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IRIS INSTRUMENTS, Training course on Electrical methods, 2006 Page 1 of 29
TRAI NI NG COURSE

ON ELECTRI CAL METHODS

PRI NCI PLES
FI ELD OPERATI ON
I NTERPRETATI ON

Jean BERNARD

J anuar y 2006
I RI S I NSTRUMENTS,
EXPLORI NG AND MONI TORI NG

THE EARTH RESOURCES

Si nc e 1991, i n Or l ans, Fr anc e
Desi gn, manuf ac t ur i ng, sel l i ng
Ex pl or at i on equi pment : geophysi c s
Moni t or i ng equi pment : dat a l ogger s
Sal es, r ent al s, mai nt enanc e, t r ai ni ng
2005 sal es: 4.5 M w or l dw i de
St af f : 19, i nc l udi ng 7 f or R& D

Resistivity
Induced Polarization
Magnetic Resonance
Resistivity Imaging
Groundwater level and quality parameters
IRIS Instruments premises
Orlans
Groundwater
Environment
Engineering
Archaeology
Mining
Web site : iris-instruments.com

PRI NCI PLES

OF ELECTRI CAL METHODS

iris-instruments.com

APPLI CATI ONS OF ELECTRI CAL METHODS

AIM OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS:

- To make measurements on the surface
and get ideas of what is located underground

- To select the best place where to make a hole
and find the target

AIM OF ELECTRICAL METHODS:

- To detect conductive or resistive layers
and bodies at depth
Groundwater
exploration
Geotechnical studies
Environmental surveys
Archaeological
investigation
Mineral
exploration
?
RESI STI VI TY METHODS FOR GROUNDWATER, MI NI NG

ENVI RONMENT, GEOTECHNI CAL, ARCHAEOLOGY

Fracture and fault Waste disposal Polluted area
detection site investigation detection

Depth and thickness Fresh / salt water contact Salt water wedge
of aquifer layers determination determination
fresh
salted
_
_ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . +
+ + . . . + + +
+ + + + + + + +
+

Cave, cavity and karst Buried structure Mineral orebody
detection detection exploration
fresh
salted
Sea

+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +

Depth to bedrock Thickness of bedrock Geological contact
measurement alteration detection

POROSI TY AND PERMEABI LI TY
OF ROCKS

DEFINITIONS

POROSITY: quantity of water, existing in rocks
(unit: %) = volume of water / volume of rocks

PERMEABILITY: speed of the water, when pushed by pressure
(unit : m/s) = yield per unit of hydraulic pressure gradient

NUMERIC VALUES FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF ROCKS

TYPE OF ROCKS

POROSITY
(%)

PERMEABILITY
(m/s)

gravel

30

10
- 2

sand

25

10
- 4

UNCONSOLIDATED
(Soft sediments)

clay

50

10
- 12

massive

1

10
- 10

fissured / fractured

5

10
- 8

CONSOLIDATED
sandstone
limestone
granite, basalt

weathered

15

10
- 6

NB: These values are only indicative and largely depend on local conditions

Production well

Saturated zone (water only in pores)
GROUNDWATER PUMPING

WELL YIELD = Coeff x permeability x thickness
PUMP POWER = yield x height x g

Vadose zone (water and air in pores)
Water level

Non permeable layer

thickness
ELECTRI CAL PROPERTI ES OF ROCKS

THE ELECTRIC CURRENT FLOWS INTO THE GROUND
4
THANKS TO THE IONS OF SALTS DISSOLVED IN THE WATER

Salt ions + + ions: Na, Ca, K,
_ - ions: Cl, SO
4
, NO
3
, ...
Current

TYPE OF POROSITY

TYPE OF WATER

TYPE OF ROCK

matrix

free

sand, gravel

fracture

free

limestone,
sandstone

adherence

bound

clay

THE RESISTIVITY OF ROCKS DEPEND ON:

THE WATER CONTENT (Porosity)
THE RESISTIVITY OF THE WATER
THE CLAY CONTENT
THE CONTENT IN METALLIC MINERALS

VALUES OF RESISTIVITY OF ROCKS:

0.1 ohm.m SALTED WATER
1 ohm.m MASSIVE SULPHIDE
10 ohm.m CLAY
100 ohm.m SAND, MARL
1 000 ohm.m DRY SAND, LIMESTONE
10 000 ohm.m HARD GRANITE, BASALT
RESI STI VI TY AND POROSI TY
OF ROCKS

Relation between the resistivity of and the porosity for non clayey rocks

whole rock

water

sediment
ROCK RESISTIVITY = F x WATER RESISTIVITY

F = Formation Factor = a / (porosity)
N

(ARCHIE FORMULA)
10% Porosity ()
For example :
Water resistivity = 10 ohm.m
Porosity = 20% Rock resistivity = 250 ohm.m
Formation factor = 25
Formation
Factor (F)
100
F 1 /
2
( a = 1, N = 2)

RESISTIVITY SCALE FOR WATERS AND ROCKS

salt water fresh water

1 10 100 1 000 10 000 ohm m

clay sand gravel

altered rock hard rock
CONDUCTI VI TY AND SALI NI TY
OF WATERS

CONDUCTIVITY (Siemens) = 1 / resistivity (ohm.m)

USUAL UNIT of conductivity = microS / cm

Conductivity (microS / cm) = 10
4
/ resistivity (ohm.m)

SALINITY (mineralization): Total Dissolved Salt (TDS)

TDS (mg / l) = 0.7 x conductivity (microS / cm)

NUMERIC VALUES FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF WATER:

Type of
water

Resistivity
ohm.m

Conductivity
microS / cm

Salinity
mg / l

very fresh

200

50

35

fresh

20

500

350

salted

10

1 000

700

very salted
(sea water)

0.3

30 000

21 000

Usual rule for drinkable water: resistivity > 10 ohm.m conductivity < 0.7 g/l
HOW TO DETECT AN AQUI FER

FROM THE VALUE OF THE RESI STI VI TY ?

FROM THE ABSOLUTE VALUE OF THE RESISTIVITY

Resistivity (rock) Resistivity (water) / porosity

FROM THE RELATIVE VALUE OF THE RESISTIVITY

Fresh water resistivity

Porosity

Aquifer resistivity

10 to 200 ohm.m

1 to 30%

50 to 2000 ohm.m

Geological background

Aquifer resistivity

Hard rock (resistant)

Lower than background

Clayey or salty (conductive)

Higher than background
MEASUREMENT OF RESI STI VI TY

MEASUREMENT OF RESISTIVITY OF A LINEAR CONDUCTOR

RESISTANCE (ohm) = Voltage (V) / Intensity (A) (OHM law: V = R x I)

RESISTANCE (ohm) = Resistivity (ohm.m) x length (m) / section (m)

RESITIVITY = (section / length) x voltage / intensity

Rho = K x V / I

MEASUREMENT OF RESISTIVITY OF A 3-DIMENSION CONDUCTOR

Resistance R
Intensity I
Voltage V
A M Voltage V
MN
N B
Intensity I
AB
T
X

R
X
Ground resistance, resulting from
several layers with different resistivities
APPARENT RESISTIVITY = (coefficient) x voltage / intensity

Rho = K x V
MN
/ I
AB

K = 2 x Pi / ( 1/AM 1/AN 1/BM + 1/BN )

Units: Rho (ohm.m), K (m), V
MN
(mV), I
AB
(mA)
length
section
TWO TYPES OF RESI STI VI TY
I NVESTI GATI ONS

VARIATIONS OF RESISTIVITY WITH DEPTH: ELECTRICAL SOUNDING

LATERAL VARIATIONS OF RESISTIVITY: ELECTRICAL PROFILING

The variation of the depth of investigation
is obtained by increasing the length of the
current line AB:
small lines: shallow
long lines: deep
The depth of investigation varies from
about 1/3 to 1/10 of the length of AB
APPLICATIONS: * Thickness an depth of aquifer
Thickness and depth of layers
Depth of bedrock
Thickness of weathered layers
Quality of aquifers (from the value of the resisitivty)
The lateral variations of the resistivity
along a line is obtained by translating
the current line AB and the potential
line MN at the same time.

The lengths of the lines AB and MN
are kept constant, which means that
the depth of investigation does not
vary along the profile
APPLICATIONS : * Localization of fractures an weathered zones
Mapping of geological contacts
Delineation of clay lenses
Localization of mineralised dykes
MAI N ELECTRODE ARRAYS

SCHLUMBERGER SOUNDING AND PROFILING

WENNER SOUNDING AND PROFILING

GRADIENT ARRAY

RECTANGLE ARRAY

DIPOLE DIPOLE ARRAY

A M N B
MN << AB
A M N B
MN = AB / 3
MN is moved
within the middle
part of AB
A M N B
A M N B
MN is moved along
various lines
parallel to AB
A B M N
MN is moved a certain number of
times away from AB, then AB is
shifted of one spacing and so on.
A pseudo section is obtained, a
combination of profiling and
shallow sounding
PRI NCI PLE OF I NDUCED POLARI ZATI ON
MEASUREMENTS

The Induced Polarization (IP) is a phenomenon which occurs with
some types of minerals (mainly metallic particles, but also some clay
minerals).

It is equivalent to a charge / discharge behaviour of capacitors when
currents are switched on / off.

When IP effects are present, a decay curve is observed at the receiving
electrodes (MN), when the pulse of current is over.
ON+ OFF

ON - OFF
I
AB
Intensity
V
MN
Voltage
without
IP effect
V
MN
Voltage
with
IP effect

DEFINITION OF THE INDUCED POLARIZATION PARAMETER :

CHARGEABILITY = v(t) dt / t x V
MN

Unit of chargeability : mV / V, or per mil
V(t) V
MN

FI ELD OPERATI ON



RANGE OF RESI STI VI TYMETERS:
FROM SHALLOWEST TO DEEPEST

SYSCAL Kid

200V, 25W, 0.5A

SYSCAL Junior

400V, 100W, 1.2A

SYSCAL R1 Plus

600V, 200W, 2.5A

SYSCAL R2

800V, 250W, 2.5A
800V, 1 200W, 2.5A

PACKI NG LI ST

FOR A RESI STI VI TY SURVEY

MAIN EQUIPMENT
The equipment itself (resitivitymeter), with charged batteries
The PC computer for data transfer and interpretation

REELS AND ELECTRODES
Reels with electric wires for transmission of current (AB line)
Reels with electric wires for measurement of voltage (MN line)
Metallic stakes, with hammers
Cables and clips for wire to stake connection

OTHER ACCESSORIES
Measuring tapes (100m)
Tool kit box (pliers, screwdrivers, voltmeter, isolating tape, )
Field note book and data sheets
An external 12V car battery

Resistivity survey with SYSCAL Junior resistivitymeter
TRANSMI SSI ON OF THE CURRENT

IN THE RECEIVER CIRCUIT MN:

Basic formula: Apparent RESISTIVITY = K x V
MN
/ I
AB

Hence: V
MN
= Apparent RESISTIVITY x I
AB
/ K

When AB is large (deep investigation), K is large, and in case of low values of the
apparent resistivity, the voltage V
MN
can be difficult to measure unless the intensity
I
AB
is large enough (usual values of the intensity: 10, 50, 100, 500 mA, ).
Hence the usefulness of having sometimes an intensity of current as high as possible

IN THE TRANSMITTER CIRCUIT AB:

Ohms Law: I
AB
= V
AB
/ R
AB

To increase the intensity I
AB
of the current: increase V
AB
on the equipment
(50, 100, 200, 400, 600, 800V)

or decrease R
AB
on the ground
(10k, 1k, 100 ohm )

To decrease the ground resistance of the electrodes A and B:
push the metallic stakes more deeply into the ground
use several stakes per electrode (and connect them in parallel
Pour water onto the stakes (if possible water with salt)

Intensity I
AB
T
X

R
X
Voltage V
AB

A M Voltage V
MN
N B
MEASUREMENT OF THE VOLTAGE V
MN

NUMBER OF READINGS

Noise level

1 READING ONLY

Noise(1)

N READINGS (N STACKS)

Noise(1) / sqrt (stack number)
I DEAL
CASE
REAL
CASE
VOLTAGE
noi se
INTENSITY
I
AB

VOLTAGE
V
MN

I
AB

+I
AB
-I
AB
V
MN

Telluric currents,
Self Potential,
Industrial noise
no noise
+V
MN

-V
MN

OPERATI NG PROCEDURE

OF A SYSCAL RESI STI VI TYMETER

PREPARING THE READING

BATTERY Check the capacity of the battery

ARRAY Select the electrode array, ex. Schlumb. Sounding

SPACING Introduce the values of the lengths of the lines
Ex: AB / 2 = 10, MN / 2 = 2

CHECK Check the connection of the electrodes
and the values of their ground resistances

PARAMETERS Introduce various parameters such as the pulse
duration (ex. 500 ms or 1s)

TAKING THE READING

START Check the various values displayed:
Intensity I
AB
in mA
Voltage V
MN
in mV
Resistivity RHO in ohm m
Standard deviation Q in %
Chargeability M in mV/V
Number of stacks in #

STOP Check the average (stacked) values of
the previous parameters
Plot the resistivity value on the diagram

USING THE MEMORY

STORE Save the parameters in the internal memory

READ Recall a previously stored reading

TRANSFER Load the data into the PC computer


FI ELD DATA SHEET
FOR RESI STI VI TY MEASUREMENTS

SITE: DATE: VES nb :

OPERATOR : EQUIPMENT:

AB/2
m

MN/2
m

V
AB

m

V
MN
m

I
AB
mA

RHO
ohm.m

M
mV/V

Mem

3

0.5

4

0.5

4

1

5

0.5

5

1

6

1

8

1

8

2

10

1

10

2

15

2

20

2

20

5


I NTERPRETATI ON



I NTERPRETATI ON OF VERTI CAL
ELECTRI CAL SOUNDI NGS (VES)

QUANTITATIVE INTERPRETATION

A bilogarithmic representation in Log(Rho) and Log (AB/2) is used because a 10m thick
layer at 10m depth has the same effect than a 100m thick layer at 100m depth (the
resolution decreases with depth).

PRINCIPLE OF EQUIVALENCE

CASE 1:

1 3

2

CASE 2:

2

1 3

Solutions (resistivity-thickness) which give the same sounding curves are equivalent

Apparent resistivity

resistive resistive

100
ohm.m

conductive
AB/2
10 100m
3m 1 000 ohm.m

30m 20 ohm.m

00 5 000 ohm.m
FOR THE SECOND LAYER:
the thickness is undetermined
the resistivity is undetermined
BUT THE LONGITUDINAL CONDUCTANCE
S = thickness / resistivity
IS WELL DETERMINED
Example: 30m / 20ohm.m = 1.5 Siemens
15m / 10ohm.m = 1.5 Siemens
FOR THE SECOND LAYER:
the thickness is undetermined
the resistivity is undetermined
BUT THE TRANSVERSE RESISTANCE
T = thickness x resistivity
IS WELL DETERMINED
TWO LAYER MASTER CURVES

FOR SCHLUMBERGER SOUNDI NGS

FIRST LAYER
SECOND LAYER
Resistivity : Rho1

Thickness : E1

Resistivity : Rho2
Rho1
Rho2
E1
Apparent
resistivity
AB / 2
EXAMPLE OF THREE LAYER CURVES
FOR SCHLUMBERGER SOUNDI NGS

FIRST LAYER

SECOND LAYER

THIRD LAYER

Resistivity: Rho1

Thickness: E1

Resistivity: Rho2

Thickness: E2

Resistivity: Rho3

E1
Rho1
Rho2
Rho3
Apparent
resistivity
AB / 2
E2 / E1
With master curves, the interpretation is carried out by placing the experimental
sounding curve (data points) over one of the master curves which best fits the data.

The thickness and resistivities of the various layers are then read on the master
curves according to the mentioned indications.

Due to the equivalence law, several theoretical solutions can be found for one
given set of experimental data.
FI ELD EXAMPLE : PARI S BASI N

SCHLUMBERGER SOUNDING IN ALLUVIUMS (LOIRE RIVER)
The 12 first meters (about 100 ohm.m resistivity) consist in sands, then
6m show a marls component with a lower resistivity (less then 20
ohm.m).

At 18 m depth, starts the water which overlies the first series of
Limestone layers which at their top are frequently karstified (hence their
low resistivity, of the order of 150 ohm.m)
FI ELD EXAMPLE : NI GER
Sand Alteration Bedrock

Sand
Alteration
Bedrock
Fault (F)
LOOKING FOR A FAULTED AREA IN A CRISTALLINE BEDROCK
FOR SUPPLYING GROUNDWATER TO A VILLAGE
First, a
Schlumberger
sounding to
determine the
depth of the
bedrock

Then, a
Schlumberger
profiling to
locate laterally
the faulted area
and sit a drillhole
FI ELD EXAMPLE : LA REUNI ON I SLAND
LOOKING FOR A THICK, NON SALTY, NON CLAYEY AQUIFER
IN VOLCANIC ROCKS (BASALT, ASHES, LAVAS)
FOR AGRICULTURAL PURPOSES
Schlumberger
soundings carried
out every 300m
permit to identify
various geological
formations

At a few hundreds
metres from the sea
coast, the intrusion
of salt water is a
danger. Low values
of resistivity (<10
ohm.m) show this
salty environment.

Inside the land, the
clayey basement is
pointed out by values
lower than 100
ohm.m

The aquifer is
associated with
values of 300 to 600
ohm.m.

The maximum
thickness of this
layer is observed at
SE3 between 50 and
150m depth.
FI ELD EXAMPLE : BORA BORA I SLAND

LOOKING FOR THE MAXIMUM DEPTH OF A DRILL HOLE IN A
CORAL ISLAND (PACIFIC OCEAN)
In a coral island, the fresh water is in equilibrium above the salt
water coming from the sea and usually forms a kind of lens.

Electrical soundings carried out on the Bora Bora island confirm this
shape of lens, with a maximum thickness of fresh water sands
of 40m in the middle of the island. The drillholes do not have to
overpass this depth for the salt not to contaminate the fresh water.

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IRIS INSTRUMENTS, Training course on Electrical methods, 2006 Page 1 of 29

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