piers are usually more
expensive than masonry, as verified by the $14 to $48 per
linear foot costs observed for 1-by-2-foot piers, presented in
Table F-3. Note that larger (and correspondingly more
expensive) piers are recommended in this manual, as
presented in Tables A-8 and A-9. These piers would likely cost
$20 to $50 per installed foot.
F.1.5 Pile to Floor Beam Connections
Floor beams may be connected to pier and pile systems
by several methods. When the pier or pile is precast reinforced
concrete, reinforced masonry, or cast-in-place concrete,
reinforcement rods or other metal fasteners are provided to
connect to the wooden floor beams or cast-in-place floor
beams. Wooden piles are often bolted to wooden floor beams
using hot-dipped galvanized bolts and/or metal connecting
plates. The cost of the bolts was determined to be
approximately $2.62 per bolt for 1/2-inch-diameter bolts; $2.75
per bolt for 5/8-inch -diameter bolts; and between $300 and
$385 for the complete pile system using 3/4-inch bolts.
F.2 STRUCTURAL BRACING
In addition to the bracing required to stabilize and
support the foundation, bracing is required in the structure to
resist the wind and water loads in coastal high hazard areas.
This bracing includes support between the joist and floor
beam, along the external walls, and between the roof truss and
walls.
F.2.1 Joist to Floor Beam Connection
Floor joists are connected to floor beams using a
hurricane clip, which is secured to the beam on one end and to
the joist on the other end. The cost for hurricane clips is
typically between $7 and $12 per 100 clips.
F.2.2 Stud Straps and Corner Bracing
Additional support is provided along the external walls
and specifically at the corners by applying stud straps between
the studs, and/or by attaching plywood to the corners of the
building. Stud straps cost between $.18 and $.29 per strap and
plywood costs were determined to range from $.71 to $1.12 per
installed square foot for 3/8-inch-to 5/8-inch-thick sheeting.
These costs are presented in Table F-4.
F.2.3 Roof Truss Connections
In order to provide a continuous connection from the roof
to the foundation, hurricane clips are often used to .connect the
roof trusses to the building. The same cost of $7 to $12 per
100 clips is incurred for these hurricane clips.
F.3 ADDITIONAL COSTS
As discussed in Section 4.3.6, it is usually
recommended that all utilities be raised above the BFE. The
cost of elevating utilities is directly related to the height of the
structure and therefore the distance the utilities must be raised
and the additional materials and labor involved. Costs for
raising various utilities are presented in Table F-4, and
range from $3 to $16.50 per foot. These elements can be
expected to increase costs between $200 )and $600 per
dwelling.
TABLE F-3
COSTS FOR PIERS AND SHEAR WALL FOUNDATIONS
Height of
Means of Elevation Dimensions (inches) Member (Feet) $/foot $/member
Reinforced Concrete Pier 12x24 8-12 14-48.00 112-528.00
Reinforced Concrete Masonry Pier 12x12 or 8x16 8 2.00-13.75 17.-110.00
10 2.50-13.75 24-138.00
12 11.60-13.75 139-165.00
TABLE F-4
COSTS FOR OTHER COMPONENTS
OF ELEVATED CONSTRUCTION
Component Cost/Unit ($)
Hurricane clips 7-12/100 clips
Stud straps .18-.19/strap
3/8" plywood sheet (installed) .71-.87/square foot
1/2" plywood sheet (installed) .84-.91/square foot
5/8" plywood sheet (installed) .91-1.12/square foot
Raise water utility 4-8.80/foot
Raise sewer utility 6-16.50/foot
Raise gas utility 4.00/foot
Raise electric utility 3.00/foot
F.3.1 Breakaway Walls
Breakaway walls are sometimes constructed between
the grade and elevated first floor. Breakaway walls may be
constructed of lattice work, stud walls, or concrete block, as
presented in Section 4.3.5. For purposes of this study, lattice
was assumed to consist of furring over a wood frame; concrete
block breakaway walls were assumed to consist of non-
reinforced block with a styrene filler at the top of the block.
Since breakaway walls differ from normal walls only in the
extent of reinforcing and connection, costs would not be
expected to differ significantly from normal wall costs. The
expected cost of these three forms of breakaway walls, as
presented in Table F-S, range from $.75 per square foot for
lattice work to $2.70 to $3.10 per square foot for concrete block
breakaway walls.
F.3.2 Other Costs
Several other factors could also add cost to residential
structures built in coastal high hazard areas. All portions of the
building outside of the main structure itself must be securely
attached and anchored. These include porch overhangs,
external stairways, and decks. In addition, because the
structure is elevated, all exterior construction above the
foundation will require the use of scaffolding. One builder
estimated that this causes a 20 to 30 percent increase in labor
costs.
F.4 COST COMPARISON FOR ELEVATED AND NON-
ELEVATED STRUCTURES
The total costs of elevating residential structures in
coastal high hazard areas, as previously discussed, depend
upon numerous factors. Discussions with builders and local
officials revealed, however, that the additional cost to elevate a
structure over the cost of at-grade construction
can be expected to be between $1.30 and $5.10 per square
foot. This additional cost was also determined to vary with the
size of the structure, with higher additional unit (square foot)
costs being associated with larger structures.
For purposes of this study a cost comparison was made
for a 28-by-32-foot building constructed on pilings and one
built on a monolithic slab. This analysis indicates not only the
components of elevated construction that must be considered
in estimating building costs in coastal high hazard areas, but
also the magnitude of additional cost that can be expected.
Costs were obtained from Tables F-I through F-4, and average
costs were assumed where ranges of costs existed.
For purposes of this example, the lowest floor of the
structure was built 10 feet above grade on 8-by-8inch wood
pilings, 24 feet long and arranged in four rows, each containing
four piles. The piles were supported by knee bracing (two
braces per pile) and a 12-by-24-inch grade beam. The piles
were connected to the floor beam using two 5/8-inch
galvanized bolts per pile, and the floor joists were connected to
the floor beam using hurricane clips. The external walls were
supported using stud straps and the thick plywood sheets (two
per corner). A completely tied down system was ensured by
applying hurricane clips to the roof trusses. In addition, the
utilities (water supply, sewerage, and electricity) were raised
10 feet to the first floor elevation.
TABLE F-5
BREAKAWAY WALL COSTS
Type of Wall Dimensions (inches) $/square foot
Lattice Work 1x2 (furring) .75
Stud Wall with Plywood Sheathing 2x4 (16 to 24 O.C.) 1.50-2.00
Block Wall 6 or 8 (thick) 2.70-3.10
TABLE F-6
ELEVATION COSTS FOR 28-by-32-FOOT HOUSE
1. Foundation
a. Pile Cost
a.1 24-foot 8X8 inch piles x $8.50 per foot = $204 per pile
a.2 $204 per pile x 16 piles = $3,264.00
b. Knee bracing
b.1 $22 per pile x 16 piles = $352.00
c. Grade Beam
c.1 $7.70 per foot x 184 feet = $1,417.00
d. Pile to Floor Beam Connection
d.1 $5.50 per 2-5/8 inch bolts x 16 piles = $88.00
d.2 $2.35 per pile labor costs x 16 piles = $38.00
Foundation Total = $5,159
2. Connections and Support
a. Floor Joist to Floor Beam Connection
a.1 44 floor joists x 2 hurricane clips per joist = 88 clips
a.2 $.095 per clip (9.50 per 100) x 88 clips = $8.36
a.3 $1.17 per clip labor costs x 88 clips = $103.00
b. Stud Straps
b.1 120 feet of external walls/3 = 40 straps
b.2 40 straps x .29 per strap = $11.60
b.3 $1.17 per strap labor costs x 50 straps = $47.00
c. Plywood Corner Bracing (2 sheets per corner)
c.1 8 sheets x 32 square feet per sheet = 256 square feet
c.2 $.84 per square foot x 256 square feet = $215
d. Roof Truss Connection
d.1 44 roof trusses x two hurricane clips per truss = 88 clips
d.2 $.095 per clip x 88 clips = $8.36
d.3 $1.17 per clip labor costs x 88 clips = $103.00
Connections and Support Total = $ 497
3. Utilities
a. Water
elevated 10 feet above grade x 6.40 per foot = $64.00
b. Sewer
c. Electricity
Utilities Total = $ 209
Total for elevating structure = $5,865
A worksheet of the cost calculations is presented in
Table F-6. As shown on this sheet, the total cost of elevating
and supporting this structure is approximately $5,865. Since
the structure is 896 square feet in size, this additional cost of
construction is equivalent to $6.54 per square foot. According
to Means Residential/Light Commercial Cost Guide (Means,
1985), the cost of at-grade cost of at-grade or a one-story
house ranges from $35.70 to $44.40 per square foot. This
additional cost of $6.54 per square foot, therefore, represents
an increase in cost of 15 to 1B percent over at-grade
construction.
It should be noted that, although this cost appears
higher than those obtained from builders and officials, this
analysis represents a complete and more detailed level of
support and bracing than is often encountered in coastal
construction. Typically the foundation system may be lacking
the additional support of the grade beam, which would lower
the additional cost of construction to $4.96 per square foot or
11 to 14 percent of the cost of construction at grade.
Sample Coastal Construction Code G-1
Appendix G
SAMPLE COASTAL
CONSTRUCTION CODE
This sample code is provided for local jurisdictions that
wish to develop a coastal construction code to supplement the
governing building code. Each jurisdiction will need to tailor
the code provisions to account for specific circumstances, such
as storm history, beach configuration, soil conditions, and local
building practices.
The sample code, as presented here, is not intended to
provide detailed design instructions and requirements; rather it
provides a framework through which key elements of coastal
construction can be identified, thereby assuring their inclusion
in the design process. The code is based on the standards for
wind loading relationships prepared by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) and for water loading from the
Shore Protection Manual , prepared by the Corps of Engineers'
Waterways Experiment Station. The NFIP Coastal
Construction Manual ( Design and Construction Manual for
Residential Structures in Coastal High Hazard Areas ) is also
referenced in the code, both as guide to interpreting material in
the ANSI Standards and the Shore Protection Manual , and
as a source of supplemental information. Relatively routine
low-rise structures designed solely with the provisions of the
Coastal Construction Manual will meet the requirements of this
code. Although the NFIP manual may offer some guidance,
design of larger, unusual, or more complicated structures
should be undertaken by a design professional to meet the
requirements of this code.
1. TITLE
The provisions herein contained shall constitute the
"Coastal Construction Codes for (community), (county), (state)"
and hereinafter will be referred to as the "Coastal Code."
2. PURPOSE
The purpose of this Coastal Code is to provide minimum
standards for the design and construction of residential
structures in Coastal High Hazard Areas and adjacent coastal
A zone areas where wave action can be expected. The intent
of this code is the incorporation of certain nationally
recommended construction methods and practices so that the
potential damage to an individual structure during storm
conditions may be minimized and the public health, safety, and
general welfare of the citizens of (community) will be protected.
These standards are intended to supplement the
(Standard, BOCA, or Uniform) Building Code, specifically to
address design factors affecting structural integrity under
severe storm stress and to offer guidance to the design
professional. In the event of a conflict between the Coastal
Code and the (Standard, BOCA, or Uniform) Building Code
and other State or Federal laws or regulations, the
requirements resulting in the more restrictive minimum design
standards shall apply.
In addition to the provisions of this Code, it is assumed
structures in Coastal High Hazard Areas would be designed
and constructed following standard engineering practice for
detail, completeness, and safety.
G-2 Coastal Construction Manual
3. SCOPE
The requirements of this Code apply to the following:
1. New construction of single family, duplex, and
multifamily residential structures in Coastal High
Hazard Areas.
2. Substantial improvement of or additions to
existing residential structures. "Substantial
improvement" means any repair, reconstruction,
or improvement of a structure, the estimated cost
of which equals or exceeds 50 percent of the
market value of the structure. Market value for the
purposes of determining substantial
improvements does not include the value of the
land, and shall be determined using standard
appraisal techniques, including the market
comparison approach, cost approach to value (re-
placement cost less depreciation), or income
approach.
4. DEFINITIONS
ANSI --American National Standards Institute, Inc.
Base Flood--The flood having a 1 percent chance of
being equaled or exceeded in any given year, commonly
referred to as the 100 year flood.
Base Flood Elevation (BFE)--The crest elevation in
relation to mean sea level (using National Geodetic Vertical
Datum), expected to be reached during a I 00 year flood which
encompasses the 100 year flood plain.
Breakaway Wall--A wall that is not part of the structural
support of the building and is intended through its design and
construction to collapse under specific
lateral loading forces, without causing damage to the elevated
portion of the building or supporting foundation system.
Coastal High Hazard Area--Area within the 100 year
flood plain that is subject to high velocity waters, caused by
(but not limited to) hurricane wave wash. These areas are
designated as Zones VI-30, VE, or V on the Flood Insurance
Rate Map (FIRM).
Column Action--Potential elastic instability in piles or
columns resulting in buckling or lateral bending of the member,
resulting from compressive stresses due to direct axial and
bending loads.
Dead Load--Passive weight of all permanent
construction in a building or structure, including walls, floors,
roofs, stairways, and fixed service equipment.
Erosion --Wearing away of land by the action of natural
forces. On a beach, the carrying away of beach material by
wave action, tidal currents, littoral currents, or by deflation.
Grade --Average elevation of the ground, paved or
unpaved, adjoining a building or structure.
Grade Beams --Wood timber or reinforced concrete
beams located at or below grade elevation, and extending
around the perimeter and through the interior of a building, that
securely interconnect and distribute lateral loads among the
foundation piles or piers.
Landward --In a direction away from the water.
Live Load--Weight superimposed upon the building or
structure by its use and occupancy and not attributable to
environmental loads such as water and wind or dead load.
Pile Clus ter --A group of piles in close proximity that are
tied together by a pile cap and function as a unit.
Piling Foundation --Includes pilings used as columns
and those terminating below grade at pile caps, providing the
support of a structure.
Residential Structure --Any building or portion thereof
that is designed, built, rented, or leased to be occupied as a
home or residence by one or more persons or families.
Stable Soil Elevation --Minimum elevation of soil
resulting from erosion or scour. The design erosion or scour at
a site depends on site elevation and soil type, in combination
with the Base Flood Elevation.
Structure --That which is built or constructed, an edifice
or building of any kind, or any piece of work artificially built up,
compounded of parts joined together in some definite manner.
Uplift Pressure --Forces acting vertically upward on the
base, deck, or floor of the structure by positive or negative
pressure.
5. ELEVATION STANDARDS
No new construction or substantial improvements are
allowed seaward of (specify established setback line or
specific setback distance from shoreline points, such as the
mean high tide line (minimum requirement) or vegetation or
dune line). All new construction or substantial improvements
shall be elevated on pilings or columns such that the lowest
horizontal structural member supporting the lowest elevated
floor (excluding columns, piles, diagonal bracing attached to
the piles or columns, grade beams, pile caps, slabs, and other
members designed to either withstand storm action or break
away without imparting damaging loads to the structure) is
elevated to or above the BFE.
6. DETERMINATION OF LOADING FORCES
Structural design in Coastal High Hazard Areas shall consider
the effects of wind and water loads acting simultaneously
during the Base Flood on all building components. The design
conditions for those loadings are presented in Section 6.1 for
water and Section 6.2 for wind loads. Equations, procedures,
and other guidance for determining and utilizing design values
for these loadings are available in the documents referenced in
Section 14.
6.1 WATER LOADS
The structural design shall be adequate to resist water
forces that would occur during the Base Flood. Horizontal
water loads considered shall include inertial and drag forces of
waves, current drag forces, and impact forces from waterborne
storm debris. Dynamic uplift loads shall also be considered if
bulkheads, walls, or other natural or manmade flow
obstructions could cause wave runup beyond the BFE.
6.2 WIND LOADS
Buildings shall be designed and constructed to resist the
forces due to wind pressure. Wind forces on the
superstructure include windward and leeward forces on
vertical walls, uplift on the roof, internal forces when openings
allow wind to enter the house, and upward force on the
underside of the house when it is exposed. In the design, the
wind should be assumed to blow potentially from any lateral
direction relative to the house.
Design wind pressures on a building and its compo-
nents are derived from wind velocities associated with storms
with a 100 year mean recurrence interval. The 100 year design
wind velocity is to be taken as (specify) mph. The design
method to be used is that set forth by the American National
Standards Institute, Section A58.1 - 1982.
7. FOUNDATION STANDARDS
All structures erected in Coastal High Hazard Areas
shall be supported on pilings or columns and adequately
anchored to such supports to resist collapse and lateral
movement from wind velocity and water pressures determined
in accordance with Sections 6.1 and 6.2. Spread footings
and fill shall not be used for structural support purposes.
Foundations must be designed to transfer safely to the
underlying soil all loads due to wind, water, dead load, live
load, and other loads (including uplift due to wind and water).
(NOTE: Foundation standards may require modification by the
local jurisdiction if unusual soil or rock conditions dictate the
use of special foundation systems.)
7.1 PILE FOUNDATION DESIGN
7.1.1 Pile Spacing
The design ratio of pile spacing to pile diameter shall not
be less than (8):1 for individual piles; however this would not
apply to pile clusters located below the design grade. The
maximum center-to-center spacing of wood piles shall not be
more than (12)* feet on center under load bearing sills, beams,
or girders.
7.1.2 Pile Embedment
Pilings shall have adequate soil penetration (bearing
capacity) to resist the combined wave and wind loads (lateral
and uplift) determined in accordance with Sections 6.1 and 6.2,
acting simultaneously with typical structure (live and dead)
loads, and shall include consideration of decreased resistance
capacity caused by erosion of soil
___________________
*
Values given in parentheses are suggested, and subject to
local modification.
strata surrounding the piles. The minimum penetration for
foundation piles is to an elevation of (5) feet below mean sea
level (msl) datum if the BFE is +10 msl or less, or to at least (10)
feet below msl if the BFE is greater than +10 msl. Additional
guidance on pile embedment, including load/embedment
tables for different soil and pile types, is provided in the Coastal
Construction Manual .
7.1.3 Column Action
Pile foundation analysis shall also include consideration
of piles in column action from the bottom of the structure to the
stable soil elevation of the site. Pilings may be horizontally or
diagonally braced to withstand wind and water forces.
7.1.4 Pile Standards
The minimum acceptable sizes for timber piles are a tip
diameter of (8) inches for round timber piles and (8) by (8)
inches for square timber piles. All wood piles must be treated in
accordance with requirements of AWPA-C3 to minimize decay
and damage from fungus.
Reinforced concrete piles shall be cast of concrete
having a 28-day ultimate compressive strength of not less than
5,000 pounds per square inch, and shall be reinforced with a
minimum of four longitudinal steel bars having a combined
area of not less than 1 percent nor more than 4 percent of the
gross concrete area. Reinforcement for precast piles shall
have a concrete cover of not less than 1-1/4 inches for No. 5
bars and smaller and not less than 1-1/2 inches for No. 6
through No. 11 bars. Reinforcement for piles cast in the field
shall have a concrete cover of not less than 2 inches.
7.1.5 Pile Installation
Piles shall be driven by means of a pile driver or drop
hammer, jetted, or augered into place.
7.1.6 Bracing
Additional support for piles in the form of bracing is often
required to resist horizontal forces. This bracing may include
lateral or diagonal bracing between piles.
Piles shall be braced at the ground line in both
directions by a wood timber grade beam, a reinforced concrete
grade beam, or a concrete slab deepened and reinforced at
the edges. These at-grade supports should be securely
attached to the piles to provide support even if scoured from
beneath.
Diagonal bracing between piles, consisting of 2-inch-by-
(8)-inch (minimum) members bolted to the piles, shall be
limited in location to below the lowest supporting structural
member and above the stable soil elevation, and in the vertical
plane along pile rows perpendicular to the shoreline.
Galvanized steel rods (minimum diameter (1/2) inch) or cable
type bracing is permitted in any plane.
Knee braces, which stiffen both the upper portion of a
pile and the beam-to-pile connection, may be used along pile
rows perpendicular and parallel to the shoreline. Knee braces
shall be 2-by-8 lumber bolted to the sides of the pile/beam, or
4-by-4 or larger braces framed into the pile/beam. Bolting
shall consist of two (5/8)-inch galvanized steel bolts (each
end) for 2-by-8 members, or one (5/8)-inch lag bolt (each end)
for square members. Knee braces shall not extend more than 3
feet below the BFE.
7.2 COLUMN FOUNDATION DESIGN
Masonry piers or poured-in-place concrete piers shall
be internally reinforced to resist vertical and lateral loads, and
be connected with a moment-resisting connection to a pile cap
or pile shaft. Additional guidance on pier construction is
provided in the Coastal Construction Manual .
8. ANCHORING STANDARDS
All buildings and structures must have all components
adequately anchored and continuously connected from the
foundation to the roof, to prevent flotation, collapse, or
permanent lateral movement during the Base Flood
concurrent with the 100 year design wind velocity.
8.1 CONNECTORS AND FASTENERS
Galvanized metal connectors, wood connectors, or bolts
of size and number adequate for the calculated loads must be
used to connect adjoining components of a structure. Toe
nailing as a principal method of connection is not permitted. All
metal connectors and fasteners used in exposed locations
shall be steel, hot-dipped galvanized after fabrication.
Connectors in protected interior locations shall be fabricated
from galvanized sheet.
8.2 BEAM TO PILE CONNECTIONS
The primary floor beams or girders shall span the
supports in the direction parallel to the flow of potential;
floodwater and wave action and shall be fastened to the
columns or pilings by bolting, with or without cover plates.
Concrete members shall be connected by reinforcement, if cast
in place, or (if precast) shall be securely connected bolting or
welding. If sills, beams, or girders are attached to wood piling
at a notch, a minimum of two (5/8)-inch galvanized steel bolts
or two hot-dipped galvanized straps
(3/16 inch by 4 inches by 18 inches) each bolted with two (1/2)-
inch lag bolts per beam member, shall be used. Notching of
pile tops shall be the minimum sufficient to provide ledge
support for beam members without unduly weakening pile
connections. Piling shall not be notched so that the cross
section is reduced below 50 percent.
8.3 FLOOR AND DECK CONNECTIONS
Wood 2- by 4-inch (minimum) connectors or metal joist
anchors shall be used to tie floor joists to floor beams/girders.
These should be installed on alternate floor joists, at a
minimum. Cross bridging of all floor joists shall be provided.
Such cross bridging may be 1- by (3)-inch members, placed 8-
feet-on-center maximum, or solid bridging of same depth as
joist at same spacing.
Plywood should be used for subflooring and attic
flooring to provide good torsional resistance in the horizontal
plane of the structure. The plywood should not be less than
(3/4)-inch total thickness, and should be exterior grade and
fastened to beams or joists with 8d annular or spiral thread
galvanized nails. Such fastening shall be supplemented by
the application of waterproof industrial adhesive applied to all
bearing surfaces.
8.4 EXTERIOR WALL CONNECTIONS
All bottom plates shall have any required breaks under a
wall stud or an anchor bolt. Approved anchors will be used to
secure rafters or joists and top and bottom plates to studs in
exterior and bearing walls to form a continuous tie. Continuous
15/32-inch or thicker plywood sheathing-overlapping the top
wall plate and continuing down to the sill, beam, or girder--may
be used to provide the continuous tie. If the sheets of plywood
are not vertically continuous, then 2-by-4 nailer blocking shall
be provided at all horizontal joints. In lieu of the plywood,
galvanized steel rods (1/2-inch diameter) or galvanized steel
straps not less than I inch wide by 1/16 inch thick may be used
to connect from the top wall plate to the sill, beam, or girder.
Washers with a minimum diameter of 3 inches shall be used at
each end of the 1/2-inch round rods. These anchors shall be
installed no more than (2) feet from each corner rod, no more
than (4) feet on center.
8.5 CEILING JOIST/RAFTER CONNECTIONS
All ceiling joists or rafters shall be installed in such a
manner that the joists provide a continuous tie across the
rafters. Ceiling joists and rafters shall be securely fastened at
their intersections. A metal or wood connector shall be used at
alternate ceiling joist/rafter connections to the wall top plate.
Gable roofs shall be additionally stabilized by installing
2-by-4 blocking on 2-foot centers between the rafters at each
gable end. Blocking shall be installed a minimum of 8 feet
toward the house interior from each gable end.
8.6 PROJECTING MEMBERS
All cantilevers and other projecting members must be
adequately supported and braced to withstand wind and water
uplift forces. Roof eave overhangs shall be limited to a
maximum of 2 feet and joist overhangs to a maximum of 1 foot.
Larger overhangs and porches will be permitted if designed or
reviewed by a registered professional engineer or architect
and certified in accordance with Section 13 of this Code.
9. ROOF SHEATHING
Plywood, or other wood material, when used as roof sheathing,
shall not be less than (15/32) inch in thickness,
and shall be of exterior sheathing grade or equivalent. Such
sheathing shall be fastened to rafter or truss assemblies in the
manner required by the (applicable) Building code. All
attaching devices for sheathing and roof coverings shall be
galvanized or be of other suitable corrosion resistant material.
All corners, gable ends, and roof overhangs exceeding
(6) inches shall be reinforced by the application of waterproof
industrial adhesive applied to all bearing surfaces of any
plywood sheet used in the sheathing of such corner, gable
end, or roof overhang.
In addition, roofs should be sloped as steeply as
practicable to reduce uplift pressures, and special care should
be used in securing ridges, hips, valleys, eaves, vents,
chimneys, and other points of discontinuity in the roofing
surface.
10. PROTECTION OF OPENINGS
All exterior glass panels, windows, and doors shall be
designed, detailed, and constructed to withstand loads due to
the design wind speed of (specify) mph. Connections for these
elements must be designed to transfer safely the design loads
to the supporting structure. Panel widths of multiple panel
sliding glass doors shall not exceed 3 feet. Storm shutters or
other types of protective panels are recommended for
additional protection of openings.
11. USE OF SPACE BELOW THE LOWEST ELEVATED
FLOOR
All new construction and substantial improvements
within the Coastal High Hazard Zone must have the space
below the lowest floor either free of obstruction or constructed
with nonsupporting breakaway walls, open wooden lattice
work, or insect screening intended to fail under
wind and water loads associated with the base flood without
causing collapse, displacement, or other structural damage to
the elevated portion of the building or supporting foundation.
Enclosed space may be used solely for vehicular parking and
for building access (stairs, stairwells, and elevator shafts).
11.1 BREAKAWAY WALL DESIGN STANDARDS
The breakaway wall shall have a design safe loading
resistance of not less than (specify) and not more than (specify,
but not more than 20) pounds per square foot, with the criterion
that the safety of the overall structure at the point of wall failure
be confirmed using established procedures. Grade beams
shall be installed in both directions for all piles considered to
carry the breakaway wall load. Knee braces are required for
front row piles that support breakaway walls. (NOTE: Loading
strengths may be governed by code requirements for minimum
design wind velocity pressures. Use of a 10 PSF value is
generally recommended since it would allow for wall failure
only under hurricane (greater than 75 mph) wind speed
conditions.)
11.2 CERTIFICATION OF BREAKAWAY WALLS
Breakaway wall strengths above 20 PSF are not gen-
erally recommended for detached or low rise residential
construction. However, in those cases where such wall
strengths are to be considered the following criteria should be
used.
Use of breakaway wall strengths in excess of 20 PSF
shall not be permitted unless a registered professional
engineer or architect has developed or reviewed the structural
design and specifications for the building foundation and
breakaway wall components, and certifies that (1) the
breakaway walls will fail under water loads less than those that
would occur during the base flood; and (2) the elevated
portion of the building and supporting foundation system will
not be subject to collapse, displacement, or other structural
damage due to the effects of wind and water loads (both
having a 100 year mean recurrence interval) acting
simultaneously on all building components.
12. UTILITIES
All machinery and equipment servicing the building must be
elevated to or above the BEE, including heating, ventilating,
and air conditioning equipment, hot water heaters, appliances,
elevator lift machinery, and electrical junction and circuit
breaker boxes. Sanitary sewer and storm drainage systems
that have openings below the BFE shall be provided with
automatic backflow valves or other automatic backflow devices
that are installed in each discharge line passing through a
building exterior wall.
13. CERTIFICATION REQUIREMENTS
For all new and substantial improvements to residential
structures in the Coastal High Hazard Area, building permit
applications shall be accompanied by design plans and
specifications, prepared in sufficient detail to enable
independent review of the foundation support and connection
components to be used in meeting Sections 7 and 8 of this
Code. Said plans and specifications shall be developed or
reviewed by a registered professional
engineer or architect, and shall be accompanied by a
statement, bearing the signature of the architect or engineer,
certifying that the design and methods of construction to be
used are in accordance with accepted standards of practice
and with all applicable provisions of this Code.
14. REFERENCE DOCUMENTS
Standard reference documents for use with this Code in
determining design wind and water forces on structures are:
Wind --American National Standards Institute, Inc., Minimum
Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures , ANSI
A58.1 - 1982 (New York, 1982).
Water --Waterways Experiment Station, Shore Protection
Manual , two volumes, Department of the Army, Corps of
Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center
(1984).
Guidance on the application of information from the above
reference documents, together with other design data and
procedures, is provided in:
Federal Emergency Management Agency, Coastal
Construction Manual (Washington, D.C., 1986).
Individuals Contacted During Study H-1
Appendix H
INDIVIDUALS CONTACTED
DURING STUDY
(1) Contacted during preparation of First Edition, 1981.
(2) Contacted during preparation of Second Edition, 1986.
(1,2) Contacted during preparation of both 1981 and 1986
editions.
Adler, Harold, AIA (Charleston, South Carolina) (1)
Ainslie, Richard, AIA (Houston, Texas) (1)
Aiu, Boniface (Chief, Honolulu Fire Department, Honolulu,
Hawaii) (1)
Allread, Jess (North Carolina Department of Insurance,
Engineering Division) (2)
Anderson, Max (Building Department, Sanibel Island, Florida)
(2)
Aspinwall, Jerry (Building Director, Monroe County, Florida)
(2)
Atkinson, Donald (Building Inspector, Rockport,
Massachusetts) (1)
Atwood, Clayton (Sea Pines Corporation, Land Development
Division, Hilton Head, South Carolina) (1)
Aultman, James (Aultman Construction, Key West, Florida)
Baily, Brenden (Federal Disaster Assistance Administration,
Region I, Boston, Massachusetts) (1)
Benson, John (David A. Crane Partners/DACP, Inc., Boston,
Massachusetts) (1)
Blackledge, Ben (County Building Inspector, Galveston,
Texas)(1)
Bohn, John (Administrator, Oahu Civil Defense Agency,
Honolulu, Hawaii) (I)
Bratlin, George (Technical Director, State Building Code
Commission, Boston, Massachusetts) (1)
Bretshneider, Charles L., Ph.D. (University of Hawaii,
Department of Ocean Engineering, Honolulu, Hawaii;
Tsunami Technical Advisory Committee) (1)
Cahill, John C., AIA (John C. Cahill Associates, Inc.,
Washington, D.C.) (1)
Camara, L. (Honolulu Fire Department, Honolulu, Hawaii) (1)
Cameron, Lyle (Cameron Construction, Key West, Florida) (2)
Cantrell, Ralph (North Carolina Office of Coastal Management,
Dare County, North Carolina) (1)
Carmichael, Thad (Director, Building Division, New Hanover
County, North Carolina) (1)
H-2 Coastal Construction Manual
Cassell, Robert D., Jr. (FEMA Region IV, Atlanta, Georgia) (1)
Chamberlain, John (Builder, Pensacola, Florida) (1)
Chan, John, S.E. (Consulting Structural Engineer, Van Nuys,
California) (1)
Chun, K.K. Calvin (Executive Director, Council of Housing and
Construction Industry, Honolulu, Hawaii) (1)
Collins, Ian J., Ph.D., P.E. (Vice President and Chief Engineer,
Tetra Tech, Inc., Pasadena, California) (1)
Colville, Richard (Architect, Monroe County, Florida) (2)
Cox, Doak C., Ph.D. (Director, University of Hawaii, En-
vironmental Center, Honolulu, Hawaii; Tsunami
Technical Advisory Committee) (1)
Craven, John (University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii) (1)
Davis, Bill (Building Inspector, Panama City, Florida) (1)
Davis, Emery (Building Inspector, Gulfport, Mississippi) (1)
DeMary, Henry (Chief Building Inspector, Galveston, Texas)
(1)
DeMenthe, Larry (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, New Orleans,
Louisiana) (1)
Deverall, Mr. and Mrs. Alex (Homeowners, Orange County,
California) (1)
Dobson, Bill (Building Inspector, Marshfield, Massachusetts)
(1)
Donald, W.M. (Building Inspector, Isle of Palms, South
Carolina) (1)
Doyel, Carol (Federal Insurance Administration, Region IV,
Atlanta, Georgia) (1)
Duane, David B. (U.S. Department of Commerce, National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Sea
Grant, Gaithersburg, Maryland) (1)
Eberly, John (U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration, Rockville, Maryland) (I)
Fau, Charles (AM FAC Committees) (1)
Feinman, David (Builder, Sand & Sea Properties, Galveston,
Texas) (1,2)
Ferragamo, Stanley (Building Inspector, Revere,
Massachusetts) (1)
Foster, Norman (Director of Inspection Services, City of Mobile,
Alabama) (1)
Frank, Neil (U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration, Hurricane Disaster Center,
Miami, Florida) (1)
Gariss, Howard (Architect, Ligon B. Flynn Architect AIA,
Wilmington, North Carolina) (2)
Goforth, George (Defense Civil Preparedness Agency,
Grabiel, Paul (Building Inspector, Galveston, Texas) (1)
Graves, Bill, AIA (Pensacola, Florida) (1)
Gregory, Walter (Building Inspector, Dare County, North
Carolina) (1)
Grooms, Robert (City Administrator, Folly Beach, South
Carolina) (1)
Gross, Jim (U.S. Department of Commerce, National Bureau
of Standards, Codes Office, Gaithersburg, Maryland) (1)
Guscio, Frank (Sea Pines Corporation, Architectural Review
Board, Hilton Head, South Carolina) (1)
Hale, John (County Engineer for Coastal Problems, Los
Angeles, California) (1)
Hanna, James (Architect, Maryland Housing Office) (I)
Hansford, Don (Federal Insurance Administration, Region IV,
Haralson, James (Building Inspector, Georgetown County,
South Carolina) (1)
Harris, Bill (Federal Insurance Administration, Region IV,
Harris, Mike (County Engineer, Galveston County, Texas) (1)
Henry, Robert (Delaware Department of Natural Resources,
Soil and Water Conservation Service, Beach Preservation
Section, Dover, Delaware) (1)
Hickman, Raymond J. (Hickman Real Estate, Bethany K
Beach, Delaware) (1)
Higa, Jinji (City and County of Honolulu, Building Safety
Division, Honolulu, Hawaii) (1)
Hirota, Dennis (Sam 0. Hirota, Inc., Honolulu, Hawaii) (1)
Holmes, Dwight (Architect, Rowe Holmes Barnett Architects,
Inc., Tampa, Florida) (2)
Huggins, Dub (Building Inspector, City of North Myrtle Beach,
South Carolina) (2)
Hughes, John (Delaware Department of Natural Resources,
Soil and Water Conservation Service, Beach Preservation
Section, Dover, Delaware) (1)
Hunter, Robert J. (Federal Insurance Administration,
Washington, D.C) (1)
Indler, EIvan (Electronic Data Systems, Rockville, Maryland)(1)
Ivey, John (Federal Insurance Administration, Region VI,
Dallas, Texas) (1)
Jacobs, Paul (U.S. Department of Commerce, National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Weather
Service, Silver Spring, Maryland) (1)
Johnson, Ray (Gay and Taylor, Insurance Adjustors, Myrtle
Beach, South Carolina) (2)
Johnston, Henry (Johnston Architects, Wilmington, North
Carolina) (2)
Jones, Chris (Coastal Engineer, Florida Sea Grant Extension
Program, Gainesville, Florida) (2)
Keith, John, P.E. (Consulting Engineer, Galveston, Texas) (1)
Kimura, George, P.E. (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Pacific
Ocean Division, Flood Plain Management Section,
Honolulu, Hawaii) (1)
Kirkpatrick, Sally (Legislative Assistant, American Insurance
Association, Washington, D.C.) (1)
Kittridge, David (Private Consultant, Miami, Florida) (1, 2)
Kopacka, Bill (Planning Director, Charleston County, South
Carolina) (1)
Krahl, Nat, Ph.D. (Consulting Engineer, Nat Krahl and
Associates, Houston, Texas) (1)
Kugler, John (Building Inspector, Gulf Shores, Alabama) (1)
Lakey, Mr. (Building Inspector, Folly Beach, South Carolina)
(1)
Lash, Doug (Federal Insurance Administration, Washington,
D.C.) (1)
Latimer, Mr. (Builder, Galveston, Texas) (I)
Lee, Edgar (Tsunami Technical Advisory Committee,
Lee, Jake, AIA (Lee and Partners, Hilton Head, South
Carolina) (1)
Lewin, Kermit (Chairman, Planning Board, Monroe County,
Florida) (1)
Lewis, Lynwood (Building Inspector, Mobile County, Alabama)
(1)
Leyendecker, E.P. (U.S. Department of Commerce, National
Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg, Maryland) (1)
Loomis, Harold, Ph.D. (U.S. Department of Commerce,
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration/University of Hawaii, Joint Tsunami
Research Effort, Honolulu, Hawaii) (1)
Lopez, A. (Honolulu Fire Department, Honolulu, Hawaii) (1)
Marks, Jim (Private Consultant, Miami, Florida) (I)
Mason, Rick (Federal Insurance Administration, Region IV,
McBeth, Robert (FEMA Region IV, Atlanta, Georgia) (2)
McDonald, Allen (Building Inspector, Quincy, Massachusetts)
(1)
McLeod, Mr. (Builder, Galveston, Texas) (1)
Mercom, John (Consulting Engineer, Nat Krahl and
Associates, Houston, Texas) (1)
Meredith, Burgess (Homeowner, Malibu Beach, California) (1)
Merli, Kevin (Federal Insurance Administration, Region I,
Boston, Massachusetts) (1)
Mieremet, Ben (Hazards Coordinator, Coastal Management
Division, NOAA, Washington, DC) (2)
Miller, Crane (Scheaffer & Roland, Consulting Engineers,
Chevy Chase, Maryland) (I)
Miller, Mike (Zoning Administrator, Sarasota County, Florida)
(2)
Miller, Paul, AIA (Lee and Partners, Architects, Hilton Head,
South Carolina) (I)
Minor, Joseph (Director, Institute for Disaster Research, Texas
Tech University, Lubbock, Texas) (2)
Mixon, Charles (City Engineer, Tarpon Springs, Florida) (2)
Montgomery, Harry (Builder, Galveston, Texas) (1)
Moore, Robert B. (Assistant Administrator, Oahu Civil Defense
Agency, Honolulu, Hawaii) (1)
Morelli, Ugo (Federal Disaster Assistance Administration,
Munn, Chuck (Fripp Island Development Corporation,
Beaufort County, South Carolina) (1)
Muraoka, Arthur (Department of Land Utilization, City and
County of Honolulu, Hawaii) (1)
Muraoka, Herbert (Chief of Building Safety, City and County of
Myers, Dalton (Building Inspector, Georgetown County, South
Carolina) (1)
Myers, Vance, Ph.D. (U.S. Department of Commerce,
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
Nesbitt, John (Director of Public Works, Wrightsville Beach,
North Carolina) (2)
Nielson, Susan (County Building Inspector, Galveston, Texas)
(1)
Onufer, Andrea (Assistant Building Director, City of Clearwater,
Florida) (2)
Palmeiri, Peter (Schoenfield Associates, Inc., Boston,
Massachusetts) (1)
Patrick, George (Defense Civil Preparedness Agency, Region
I, Boston, Massachusetts) (1)
Patterson, James C. (Sea Scaping Construction Company,
Destin, Florida) (1)
Peoples, Bryon (Building Official, Pensacola, Florida) (1)
Perry, John (Commonwealth of Massachusetts, State
Disaster Recovery Team, Boston, Massachusetts) (1)
Peteet, Frank, AIA (Inspection Department, Georgetown
County, South Carolina) (I)
Peterson, Dale (Federal Insurance Administration, Region
IX, San Francisco, California) (1)
Phippen, George (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal
Engineering Research Center, Washington, D.C.) (1)
Raban, Truitt (Landscape Architect, Edward Pinchney, Hilton
Head, South Carolina) (1)
Ragin, Donald (State of Texas, Division of Water Resources)
(2)
Ray, Glenn (Builder, Grayson Enterprises, WrightsviIle Beach,
North Carolina) (2)
Rice, Derwood (Building Inspector, Craven County, North
Carolina) (1)
Richardson, Bill (Anderson-Nichols & Co., Inc., Boston,
Massachusetts; Scituate Conservation Commission) (1)
Rogers, Spencer M., Jr. (Department of Civil Engineering,
North Carolina State University and UNC Sea Grant,
Marine Advisory Services, Kure Beach, North Carolina)
(2)
Rowland, Bill (Homeowner and Builder, Malibu Beach,
California) (1)
Russell, Joe (Federal Disaster Assistance Administration,
Saconas, Edward S. (Developer, Hitchcock, Texas) (1)
Sandifer, Tony (Building Official, Santa Rosa Island
Authority, Pensacola Beach, Florida) (1)
Selder, Mr. (Building Inspector, Edisto Beach, South
Carolina) (1)
Sharp, Dr. (University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida) (1)
Sheffer, James M. (General Manager, Santa Rosa Island
Authority, Pensacola Beach, Florida) (1)
Shima, Howard M. (Chairman, Tsunami Subcommittee,
Structural Engineering Association of Hawaii, Honolulu,
Hawaii) (1)
Shumpert, Horace (Consulting Engineer, Pensacola,
Florida) (1,2)
Sims, James (Professor of Civil Engineering, Rice
University, Houston, Texas) (1)
Smith, Jim (Federal Insurance Administration, Region IV,
Smith, Louis (Oahu Civil Defense Agency, Honolulu, Hawaii)
(1)
Sparks, Peter R. (Assoc. Professor of Civil Engineering and
Engineering Mechanics, Clemson University, Clemson,
South Carolina) (2)
Spears, R.E. (Building Official, Galveston, Texas) (1)
Standley, David (Commissioner, Massachusetts Department of
Environmental Quality Engineering, Cambridge,
Massachusetts) (1)
Stewart, Paul (Assistant Building Director, Lee County, Florida)
(2)
Stluka, Willard J. (Chairman, Tsunami Technical Advisory
Committee, Honolulu, Hawaii) (1)
Stone, Bill (Building Inspector, Scituate, Massachusetts) (1)
Sullivan, Mr. (Builder, Galveston, Texas) (1)
Teagle, C.R. (Builder, Pensacola, Florida) (1)
Teale, Sandy (Building Inspector, Beaufort County, South
Carolina) (I)
Thomas, Edward A. (Federal Insurance Administration
Regional Director, Region I, Boston, Massachusetts) (1)
Thompson, Jerry (Thompson Construction, Myrtle Beach,
South Carolina) (2)
Timely Corporation (San Antonio, Texas; Contact made with
builder) (1)
Tom, S. (Honolulu Fire Department, Honolulu, Hawaii) (1)
Tubbs, Townsend (Builder, Bethany Beach, Delaware) (1)
Ushijima, Thomas M., P.E. (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
Pacific Ocean Division, Flood Plain Management
Coordinator, Honolulu, Hawaii) (1)
Weiss, David C., S.E. (Consulting Structural Engineer, Encino,
California) (1)
West, James (Mike Evans & Co., Bethany Beach, Delaware)
(2)
White, Fred R., AIA (Architects Hawaii, Ltd., Honolulu, Hawaii;
Tsunami Technical Advisory Committee) (1)
Wicks, Bill (Building Inspector, New Hanover County, North
Carolina) (1)
Wilcox, Ed (Building Inspector, Beaufort County, South
Carolina) (1)
Woodward, Glenn (Federal Insurance Administration,
Regional Director, Region IV, Atlanta, Georgia) (1)
Yuasa, Ernest T. (Hawaiian Telephone Company, Honolulu,
Hawaii; Tsunami Technical Advisory Committee) (1)
Zensinger, Larry (Federal Insurance Administration,
Bibliography I-1
Appendix I
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Burdin, Walter W., "Surge Effects from Hurricane Eloise," Shore
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I-2 Coastal Construction Manual
Collier, C.A., Building Construction on Shoreline Property: A
Checklist (Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Marine
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Collier, Courtland A., "Bulkhead and Revetment
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Collier, C.A., Construction Guidelines to Minimize Hurri cane
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Cox, Doak and Joseph Morgan, Local Tsunamis and Possible
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Defense Civil Preparedness Agency, Interior Guidelines for
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Winds , Report TR-83A (U.S. Department of Defense, 1975).
Delaware Coastal Zone Management Program, Coastal
Storm Damage Report 1923-1974 , Technical Report No. 4,
Document No. 1003-78-01-05 (September 1977).
Edge, W.L., J. S. Fisher, W. O. Connor, and S. Nnaji, "A
Supplement to the Southern Building Code for Hurricane
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Federal Emergency Management Agency, Elevating to the
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U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1986 620-214;40619

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