Triangle

A polygon (plane figure) with

3 angles and 3 sides.
Sides: a, b, c
Opposite angles: A, B, C
Altitudes: ha , hb , hc
edians: !a , !b , !c
Angle bisectors: ta , tb , tc
"eri!eter: "
Se!iperi!eter: s
Area: #
$adius of circu!scribed circle: $
$adius of inscribed circle: r
%o read about triangles, &isit %he 'eo!etry Center.
Equilateral Triangle



A triangle with all three sides of e(ual length.
a ) b ) c.
A ) B ) C ) "i*3 radians ) +,
o


" ) 3a
s ) 3a*-
# ) a
-
s(rt(3)*.
ha ) !a ) ta ) a s(rt(3)*-
$ ) a s(rt(3)*3
r ) a s(rt(3)*+
/a&aS0etchpad e1ploration: 2(uilateral triangle
Isosceles Triangle


A triangle with two sides of e(ual length.
a ) c
A ) C


B 3 -A ) "i radians ) 45,
o
" ) -a 3 b
s ) a 3 b*-
# ) b s(rt(.a
-
6b
-
)*. ) a
-
sin(B)*- ) ab sin(A)*-
ha ) b s(rt(.a
-
6b
-
)*(-a) ) a sin(B) ) b sin(A)
!a ) s(rt(a
-
3-b
-
)*-
ta ) b s(rt(a7-a3b8)*(a3b) ) b sin(A)*sin(3A*-)
hb ) !b ) tb ) s(rt(.a
-
6b
-
)*- ) a cos(B*-)
$ ) a
-
b*.# ) a*7- sin(A)8 ) b*7- sin(B)8
r ) #*s ) b s(rt7(-a6b)*(-a3b)8*-

/a&aS0etchpad e1ploration: 9sosceles triangle
Right Triangle


A triangle with one right angle.
C ) A 3 B ) "i*- radians ) :,
o
c
-
) a
-
3 b
-

("ythagorean %heore!)



" ) a 3 b 3 c
s ) (a3b3c)*-
# ) ab*-
ha ) b
hb ) a
hc ) ab*c
!a ) s(rt(.b
-
3a
-
)*-
!b ) s(rt(.a
-
3b
-
)*-
!c ) c*-

ta ) -bc cos(A*-)*(b3c) )
s(rt7bc(46a
-
*7b3c8
-
)8
tb ) -ac cos(B*-)*(a3c) )
s(rt7ac(46b
-
*7a3c8
-
)8
tc ) ab s(rt(-)*(a3b)
$ ) c*-
r ) ab*(a3b3c) ) s 6 c


/a&aS0etchpad e1ploration: $ight triangle
Scalene Triangle


A triangle with no two sides
e(ual.
(;ote that the following
for!ulas wor0 with all triangles,
not <ust scalene triangles.)
" ) a 3 b 3 c
s ) (a3b3c)*-

# ) aha*- ) ab sin(C)*- )
a
-
sin(B) sin(C)*7- sin(A)8 )
s(rt7s(s6a)(s6b)(s6c)8
(=eron>s or =ero>s ?or!ula)

ha ) c sin(B) ) b sin(C) ) -#*a
!a ) s(rt(-b
-
3-c
-
6a
-
)*-
ta ) -bc cos(A*-)*(b3c) )
s(rt7bc(46a
-
*7b3c8
-
)8

$ ) abc*.# )
a*7- sin(A)8 )
b*7- sin(B)8 )
c*7- sin(C)8

r ) -#*" ) #*s )
s(rt7(s6a)(s6b)(s6c)*s8 )
c sin(A*-)sin(B*-)*cos(C*-) )
ab sin(C)*(- s) )
(s6c)tan(C*-)
Quadrilateral

A polygon (plane figure) with .
angles
and . sides.
Sides: a, b, c, d
Angles: A, B, C, @
Around the (uadrilateral are a,
A, b, B, c, C, d, @, and bac0 to
a, in that order
Altitudes: ha , etc.
@iagonals: p ) B@, ( ) AC,
intersect at O
Angle between diagonals: theta
"eri!eter: "
Se!iperi!eter: s
Area: #
$adius of circu!scribed circle:
$
$adius of inscribed circle: r

%o read about (uadrilaterals, &isit %he 'eo!etry Center.
General




" ) a 3 b 3 c 3 d.
s ) "*- ) (a3b3c3d)*-

A 3 B 3 C 3 @ ) - "i radians
) 3+,
o

# ) p( sin(theta)*-
# ) (b
-
3d
-
6a
-
6c
-
)tan(theta)*.
# ) s(rt7.p
-
(
-
6(b
-
3d
-
6a
-
6c
-
)
-
8*.

# ) s(rt7(s6a)(s6b)(s6c)(s6d)6
abcd
cos
-
(7A3C8*-)8
(Bretschneider>s ?or!ula)
Square

A (uadrilateral with four right angles and all four
sides of e(ual length.
a ) b ) c ) d
A ) B ) C ) @ ) "i*- radians ) :,
o
theta ) "i*- radians ) :,
o



ha ) a
p ) ( ) a s(rt(-)
" ) .a
s ) -a
# ) a
-
$ ) a s(rt(-)*-
r ) a*-

/a&aS0etchpad e1ploration: S(uare
Rectangle


A (uadrilateral with ad<acent sides perpendicular
(all four angles are therefore right angles).
a ) c, b ) d.
A ) B ) C ) @ ) "i*- radians ) :,
o


ha ) b
hb ) a
p ) ( ) s(rt(a
-
3b
-
)
theta ) - arctan(a*b)
" ) -(a3b)
s ) a 3 b
# ) ab
$ ) p*- ) s(rt(a
-
3b
-
)*-
r ) !ini!u!(a,b)*-

/a&aS0etchpad e1ploration: $ectangle
Parallelogram



A (uadrilateral with opposite sides
parallel.
a ) c, b ) d
A ) C, B ) @



A 3 B ) "i radians ) 45,
o
ha ) b sin(A) ) b cos(B6"i*-)
hb ) a sin(A) ) a cos(B6"i*-)

p ) s(rt7a
-
3b
-
6-ab cos(A)8
( ) s(rt7a
-
3b
-
6-ab cos(B)8
p
-
3(
-
) -(a
-
3b
-
)
theta ) arccos(7a
-
6b
-
8*p()
" ) -A(a3b)

s ) a 3 b
# ) ab sin(A) ) ab sin(B) ) bhb
) p( sin(theta)*-

/a&aS0etchpad e1ploration: "arallelogra!
Rhombus


A parallelogra! with all sides e(ual.
a ) b ) c ) d
A ) C, B ) @
theta ) "i*- radians ) :,
o


A 3 B ) "i radians ) 45,
o
ha ) a sin(A) ) a cos(B6"i*-)
ha ) hb

p ) a s(rt7-6- cos(A)8
( ) a s(rt7-6- cos(B)8

p
-
3(
-
) .a
-
" ) .a
s ) -a
# ) a
-
sin(A) ) a
-
sin(B)
) aha ) p(*-

/a&aS0etchpad e1ploration: $ho!bus
Trapezoid (American)
Trapezium (ritish)!


a parallel to c, ! ) (a3c)*-
A 3 B ) C 3 @ ) "i radians ) 45,
o


" ) a 3 b 3 c 3 d
# ) ha! ) ha(a3c)*-

9f a ) c, the trapeBoid is actually a parallelogra!, so b ) d, and the height and area
cannot be deter!ined fro! a, b, c, and d alone. 9f a and c are not e(ual, then

ha
-
) (a3b6c3d)(6a3b3c3d)(a6b6c3d)(a3b6c6d)*7.(a6c)
-
8.

9f ha
-
C ,, no trapeBoid ha&ing those side lengths e1ists.
A?ro! The Words of Mathematics by Ste&en SchwartB!an (4::., athe!atical
Association of A!erica):
trapezoid (noun)D trapezoidal (ad<ecti&e)D trapezium, plural trapezia (noun): %he
'ree0 word trapeza EtableE was co!posed of tetra EfourE and the 9ndo62uropean root
ped- Efoot.E A 'ree0 table !ust ha&e had four feet () legs). %he suffi1 -oid (q.v.)
!eans Eloo0ing li0e,E so that a trapeBoid is a figure that loo0s li0e a table (at least in
so!ebody>s i!agination). So!e A!ericans define a trapeBoid as a (uadrilateral with at
least one pair of parallel sides. Fnder that definition, a parallelogra! is a special 0ind
of trapeBoid. ?or other A!ericans, howe&er, a trapeBoid is a (uadrilateral with one and
only one pair of parallel sides, in which case a parallelogra! is not a trapeBoid. %he
situation is further confused by the fact that in 2urope a trapeBoid is defined as a
(uadrilateral with no sides e(ual. 2&en !ore confusing is the e1istence of the si!ilar
word trapezium, which in A!erican usage !eans Ea (uadrilateral with no sides e(ual,E
but which in 2uropean usage is a synony! of what A!ericans call a trapeBoid.
Apparently to cut down on the confusion, trapeBiu! is not used in A!erican te1tboo0s.
%he trapeBe used in a circus is also related, since a trapeBe has or !ust once ha&e had
four EsidesE: two ropes, the bar at the botto!, and a support bar at the top.

/a&aS0etchpad e1ploration: %rapeBoid
"ite


A (uadrilateral with two pairs of distinct
ad<acent sides e(ual in length.
a ) b, c ) d
theta ) "i*- radians ) :,
o


OB ) O@ ) p*-, OA ) h, OC ) ( 6 h

h ) s(rt(a
-
6p
-
*.)
( ) s(rt(a
-
6p
-
*.) 3 s(rt(c
-
6p
-
*.)

" ) -(a3c)
# ) p(*-

/a&aS0etchpad e1ploration: #ite
#$clic Quadrilateral


A (uadrilateral all of whose &ertices lie on a
circle.
"oints A, B, C, and @ lie on a circle of radius $.
A 3 C ) B 3 @ ) "i radians ) 45,
o

# ) s(rt7(s6a)(s6b)(s6c)(s6d)8
(Brah!agupta>s ?or!ula)
# ) s(rt7(ab3cd)(ac3bd)(ad3bc)8*.A$

p ) s(rt7(ac3bd)(ad3bc)*(ab3cd)8
( ) s(rt7(ab3cd)(ac3bd)*(ad3bc)8

$ ) s(rt7(ab3cd)(ac3bd)(ad3bc) *
(s6a)(s6b)(s6c)(s6d)8*.

theta ) arcsin7-#*(ac3bd)8
#$clic%Inscriptable


A (uadrilateral within which a circle can be
inscribed, tangent to all four sides.
"oints A, B, C, and @ lie on a circle of radius $.
Sides a, b, c, and d are tangent to a circle of
radius r.
! ) distance between the centers of the two
circles.
A 3 C ) B 3 @ ) "i radians ) 45,
o
a 3 c ) b 3 d

# ) s(rt7abcd8
r ) s(rt7abcd8*s
$ ) s(rt7(ab3cd)(ac3bd)(ad3bc)*abcd8*.
4*($3!)
-
3 4*($6!)
-
) 4*r
-
Bac0 to Contents
Regular Pol$gon


;u!ber of sides, all e(ual length a: n
;u!ber of interior angles, all e(ual !easure beta: n
Central angle subtending one side: alpha

"eri!eter: "
Area: #

$adius of circu!scribed circle: $
$adius of inscribed circle: r


beta ) "i(n6-)*n radians ) 45,
o
(n6-)*n
alpha ) - "i*n radians ) 3+,
o
*n
alpha 3 beta ) "i radians ) 45,
o

" ) na ) -n$ sin(alpha*-)
# ) na
-
cot(alpha*-)*.
) n$
-
sin(alpha)*-
) nr
-
tan(alpha*-)
) na s(rt(.$
-
6a
-
)*.

$ ) a csc(alpha*-)*-
r ) a cot(alpha*-)*-

a ) -r tan(alpha*-) ) -$ sin(alpha*-)

%o read about regular polygons, &isit %he 'eo!etry Center.
Special #ases o& the Regular Pol$gon
n ) 3 (e(uilateral triangle)
n ) . (s(uare)
n ) G (regular pentagon)
n ) + (regular he1agon)
n ) 5 (regular octagon)
The Regular Pentagon
(?or constructions using straightedge and co!pass, see e1a!ples below by
?loor &an Ha!oen and /ohn Conway.)
;u!ber of sides n ) G
9nternal angles beta ) 3 *G radians ) 4,5 degrees
Central angles alpha ) - *G radians ) I- degrees
"eri!eter " ) Ga ) G$ s(rt(4,6- s(rt7G8)*-
Area # ) Ga
-
s(rt(43-*s(rt7G8)*.
) G$
-
s(rt(4,3- s(rt7G8)*5
) Gr
-
s(rt(G6- s(rt7G8)
) Ga s(rt(.$
-
6a
-
)*.
Circu!radius $ ) a s(rt(-3-*s(rt7G8)*-
Apothe! r ) a s(rt(43-*s(rt7G8)*- ) $(43s(rt7G8)*.
Side a ) -r s(rt(G6- s(rt7G8) ) $ s(rt(4,6- s(rt7G8)*-
The Regular 'e(agon
;u!ber of sides n ) +
9nternal angles beta ) - *3 radians ) 4-, degrees
Central angles alpha ) *3 radians ) +, degrees
"eri!eter " ) +a ) +$
Area # ) 3a
-
s(rt(3)*-
) 3$
-
s(rt(3)*-
) -r
-
s(rt(3)
) 3a s(rt(.$
-
6a
-
)*-
Circu!radius $ ) a
Apothe! r ) a s(rt(3)*- ) $ s(rt(3)*-
Side a ) -r*s(rt(3) ) $
The Regular )ctagon
;u!ber of sides n ) 5
9nternal angles beta ) 3 *. radians ) 43G degrees
Central angles alpha ) *. radains ) .G degrees
"eri!eter " ) 5a ) 5$ s(rt(-6s(rt7-8)
Area # ) -a
-
(s(rt7-834)
) -$
-
s(rt(-)
) 5r
-
(s(rt7-864)
) -a s(rt(.$
-
6a
-
)
Circu!radius $ ) a s(rt(s(rt7-8*-34)
Apothe! r ) a(s(rt7-834)*- ) $ s(rt(-3s(rt7-8)*-
Side a ) -r(s(rt7-864) ) $ s(rt(-6s(rt7-8)
#onstructible Regular Pol$gons
=ere is a table of regular polygons constructible with straightedge and co!pass whose
angles are whole nu!bers of degrees:
n alpha beta a*R
3 4-, +,
4.I3-,G,5 ) s(rt(3)
. :, :,
4..4.-43+ ) s(rt(-)
G I- 4,5
4.4IGGI,G ) s(rt(G6s(rt7G8)*-
+ +, 4-,
4.,,,,,,, ) 4
5 .G 43G
,.I+G3++: ) s(rt(-6s(rt7-8)
4, 3+ 4..
,.+45,3., ) (s(rt7G864)*-
4- 3, 4G,
,.G4I+354 ) (s(rt73864)*s(rt(-)
4G -. 4G+
,..4G5-3. ) (s(rt738s(rt746s(rt(G)8
3s(rt7-8s(rt7G3s(rt(G)8)*.
-, 45 4+-
,.34-5+5: ) (s(rt7-8743s(rt(G)8 6 - s(rt7G6s(rt(G)8)*.
-. 4G 4+G
,.-+4,G-. ) s(rt(7.6s(rt(-)6s(rt(+)8*-)
3, 4- 4+5
,.-,:,G+: ) (s(rt7+8s(rt7G6s(rt(G)86s(rt7G864)*.
., : 4I4
,.4G+:45- ) (s(rt7-8s(rt7-3s(rt(-)8746s(rt(G)83
- s(rt7-6s(rt(-)8s(rt7G3s(rt(G)8)*(. s(rt7-8)
+, + 4I.
,.4,.+I4: ) (7s(rt(3)3487s(rt(G)648s(rt7-83
-746s(rt(3)8s(rt7G3s(rt(G)8)*5
4-, 3 4II
,.,G-3G3: ) (7s(rt(-6s(rt7-8)3
s(rt(+33 s(rt7-8)8743s(rt(G)6s(rt(3,6+ s(rt7G8)83
7s(rt(-3s(rt7-8)6s(rt(+63 s(rt7-8)87s(rt(3)3
s(rt(4G)3s(rt(4,6- s(rt7G8)8)*4+
%he following !essages were sent by and in answer to "rofessor /ohn Conway of
"rinceton Fni&ersity>s athe!atics @epart!ent to geo!etry discussion groups
(geo!etry6puBBles, geo!etry6pre6college, geo!etry6puBBles) in answer to (uestions
about constructing regular polygons. An alternati&e si!ple construction of a regular
pentagon has been contributed by ?loor &an Ha!oen (E@r. ?loorE)D see also 9nscribing a
regular pentagon in a circle 6 and pro&ing it, by Scott 2. Brodie.
+, Pol$gons -ith compass and straightedge
It's a VERY famous theorem of Gauss that the only regular polygons
with a prime number of sides that can be constructed with straightedge
and compass are those for which the prime is one of the Fermat primes
3, , !", #", $3", %%%
&that is, primes of the form #'n ( !)% *obody +nows if there are
any Fermat primes larger than $3"%
,he only constructible regular polygons with an odd number of
sides are those for which this number is a product of distinct
Fermat primes &so for instance ! - 3 times , ! - 3 times !"),
and the only ones with an e.en number of sides are those obtained
by repeatedly doubling these numbers &including !), thus/0
&!,#), 1, 2, !$, 3#, $1, %%%
3, $, !#, #1, 12, %%%
, !3, #3, 13, 23, %%%
!, 33, $3, %%%
!", 31, $2,%%%
!, %%%
2,%%%
4ome people might li+e the following little obser.ation%
5rite out the 6ascal triangle modulo # /
!
! !
! 3 !
! ! ! !
! 3 3 3 !
! ! 3 3 ! !
! 3 ! 3 ! 3 !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 !
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
then by reading the first 3! rows as the binary e7pansions of
numbers, you get
!, 3, , !, !", !, 2, #, #", %%%
which gi.e the first few odd0sided constructible polygons &and
.ery probably all there are)%
8ohn 9onway
., #onstruction o& a regular pentagon
:et *,4,E,5 be the points of a circle with center ; in the four
compass directions, < be the midpoint of ;* and <= &with = on ;E)
the bisector of the angle ;<E/
,hen the line through = perpendicular to ;E hits the circle
in two points of the regular pentagon that has a .erte7 at E% You
can either get the other two points by stepping around the circle with
a compass set to the edge0length so found for the pentagon, or by
replacing = in the abo.e by the point Y where the E=,ER*>: bisector
of ;<E meets ;5%
?ow about septagons@
5ell, for one thing the proper name is AheptagonA, not Aseptagon%A
,here
isn't a construction for a regular heptagon using ruler and compass
according
to Euclid's rules, but there is a construction using an angle0trisector
which you can find in A,he Boo+ of *umbersA that I wrote with Richard
Guy%
,hat boo+ also gi.es an angle0trisector construction that uses ruler and
compasses in a manner not sanctioned by Euclid, so you can combine them
to
gi.e such a construction for the regular heptagon% ,he boo+ also gi.es
similar constructions for the regular polygons with !3 and !" sides &for
the
regular !!0gon there's a construction using an angle0CuinCuesector, but
it
was too complicated for us to put into the boo+)%
8ohn 9onway
/, #onstruction o& a +0%sided regular pol$gon
,he neatest construction I +now is due to Richmond 0 I call it the
ACuadruple Cuadrisection constrictionA/
!) Cuadrisect the perimeter of the circle, by points *,4,E,5D
#) Cuadrisect the radius ;* by the point >D
3) Cuadrisect the angle ;>E by the line >BD
1) Cuadrisect the straight angle B>9 by the line >E/
*
I F
F 8
9 F
F
>
F
5000000000G0E0;0B00000?00000E
F
F
F
F
F
F
4
) draw the semicircle EFE, cutting ;* in FD

$) draw the semicircle GF?, centred at BD
") cut the semicircle 5*E by the perpendiculars GI and ?8 to 5E%
,hen I and 8 are points of the regular hepta+aidecagon on the
circle E*54 that has one .erte7 at E%
I first saw this in ?ardy and 5right's boo+ on ,he ,heory
of *umbers, which is where I'.e Gust chec+ed up on it%
? H 5 confirm my impression of the history% ,hey say
that Gauss wor+ed out the general theory in 6aragraphs
3303$$ of his EisCuisitiones, but that the first e7plicit
construction was gi.en by Erchinger, for whom they refer
to Gauss' 5er+e, .ol II, pp!2$0!2"%
,his AIuadruple IuadrisectionA construction &my name) is due
to Richmond, who ga.e it in the Iuarterly 8ournal of <ath, !2J3%
;f the four or fi.e constructions I ha.e seen, it is definitely
the nicest% If you intersect the other Cuadrisectors of that
straight angle with 5E and treat the resulting points similarly,
you can get more .ertices in the same way 0 but it's easier to
use your compasses to step around the circle from the ones gi.en,
for which the constructing points are the most con.eniently
situated%
8ohn 9onway
8ohn, I disco.ered another nice construction by ?enri :ebesgue%
:et me tell the story/
?enri :ebesgue published in !J3" the following paper/
:ebesgue, ?enri/ 4ur une construction du polygone regulier de !" cotes,
due a >ndre0<arie >mpere, d'apres des documents conser.es dans les
archi.es de l'academie des sciences%
9% R% >cad% 4ci%, 6aris #31&!J3") J#0J#2%
KRepublished in/ Enseign% <ath%, II% 4er% 3&!J") 3!031L
>lso, he is the author of the boo+/
?enri :ebesgue/ :econs sur les constructions geometriCues au college
de France en !J130!J1!% 6aris / Gauthier 0 Villars, !J3
In pp% !120 1J he describes the construction of the r% hepta+aidecagon
&and in p% !1 of the r% pentagon)%
I ha.en't seen ?:'s paperMboo+, only brief descriptions of his
constructions &in the boo+) published in a Gree+ periodical%
?ere is the construction of the r% hepta+aidecagon/
:et &;) be a circle of center ;%
Y
>N$ F >N1
F
O
F
F
F
F
=00FP0000EP0?00EP0900;0F0E00000G0E0000>
F
B
F
F
F
F
F
F
Q
!% Eraw the diameters => perpendicular to YQ
#% Iuadrisect the radius ;Q by B%
3% Eraw 9B perpendicular to B> &9 lies on ;=)
1% Eraw the semicircle &9, 9B) intersecting => at E, EP
% Eraw the semicircle &E, EB) intersecting => at E,EP
$% Eraw the semicircle &EP, EPB) intersecting => at F,FP
"% Eraw the semicircle of diameter >EP, intersecting ;Y at O
2% Eraw the semicircle &F, FO) intersecting => at G, ?%
J% Eraw the perpendiculars from G, ?, intersecting the &;) at >N1,
>N$%
*ow, >/->N!, >N1, >N$ are .ertices of the r% !"0gon%
&5e ha.e arc&>N1>N$) - 16iM!"% 5e bisect it to find >N, and therefore
the r%!"0gon's side)%
It is a memoriRable construction/ semicircles and 1 perpendiculars%
,he Cuestion is/ Is it a construction of >ndre0<arie >mpere &see paper
abo.e)
or ?% :ebesCue's himself @ &<y source calls it as :ebesgue's%)
>ntreas 6% ?atRipola+is
9onstruction of a regular pentagon/
:et *,4,E,5 be the points of a circle 9 with center ; in the four
compass directions, and let < be the midpoint of ;*%
:et E' and EA be the points where the circle with center < through E
meets the line *4%
Finally, let 6' and 6A be the points where the circle with center E
through E' meets 9 and let I' and IA be the points where the circle with
center E through EA meets 9%
,hen E, 6', 6A, I' and IA form a regular pentagon%
0 Floor .an :amoen
#ircle



All points on the circu!ference of a circle
are e(uidistant fro! its center.
$adius: r
@ia!eter: d
Circu!ference: C
Area: #


d ) -r
C ) - "i r ) "i d

# ) "i r
-
) "i d
-
*.
C ) - s(rt("i #)

# ) C
-
*. "i ) Cr*-

%o read about circles, &isit %he 'eo!etry Center.
Arc o& a #ircle



A cur&ed portion of a circle.
Hength: s

Central angle:
theta (in radians),
alpha (in degrees)

s ) r theta ) r alpha "i*45,
Segment o& a #ircle



2ither of the two regions into which a secant or
a chord cuts a circle. (=owe&er, the for!ulas
below assu!e that the seg!ent is no larger than
a se!i6circle.)
Chord length: c
=eight: h
@istance fro! center of circle to chord>s
!idpoint: d
Central angle: theta (in radians), alpha (in
degrees)

Area: #
Arc length: s

theta ) - arccos(d*r) ) - arctan(c*(-d)) ) - arcsin(c*(-r))
h ) r 6 d
c ) - s(rt(r
-
6d
-
) ) -r sin(theta*-) ) -d tan(theta*-) ) - s(rt7h(-r6h)8
d ) s(rt(.r
-
6c
-
)*- ) r cos(theta*-) ) c cot(theta*-)*-
# ) r
-
7theta6sin(theta)8*- ) r
-
arccos(7r6h8*r) 6 (r6h)s(rt(-rh6h
-
)
) r
-
arccos(d*r) 6 d s(rt(r
-
6d
-
)
theta ) s*r
# ) r
-
7s*r 6 sin(s*r)8*-
?or !uch !ore about seg!ents of circles, see
%he Arc, Chord, $adius, =eight, Angle, Apothe!, and Area.
Sector o& a #ircle



%he pie6shaped piece of a circle >cut out>
by two radii.
Central angle:
theta (in radians),
alpha (in degrees)

Area: #
Arc length: s
# ) r
-
theta*- ) r
-
alpha "i*3+,
theta ) s*r
# ) rs*-
Ellipse


Se!i6a1es: a, b
2ccentricity: e ) s(rt(a
-
6b
-
)*a
Area: #
Circu!ference: C


# ) "i ab
C ) .a2, where 2 is an elliptic
integral with 0 ) e, which can be
used to deri&e the following
for!ulas:
C ) (a3b)74 3 1
-
*. 3 1
.
*+. 3 ...8,
where 1 ) (a6b)*(a3b)
C ) (a3b)(4 3 31
-
*74, 3 s(rt(. 6
31
-
)8), appro1i!ately
Segment o& a Parabola


=eight: h
Chord length: c
Area: #
Hength: s


s ) c743-(-h*c)
-
*36-(-h*c)
.
*G3...8
s ) s(rt7.h
-
3c
-
*.837c
-
*(5h)8
ln7(-h3s(rt7.h
-
3c
-
*.8)*(c*-)8
# ) -ch*3
# ) .%*3, where % is the area of
the triangle for!ed by the chord
and the point of tangency of a
tangent to the parabola parallel
to the chord

Rectangular Parallelepiped
A three6di!ensional figure all of whose face angles are right angles,
so all its faces are rectangles and all its dihedral angles are right angles.
(A dihedral angle is an angle created by two intersecting planes.)

2dges: a, b, c
@iagonal: d
%otal surface area (total area of all
the faces of the figure): %
Jolu!e: J


d ) s(rt(a
-
3b
-
3c
-
)
% ) -(ab3ac3bc)
J ) abc
?ace diagonals s(rt(a
-
3b
-
),
s(rt(a
-
3c
-
), s(rt(b
-
3c
-
)

#ube

A three6di!ensional figure with
si1 congruent s(uare sides.
a ) b ) c


d ) a s(rt(3)
% ) +a
-
J ) a
3

?ace diagonal a s(rt(-)

"ris!
A polyhedron with two congruent, parallel bases that are polygons,
and all re!aining faces parallelogra!s.


=eight: h
Area of base: B
Hength of lateral edge: l
Area of right section: A
"eri!eter of right section:
"
Hateral surface area: S
Jolu!e: J
S ) l"
J ) hB ) lA





P$ramid
A pyra!id is a polyhedron of which one side, the base, is a polygon (not necessarily
a regular polygon), and all the rest are triangles sharing a co!!on point, the &erte1.
A pyra!id is regular if the base is a regular polygon and the other faces are
congruent
isosceles triangles


=eight: h
Area of base: B
Slant height: s (regular pyra!id)
"eri!eter of base: "
Hateral surface area: S
Jolu!e: J

S ) s"*- (regular pyra!id)
J ) hB*3
See As0 @r. ath:
Surface Area of "yra!ids
Jolu!e of a "yra!id
Square P$ramid
%he base is a s(uare, and all triangular faces are congruent isosceles triangles.


Side of base: a
Other edges: b
=eight: h
Slant height: s
Jerte1 angle of faces: alpha
Base angle of faces: theta
Base6to6face dihedral angle: beta
?ace6to6face dihedral angle: phi
Hateral surface area: S
%otal surface area (including base): %
Jolu!e: J
a ) s(rt7-(b
-
6h
-
)8 ) - s(rt(b
-
6s
-
) ) - s(rt(s
-
6
h
-
)
b ) s(rt(h
-
3a
-
*-) ) s(rt(s
-
3a
-
*.) ) s(rt(-s
-
6
h
-
)
h ) s(rt(b
-
6a
-
*-) ) s(rt(s
-
6a
-
*.) ) s(rt(-s
-
6
b
-
)

s ) s(rt(b
-
6a
-
*.) ) s(rt(h
-
3a
-
*.) ) s(rt7(b
-
3h
-
)*-8
theta ) arccos(a*-b) ) arcsin(s*b) ) arctan(-s*a)
alpha ) arccos(h
-
*b
-
) ) arcsin(as*b
-
) ) arctan(as*h
-
)
beta ) arccos(a*-s) ) arcsin(h*s) ) arctan(-h*a)
phi ) arccos(6a
-
*.s
-
) ) arcsin(bh*s
-
) ) arctan(6.bh*a
-
)
S ) -as
% ) a(-s3a)
J ) a
-
h*3
1rustum o& a P$ramid
%he portion of a pyra!id that lies between the base and a plane cutting through it
parallel to the base.

=eight: h
Area of bases: B4, B-
Slant height: s (regular pyra!id)
"eri!eter of bases: "4, "-
Hateral surface area: S
Jolu!e: J
S ) s("43"-)*-
(regular pyra!id)
J ) h(B43B-3s(rt7B4B-8)*3

Regular Pol$hedron
A solid, three6di!ensional figure each face of which is a regular polygon with
e(ual sides and e(ual angles. 2&ery face has the sa!e nu!ber of &ertices, and the
sa!e nu!ber of faces !eet at e&ery &erte1. An inscribed (inside) sphere touches
the center of e&ery face, and a circu!scribed sphere (outside) touches e&ery &erte1.
%here are fi&e and only fi&e of these figures, also called the "latonic Solids:
the tetrahedron, cube, octahedron, dodecahedron, and icosahedron.



;u!ber of &ertices: &
;u!ber of edges: e
;u!ber of faces: f
2dge: a
$adius of circu!scribed sphere: $
$adius of inscribed sphere: r
Surface area: S
Jolu!e: J
@ihedral angle between faces: delta (in degrees)


%o read about regular polyhedra, &isit
%he 'eo!etry Center: $egular "olyhedra
athe!atics 2ncyclopedia: %he "latonic Solids
2ric Swab: Cube as the Base
%o e1plore polyhedra &ia an /A applet, try
SuBanne Ale<andre>s Studying "olyhedra
?or !any !ore facts and lin0s, see
Ale1ander Bogo!olny>s $egular polyhedra
?or a /a&a applet showing !any other polyhedra, see
/ohn ;. =uff!an>s Crystallographic "olyhedra
Tetrahedron
(see also 9rregular %etrahedron)


A three6di!ensional figure
with
. e(uilateral triangle faces,
. &ertices, and + edges.

& ) ., e ) +, f ) .
a ) (- s(rt7+8*3)$
r ) (4*3)$
$ ) (s(rt7+8*.)a
S ) s(rt(3)a
-
J ) (s(rt7-8*4-)a
3
delta ) arccos(4*3) ) I,
o
3->
h ) height or altitude
h ) (s(rt7+8*3)a
#ube




A three6di!ensional figure
with
+ s(uare faces, 5 &ertices,
and 4- edges.


& ) 5, e ) 4-, f ) +
a ) (- s(rt738*3)$
r ) (s(rt738*3)$
$ ) (s(rt738*-)a
r ) (4*-)a
S ) + a
-
J ) a
3
delta ) arccos(,) ) :,
o
See As0 @r. ath: Surface Area and Jolu!e: Cubes and "ris!s
)ctahedron




A three6di!ensional figure
with
5 e(uilateral triangle faces,
+ &ertices, and 4- edges.

& ) +, e ) 4-, f ) 5
a ) s(rt(-)$
r ) (s(rt738*3)$
$ ) (s(rt7-8*-)a
r ) (s(rt7+8*+)a
S ) - s(rt(3)a
-
J ) (s(rt7-8*3)a
3
delta ) arccos(64*3) ) 4,:
o

-5>
2odecahedron




A three6di!ensional figure with
4- regular pentagon faces,
-, &ertices, and 3, edges.


& ) -,, e ) 3,, f ) 4-
a ) (7s(rt(G)648s(rt738*3)$
r ) (s(rt7IG33, s(rt(G)8*4G)$
$ ) (s(rt738743s(rt7G8)*.)a
r ) (s(rt7-G,344, s(rt(G)8*-,)a
S ) 3 s(rt(-G34, s(rt7G8)a
-
J ) (74G3I s(rt(G)8*.)a
3
delta ) arccos(6s(rt7G8*G) ) 44+
o
3.>
Icosahedron




A three6di!ensional figure with
-, e(uilateral triangle faces,
4- &ertices, and 3, edges.

& ) 4-, e ) 3,, f ) -,
a ) (s(rt7G,64, s(rt(G)8*G)$
r ) (s(rt7IG33, s(rt(G)8*4G)$
$ ) (s(rt74,3- s(rt(G)8*.)a
r ) (s(rt7.-345 s(rt(G)8*4-)a
S ) G s(rt(3)a
-
J ) (G733s(rt(G)8*4-)a
3
delta ) arccos(6s(rt7G8*3) ) 435
o
44>
#ircular #$linder
A cylinder whose bases are circles. %he line connecting the centers of the bases
is called the a1is.

=eight: h
Area of base: B
Hength of lateral edge: l
Area of right section: A
"eri!eter of right section: "
Hateral surface area: S
%otal surface area: %
Jolu!e: J
S ) l"
% ) l" 3 -B
J ) hB ) lA

Right #ircular #$linder
A circular cylinder in which the a1is is perpendicular to the bases. (9f the a1is
of a circular cylinder is not perpendicular to the bases, it is called an obli(ue
circular cylinder.)
=eight: h
$adius of base: r
Hateral surface area: S
%otal surface area: %
Jolu!e: J
S ) - "i rh
% ) - "i r(r3h)
J ) "i r
-
h
A ) B ) "i r
-
" ) - "i r
l ) h

#one
A cone is a surface generated by a fa!ily of all lines through a gi&en point (the
&erte1)
and passing through a cur&e in a plane (the directri1). ore co!!only, a cone
includes
the solid enclosed by a cone and the plane of the directri1. %he region of the plane
enclosed by the directri1 is called a base of the cone. %he perpendicular distance
fro!
the &erte1 to the plane of the base is the height of the cone.


=eight: h
Area of base: B
Jolu!e: J


J ) hB*3
#ircular #one


A cone whose base is a circle. %he line
connecting the center of the base to the &erte1
is called the a1is of the circular cone.
Right #ircular #one
9n a right circular cone, the a1is is perpendicular to the base. (9f the a1is of a
circular cone is not perpendicular to the base, it is called an obli(ue circular cone.)
%he length of any line seg!ent connecting the &erte1 to the directri1 is called the
slant height of the cone.
=eight: h
$adius of base: r
Slant height: s
Hateral surface area: S
%otal surface area: %
Jolu!e: J
B ) "i r
-
s ) s(rt7r
-
3h
-
8
S ) "i rs

% ) "i r(r3s)
J ) "i r
-
h*3
(Hearn how to build a cone fro! paper or other flat
!aterial.)
1rustum o& a Right #ircular #one
%he part of a right circular cone between the base and a plane parallel to the base
whose distance fro! the base is less than the height of the cone.

=eight: h
$adius of bases: r, $
Slant height: s
Hateral surface area: S
%otal surface area: %
Jolu!e: J
s ) s(rt(7$6r8
-
3h
-
)
S ) "i(r3$)s
% ) "i(r7r3s83$7$3s8)
J ) "i($
-
3r$3r
-
)h*3


(Hearn how to build a frustu! fro! paper or other flat
!aterial.)
Sphere
A three6di!ensional figure with all of its points e(uidistant fro! its center.

$adius: r
@ia!eter: d
Surface area: S
Jolu!e: J

S ) . "i r
-
) "i d
-
J ) (. "i*3)r
3
) ("i*+)d
3

Sector o& a Sphere
%he part of a sphere between two right circular cones that ha&e a co!!on &erte1
at the center of the sphere, and a co!!on a1is. (%he interior cone !ay ha&e a base
with Bero radius.)

$adius: r
=eight: h
Jolu!e: J
S ) - "i rh
J ) (- "i*3)r
-
h

Spherical #ap
%he portion of a sphere cut off by a plane. 9f the height, the radius of the sphere, and
the radius of the base are e(ual: h ) r () r4), the figure is called a he!isphere.

$adius of sphere: r
$adius of base: r4
=eight: h
Surface area: S
Jolu!e: J
r ) (h
-
3r4
-
)*(-h)
S ) - "i rh
J ) ("i*+)(3r4
-
3h
-
)h
Segment and 3one o& a Sphere
Seg!ent: the portion of a sphere cut off by two parallel planes.
Kone: the cur&ed surface of a spherical seg!ent.

$adius of sphere: r
$adii of bases: r4, r-
=eight: h
Surface area: S
Jolu!e: J
S ) - "i rh
J ) ("i*+)(3r4
-
33r-
-
3h
-
)h

4une o& a Sphere
%he cur&ed surface of the intersection of two he!ispheres.

$adius: r
Central dihedral angle: theta (in radians),
alpha (in degrees)
Surface area: S
Jolu!e enclosed by the lune
and the two planes: J
S ) -r
-
theta ) ("i*:,)r
-
alpha
J ) (-*3)r
3
theta ) ("i*-I,)r
3
alpha
Ellipsoid
A three6di!ensional figure all planar
cross6sections of which are either
ellipses or circles.

Se!i6a1es: a, b, c (the se!i6a1is is
half the length of the a1is, and
corresponds to the radius of a sphere)
Jolu!e: J
J ) (. "i*3)abc

Prolate Spheroid
Se!i6a1es: a, b, b (a L b)
Surface area: S
S ) - "i b(b3a arcsin7e8*e),
where e ) s(rt(a
-
6b
-
)*a
)blate Spheroid
Se!i6a1es: a, b, b (a C b)
Surface area: S
S ) - "i b(b3a arcsinh7be*a8*7be*a8),
where e ) s(rt(b
-
6a
-
)*b

%o read !ore, &isit:
%he 'eo!etry Center: Muadrics
2ric Neisstein>s Norld of athe!atics:
2llipsoid
"rolate Spheroid
Oblate Spheroid
#ircular or Ring Torus
%he surface of a three6di!ensional figure shaped li0e a doughnut.
a<or radius (of the large circle): $
inor radius (of circular cross6section): r
Surface area: S
Jolu!e: J
S ) . "i
-
$r
J ) - "i
-
$r
-


Spherical Pol$gon
A closed geo!etric figure on the surface of a sphere for!ed by the arcs of great
circles.
$adius: r
S ) (theta67n6-8"i)r
-
) (alpha645,7n6-8)"i r
-
*45,
;u!ber of sides: n
Su! of Angles: theta (in radians),
alpha (in degrees)
Surface area: S
spherical triangle spherical (uadrilateral