Natural Resources Research, Vol. 8. No.

2, 1999
Application of Mineral Exploration Models and CIS to
Generate Mineral Potential Maps as Input for Optimum
Land-Use Planning in the Philippines
1
INTRODUCTION
In the last decade, land-use policies in many coun-
tries have been geared toward the protection of the
environment. These policies have brought about con-
flicts and competing demands between land uses that
1
Paper presented at the NATO ASI Meeting at Matrahaza, Hungary
(6-18 September 1998).
2
International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences
(ITC), Delft, The Netherlands.
3
Mines and Geosciences Bureau, Regional Office No. 5, Legazpi
City, Philippines.
4
Mines and Geosciences Bureau, Regional Office No. 2. Tugue-
garao, Philippines.
5
Author to whom all correspondence shoud be sent: ITC, Kanaal-
weg 3, 2628 EB Delft, The Netherlands. e-mail: carranza@itc.nl
permit mineral resource development and those that
promote the protection of ecosystems. There have been
examples where economically viable mineral
resources have been discovered in areas protected from
mineral resources development. Land-use conversion
is needed in such areas for mineral resource develop-
ment to proceed, but such conversion does not readily
get societal or political approval. Therefore the mineral
potential classification of an area is critical for land-
use policy making so that, in the future, prospective
land is not alienated from mineral resources develop-
ment. Ideally, the classification or mapping of mineral
potential is carried out through systematic exploration
programs that involve the integration of geological,
geochemical, and geophysical techniques. Systematic
mineral exploration programs, however, require con-
siderable amounts of time, money, and expertise, which
165
1520-7439/99/0600-0165$16.00/1 C 1999 International Association for Mathematical Geology
Emmanuel John M. Carranza,
2,3,5
Jerrysal C. Mangaoang,
4
and Martin Hale
2
Received 7 November 1998; accepted 3 April 1999
The inherent problems of classifying or inventorying potential mineral resources (as opposed
to known mineral resources) pose specific challenges. In this paper, the application of a
conceptual mineral exploration model and GIS to generate mineral potential maps as input to
land-use policy decision-making is illustrated. We implement the criteria provided by a concep-
tual exploration model for nickeliferous-laterites by using a GIS to classify the nickeliferous-
laterite potential of an area in the northeastern part of the Philippines. The spatial data inputs
to the GIS are geological map data, topographic map data, and stream sediment point data.
Processing of these data yields derivative maps, which are used as indicators of nickeliferous-
laterite potential. The indicator maps then are integrated to furnish a nickeliferous-laterite
potential map. This map is compared with present land-use classification and policy in the
area. The results indicate high potential for nickeliferous-laterite occurrence in the area, but
the zones of potential are in places where mineral resources development is prohibited. The
prohibition was imposed before the nickeliferous-laterite potential was assessed by this study.
Mineral potential classification therefore is a critical input to land-use policy-making so that
prospective land is not alienated from future mineral resource development.
KEY WORDS: Mineral potential classification; nickeliferous-laterites; spatial data integration; land use;
policy-making.
166 Carranza, Mangaoang, and Hale
may be unavailable, with the result that the mineral
potential of many areas has not yet been classified.
The inherent problems in classifying or inventorying
potential mineral resources (as opposed to known min-
eral resources) pose a specific challenge within this
framework.
In the absence of comprehensive systematic min-
eral exploration programs, it is important to develop
alternative methodologies of mineral potential classifi-
cation. It is possible to make use of spatial data that
are relevant to mineral potential (e.g., lithology and
topography), which are available for most areas. The
importance of such data can be realized by their incor-
poration in a geographic information system or GIS
(Bonham-Carter, 1994). It then is important to add
exploration criteria. Those criteria provided by concep-
tual mineral deposit models are invaluable bases for
the generation of mineral potential information
In this paper, we illustrate the application of a
conceptual mineral exploration model for nickelifer-
ous-laterite deposits and GIS to classify the nickelifer-
ous-laterite potential of an area in the northeastern part
of the Philippines. The GIS operations were carried
out in three steps: spatial data input, processing, and
integration. Geological and topographic map data and
stream sediment point data are the basic spatial data
input. Spatial data processing is carried out to extract
derivative maps of indicators of nickeliferous-laterite
potential. A simple classification scheme, in which the
indicator variables are "added" together, is used in
spatial data integration. Finally, the nickeliferous-later-
ite potential map is compared with present land-use
classification and mineral policy in the study area to
determine the usefulness of such geoinformation in
land-use policy decision-making.
peridotite to saprolite. As a generalization, nickel
enrichment occurs along the slopes immediately below
the plateau edges (Fig. 1). The primary controlling
feature is the low watertable at the plateau edge, which
forces meteoric groundwater circulation downward
through the saprolite. A higher watertable elsewhere
on the plateau and in the lowlands inhibits nickel
enrichment. Erosion can remove enriched saprolite
from the convex brow of the plateau edges and the
limiting slope for the formation of enriched saprolite
to keep ahead of erosion is about 20.
Based on the model (Golightly, 1979), the indica-
tors of nickeliferous-laterite potential are (1) presence
of peridotitic rocks, (2) presence of plateau edges,
and (3) topographic slopes of less than 20. As these
indicators have spatial context, GIS is particularly suit-
able for the classification of nickeliferous-laterite
potential.
THE STUDY AREA
The study area is situated in Isabela province in
the northeastern portion of the Philippines in southeast-
ern Asia (Fig. 2). The Isabela Ultramafics, of possible
Cretaceous age, form the oldest rocks and are exposed
extensively in the eastern part of the study area. The
ultramafic rocks are part of an ophiolitic suite believed
to have been generated and formed in the Philippine
Sea (JICA-MMAJ, 1987). They consist mainly of peri-
dotite with minor dunite lenses and massive to bedded
gabbros. The ultramafic rocks are thrusted over
younger rocks in the western part of the area.
NICKELIFEROUS-LATERITE DEPOSIT
MODEL
A general description of nickeliferous-laterite
deposits is given by Golightly (1979) and is adopted
here. Those of greatest economic importance have
developed on peridotitic bedrock. The nickel is pro-
vided by the leaching of forsteritic olivine, which con-
tains about 0.3% nickel, and serpentine, which is
derived from the hydrothermal alteration of olivine
prior to weathering. Topography, which is a function
of the geomorphic history of the land, plays an
important role in the enrichment of nickel during deep
tropical weathering of olivine- and serpentine-bearing
Figure 1. Idealized sequence of nickeliferous-laterite formation at
edges of plateaus over peridotitic bedrock (after Golightly, 1979).
Exploration Models and GIS for Mineral Potential Mapping 167
tion was carried out to produce a digital elevation
model (DEM) of the study area (Fig. 4).
In addition, a subset of minus 80-mesh stream
sediment geochemical data for Ni (JICA-MMAJ,
1987) was used to determine which portions of the
ultramafic terrane are enriched in nickel. A subset of
260 analytical results were tabulated in a spreadsheet,
one row per sample, with columns containing spatial
and nonspatial attributes. The spatial locations were
recorded as (x, y) UTM coordinates; Ni content (in
ppm) were recorded as attributes. Each sample was
treated as representative of the local catchment basin
in which it occurs, so the table was applied to sample
catchment basins instead to the sampling points (Fig.
5). The sample catchment basins were generated auto-
matically in ILWIS using the DEM and raster map of
digitized drainage lines labeled according to the sample
numbers (Carranza and Hale, 1997).
Figure 2. Location and simplified geologic map of study area.
Map coordinates are in meters (UTM, zone 51). Inset represents
map of Philippines.
CLASSIFICATION OF NICKELIFEROUS-
LATERITE POTENTIAL
Figure 3 shows the methodology used in the clas-
sification of nickeliferous-laterite potential. This was
implemented in ILWIS (Integrated Land and Water
Information System), a GIS software developed by
ITC (International Institute for Aerospace Survey and
Earth Sciences) in the Netherlands.
Spatial Data Input
The sources of spatial data are the 1:250,000 scale
geologic map (JICA-MMAJ, 1987) and 1:250,000
scale topographic maps (NAMRIA, 1992a, 1992b).
The boundaries of the lithologic units were digitized
and converted from vector (polygon) to raster format.
The 100-m interval elevation contours were digitized
and converted from vector (segment) to raster format.
From the raster map of elevation contours, interpola-
Spatial Data Processing
The second step involves processing of the spatial
data inputs to extract the indicator variables for the
classification of nickeliferous-laterite potential. The
geologic map (Fig. 2) was reclassified into two map
unitsperidotites and nonperidotites (Fig. 6A).
Because only areas underlain by the peridotites are
important to this study, the reclassified map of the
geology is used to mask nonperidotite areas prior to
the extraction of areas with favorable topographic and
geochemical indicators.
There are two topographic indicators, slope and
plateau edges. In order extract areas with favorable
slopes (i.e., <20), horizontal and vertical gradient
filters were applied to the DEM. This generates a
slope map, which then is reclassified into two map
unitsareas with slopes > 20 and areas with slopes
< 20 (Fig. 6B). In order to extract areas favorable
for nickeliferous-laterite formation (i.e., areas where
plateau edges occur), detailed analysis of the DEM
was carried out. Ranges of elevations where plateaus
and plateau edges occur were estimated by graphically
analyzing the histogram of DEM pixels in the perido-
tite terrane. For areas underlain by a single rock unit,
the intercontour distances are more or less uniform so
that the "steps" in the histogram of elevation ranges
also are more or less uniform. Variation in the widths
of the steps indicates the presence of erosional sur-
faces, such as plateaus or slope breaks in the landscape.
The edges of plateaus are knickpoints that represent
168 Carranza, Mangaoang, and Hale
Figure 3. Flowchart of CIS-based classification of nickeliferous-laterite potential (modified
after Bonham-Carter, 1994).
interruptions in the peneplanation history of the land.
From the histogram of the DEM of the peridotite ter-
rane (Fig. 7), it is possible to define the ranges of
elevations where plateau edges occur by drawing a
line that connects the steps of the histogram. A long
straight segment indicates the ranges of elevations
resulting from a long peneplanation history (i.e., pla-
teaus are present). Short segments indicate the ranges
of elevations that result from interruptions in the pen-
eplanation events (i.e., plateau edges are present). It
is clear there are three long segments that represent
elevation ranges of plateaus (0-100, 200-700, and
800-1100 m) and there are two short segments that
represent elevation ranges where plateau edges are
present (100-200 and 700-800 m). The areas within
the peridotite terrane with elevation ranges of 100 to
200 and 700 to 800 m are extracted from the DEM
and are shown in Figure 6C.
The stream sediment sample catchment basin map
of Ni content was classified into two map units
sample catchment basins with high Ni (>1000 ppm)
content and sample catchment basins with low Ni
(< 1000 ppm) content (Fig. 6D). The former map unit
represents areas with favorable surficial geochemistry,
that is, enrichment of Ni in the surficial environment.
Spatial Data Integration
The third step is to integrate the indicator maps
in order to classify the nickeliferous-laterite potential
of the area. This is carried out by implementing a
simple qualitative classification scheme as shown in Figure 4. Shaded-relief DEM of study area.
Exploration Models and GIS for Mineral Potential Mapping 169
Figure 5. Stream sediment sample catchment basins and Ni
content (ppm).
Figure 8. If a favorable geologic indicator (i.e., perido-
tite) is absent, then there is no nickeliferous-laterite
potential (0). If peridotites are present, but favorable
topographic and geochemical indicators are absent,
then there is low potential (1). If any one of the three
favorable indicators are present within the peridotite
terrane, then there is moderate potential (2). If any
two of the three favorable indicators are present within
the peridotite terrane, then there is high potential (3).
If all three favorable indicators are present within the
peridotite, then there is very high potential (4). This
simple classification scheme was implemented by first
creating binary maps that indicate presence (score =
1) or absence (score = 0) of each of the indicator
variables (Fig. 6). Finally, these binary maps are
added together.
RESULTS
The number of pixels represented by the peridotite
terrane is 61,841, which is equivalent to about 618
km2 (a pixel size of 100 X 100 m was used in the
GIS operations). About 15% of the peridotite terrane
has low potential for nickeliferous-laterites, about 48%
Figure 6. Input data layers for classification of nickeliferous-later-
ite potential: A, peridotite terrane; B, areas with slopes of < 20
in peridotite terrane; C, areas of plateau edges in peridotite terrane;
and D, stream sediment sample catchment basins with > 1000
ppm Ni.
has moderate potential, about 34% have high potential,
and about 3% has very high potential (Fig. 9).
Because of the importance of mineral potential
classification to land-use policy-making it is important
that the reliability of the classification is validated. In
this example, the contribution and significance of the
Ni data to the classification of nickeliferous-laterite
potential also needs examination because Ni data are
not among the exploration criteria provided by the
model of Golightly (1979).
The reliability of the nickeliferous-laterite poten-
tial classification is validated by comparing the poten-
tial map with known occurrences of nickeliferous-
laterite in the study area. There is, however, only one
known nickeliferous-laterite occurrence in the study
170 Carranza, Mangaoang, and Hale
Figure 7. Histogram of pixels values (elevations) in DEM of peridotite terrane.
area because exploration has been curtailed due to
land-use policy. There are reportedly substantial
deposits of laterite along the Dinapique plateau ranging
in thickness from 6 to 16 meters and grading more
than 1% Ni (http://www.stellarmetals.com/corpprofi-
le.htm). The entire plateau may contain in excess of
240 million DMT of laterite assuming an average
thickness of 7 meters. The location of the mineral
property where nickeliferous-laterite deposits have
been reported is indicated in Figure 9. The northern
Figure 8. Scheme for classifying nickeliferous-laterite potential.
0 = no potential; 1 = low potential; 2 = moderate potential; 3 =
high potential; 4 = very high potential.
half of the property is shown here to have high to
very high potential for nickeliferous-laterite, which
indicates the reliability of the classification.
To determine the contribution and significance of
the Ni data, the nickeliferous-laterite potential shown
in Figure 9 is compared with the result of classification
when these Ni data are excluded (Fig. 10). In the latter
classification, the distribution of areas of high potential
resembles the distribution of areas of plateau edges
(Fig. 6C). On the other hand, the distribution of areas
with high potential in Figure 9 appears to be a combina-
tion of Figures 6C and 6D. This indicates that there
is little overlap between areas of plateau edges and
catchment basins with > 1000 ppm Ni. Hence, more
areas are classified as having high potential for nickel-
iferous-laterite when the Ni data are used. The number
of pixels of high potential using three indicators,
excluding the Ni data, is 12240, whereas using four
indicators, including the Ni data, the number of high
to very high potential pixels rises to 21026, or a 72%
increase. However, inclusive of the Ni data, the mineral
property with known nickeliferous-laterite is classified
correctly as having high to very high potential. Exclu-
sive of the Ni data, the mineral property is classified
as only having moderate potential, which is inconsis-
tent with what has been reported. It is reported that
nickeliferous-laterites occur on the plateau. Thus, the
reason for the misclassification if the Ni data are
excluded is that the topographic indicators are inade-
quate for a reliable classification. Some degree of prox-
imity downslope and upslope from plateau edges may
be an important spatial indicator, but this was not
provided by the model. In this example, the inadequacy
Exploration Models and GIS for Mineral Potential Mapping 171
Figure 9. Nickeliferous-laterite potential classification map. Figure 10. Nickeliferous-laterite potential classification when
Ni data are excluded.
of indicator variables based on the mineral deposit
model was augmented by the geochemical indicator
that is able to indicate zones in the secondary environ-
ment enriched in nickel.
The mineral property with known nickeliferous-laterite
deposits is located immediately south of the pro-
tected area.
PRESENT LAND-USE POLICY
The present land-use classification of the study
area is shown in Figure 11 (Mangaoang, 1997). About
88% of the land is classified as woodlands or forests,
about 10% is agricultural lands, planted mainly with
rice, and about 2% is grasslands. The areas classified to
have high to very high nickeliferous-laterite potential
occupy only about 6%; almost all of this is within the
forests. These areas of high to very high nickeliferous-
laterite potential represent an aggregate of about 7%
of the total forest areas.
The existing land-use policy within the area is
presented in Figure 12 (Mangaoang, 1997). About 68%
of the area is prohibited to mineral resources develop-
ment. In these protected areas, about 87% are forests
and the remainder are agricultural lands. These pro-
tected areas encompass 93% of the zones classified to
have high to very high nickeliferous-laterite potential.
DISCUSSION
The prohibition on mineral resources develop-
ment in the study area was imposed before the nickelif-
erous-laterite potential was assessed through the
methodology presented in this paper. It is not the inten-
tion of this study to contest this prohibition, but to
stress the importance of mineral potential information
to the land-use policy-making process. We have shown
here an instance in which areas that are protected from
mineral resources development later may be recog-
nized to have potential for a particular mineral deposit.
The classification of mineral potential at a national
scale therefore is essential for ensuring that all poten-
tially mineralized zones will be considered in planning
the optimum use of the Nation's public lands.
The scheme presented here for classifying poten-
tial for nickeliferous-laterite is a rapid, cheap and sim-
ple methodology. However, the classification scheme
is sensitive to the type of indicator variables that are
172 Carranza, Mangaoang, and Hale
Figure 11. Land-use classification of area.
used. This is to be expected, but unavoidable, because
the criteria provided by conceptual mineral exploration
models are generalizations rather than specific to any
particular area. It therefore is necessary to determine
the contribution and significance of the different indi-
cators variables and to do this it is important to have
information on any occurrence of the mineral deposit
in question within the area of study. Although the
mineral potential statements resulting from this meth-
odology are guidelines rather than facts, or subjective
rather than based on statistical prediction, they provide
a realistic basis for land-use policy-making.
A similar scheme of classifying potential for other
mineral deposits can be applied to favorable terranes
that lack mineral potential information other than basic
geologic data (e.g., lithology, structures). The classifi-
cation scheme can be modified according to the type
Figure 12. Land-use policy in area.
and number of criteria provided by the conceptual
exploration model for the mineral deposit sought.
CONCLUSIONS
The nickeliferous-laterite potential of the perido-
tite terrane in Isabela province in northeastern Philip-
pines has not yet been fully assessed. Grassroots
exploration to determine the nickeliferous-laterite
potential of the terrane would be ideal, but would
require resources that are not readily available. An
alternative methodology is devised for classifying
nickeliferous-laterite potential whereby spatial indica-
tors, based on the criteria provided by a conceptual
mineral exploration model for nickeliferous-laterite,
are integrated in a GIS. For the study area, the classifi-
cation scheme indicated that at least 34% of the perido-
tite terrane has high nickeliferous-laterite potential. A
known nickeliferous-laterite occurrence is classified
Exploration Models and GIS for Mineral Potential Mapping 173
correctly as high to very high potential by the
methodology.
Almost all the zones of high to very high potential
for nickeliferous-laterite occurs in an area that is pro-
hibited for mineral resources development. This indi-
cates that undiscovered nickeliferous-laterites and
other mineral deposits therein will not be readily avail-
able to provide mineral supplies that can contribute
to future economic growth of the country. Mineral
potential information therefore, is, highly critical for
optimum land-use policy-making.
Where mineral potential information and
important exploration data are lacking, except for basic
geological data, a simple scheme of classifying mineral
potential may be carried out based on the criteria pro-
vided by conceptual mineral exploration models. The
exploration criteria of interest should have a spatial
context so that the classification scheme can be imple-
mented using a GIS. However, using only the spatial
indicators required by the conceptual mineral deposit
model may prove inadequate for a reliable classifica-
tion. Other spatial indicator variables, when available,
have to be integrated but their contribution and signifi-
cance to the classification have to be validated. The
scheme presented for classifying potential for nickelif-
erous-laterite is a rapid, cheap, simple, and yet reliable
methodology. Mineral potential information resulting
from the proposed methodology is subjective rather
than based on statistical prediction, but provides a
realistic basis for land-use policy-making.
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