Crimean War

1
Crimean War
For other uses, see Crimean War (disambiguation).
Crimean War
Part of Ottoman wars in Europe and the Russo-Turkish wars
Detail of Franz Roubaud's panoramic painting The Siege of Sevastopol (1904)
Date October 1853 February 1856
Location Crimean Peninsula, Caucasus, Balkans, Black Sea, Baltic Sea, White Sea, Far East
Result Allied victory, Treaty of Paris
Belligerents
French Empire
Great Britain
Ottoman Empire
Kingdom of Sardinia
Egypt
Russian Empire
Commanders and leaders
Napolon III
Jacques Leroy de Saint Arnaud
Marchal Canrobert
Aimable Plissier
Franois Achille Bazaine
Patrice de Mac-Mahon
Queen Victoria
Earl of Aberdeen
Lord Raglan
Sir James Simpson
Sir William Codrington
Abdlmecid I
Omar Pasha
skender Pasha
Victor Emmanuel II
Alfonso La Mrmora
Nicholas I
Alexander II
Prince Menshikov
Pavel Nakhimov
Vasily Zavoyko
Nikolay Muravyov
Yevfimy Putyatin
Vladimir Istomin
Count Tolstoy
Strength
Crimean War
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Total: 1,000,000
400,000 French
300,000 Ottoman
250,000 British
18,000 Sardinians
[1]
4,250 British German LegionWikipedia:Citation needed
2,200 Swiss legionWikipedia:Citation needed
1,400 Slavic legionWikipedia:Citation needed
Total: 710,000
700,000 Russians
[2]
4,500 Bulgarian legion Wikipedia:Citation needed
2,000 Montenegrin legionWikipedia:Citation needed
1,000 Greek legion
Casualties and losses
Total: 350,000375,000 dead
[3]
Ottoman Empire
Total dead est. 95,000
[4]
-175,300
French Empire
Total dead: 95,000 of which:
10,240 killed in action;
20,000 died of wounds;
c. 60,000 died of disease
Great Britain
Total dead: 21,097 of which :
2,755 killed in action;
2,019 died of wounds;
16,000-16,323 died of disease
Kingdom of Sardinia
2,050 died from all causes
[5]
Total: 400,000 dead:
80,000 wounded
[6]
The Crimean War (pronounced /kramin/ or /krmin/) (October 1853 February 1856) was a conflict in
which Russia lost to an alliance of France, Britain, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia. It resulted from a series of
mistakes and miscalculations on all sides. However British historian A.J.P. Taylor sees deeper causes:
in some sense the Crimean war was predestined and had deep-seated causes. Neither Nicholas [of Russia] nor
Napoleon [III of France] nor the British government could retreat in the conflict for prestige once it was
launched. Nicholas needed a subservient Turkey for the sake of Russian security; Napoleon needed success for
the sake of his domestic position; the British government needed an independent Turkey for the security of the
Eastern Mediterranean....Mutual fear, not mutual aggression, caused the Crimean war.
[7]
The superficial immediate cause involved the rights of Christian minorities in the Holy Land, which was controlled
by the Ottoman Empire. The French promoted the rights of Catholics, while Russia promoted those of the Orthodox
Christians. The longer-term causes involved the decline of the Ottoman Empire, and the unwillingness of Britain and
France to allow Russia to gain territory and power at Ottoman expense. Russia lost the war and the Ottomans gained
a twenty-year respite from Russian pressure. The Christians were granted a degree of official equality and the
Orthodox gained control of the Christian churches in dispute.
:415
The Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia in October 1853 and suffered a major defeat that gave Russia control of
the Black Sea. The Russian threat to the Ottoman Empire required control of the Black Sea, and the key was the
Russian naval base at Sevastopol, on the Crimean peninsula. The allies realized that if they captured Sevastopol, they
would control the Black Sea and win the war. France and Britain entered in March 1854. Most of the fighting in the
Black Sea, with a large French army and a smaller British army fighting to capture Sevastopol. Death from disease
was very high on both sides. After Sevastopol finally fell, the neutrals started aligning with the allies. Isolated and
facing a bleak prospect if the war continued, Russia made peace in March 1856. The original superficial religious
issues had already been resolved. The main results of the war were that the Black Sea was neutralisedRussia
would not have any warships thereand the two states of Wallachia and Moldavia became largely independent.
The war was largely fought in and near Crimea, with smaller campaigns in eastern Anatolia, Caucasus, the Baltic
Sea, the Pacific Ocean and the White Sea. In Russia, this war is also known as the "Eastern War" (Russian:
Crimean War
3
, Vostochnaya Voina).
The war had a permanent impact. Through nationalist movements incited by the war, the present-day states of
Ukraine, Moldova, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, and regions such as Crimea
and the Caucasus all changed in small or large ways due to this conflict. Russia was seriously humiliated, but it
survived and launched a reform program to remedy its glaring economic, social and military weaknesses.
The Crimean War was one of the first conflicts to use modern technologies such as explosive naval shells, railways
and telegraphs.
(Preface)
The war was one of the first to be documented extensively in written reports and photographs.
As the legend of the "Charge of the Light Brigade" demonstrates, the war quickly became an iconic symbol of
logistical, medical and tactical failures and mismanagement. The reaction in Britain was a demand for
professionalization, most famously achieved by Florence Nightingale, who gained worldwide attention for
pioneering modern nursing while treating the wounded.
"The Eastern Question"
See also: Eastern Question
As the Ottoman Empire steadily weakened decade after decade, Russia stood poised to take advantage by moving
south. In the 1850s the British, as well as the French, were determined not to allow this to happen.
[8]
Russian expansionism
Russia, as a member of the Holy Alliance, had operated as the "police of Europe", maintaining the balance of power
that had been established in the Treaty of Vienna in 1815. Russia had assisted Austria's efforts in suppressing the
Hungarian Revolution of 1848, and expected gratitude. It wanted a free hand in settling its problems with the
Ottoman Empire the "sick man of Europe". Britain could not tolerate Russian dominance of Ottoman affairs as that
would challenge the British role in the eastern Mediterranean.
For over 200 years, Russia had been expanding in a southerly direction toward the warm water ports of the Black
Sea that did not freeze over like the handful of other ports available. The goal was to promote year-round trade and a
year-round navy.
:11
This brought the emerging Russian state into conflict with the Ukrainian Cossacks and then with
the Crimean Tatars and Circassians.
[9]
When Russia conquered these groups and gained possession of Ukraine, the
Ottoman Empire lost its buffer zone against Russian expansion, and Russia and the Ottoman Empire fell into direct
conflict. The conflict with the Ottoman Empire also presented a religious issue of importance, as Russia saw itself as
the protector of Orthodox Christians, many of whom lived under Ottoman control.
(ch 1)
Briton's immediate fear was Russian expansion at the expense of the Ottoman Empire, which Britain desired to
preserve. The British were also concerned that Russia might make advances toward India, or move toward
Scandinavia, or Western Europe. The Royal Navy also wanted to undermine the threat of a powerful Russian
navy.
[10]
Taylor says that from the British perspective:
"The Crimean war was fought for the sake of Europe rather than for the Eastern question; it was fought against
Russia, not in favor of Turkey.... The British fought Russia out of resentment and supposed that her defeat
would strengthen the European Balance of Power."
[11]
However, the war demonstrated what no one had previously realized: Russia was militarily weak, technologically
backward, and administratively incompetent. Despite its grand ambitions toward the south, it had not built its
railroad network in that direction, and communications were poor. The bureaucracy was riddled with graft,
corruption and inefficiency and was unprepared for war. The Navy was weak and technologically backward; the
Army, although very large, was good only for parades, suffered from colonels who pocketed their men's pay, poor
morale, and was even more out of touch with the latest technology as developed by Britain and France. By wars' end,
everyone realized the profound weaknesses of the Russian military, and the Russian leadership was determined to
Crimean War
4
reform it.
[12][13]
The immediate causes of the war
The immediate chain of events leading to France and Britain declaring war on Russia on 27 and 28 March 1854
came from the ambition of the French emperor Napoleon III to restore the grandeur of France. He wanted Catholic
support that would come his way if he attacked Eastern Orthodoxy, as sponsored by Russia.
:103
The Marquis Charles
de La Valette was a zealous Catholic and a leading member of the "clerical party" which demanded French
protection of the Roman Catholic rights to the holy places in Palestine. Napoleon appointed La Valette in May 1851
as his ambassador to the Porte (the Ottoman Empire).
:79
The appointment was made with the intent to force the
Ottomans to recognise France as the "sovereign authority" over the Christian population.
:19
Russia disputed this
attempted change in authority. Pointing to two more treaties, one in 1757 and the 1774 Treaty of Kk Kaynarca,
the Ottomans reversed their earlier decision, renouncing the French treaty and insisting that Russia was the protector
of the Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire.
NapoleonIII responded with a show of force, sending the ship of the line Charlemagne to the Black Sea. This action
was a violation of the London Straits Convention.
:19
However, the Ottomans knew that the Charlemagne sailed at a
speed of 8 knots and could defeat the technologically inferior Russian and Ottoman navies combined.
:104
Thus,
France's show of force presented a real threat, and when combined with aggressive diplomacy and money, induced
Sultan AbdlmecidI to accept a new treaty, confirming France and the Roman Catholic Church as the supreme
Christian authority with control over the Roman Catholic holy places and possession of the keys to the Church of the
Nativity, previously held by the Greek Orthodox Church.
:20
Tsar NicholasI then deployed his 4th and 5th army corps along the River Danube in Wallachia, as a direct threat to
the Ottoman lands south of the river, and had Count Karl Nesselrode, his foreign minister, undertake talks with the
Ottomans. Nesselrode confided to Sir George Hamilton Seymour, the British ambassador in Saint Petersburg:
[The dispute over the holy places] had assumed a new characterthat the acts of injustice towards the
Greek church which it had been desired to prevent had been perpetrated and consequently that now the
object must be to find a remedy for these wrongs. The success of French negotiations at Constantinople
was to be ascribed solely to intrigue and violenceviolence which had been supposed to be the ultima
ratio of kings, being, it had been seen, the means which the present ruler of France was in the habit of
employing in the first instance.
:21
As conflict emerged over the issue of the holy places, Nicholas I and Nesselrode began a diplomatic offensive,
which they hoped would prevent either Britain's or France's interfering in any conflict between Russia and the
Ottomans, as well as to prevent their allying.
Cornet assistant surgeon Henry
Wilkin, 11th Hussars. He survived
the Charge of the Light Brigade.
Photo: Roger Fenton.
Nicholas began courting Britain by means of conversations with the British
ambassador, George Hamilton Seymour, in January and February 1853.
:105
Nicholas insisted that he no longer wished to expand Imperial Russia
:105
but that
he had an obligation to the Christian communities in the Ottoman Empire.
:105
The Tsar next dispatched a highly abrasive diplomat, Prince Menshikov, on a
special mission to the Ottoman Sublime Porte in February 1853. By previous
treaties, the sultan was committed "to protect the (Eastern Orthodox) Christian
religion and its churches". Menshikov demanded a Russian protectorate over all
12 million Orthodox Christians in the Empire, with control the Orthodox
Church's hierarchy. A compromise was reached regarding Orthodox access to the
Holy Land, but the Sultan, strongly supported by the British ambassador, rejected
the more sweeping demands.
Crimean War
5
The British and French sent in naval task forces to support the Ottomans, as Russia prepared to seize the
Principalities.
:11115
First hostilities
The Russian destruction of the Turkish fleet at the
Battle of Sinop on 30 November 1853 sparked the
war; painting by Ivan Aivazovsky
In February 1853, the British government of Lord Aberdeen, the prime
minister, re-appointed Stratford Canning as British ambassador to the
Ottoman Empire.
:110
Having resigned the ambassadorship in January,
he had been replaced by Baron Strathnairn. Lord Stratford then turned
around and sailed back to Constantinople, arriving there on 5 April
1853. There he convinced the Sultan to reject the Russian treaty
proposal, as compromising the independence of the Turks. The Leader
of the Opposition in the British House of Commons, Benjamin
Disraeli, blamed Aberdeen and Stratford's actions for making war
inevitable, thus starting the process which would eventually force the
Aberdeen government to resign in January 1855, over the war.
Shortly after he learned of the failure of Menshikov's diplomacy toward the end of June 1853, the Tsar sent armies
under the commands of Field Marshal Ivan Paskevich and General Mikhail Gorchakov across the Pruth River into
the Ottoman-controlled Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. Fewer than half of the 80,000 Russian
soldiers who crossed the Pruth in 1853 survived. By far, most of the deaths would result from sickness rather than
combat,
:118119
for the Russian army still suffered from medical service that ranged from bad to none.
Russia had previously obtained recognition from the Ottoman Empire of the Tsar's role as special guardian of the
Orthodox Christians in Moldavia and Wallachia. Now Russia used the Sultan's failure to resolve the issue of the
protection of the Christian sites in the Holy Land as a pretext for Russian occupation of these Danubian provinces.
Nicholas believed that the European powers, especially Austria, would not object strongly to the annexation of a few
neighbouring Ottoman provinces, especially considering that Russia had assisted Austria's efforts in suppressing the
Hungarian Revolution in 1849.
Russo-French skirmish during
Crimean War
In July 1853, the Tsar sent his troops into the Danubian Principalities. Britain,
hoping to maintain the Ottoman Empire as a bulwark against the expansion of
Russian power in Asia, sent a fleet to the Dardanelles, where it joined another
fleet sent by France.
Sultan Abdulmecid I formally declared war on Russia and proceeded to the
attack, his armies moving on the Russian army near the Danube later that
month.
:130
Russia and the Ottoman empire massed forces on two main fronts, the
Caucasus and the Danube. Ottoman leader Omar Pasha managed to achieve some
victories on the Danubian front. In the Caucasus, the Ottomans were able to
stand ground with the help of Chechen Muslims led by Imam Shamil.
Battle of Sinop
Main article: Battle of Sinop
The European powers continued to pursue diplomatic avenues. The
representatives of the four neutral Great PowersBritain, France, Austria and Prussiamet in Vienna, where they
drafted a note which they hoped would be acceptable to both the Russians and the Ottomans. The peace terms
arrived at by the four powers at the Vienna Conference were delivered to the Russians by the Austrian Foreign
Minister Count Karl Von Buol on 5 December 1853. The note met with the approval of Nicholas I; however,
AbdlmecidI rejected the proposal, feeling that the document's poor phrasing left it open to many different
Crimean War
6
interpretations. Britain, France, and Austria united in proposing amendments to mollify the Sultan, but the court of St
Petersburg ignored their suggestions.
:143
Britain and France then set aside the idea of continuing negotiations, but
Austria and Prussia did not believe that the rejection of the proposed amendments justified the abandonment of the
diplomatic process.
The Russians sent a fleet to Sinop in northern Anatolia. In the Battle of Sinop on 30 November 1853 they destroyed
a patrol squadron of Ottoman frigates and corvettes while they were anchored in port. Public opinion in Britain and
France was outraged and demanded war. Sinop provided Britain and France with the casus belli ("case for war") for
declaring war against Russia. On 28 March 1854, after Russia ignored an Anglo-French ultimatum to withdraw from
the Danubian Principalities, Britain and France formally declared war.
Peace attempts
Nicholas felt that because of Russian assistance in suppressing the Hungarian revolution of 1848, Austria would side
with him, or at the very least remain neutral. Austria, however, felt threatened by the Russian troops in the Balkans.
On 27 February 1854 Britain and France demanded the withdrawal of Russian forces from the principalities; Austria
supported them and, though it did not declare war on Russia, it refused to guarantee its neutrality. Russia's rejection
of the ultimatum caused Britain and France to enter the war.
Russia soon withdrew its troops from the Danubian principalities, which were then occupied by Austria for the
duration of the war. This removed the original grounds for war, but Britain and France continued with hostilities.
Determined to address the Eastern Question by putting an end to the Russian threat to the Ottoman Empire, the allies
in August 1854 proposed the 'Four Points' for ending the conflict, in addition to the Russian withdrawal:
Russia was to give up its protectorate over the Danubian Principalities;
The Danube was to be opened up to foreign commerce;
The Straits Convention of 1841, which allowed only Ottoman and Russian warships in the Black Sea, was to be
revised;
Russia was to abandon any claim granting it the right to interfere in Ottoman affairs on behalf of Orthodox
Christians.
These points (particularly the third) would require clarification through negotiation, but Russia refused to negotiate.
The allies including Austria therefore agreed that Britain and France should take further military action to prevent
further Russian aggression against the Ottoman Empire. Britain and France agreed on the invasion of the Crimean
peninsula as the first step.
Battles
Map of Crimean War (in Russian)
Crimean War
7
Danube campaign
Mahmudiye (1829) participated in numerous
important naval battles, including the Siege of
Sevastopol
French zouaves and Russian soldiers engaged in
hand-to-hand combat at Malakhov Kurgan
See also: Wallachian Revolution of 1848, 1848 Moldavian revolution
and Treaty of Balta Liman
The Danube campaign opened when the Russians occupied the
Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia in May 1853,
bringing their forces to the north bank of the river Danube. In response,
the Ottoman Empire also moved its forces up to the river. It established
strongholds at Vidin in the west, and Silistra,
:17284
which was located
in the east, near the mouth of the Danube.
The Turkish/Ottoman move up the Danube River was also of concern
to the Austrians, who moved forces into Transylvania in response.
However, the Austrians had begun to fear the Russians more than the
Turks. Indeed, like the British, the Austrians were now coming to see
that an intact Ottoman Empire was necessary as a bulwark against the
Russians. Accordingly, the Austrians resisted Russian diplomatic
attempts to join the war on the Russian side. Austria remained neutral
in the Crimean War.
Following the Ottoman ultimatum in September 1853, forces under the
Ottoman general Omar Pasha crossed the Danube at Vidin and
captured Calafat in October 1853. Simultaneously, in the east, the
Ottomans crossed the Danube at Silistra and attacked the Russians at
Oltenia. The resulting Battle of Oltenia was the first engagement
following the declaration of war. The Russians counterattacked, but
were beaten back. On 31 December 1853, the Ottoman forces at Calafat moved against the Russian force at Chetatea
or Cetate, a small village nine miles north of Calafat, and engaged them on 6 January 1854. The battle began when
the Russians made a move to recapture Calafat. Most of the heavy fighting, however, took place in and around
Chetatea until the Russians were driven out of the village. Despite the setback at Chetatea, on 28 January 1854,
Russian forces laid siege to Calafat. The siege would continue until May 1854 when the Russians lifted the siege.
The Ottomans would also later beat the Russians in battle at Caracal.
:13043
In the spring of 1854 the Russians again advanced, crossing the Danube River into the Turkish province of Dobruja.
By April 1854, the Russians had reached the lines of Trajan's Wall where they were finally halted. In the center, the
Russian forces crossed the Danube and laid siege to Silistra from 14 April until 23 June 1854.
In the west, the Russians were dissuaded from attacking Vidin by the presence of the Austrian forces, which had
swelled to 280,000 men. On 28 May 1854 a protocol of the Vienna Conference was signed by Austria and Russia.
One of the aims of the Russian advance had been to encourage the Orthodox Christian Serbs and Bulgarians living
under Ottoman rule to rebel. However, when the Russian troops actually crossed the River Pruth into Moldavia, the
Orthodox Christians still showed no interest in rising up against the Turks.
:131, 137
Adding to the worries of Nicholas
I was the concern that Austria would enter the war against the Russians and attack his armies on the western flank.
Indeed, after attempting to mediate a peaceful settlement between Russia and Turkey, the Austrians entered the war
on the side of Turkey with an attack against the Russians in the Principalities which threatened to cut off the Russian
supply lines. Accordingly, the Russians were forced to raise the siege of Silistra on 23 June 1854, and begin
abandoning the Principalities.
:185
In June 1854 the Allied expeditionary force landed at Varna, a city on the Black Sea's western coast (now in
Bulgaria). They made little advance from their base there.
:175176
In July 1854, the Turks under Omar Pasha crossed
the Danube into Wallachia and on 7 July 1854, engaged the Russians in the city of Giurgiu and conquered it. The
Crimean War
8
capture of Giurgiu by the Turks immediately threatened Bucharest in Wallachia with capture by the same Turk army.
On 26 July 1854, Tsar Nicholas I ordered the withdrawal of Russian troops from the Principalities. Also in late July
1854, following up on the Russian retreat, the French staged an expedition against the Russian forces still in
Dobruja, but this was a failure.
:188190
By then the Russian withdrawal was complete, except for the fortress towns of northern Dobruja, while their place in
the Principalities was taken by the Austrians, as a neutral peacekeeping force.
:189
There was little further action on
this front after the autumn of 1854 and in September the allied force boarded ships at Varna to invade the Crimean
Peninsula.
:198
Black Sea theatre
Turkish troops storming Fort Shefketil
The naval operations of the Crimean war commenced with the
dispatch, in summer of 1853, of the French and British fleets to the
Black Sea region, to support the Ottomans and to dissuade the
Russians from encroachment. By June 1853 both fleets were stationed
at Besikas bay, outside the Dardanelles. With the Russian occupation
of the Danube Principalities in October they moved to the Bosphorus
and in November entered the Black Sea.
During this period the Russian Black Sea Fleet was operating against
Ottoman coastal traffic between Constantinople (currently named
Istanbul) and the Caucasus ports, while the Ottoman fleet sought to
protect this supply line. The clash came on 30 November 1853 when a
Russian fleet attacked an Ottoman force in the harbour at Sinop, and destroyed it at the Battle of Sinop. The battle
outraged opinion in Britain, which called for war. There was little additional naval action until March 1854 when on
the declaration of war the British frigate Furious was fired on outside Odessa harbour. In response the British fleet
bombarded the port, causing much damage to the town (see HMSTiger). To show support for Turkey after the battle
of Sinop, on 22 December 1853 the British-French ships squadron entered the Black Sea and the steamship
HMSRetribution approached the Port of Sevastopol, the commander of which received an ultimatum not to allow
any ships in the Black Sea.
In June the fleets transported the Allied expeditionary forces to Varna, in support of the Ottoman operations on the
Danube; in September they again transported the armies, this time to the Crimea. The Russian fleet during this time
declined to engage the allies, preferring to maintain a "fleet in being"; this strategy failed when Sevastopol, the main
port and where most of the Black Sea fleet was based, came under siege. The Russians were reduced to scuttling
their warships as blockships, after stripping them of their guns and men to reinforce batteries on shore. During the
siege, the Russians lost four 110- or 120-gun, 3-decker ships of the line, twelve 84-gun 2-deckers and four 60-gun
frigates in the Black Sea, plus a large number of smaller vessels. During the rest of the campaign the allied fleets
remained in control of the Black Sea, ensuring the various fronts were kept supplied.
In April 1855 they supported an invasion of Kerch and operated against Taganrog in the Sea of Azov. In September
they moved against Russian installations in the Dnieper estuary, attacking Kinburn in the first use of ironclad ships
in naval warfare.
Crimean War
9
Crimean campaign
Main article: Siege of Sevastopol (18541855)
The final assault of the French
brought about the capture of
Sevastopol after one of the most
memorable sieges of the 19th
century.
The Russians evacuated Wallachia and Moldavia in late July 1854. With the
evacuation of the Danubian Principalities the immediate cause of war was
withdrawn and the war might have ended at this time.
:192
However, war fever
among the public in both Britain and France had been whipped up by the press in
both countries to the degree that politicians found it untenable to propose ending
the war at this point. Indeed the coalition Government of George
Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen fell on 30 January 1855 on a
no-confidence vote as Parliament voted to appoint a committee to investigate
mismanagement of the war.
:311
Russo-British skirmish during
Crimean War
The Crimean campaign opened in September 1854 with the landing of the allied
expeditionary force on the sandy beaches of Calamita Bay on the south west
coast of the Crimean Peninsula. Their main strategic goal was to capture the
Russian fortresses at Sevastopol located to the south of Calamita Bay.
:194
However, to protect the allies' left flank from attack by the Russians, the allied
armies first moved north and west along the coast of the Peninsula to occupy the
city of Eupatoria.
:201
After the crossing the Alma River on 30 September 1854,
the allies moved on to invest Sevastopol. The Russian army retreated to the
interior.
[14]
Battle of Balaclava
A Russian assault on the allied supply base at Balaclava was rebuffed on 25
October 1854.
:521527
The Battle of Balaclava is remembered in England for the
actions of two British units. The 93rdHighlanders held out against repeated
attacks by a larger Russian force. The unit was memorialized as the "Thin Red
Line".
[15]
The second British unit to be remembered in the Battle of Balaclava
was the Light Cavalry Brigade under the command of the Earl of Cardigan. An
ambiguous order sent the brigade on the near suicidal charge of the Light
Brigade into the north Valley of the Balaclava battlefield. The heights around the
north Valley were brimming with Russian artillery which bombarded the Light Brigade. Of the original nearly
700-man strength of the Light Brigade, 278 were killed or wounded. The Light Brigade was memorialised in the
famous poem by Alfred Lord Tennyson, "The Charge of the Light Brigade". Although traditionally, the charge of the
Light Brigade was looked upon as a glorious but wasted sacrifice of good men and horses, recent historians say that
the charge of the Light Brigade did succeed in at least some of its objectives.
[16]
The aim of any cavalry charge is to
scatter the enemy lines and frighten the enemy off the battlefield. The charge of Light Brigade had so un-nerved the
Crimean War
10
Russian cavalry, which had previously been routed by the Heavy Brigade, that the Russian Cavalry was set to
full-scale flight by the subsequent charge of the Light Brigade.
:252
The failure of the British and French to follow up on the Battle of Balaclava led directly to another and much more
bloody battlethe Battle of Inkerman. On 5 November 1854, the Russians attempted to raise the siege at Sevastopol
with an attack against the allies which resulted in another allied victory.
[17]
Meanwhile at Sevastopol, the allies had surrounded the city with entrenchments and, in October 1854, unleashed an
allout bombardment (the first of many) against the city's defences. Winter, and a deteriorating supply situation on
both sides, led to a halt in ground operations. Sevastopol remained invested by the allies, while the allied armies
were hemmed in by the Russian army in the interior. A storm sank 30 Allied transport ships 14 November.
In February 1855 the Russians attacked the allied base at Eupatoria, where an Ottoman army had built up and was
threatening Russian supply routes. The battle saw the Russians defeated
:32122
and led to a change in command. The
strain of directing the war had taken its toll on the health of Tsar Nicholas. The Tsar, full of remorse for the disasters
he had caused, caught pneumonia and died on 2 March.
:96
Siege of Sevastopol
On the allied side the emphasis of the siege at Sevastopol shifted to the right-hand sector of the lines, against the
fortifications on Malakoff hill.
:339
In March there was fighting by the French over the fort at Mamelon, located on a
hill in front of the Malakoff. Several weeks of fighting saw little change in the front line, and the Mamelon remained
in Russian hands.
British cavalry charging against Russian forces at
the Balaclava
In April 1855, the allies staged a second all-out bombardment, leading
to an artillery duel with the Russian guns, but no ground assault
followed.
:34041
On 24 May 1855, sixty ships containing 7,000 French,
5,000 Turkish and 3,000 British troops set off for a raid on the city of
Kerch east of Sevastopol in an attempt to open another front on the
Crimean peninsula and to cut off Russian supplies.
:344
The allies
landed the force at Kerch. The plan was to outflank the Russian army.
The landings were successful, but the force made little progress
thereafter. In June a third bombardment was followed by a successful
attack on the Mamelon, but a follow-up assault on the Malakoff failed
with heavy losses. During this time the garrison commander, Admiral
Nakhimov was killed on 30 June 1855.
:378
In August the Russians again made an attack on the base at Balaclava. The resulting battle of Tchernaya was a defeat
for the Russians, who suffered heavy casualties. September saw the final assault. On 5 September another French
bombardment (the sixth) was followed by an assault by the French Army on 8 September resulting in the capture of
the Malakoff by the French, and the collapse of the Russian defences. Meanwhile the British captured the Great
Redan, just south of the city of Sevastopol. The city fell on 9 September 1855 after a year-long siege.
:106[18]
At this point both sides were exhausted, and there were no further military operations in the Crimea before the onset
of winter.
Crimean War
11
Azov campaign
Main article: Siege of Taganrog
In spring 1855, the allied BritishFrench commanders decided to send an Anglo-French naval squadron into the
Azov Sea to undermine Russian communications and supplies to besieged Sevastopol. On 12 May 1855,
BritishFrench warships entered the Kerch Strait and destroyed the coast battery of the Kamishevaya Bay. On 21
May 1855 the gunboats and armed steamers attacked the seaport of Taganrog, the most important hub in proximity
to Rostov on Don. The vast amounts of food, especially bread, wheat, barley, and rye that were amassed in the city
after the outbreak of war were prevented from being exported.
Bombardment of Taganrog from a British raft
during the first siege attempt
The Governor of Taganrog, Yegor Tolstoy, and lieutenant-general Ivan
Krasnov refused the ultimatum, responding that "Russians never
surrender their cities". The BritishFrench squadron bombarded
Taganrog for 6hours and landed 300 troops near the Old Stairway in
downtown Taganrog, but they were thrown back by Don Cossacks and
a volunteer corps.
In July 1855 the allied squadron tried to go past Taganrog to Rostov on
Don, entering the Don River through the Mius River. On 12 July 1855
HMSJasper grounded near Taganrog thanks to a fisherman who
repositioned the buoys into shallow waters. The Cossacks captured the
gunboat with all of its guns and blew it up. The third siege attempt was
made 1931 August 1855, but the city was already fortified and the
squadron could not approach close enough for landing operations. The allied fleet left the Gulf of Taganrog on 2
September 1855, with minor military operations along the Azov Sea coast continuing until late autumn 1855.
Caucasus theatre
For more details on this topic, see Caucasian War.
The Caucasus was already a scene of confrontation for the Russians and the Ottomans, as both had sought to extend
their influence in the region.
Russian expansion into the region had been resisted by local peoples in Chechnya, Dagestan, and Circassia. In the
region the Russians were opposed by Circassians and Muridists of the Caucasian Imamate, but were grudgingly
supported by Georgians and Kakhetians, who valued their independence, but were at odds with their neighbours.
In 1853 the leader of the mountain peoples, Imam Shamil, staged an insurrection against the occupying Russian
forces.
:335
His forces fought the Russians at Zaqatala, and Meselderg, but were beaten back by the Russian forces. In
1854 he tried again, advancing on Tiflis before being defeated at Shulda.
The Armenian front during the Crimean War
In summer of 1853 the Ottoman forces held strongholds at
Kars, Batum, and Erzurum, with lesser forts at Ardahan and
Bayazid. The Ottoman forces planned an invasion of
Georgia but after some initial success were unable to
maintain this and were forced to retreat. Russian forces in
the region were spread thinly, due to the demands of
holding down the region against insurrection, but during
1853 were reinforced. In September 1853 there were a
number of clashes between Russian and Ottoman forces.
Additionally, there were later battles at Fort St. Nicolas in
Crimean War
12
October 1853 and twice at Alexandropol in October 1853 and again in December 1853. On 26 November 1853, the
Russians beat the Ottoman armed forces at the battle of Akhaltsikh. On 1 December General Bebutov led 10,000
soldiers and 32 guns to win a victory over a 36,000-man Ottoman Army under Ahmed Pasha at the battle of
Bashkadiklar.
In the spring of 1854 the Russians planned an invasion of Ottoman territory. On 16 June Prince Andronikov with
10,000 soldiers and 18 guns achieved a victory over a 34,000-man Ottoman Army at the Cholok river; on 31 July
Russian forces seized Bayazid; on 5 August General Bebutov with 18,000 men and 64 guns had successfully waged
the battle of Kurekdere, 11 miles from Kars. Following these encounters there was little further action that year.
In 1855 both sides returned to the offensive; after initial maneuverings the Russians staged two assaults on Kars,
beginning from 16 June and then on 29 September, which were beaten back with huge losses. However they settled
down to a siege on 18 June, which had became almost total from the middle of August. The siege had been
successful and Kars surrendered on 28 November 1855. Commander of its garrison Mehmet Vasif Pasha had yielded
the fortress keys, 12 Ottoman banners and 18,500 soldiers as captives. As a result of this operation the Russian Army
assumed control not merely over the forts and city, but also over the whole area including Ardahan, Kagyzman, Oltu
and part of Basen district. Meanwhile the Ottoman army at Batum invaded Georgia, but after an inconclusive clash
at the Ingur river the offensive collapsed and they retreated to Batum.
In 1856 the Russians had plans to advance on Erzurum, but the peace of Paris in March 1856 put an end to further
operations.
Baltic theatre
See also: Charles John Napier Baltic Campaign
The Baltic was a forgotten theatre of the Crimean War.
[19]
The popularisation of events elsewhere had overshadowed
the significance of this theatre, which was close to Saint Petersburg, the Russian capital. In April 1854 an
Anglo-French fleet was sent into the Baltic to attack the Russian seaport of Kronstadt and the Russian fleet stationed
there.
[20]
In August 1854 the combined British and French fleet returned to Kronstadt for another attempt. The
outnumbered Russian Baltic Fleet confined its movements to the areas around its fortifications. At the same time,
British and French commanders Sir Charles Napier and Alexandre Ferdinand Parseval-Deschenesalthough they
led the largest fleet assembled since the Napoleonic Warsconsidered the Sveaborg fortress too well-defended to
engage. Thus, shelling of the Russian batteries was limited to two attempts in the summers of 1854 and 1855, and
initially, the attacking fleets limited their actions to blockading the Russian trade in the Gulf of Finland.
[21]
Naval
attacks on other ports, such as the ones at Hogland, were more successful. Additionally, they conducted raids on less
fortified sections of the Finnish coast.
[22]
Bombardment of Bomarsund during the Crimean
War, after William Simpson
Russia was dependent on imports for both the domestic economy and
the supply of her military forces, the blockade forced Russia to rely on
more expensive overland shipments from Prussia. The blockade
seriously undermined the Russian exports economy, and helped
shorten the war.
The burning of tar warehouses and ships led to international criticism
and, in London MP Thomas Gibson demanded in the House of
Commons that the First Lord of the Admiralty explain "a system which
carried on a great war by plundering and destroying the property of
defenceless villagers".
In 1855 the Western Allied Baltic Fleet tried to destroy heavily defended Russian dockyards at Sveaborg outside
Helsinki. More than 1,000 enemy guns tested the strength of the fortress for two days. Despite the shelling, the
sailors of the 120-gun ship Rossiya, led by Captain Viktor Poplonsky, defended the entrance to the harbor. The
Crimean War
13
Allies fired over twenty thousand shells but were unable to defeat the Russian batteries. A massive new fleet of more
than 350 gunboats and mortar vessels was prepared, but before the attack was launched, the war ended.
"Bombardment of the Solovetsky Monastery in
the White Sea by the Royal Navy". A lubok
(popular print) from 1868
Part of the Russian resistance was credited to the deployment of newly
created blockade mines. Perhaps the most influential contributor to the
development of naval mining was inventor and civil engineer
Immanuel Nobel, the father of Alfred Nobel. Immanuel helped the war
effort for Russia by applying his knowledge of industrial explosives
such as nitroglycerin and gunpowder. Modern naval mining is said to
date from the Crimean War: "Torpedo mines, if I may use this name
given by Fulton to self-acting mines underwater, were among the
novelties attempted by the Russians in their defences about Cronstadt
and Sevastopol", as one American officer put it in 1860.
White Sea theatre
In autumn 1854 a squadron of three British warships led by HMSMiranda left the Baltic for the White Sea, where
they shelled Kola (which was utterly destroyed) and the Solovki. Their attempt to storm Arkhangelsk proved
unsuccessful.
Pacific theatre
Main article: Siege of Petropavlovsk
Minor naval skirmishes also occurred in the Far East, where at Petropavlovsk on the Kamchatka Peninsula a strong
British and French Allied squadron including HMSPique under Rear Admiral David Price and a French force under
Counter-Admiral Auguste Febvrier Despointes besieged a smaller Russian force under Rear Admiral Yevfimy
Putyatin. In September 1854 an Allied landing force was beaten back with heavy casualties, and the Allies withdrew.
The Russians escaped under the cover of snow in early 1855 after Allied reinforcements arrived in the region.
The Anglo-French forces in the Far East also made several small landings on Sakhalin and Urup, one of the Kuril
Islands.
[23]
Italian involvement
Camillo di Cavour, under orders by Victor EmmanuelII of Piedmont-Sardinia (Italy) sent an expeditionary corps of
15,000 soldiers, commanded by General Alfonso La Marmora, to side with French and British forces during the
war.
:11112
This was an attempt at gaining the favour of the French especially when the issue of uniting Italy would
become an important matter. The deployment of Italian troops to the Crimea, and the gallantry shown by them in the
Battle of the Chernaya (16 August 1855) and in the siege of Sevastopol, allowed the Kingdom of Sardinia to be
among the participants at the peace conference at the end of the war, where it could address the issue of the
Risorgimento to other European powers.
Crimean War
14
Greece
A Greek battalion fought for Russia at Sevastopol
Greece played a peripheral role in the war. When Russia
attacked the Ottoman Empire in 1853 Greek leaders saw
an opportunity to expand North and South into Ottoman
areas that had a Christian majority. However Greece did
not coordinate its plans with Russia, did not declare war,
and received no outside military or financial support. The
French and British seized its major port and effectively
neutralized the Greek army. Greek efforts to cause
insurrections were failures that were easily crushed by the
Ottoman army. Greece was not invited to the peace
conference and made no gains out of the war. The
frustrated Greek leadership blamed the King for failing to
take advantage of the situation; his popularity plunged and he was later forced to abdicate.
When the Crimean War broke out, King Otto of Greece saw an opportunity to gain Ottoman-controlled territory
which had large Greek elements. Greece, an Orthodox nation, had considerable support in Russia, but the Russian
government decided it was too dangerous to help Greece expand its holdings.
:3240
When the Russians invaded the
Principalities, the Ottoman forces were tied down so Greece invaded Thessaly and Epirus. To block further Greek
moves, the British and French occupied the main Greek port at Piraeus from April 1854 to February 1857. The
Greeks, gambling on a Russian victory, incited the large-scale Epirus Revolt of 1854 as well as uprisings in Crete.
The revolts failed and Greece made no gains in the war.
:139
Kiev Cossack Revolt and national awakening in Ukraine
See also: Micha Czajkowski
A Kiev cossack revolt that initially started in the Vasylkiv county of Kiev Governorate (province) in February 1855
spread across the whole Kiev and Chernigov governorates.
[24]
Led by peasants, the revolt found a great support
among the Ukrainian landowners who opposed the war.
[25]
The events were contemporary with the popular
movement of Chopomania that laid foundations of the Ukrainian national awakening
[26]
and creation of the Kiev
Hromada (Kiev Community).
[27]
End of the war
Three 17th century church bells in Arundel
Castle, Britain. These were taken from
Sevastopol as trophies at the end of the Crimean
War
British position
Dissatisfaction with the conduct of the war was growing with the
public in Britain and in other countries, aggravated by reports of
fiascos, especially the humiliating defeat of the Charge of the Light
Brigade at the Battle of Balaclava. In parliament, Tories demanded an
accounting of all soldiers, cavalry and sailors sent to the Crimea and
accurate figures as to the number of casualties that had been sustained
by all British armed forces in the Crimea; they were especially
concerned with the Battle of Balaclava. When Parliament passed a bill
to investigate by the vote of 305 to 148, Aberdeen said he had lost a
vote of no confidence and resigned as prime minister on 30 January
Crimean War
15
1855. The veteran former Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston became prime minister. Palmerston took a hard line; he
wanted to expand the war, foment unrest inside the Russian Empire, and permanently reduce the Russian threat to
Europe. Sweden and Prussia were willing to join Britain and France, and Russia was isolated.
:400402, 406408
Peace negotiations
France, which had sent far more soldiers to the war than Britain, and suffered far more casualties, wanted the war to
end, as did Austria.
:402405
Peace negotiations at the Congress of Paris resulted in the signing of the Treaty of Paris on 30 March 1856.
[28]
In
compliance with article III Russia restored to the Ottoman Empire the city and citadel of Kars in common with "all
other parts of the Ottoman territory of which the Russian troop were in possession." Russia ceded some land in
Bessarabia at the mouth of the Danube to Moldavia. By art. IV Britain, France, Sardinia and Turkey restored to
Russia "the towns and ports of Sevastopol, Balaklava, Kamish, Eupatoria, Kerch, Jenikale, Kinburn, as well as all
other territories occupied by the allied troops." In conformity with art. XI and XIII the Tsar and the Sultan agreed not
to establish any naval or military arsenal on the Black Sea coast. The Black Sea clauses weakened Russia, and it no
longer posed a naval threat to the Ottomans. The principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia were nominally returned
to the Ottoman Empire; in practice they became independent. The Great Powers pledged to respect the independence
and territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire.
:43233
Historical analysis
Monument to Sevastopol, Halifax, Nova
Scotiathe only Crimean War Monument in
North America
The Treaty of Paris stood until 1871, when France was defeated by
Prussia in the Franco-Prussian War of 18701871. While Prussia and
several other German states united to form a powerful German Empire,
the Emperor of the French, Napoleon III, was deposed to permit the
formation of a Third French Republic. During his reign, NapoleonIII,
eager for the support of Great Britain, had opposed Russia over the
Eastern Question. Russian interference in the Ottoman Empire,
however, did not in any significant manner threaten the interests of
France. Thus, France abandoned its opposition to Russia after the
establishment of a republic. Encouraged by the decision of the French
and supported by the German minister Otto von Bismarck, Russia
renounced the Black Sea clauses of the treaty agreed to in 1856. As
Great Britain alone could not enforce the clauses, Russia once again
established a fleet in the Black Sea.
Although it was Russia that was punished by the Paris Treaty, in the long run it was Austria that lost the most from
the Crimean War despite having barely taken part in the war.
:433
Having abandoned its alliance with Russia, Austria
was diplomatically isolated following the war,
:433
which contributed to its defeat in the 1866 Austro-Prussian
War
:433
and its loss of influence in most German-speaking lands. With France, now hostile to Germany, allied with
Russia, and Russia competing with the newly renamed Austro-Hungarian Empire for an increased role in the
Balkans at the expense of the Ottoman Empire, the foundations were in place for creating the diplomatic alliances
that would lead to World WarI.
Notwithstanding the guarantees to preserve Ottoman territories specified in the Treaty of Paris, Russia, exploiting
nationalist unrest in the Ottoman states in the Balkans and seeking to regain lost prestige, once again declared war on
the Ottoman Empire on 24 April 1877. In this later Russo-Turkish War the states of Romania, Serbia, Montenegro,
and Bulgaria achieved their autonomy from direct Ottoman rule.
Crimean War
16
The Crimean War marked the ascendancy of France to the position of pre-eminent power on the Continent
:411
, the
continued decline of the Ottoman Empire, and the beginning of a decline for Tsarist Russia. As Fuller notes, "Russia
had been beaten on the Crimean peninsula, and the military feared that it would inevitably be beaten again unless
steps were taken to surmount its military weakness." The Crimean War marks the demise of the Concert of Europe,
the balance of power that had dominated Europe since the Congress of Vienna in 1815, and which had included
France, Russia, Austria and Britain.
According to historian Shepard Clough, the war:
was not the result of a calculated plan, nor even of hasty last-minute decisions made under stress. It was
the consequence of more than two years of fatal blundering in slow-motion by inept statesmen who had
months to reflect upon the actions they took. It arose from Napoleon's search for prestige; Nicholass
quest for control over the Straits; his nave miscalculation of the probable reactions of the European
powers; the failure of those powers to make their positions clear; and the pressure of public opinion in
Britain and Constantinople at crucial moments.
This view of 'diplomatic drift' as the cause of the war was first popularised by A. W, Kinglake, who portrayed the
British as victims of newspaper sensationalism and duplicitous French and Ottoman diplomacy. More recently,
historians Andrew Lambert and Winfried Baumgart have argued that, first, Britain was following a geopolitical
strategy in aiming to destroy a fledgling Russian Navy which might challenge the Royal Navy for control of the seas,
and second that the war was a joint European response to a century of Russian expansion not just southwards but
also into western Europe.
Documentation
Notable documentation of the war was provided by William Russell (writing for The Times newspaper) and the
photographs of Roger Fenton.
:306309
News from war correspondents reached all nations involved in the war and
kept the public citizenry of those nations better informed of the day-to-day events of the war than had been the case
in any other war to that date. The British public was very well informed regarding the day-to-day realities of the war
in the Crimea. After the French extended the telegraph to the coast of the Black Sea during the winter of 1854, the
news reached London in two days. When the British laid an underwater cable to the Crimean peninsula in April
1855, news reached London in a few hours. The daily news reports energised public opinion, which brought down
the Aberdeen government and carried Lord Palmerston into office as prime minister.
:30411
Criticisms and reform
A tinted lithograph by William Simpson
illustrating conditions of the sick and injured in
Balaklava
As the memory of the "Charge of the Light Brigade" demonstrates, the
war became an iconic symbol of logistical, medical and tactical failures
and mismanagement. Public opinion in Britain was outraged at the
logistical and command failures of the war; the newspapers demanded
drastic reforms, and parliamentary investigations demonstrated the
multiple failures of the Army.
[29]
However, the reform campaign was
not well organized, and the traditional aristocratic leadership of the
Army pulled itself together, and blocked all serious reforms. No one
was punished. The outbreak of the Indian Mutiny in 1857 shifted
attention to the heroic defense of British interest by the Army, and
further talk of reform went nowhere.
[30]
The demand for
professionalization was, however, achieved by Florence Nightingale,
who gained worldwide attention for pioneering and publicizing modern
nursing while treating the wounded.
:46971
Crimean War
17
The Crimean War also saw the first tactical use of railways and other modern inventions such as the electric
telegraph, with the first "live" war reporting to The Times by William Howard Russell. Some credit Russell with
prompting the resignation of the sitting British government through his reporting of the lacklustre condition of
British forces deployed in Crimea. Additionally, the telegraph reduced the independence of British overseas
possessions from their commanders in London due to such rapid communications. Newspaper readership informed
public opinion in the United Kingdom and France as never before. It was the first European war to be photographed.
The war also employed modern military tactics, such as trenches and blind artillery fire. The use of the Mini ball for
shot, coupled with the rifling of barrels, greatly increased Allied rifle range and damage.
The British Army system of sale of commissions came under great scrutiny during the war, especially in connection
with the Battle of Balaclava, which saw the ill-fated Charge of the Light Brigade. This scrutiny eventually led to the
abolition of the sale of commissions.
The Crimean War was a contributing factor in the Russian abolition of serfdom in 1861: Tsar AlexanderII (Nicholas
I's son and successor) saw the military defeat of the Russian serf-army by free troops from Britain and France as
proof of the need for emancipation. The Crimean War also led to the eventual realisation by the Russian government
of its technological inferiority, in military practices as well as weapons.
Meanwhile, Russian military medicine saw dramatic progress: N.I.Pirogov, known as the father of Russian field
surgery, developed the use of anaesthetics, plaster casts, enhanced amputation methods, and five-stage triage in
Crimea, among other things.
The war also led to the establishment of the Victoria Cross in 1856 (backdated to 1854), the British Army's first
universal award for valour.
Chronology of major battles of the war
Battle of Sinop, 30 November 1853
Siege of Petropavlovsk, 3031 August 1854, on the Pacific coast
Battle of Alma, 20 September 1854
Siege of Sevastopol, 25 September 1854 to 8 September 1855
Battle of Balaclava, 25 October 1854 (see also Charge of the Light Brigade and The Thin Red Line)
Battle of Inkerman, 5 November 1854
Battle of Eupatoria, 17 February 1855
Battle of Chernaya River (aka "Traktir Bridge"), 25 August 1855
Sea of Azoff naval campaign, May to November 1855
Siege of Kars, June to 28 November 1855
Crimean War
18
FitzRoy Somerset, Omar Pasha and
Marshal Plissier
Crimean War Memorial at Waterloo
Place, St James's, London
Prominent military commanders
Russian commanders
Prince Mikhail Dmitriyevich Gorchakov
Count and Namestnik Ivan Feodorovich Paskevich
Admiral Pavel Stepanovich Nakhimov
General Eduard Ivanovich Totleben
Prince Aleksandr Sergeyevich Menshikov
French commanders
Marshal Jacques Leroy de Saint Arnaud
Marshal Franois Certain Canrobert
Marshal Aimable Plissier
British commanders
James Brudenell, 7th Earl of Cardigan
FitzRoy Somerset, 1st Baron Raglan
Sir Thomas James Harper
Sir Edmund Lyons (later 1st Baron Lyons)
George Charles Bingham, 3rd Earl of Lucan
Ottoman commanders
General Abdlkerim Nadir Pasha
General Omar Pasha
Kingdom of Sardinia commander
General Alfonso Ferrero La Marmora
Last veterans
A British naval mascot, Timothy (18392004)
was the last "veteran" of the Crimean War
Yves Prigent (18331938). French sailor.
Charles Nathan (18341934). Last French soldier, also saw action
in Italy, Syria, Mexico and the Franco-Prussian War.
Edwin Hughes (18301927). Last survivor of the Charge of the
Light Brigade.
Colonel Rookes Evelyn Bell Crompton (18451940). Repeatedly
claimed that he was a cadet on HMS Dragon during the siege of
Sevastopol, earning two campaign medals before his twelfth
birthday. There is no record of his having enrolled in the Navy; at
the time of his visits to the Crimea (mid-May to mid-July 1856),
nobody was entitled to the award of the British Crimea Medal.
Luigi Palma di Cesnola (18321904). An Italian soldier who served with the British Army in the Crimean War as
the aide-de-camp to General Enrico Fardella. Also served in the American Civil War, on the Union Side.
[31][32]
Timothy the Tortoise (18392004). The naval mascot of HMS Queen
Crimean War
19
In popular culture
"The Charge of the Light Brigade" by Alfred, Lord Tennyson depicted a brave but disastrous cavalry charge
during the Battle of Balaclava.
Leo Tolstoy wrote a few short sketches on the Siege of Sevastopol, collected in The Sebastopol Sketches. The
stories detail the lives of the Russian soldiers and citizens in Sevastopol during the siege. Because of this work,
Tolstoy has been called the world's first war correspondent.
Jack Archer: A Tale of the Crimea by G.A.Henty, 1883, a historical novel, details the adventures of two British
midshipmen in the Crimean War.
The events of the Crimean War are depicted in the 1973 novel Flashman at the Charge in which the eponymous
antihero participates in the battles of Sevastopol and Balaclava.
Franz Roubaud. Panorama Siege of Sevastopol (18541855)
Charge of the Light Brigade 1936 film starring Errol Flynn
The Charge of the Light Brigade 1968 film starring John Gielgud and Trevor Howard
The Eyre Affair by Jasper Fforde is an alternative history novel where the Crimean War has been raging for over
130 years and is still ongoing, albeit at a stalemate at the time of the novel.
"The Trooper", song by Iron Maiden included in their 1983 album Piece of Mind, inspired by Lord Tennyson
poem, describes the charge from the point of view of a British soldier.
The 2006 song by Kasabian called "Empire" is an anti-war song with a video set during the Crimean War (also
shot on location)
The Great Train Robbery by Michael Crichton was set on the English homefront during the Crimean War. The
plot revolved around stealing gold intended for the British troops from a moving railway train. It was later made
into The First Great Train Robbery (known as The Great Train Robbery in the U.S.), starring Sean Connery. The
novel was based on the Great Gold Robbery of 1855.
Notes
[1] Page 39 of the scan of this book (http:/ / www.sardegnadigitallibrary. it/ mmt/ fullsize/ 2009042212370900050. pdf) (in PDF) reporting a
summary of the Sardinian expedition in Crimea
[2] [2] , ., 1999, .4, .315
[3] Napoleon III, Pierre Milza, Perrin edition, 2004 (http:/ / www. canalacademie. com/ 1854-la-Guerre-de-Crimee. html)
[4] [4] The War Chronicles: From Flintlocks to Machine Guns: A Global Reference of ... , Joseph Cummins, 2009, p. 100
[5] John Sweetman, Crimean War, Essential Histories 2, Osprey Publishing, 2001, ISBN 1-84176-186-9, p.89
[6] Mara Kozelsky, "The Crimean War, 1853-56." Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 13.4 (2012): 903-917 online (http:/ /
muse.jhu. edu/ journals/ kritika/ v013/ 13.4.kozelsky. html).
[7] A.J.P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe: 1848-1918 (1954) pp 60-61
[8] Matthew Smith Anderson, The Eastern Question, 1774-1923: A Study in International Relations (1966).
[9] Journal of a residence in Circassia during the years 1837, 1838, and 1839 - Bell, James Stanislaus (English) (http:/ / archive. org/ search.
php?query=creator:"Bell, James Stanislaus")
[10] Hew Strachan, Hew. "Soldiers, Strategy and Sebastopol," Historical Journal (1978) 21#2 pp 303-325 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/
stable/ 2638262)
[11] A.J.P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe: 1848-1918 (1954) p 61
[12] Barbara Jelavich, St. Petersburg and Moscow: Tsarist and Soviet Foreign Policy, 1814-1974 (1974) p 119
[13] William C. Fuller, Strategy and Power in Russia 1600-1914 (1998) pp 252-59
[14] The famous dispatches of a British war correspondent appear in William Howard Russell, The Great War with Russia: The Invasion of the
Crimea; a Personal Retrospect of the Battles of the Alma, Balaclava, and Inkerman, and of the Winter of 1854-55 (Cambridge University
Press, 2012)
[15] John Millin Selby, The thin red line of Balaclava (London: Hamilton, 1970)
[16] John Sweetman, Balaclava 1854: The charge of the light brigade (Osprey Publishing, 1990) excerpt (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?hl=en& lr=& id=fr7FjlzvrfwC)
[17] Patrick Mercer, Inkerman 1854: The Soldiers' Battle (1998) excerpt and text search (http:/ / www. amazon. com/
Inkerman-1854-Soldiers-Battle-Campaign/ dp/ 1855326183/ )
[18] Leo Tolstoy, Sebastopol (2008) [books.google.com/books?isbn=1434461602 excerpts]; Tolstoy wrote three firsthand battlefield
observations "Sebastopol Sketches."
Crimean War
20
[19] Edgar Anderson, "The Scandinavian Area and the Crimean War in the Baltic," Scandinavian Studies (1969) 41#3 pp. 263-275 in JSTOR
(http:/ / www. jstor.org/ stable/ 40917005)
[20] R.F. Colvile, "The Baltic as a Theatre of War: The Campaign of 1854." The RUSI Journal (1941) 86#541 pp: 72-80 online (http:/ / www.
tandfonline.com/ doi/ pdf/ 10. 1080/ 03071844109424963)
[21] Colvile, "The Baltic as a Theatre of War: The Campaign of 1854." The RUSI Journal (1941) 86#541 pp: 72-80
[22] R. F. Colvile, "The Navy and the Crimean War." The RUSI Journal (1940) 85#537 pp: 73-78. online (http:/ / www. tandfonline. com/ doi/
pdf/ 10. 1080/ 03071844009427344)
[23] Mikhail Vysokov: A Brief History of Sakhalin and the Kurils (http:/ / www. sakhalin. ru/ Engl/ Region/ history. htm): Late 19th (http:/ /
www.sakhalin. ru/ Engl/ Region/ book/ late_19th.htm)
[24] Kiev Cossacks (http:/ / www. encyclopediaofukraine.com/ display. asp?linkpath=pages\K\Y\KyivCossacks. htm) at the Encyclopedia of
Ukraine.
[25] Crimean War (http:/ / www. encyclopediaofukraine. com/ display. asp?linkpath=pages\C\R\CrimeanWar. htm) at the Encyclopedia of
Ukraine
[26] Khlopoman (http:/ / www. encyclopediaofukraine.com/ display. asp?linkpath=pages\K\H\KhlopomanIT. htm) at the Encyclopedia of
Ukraine
[27] Hromada of Kyiv (http:/ / www. encyclopediaofukraine. com/ display. asp?linkpath=pages\H\R\HromadaofKyiv. htm) at the Encyclopedia
of Ukraine.
[28] W. E. Mosse, "How Russia made peace September 1855 to April 1856." Cambridge Historical Journal (1955) 11#3 pp: 297-316. online
[29] Gavin Hughes and Jonathan Trigg, "Remembering the Charge of the Light Brigade: Its Commemoration, War Memorials and Memory,"
Journal of Conflict Archaeology (2008) 4#1 pp. 39-58. DOI: http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1163/ 157407808X382755
[30] Peter Burroughs, "An Unreformed Army? 1815-1868," in David Chandler, ed., The Oxford History of the British Army (1996), pp 183-84
[31] Maria Luisa Moncassoli Tibone. "Dal Piemonte a Cipro, a New York: unavventura appassionante".
[32] Italian American History (http:/ / www. mypaesano. com/ Italian_American_History. htm) - MyPaesano.com - Retrieved 16 July 2011.
Further reading
Arnold, Guy. Historical dictionary of the Crimean War (Scarecrow Press, 2002)
Badem, Candan. The Ottoman Crimean War (18531856) (Leiden: Brill, 2010). 432 pp. ISBN 9-004-18205-5
Bridge and Bullen, The Great Powers and the European States System 18141914, (Pearson Education: London),
2005
Bamgart, Winfried The Crimean War, 18531856 (2002) Arnold Publishers ISBN 0-340-61465-X
Cox, Michael, and John Lenton. Crimean War Basics: Organisation and Uniforms: Russia and Turkey (1997)
Curtiss, John Shelton. Russia's Crimean War (1979) ISBN 0-822-30374-4
Figes, Orlando, Crimea: The Last Crusade (2010) Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-7139-9704-0; the standard scholarly
study; American edition published as The Crimean War: A History (2010) excerpt and text search (http:/ / www.
amazon. com/ Crimean-War-History-Orlando-Figes/ dp/ 1250002524/ )
Goldfrank, David M. The Origins of the Crimean War (1993)
Gorizontov, Leonid E. "The Crimean War as a Test of Russia's Imperial Durability," Russian Studies in History
(2012) 51#1 pp 6594.
Hoppen, K. Theodore. The Mid-Victorian Generation, 1846-1886 (1998) pp 16783; summary of British policy
online (http:/ / www. questia. com/ read/ 35631622/ the-mid-victorian-generation-1846-1886#/ 25#25)
Lambert, Andrew. "Preparing for the Russian War: British Strategic Planning, March, 1853 March 1854," War
& Society (1989) 7#2 pp 1539.
Lambert, Professor Andrew (2013). The Crimean War: British Grand Strategy against Russia, 185356 (http:/ /
books. google. com/ books?id=dQGiAgAAQBAJ& pg=PA1). Ashgate Publishing. argues that the Baltic was the
decisive theatre
Markovits, Stefanie. The Crimean War in the British Imagination (Cambridge University Press, 2010) ISBN
0-521-11237-0
Pearce, Robert. "The Results of the Crimean War," History Review (2011) #70 pp 2733.
Ponting, Clive The Crimean War (2004) Chatto and Windus ISBN 0-7011-7390-4
Pottinger Saab, Anne The Origins of the Crimean Alliance (1977) University of Virginia Press ISBN
0-8139-0699-7
Crimean War
21
Puryear, Vernon J. "New Light on the Origins of the Crimean War", Journal of Modern History Vol. 3, No. 2
(Jun. 1931), pp.219234 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 1871715)
Ramm, Agatha, and B. H. Sumner. "The Crimean War." in J.P.T. Bury, ed., The New Cambridge Modern
History: Volume 10: The Zenith of European Power, 1830-1870 (1960) pp 46892, short survey
Rich, Norman Why the Crimean War: A Cautionary Tale (1985) McGraw-Hill ISBN 0-07-052255-3
Ridley, Jasper. Lord Palmerston (1970) pp 42554
Royle, Trevor Crimea: The Great Crimean War, 18541856 (2000) Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 1-4039-6416-5
Schroeder, Paul W. Austria, Great Britain, and the Crimean War: The Destruction of the European Concert
(Cornell Up, 192) online (http:/ / www. questia. com/ read/ 24100854/
austria-great-britain-and-the-crimean-war-the-destruction#/ )
Schmitt, Bernadotte E. "The Diplomatic Preliminaries of the Crimean War", American Historical Review, (1919)
25#1 pp.3667 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 1836373)
Small, Hugh. The Crimean War: Queen Victoria's War with the Russian Tsars (Tempus, 2007); diplomacy, pp
6282
Strachan, Hew. "Soldiers, Strategy and Sebastopol," Historical Journal (1978) 21#2 pp 303325 in JSTOR (http:/
/ www. jstor. org/ stable/ 2638262)
Taylor, A.J.P. The Struggle for Mastery in Europe: 18481918 (1954) pp 6282
Wetzel, David The Crimean War: A Diplomatic History (1985) Columbia University Press ISBN 0-88033-086-4
Zayonchkovski, Andrei (2002) [19081913]. 18531856 [Eastern War 18531856] (http:/ /
militera. lib. ru/ h/ zayonchkovsky_am02/ index. html). . Petersburg: Poligon.
ISBN5-89173-157-6.
Historiography and memory
Gooch, Brison D. "A Century of Historiography on the Origins of the Crimean War", American Historical Review
Vol. 62, No. 1 (Oct. 1956), pp.3358 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 1848511)
Edgerton, Robert B. Death or Glory: The Legacy of the Crimean War (1999) online (http:/ / www. questia. com/
library/ 96342340/ death-or-glory-the-legacy-of-the-crimean-war#/ )
Kozelsky, Mara. "The Crimean War, 185356," Kritika (2012) 13#4 online (http:/ / www. questia. com/ library/
1G1-319613789/ the-crimean-war-1853-56)
Lambert, Albert. Crimean War 1853-1856," in David Loades, ed., Reader's Guide to British History (2003)
1:318-19
Lambert, Andrew. The Crimean War: British Grand Strategy Against Russia, 1853-56 (2nd ed. Ashgate, 2011)
the 2nd edition has a detailed summary of the historiography, pp 1-20
Markovits, Stefanie. The Crimean War in the British Imagination (Cambridge University Press: 2009) 287 pp.
ISBN 0-521-11237-0
Russell, William Howard, The Crimean War: As Seen by Those Who Reported It (Louisiana State University
Press, 2009) ISBN 978-0-8071-3445-0
Small, Hugh. "Sebastopol Besieged," History Today (2014) 64#4 pp 2021
Contemporary sources
John Miller Adye (1860). A Review of the Crimean War to the winter of 18545 (http:/ / books. google. com. au/
books?id=HNggFdfSqqEC). Hurst and Blackett.
Alexander William Kinglake (186387). The Invasion of the Crimea, (nine volumes, London). vol1 (https:/ /
archive. org/ details/ invasionofcrimea01kinguoft) vol2 (https:/ / archive. org/ details/
invasionofcrimea02kinguoft) vol3 (https:/ / archive. org/ details/ invasionofcrimea03kinguoft) vol4 (https:/ /
archive. org/ details/ invasionofcrime04king) vol5 (https:/ / archive. org/ details/ invasionofcrime05king) vol6
(https:/ / archive. org/ details/ invasioncrimeai11kinggoog) vol7 (https:/ / archive. org/ details/
Crimean War
22
invasionofcrimea07kinguoft) vol8 (https:/ / archive. org/ details/ cu31924071199750) vol9 (https:/ / archive.
org/ details/ invasionofcrime09king)
William Howard Russell (1855). The War (volume 1): from the Landing at Gallipoli to the Death of Lord Raglan
(https:/ / archive. org/ details/ warrussell01russ). George Routledge & Co.
William Howard Russell (1856). The War (volume 2): from the death of Lord Raglan to the evacuation of the
Crimea (https:/ / archive. org/ details/ warfromdeathoflo02russ). George Routledge & Co.
William Howard Russell (1877). The British expedition to the Crimea (https:/ / archive. org/ details/
britishexpeditio00russ). G. Routledge and Sons.
Adolphus Slade (1867). Turkey and the Crimean War: a narrative of historical events (https:/ / archive. org/
details/ turkeycrimeanwar00sladuoft). Smith, Elder & Co.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Crimean War.
Wikisource has the text of the 1905 New International Encyclopedia article Crimean War.
Articles about the Crimean War (http:/ / tips. fm/ crimean-war/ )
A small peace celebration: 29 May 1856 (http:/ / boar. org. uk/ abiwxo3Bournedoc001. htm)
Crimean War Research Society. (http:/ / www. crimeanwar. org/ )
Immediate causes of the War detailed in context. (http:/ / www. victorianweb. org/ history/ crimea/ immcauses.
html)
Loading and Firing British Muskets in the Crimean War 18541856 (http:/ / www. militaryheritage. com/
enfield1853. htm)
Punch Sketches on Crimean War (http:/ / www. john-leech-archive. org. uk/ keyword/ crimean-war. htm)
The Army Service of Hastings McAllister (http:/ / www. closebracket. com/ genealogy/ hastingsintro. html)
Anne S. K. Brown Military Collection, Brown University Library (http:/ / dl. lib. brown. edu/ libweb/ collections/
askb/ ) Prints, drawings, and watercolours
Commander W. Gordon, R.N. (H.M.S Sansapareil). Balaclava and the Sevastopol Inquiry, 1855 (http:/ / www.
allworldwars. com/ Balaclava and the Sevastopol Inquiry. html)
The Baltic Campaign of the Crimean War (http:/ / www. britishembassy. gov. uk/ servlet/
Front?pagename=OpenMarket/ Xcelerate/ ShowPage& c=Page& cid=1044360079988)
The Tunisian Army in the Crimean War: A Military Mystery (http:/ / www. militaryhistoryonline. com/
19thcentury/ articles/ tunisiacrimea. aspx) by Dr. Andrew McGregor
The Crimean War (http:/ / histclo. com/ essay/ war/ war-crimea. html)
Article Sources and Contributors
23
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