1.

Fundamental Principles of Counting : Multiplication Theorem

If an operation can be performed in m different ways and following
which a second operation can be performed in n different ways, then the
two operations in succession can be performed in m n different ways
2. Fundamental Principles of Counting : Addition Theorem
If an operation can be performed in m different ways and a second
independent operation can be performed in n different ways, either of
the two operations can be performed in (m+n) ways.
3. Factorial
Let n be a positive integer. Then n factorial (n!) can be defined as

n! = n(n-1)(n-2)...1

Examples
i. 5! = 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 120

ii. 3! = 3 x 2 x 1 = 6
Special Cases
iii. 0! = 1

iv. 1! = 1
4. Permutations
Permutations are the different arrangements of a given number of
things by taking some or all at a time
Examples
i. All permutations (or arrangements) formed with the letters a, b, c by
taking three at a time are (abc, acb, bac, bca, cab, cba)

ii. All permutations (or arrangements) formed with the letters a, b, c by
taking two at a time are (ab, ac, ba, bc, ca, cb)
5. Combinations
Each of the different groups or selections formed by taking some or all
of a number of objects is called a combination
Examples
i. Suppose we want to select two out of three girls P, Q, R. Then, possible
combinations are PQ, QR and RP. (Note that PQ and QP represent the
same selection)

ii. Suppose we want to select three out of three girls P, Q, R. Then, only
possible combination is PQR
6. Difference between Permutations and Combinations and How to
Address a Problem
Sometimes, it will be clearly stated in the problem itself whether
permutation or combination is to be used. However if it is not mentioned
in the problem, we have to find out whether the question is related to
permutation or combination.
Consider a situation where we need to find out the total number of
possible samples of two objects which can be taken from three objects
P,Q , R. To understand if the question is related to permutation or
combination, we need to find out if the order is important or not.
If order is important, PQ will be different from QP , PR will be different
from RP and QR will be different from RQ
If order is not important, PQ will be same as QP, PR will be same as RP
and QR will be same as RQ
Hence,
If the order is important, problem will be related to permutations.
If the order is not important, problem will be related to combinations.
For permutations, the problems can be like "What is the number of
permutations the can be made", "What is the number of arrangements
that can be made", "What are the different number of ways in which
something can be arranged", etc
For combinations, the problems can be like "What is the number of
combinations the can be made", "What is the number of selections the
can be made", "What are the different number of ways in which
something can be selected", etc.
Mostly problems related to word formation, number formation etc will be
related to permutations. Similarly most problems related to selection of
persons, formation of geometrical figures , distribution of items (there
are exceptions for this) etc will be related to combinations.
7. Repetition
The term repetition is very important in permutations and combinations.
Consider the same situation described above where we need to find out
the total number of possible samples of two objects which can be taken
from three objects P,Q , R.
If repetition is allowed, the same object can be taken more than once to
make a sample.
i.e., if repetition is allowed, PP, QQ, RR can also be considered as
possible samples.
If repetition is not allowed, then PP, QQ, RR cannot be considered as
possible samples
Normally repetition is not allowed unless mentioned specifically.
8. pq and qp are two different permutations ,but they represent the same
combination.
9. Number of permutations of n distinct things taking r at a time
Number of permutations of n distinct things taking r at a time can be
given by

n
P
r
= n!(nr)!=n(n1)(n2)...(nr+1)where 0rn

If r > n,
n
P
r
= 0
Special Case:
n
P
0
= 1
n
P
r
is also denoted by P(n,r).
n
P
r
has importance outside combinatorics
as well where it is known as the falling factorial and denoted by (n)
r
or
n
r

Examples
i.
8
P
2
= 8 x 7 = 56

ii.
5
P
4
= 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 = 120
10. Number of permutations of n distinct things taking all at a
time
Number of permutations of n distinct things taking them all at a time
=
n
P
n
= n!
11. Number of Combinations of n distinct things taking r at a time
Number of combinations of n distinct things taking r at a time (
n
C
r
) can
be given by

n
C
r
= n!(r!)(nr)!=n(n1)(n2)(nr+1)r!where 0rn

If r > n,
n
C
r
= 0
Special Case:
n
C
0
= 1
n
C
r
is also denoted by C(n,r).
n
C
r
occurs in many other mathematical
contexts as well where it is known as binomial coefficient and denoted
by (nr)
Examples
i.
8
C
2
= 8721 = 28

ii.
5
C
4
= 54324321 = 5

1. Useful Relations - Factorial
n! = n.(n-1)!
2. nCr=nPrr!

3. Useful Relations - Permutations
1.
n
P
n
= n!
2.
n
P
0
= 1
3.
n
P
1
= n
4.
n
P
n
=
n
P
n - 1

5.
n
P
r
= n(
n-1
P
r-1
)
4. Useful Relations - Combinations
1.
n
C
r
=
n
C
(n - r)


Example
i.
8
C
6
=
8
C
2
= 8721 = 28
2.
n
C
n
= 1
3.
n
C
0
= 1
4.
n
C
0
+
n
C
1
+
n
C
2
+ ... +
n
C
n
= 2
n


Example
i.
4
C
0
+
4
C
1
+
4
C
2
+
4
C
3
+
4
C
4
= (1 + 4 + 6 + 4 + 1) = 16 = 2
4

5.
n
C
r-1
+
n
C
r
=
(n+1)
C
r
(Pascal's Law)
6. nCrnCr-1=n-r+1r
7. If
n
C
x
=
n
C
y
then either x = y or (n-x) = y
5. Selection from identical objects: Some Basic Facts
i. The number of selections of r objects out of n identical objects is 1
ii. Total number of selections of zero or more objects from n identical
objects is n+1.