PhysicalLayer:CommunicatingSignals

PurposeofthePhysicalLayer
TheroleoftheOSIphysicallayeristoencodethebinarydigitsthatrepresentdatalinklayerframes
intosignalsandtotransmitandreceivethesesignalsacrossthephysicalmedia(copperwires,optical
fiberandwireless)thatconnectnetworkdevices.Thedatalinkframecontainsastringofbits
representingapplication,presentation,sessionandtransportandnetworkinformation.Thesebits
musttraveloveraphysicalmediumsuchascoppercableoraglassfiberopticcable,orwirelessly
throughtheair.Thephysicalmediumiscapableofconductingasignalintheformofvoltage.
Toprepareadatalinkframeforthejourneyacrossthemedium,thephysicallayerencodesthe
logicalframewithpatternsofdatathatwillmakeitrecognizabletothedevicethatwillpickitupon
theotherendofthemedium.
Physicallayerelements:
Thephysicalmediaandassociatedconnectors
Arepresentationofbitsonthemedia
Encodingofdataandcontrolinformation
Transmitterandreceivercircuitryonthenetworkdevices
Afterthesignalstraversethemedium,theyaredecodedtotheiroriginalbitrepresentationsofdata
andgiventothedatalinklayerasacompleteframe.
Figure81:thefullencapsulationprocessandthetransmittingofencodedbinarybits.
PhysicalLayerOperation
Eachmediumhasuniquesignalingusedtorepresentthebitsinthedatalinkframes.Theframes
remainunchangedastheycrosstothenextdevice.
Table81:Signaltypesforeachofthemediaatthephysicallayer
Media SignalType
Coppercable patternsofelectricalpulses
Fiberopticcable patternsoflightpulses
Wireless patternsofradiotransmissions
Whenthephysicallayerputsaframeoutontomedia,itgeneratesasetpatternsofbits,orsignal
pattern,thatcanbeunderstoodbythereceivingdevice.
Tomarkthebeginningandendofframes,thetransmittingdeviceusesabitpatternthatisunique
andisonlyusedtoidentifythestartorendofframes.
PhysicalLayerStandards
Thephysicallayerdefineshardwarespecifications,includingelectroniccircuitry,mediaand
connectors.(Figure82)Theengineerswhodesignedthespecificationsofthephysicallayerhadto
considerseveraldifferentmediastandardstocompleteatransmission.
Thestandardsofthephysicallayer:
physicalandelectricalpropertiesofthemedia
mechanicalproperties(materials,dimensionsandpinouts)oftheconnectors
bitrepresentationbythesignals(encoding)
definitionofcontrolinformationsignals
PhysicalLayerFundamentalPrinciples
Communicationatthephysicallayerisaprocessinvolvingphysicalcomponentsthatcarryencoded
datasentoutasasignalappropriatetothemedium.ThefollowingthreecomponentsofLayer1
communicationarekeytounderstandinghowthephysicallayerfunctions:
Physicalcomponentscarrythemessageinareliableandconsistentmannersothatthereceiver
getsthemessageasitwassent
Encodingisanothermajorfunctionofthephysicallayer.Thebitsintheencapsulateddatalink
layerframeneedtobegrouped,orencoded,intopatterns.Aftertransmission,thereceiving
Layer1devicedecodespatternsandhandstheframeuptothedatalinklayer.
Anotherfunctionofencodingiscontrolinformation.Thephysicallayerinsertsacontrolcodeto
indicatethebeginningandendofframes.
Signalinginvolvesdetermininghowtorepresentthebinarybitonaspecificmedium.
Theprocessesofencodingandsignalingcompletethepreparationofdatafortransport(Figure83).
PhysicalSignalingandEncoding:RepresentingBits
SignalingBitsfortheMedia
Eachmethodfindsawaytoconvertapulseofenergyintoadefinedamountoftimeknownasabit
time.BittimeisthetimeittakesforaNICatOSILayer2togenerate1bitofdataandsentitoutto
themediaasasignal.Thetypeofsignalwithinthebittimedependsonthemethodofsignalingused.
TheamountofrealtimeabittimeconsumesdependsonthespeedoftheNIC.
Threepossiblevariationsofasignalthatcanrepresentencodedbitsare:amplitude,frequencyand
phase.Amplitudeisameasureofthevariationofthesignalcycle.(Figure84)
Itisessentialthatalldevicesonthenetworkusethesamemethodsothatthemessagesfrom
sendingdevicescanbereadbythereceivingdevices.
NonreturntoZero
Thesignalingmethodknownasnonreturntozero(NRZ)samplesthevoltagelevelonthemedium
duringabittime.Alowvoltageisrepresentedby0andahighervoltagerepresenting1.
NRZhasnoconstantzerovoltage,soadditionalsignalingissometimesnecessaryforsynchronization
withotherdevices.(Figure85)
ManchesterEncoding
Manchesterencodingisasignalingmethodthatlooksforachangeinvoltageinthemiddleofabit
time.Avoltagechangefromlowtohighwithinthebittimerepresentsa1.(Figure86)
Manchesterencodingisthesignalingstandardfor10BASETEthernet.
Encoding:GroupingBits
Theprocessofaddingsignalpatternstoidentifyimportantsignaltransmissionsisthesolutionused
atthephysicallayer.Asignalpatternletsdevicesworkmoreefficientlybyallowingthemtoignore
unimportantsignalsonthemediaandpayattentiononlytoimportantsignals.
BeforeeachframeistransmittedatLayer1asasignal,itisencodedwithsignalpatternsthat
announcetothereceivingdevicewhentheframestartsandstopsandwhichpartoftheframehas
datatobepassedtoOSILayer2.(Figure87)
Codegroups,anothermethodofencoding,canimprovenetworkefficiencyandsignalreliability.A
codegroupisasymbolthatisapredefinedsmallgroupofbitsthatrepresentsalargergroupofdata
bits.Codegroupingispartoftheencodingprocessandhappensbeforethesignalisputonthe
media.(Figure88)Codegroupscanhelppreventseveralreliabilityproblemsthatcommonlyarise
withtheuseofhigherspeednetworks.Theyimproveperformanceonhigherspeednetworksinthe
followingfourareas:
reducingbitlevelerror
limitingtheeffectiveenergytransmittedintothemedia
helpingtodistinguishdatabitsfromcontrolbits
providingbettermediaerrordetection
Codegroupsensureseveraltransitionsbetween1and0.Thebalancingof1sand0sinthesignalcan
alsohelpreduceerrorratesbypreventingcomponentsfromoverheating.Theycanimproveerror
detection.Codegroupscanenhancethedistinctionsinasignalbyusingthreedifferenttypesof
symbols:
datasymbols:thedatasentdownfromthephysicallayer
controlsymbols:theLayer1patternsdenotingthebeginningandendofframes
invalidsymbols:bitpatternsnotallowedonthemediathatcanindicateaframeerror
DataCarryingCapacity
Eachphysicallayermediumcarriesdataatadifferentspeed.Therearethreedifferentwaysto
analyzethetransferspeedofdataonamedium.Allthreearemeasuredbythesamestandardof
bitspersecond:
theoreticallyasbandwidth
practicallyasthroughput
qualitativelyasgoodput
Bandwidthisthecapacityofamediumtocarrydatainagivenamountoftime.Thestandardisin
bitspersecond(bps)>bandwidthinkilobitsandmegabits.Thebandwidthmeasurementtakesinto
accountthephysicalpropertiesofthemediumandthesignalingmethodappliedtoit.(Table82)
Throughputistheactualtransferrateofdataoverthemediuminaperiodoftime.Bandwidthis
thecapacityformovingdata.Throughputisalsomeasuredinbitspersecond.Factorsthatinfluence
throughput:theamountandtypeoftraffic,thenumberofnetworkdevicesencounteredonthe
networkbeingmeasured,
Throughputcannotbefasterthantheslowestlinkofthepathfromsourcetodestination.
Goodputisthetransferrateofactualusabledatabits.Goodputisthedatathroughputlessthe
protocoloverheadbits,errorcorrections,andretransmissionrequests.Goodputaccountsforbitsare
devotedtoprotocoloverhead.Goodputisthroughputminustrafficoverheadforestablishing
sessions,acknowledgmentsandencapsulation.(Figure810)
PhysicalMedia:ConnectingCommunication
TypesofPhysicalMedia
Thephysicallayerdefinestheperformancestandardsforthephysicalcomponentsofanetworksuch
ascopperandfibercablesandtheconnectorsusedonthem.Thephysicallayeralsodefineshowbits
arepresentedintheformofvoltage,lightpulsesandradiosignals.(Table83)
CopperMedia
Themostpervasivemediainusefordatatransferinlocalnetworksiscopper.Coppercableisthe
mostcommonmediumforconnectingnetworkdevices.Copperconnectshoststodevicessuchas
routers,switches,andhubswithinaLAN.Coppermediahasstandardsdefinedforthefollowing:
typeofcoppercablingused
bandwidthofthecommunication
typeofconnectorsused
pinoutandcolorcodesofconnectionstothemedia
maximumdistanceofthemedia
Copperisaneffectivemediumbecauseitconductselectricalsignalsverywell,butithasits
limitations.Datatravelsoncoppercablesassmallpulsesofelectricalvoltage.Thevoltageisquite
lowandeasilydistortedbyoutsideinterferenceandsignalattenuation.Attenuationisthelossof
energyinasignalasittravelslongerdistances.Thetimingandvoltagevaluesofthesesignalsare
susceptibletointerferenceornoisefromoutsidethecommunicationssystem.Theseunwanted
signalscandistortandcorruptthedatasignalsbeingcarriedbycoppermedia.
Theadvancesincoppercabledesignhaveimproveddatatransferratesbyreducingtheeffectsof
noiseandsignalattenuationonthewire.
Therearedifferenttypesofcoppercabledesignedtomeetthespecificneedsofdifferentnetworks.
Themostcommonisunshieldedtwistedpair(UTP)cabling.Othersarecoaxialcableandshielded
twistedpaircables.
UnshieldedTwistedPair(UTP)Cable
ThemostcommoncoppernetworkmediaisUTP.UTPinEthernetconsistsofeightwirestwistedinto
fourcolorcodedpairsandthenwoundinsideacablejacket.Thecoloredpairsidentifythewiresfor
properconnectionattheterminals.(Figure811)
ThetwistingofpairsinUTPcableispartofthecableengineeringdesign.Whenwirescarryelectrical
current,theycancreateanelectromagneticfieldthatcancauseinterferenceonotherwiresinthe
cable.Becauseeachwireinthepaircarriescurrentintheoppositedirection,keepingthemclose
togetherwithtwistingwillcausethemagneticfieldsonthewirepairtocanceleachother:crosstalk.
StandardsforUTPcableinstallations:
cabletypes
cablelengths
connectors
cabletermination
methodsoftestingcable
ThereareseveralcategoriesofUTPcable.ThemostcommonUTPcableconnectorinLANdevicesis
anRJ45connector.
Therequiredorderofthewiresintheconnector,calledthepinout,variesaccordingtowherethe
cablefitsinthenetwork.TheorderofthewiresinthepinoutsisdefinedbyTIA/EIAstandards.
Figure813showsthecolorpatternsforTIA/EIA568Aand568Bpinouts.
Table84:thesecabletypesarenotinterchangeable,anditisacommonmistaketousethewrong
wirefortheintendedpurpose.
OtherCopperCableTypes
Coaxialcable,alsoknownascoax,hasasingle,coatedcopperwirecenterandanoutermetalmesh
thatactsasbothagroundingcircuitandanelectromagneticshieldtoreduceinterference.Theouter
layeristheplasticcablejacket.(Figure814)Coaxcarrieshighfrequencyradioandtelevisionsignals
overwire.
Hybridfibercoax(HFC)combinestheelectricalpropertiesofcoaxandthebandwidthanddistance
benefitsoffiberopticcable.
CoaxcableconnectstoahostsNICandotherdeviceswithabarrelconnector.(Figure815)
Shieldedtwistedpair(STP)cableisaLANtechnologythathasbecomelesscommonly.STPcable
combinestwomethodsofnoisereductionbytwistingthepairsofwireinsidethecabletoreduce
interferenceandthenshieldingthecableinawiremesh.(Figure816)
CopperMediaSafety
Becausecoppercarrieselectricalcurrent,thereisaninherentriskinusingit.Apotentialdangeris
overextendingcablerunsbetweenbuildingsandfloorswithinbuildings.Theyaresusceptibletothe
effectsoflightning.
FiberMedia
Fiberopticcableisverydifferentfromcopper,yetbotheffectivelycarrydataovernetworks.Fiber
opticcableuseslightpulsesconductedthroughspecialglassconductorstocarrydata.Thecableis
engineeredtobeaspureaspossibleandtoallowreliablelightsignalstotraversethemedium.
Fiberhasgreaterbandwidthandcanrunmuchfartherthancablewithoutneedingasignalenhanced,
butthehighercostoffiberopticcableandconnectors.
Fiberisananswertothesafetyissuesoflongcopperruns,becausefiberdoesnotcarryvoltageand
currentandbecauseitissaferandcancarrydatamuchfartherthancopper,fiberopticcableis
usuallyconsideredthebestchoiceforbackboneconnections.(Figure817)
Fiberopticcablecancarrylightinonlyonedirection,sofibercablesusuallyincludeapairoffiber
cores.Thisallowsfullduplextransmission.
Thelightcarriedonfibercablesisgeneratedbyeitheralaseroralightemittingdiode(LED)that
convertsthedatatolightpulses.
Atthereceivingend,devicescalledphotodiodesinterpretthelightsignal,decodethebitpattern,and
sendituptothedatalinklayer.(Figure818)
Table85describesthedifferencesbetweensinglemodeandmultimodefiberopticcable.
Dispersionofthelightsignalmeansthatitseparatesasittravels.Fiberopticsareeconomicalon
longer,highspeed,pointtopointbackboneruns,buttheyarenotcurrentlywellsuitedforlocal
connectionsbetweenhostsandothernetworkdevices.
WirelessMedia
Wirelessmediacarryelectromagneticradiosignalsthatrepresentthebinarydataofthedatalink
frame.Wirelesstechnologiestransmitandreceivesignalsthroughthemediumoftheopen
atmosphere,whichfreesusersfromhavingtoconnecttoacopperorfibercableconnection.
Openareasarebestforwirelessconnections.Awirelessconnectionisusuallyslowerthanacable
connection,andbecausethemediumisopentoanyonewithawirelessreceiver,itismore
susceptibletosecuritybreachesthanothermedia.
Commondatacommunicationsstandardsthatapplytowirelessmedia:
StandardIEEE802.11
StandardIEEE802.15:WirelessPersonalAreaNetwork(WPAN)
StandardIEEE802.16
GlobalSystemforMobileCommunication(GSM)
WirelessLAN
AwirelessLANrequiresthefollowingnetworkdevices:
Wirelessaccesspoint(AP):concentratesthewirelesssignalsfromusersandconnects,
usuallythroughacoppercable,totheexistingcopperbasednetworkinfrastructuressuchas
Ethernet
WirelessNICadapter:provideswirelesscommunicationcapabilitytoeachnetworkhost
ThecostsavingsandeaseofaccessarethemajorbenefitsofwirelessLANs,withnetworksecurity
beingthemajorcaveat.
MediaConnectors
Eachmediatypehasitsowntypeofconnectors,andalltheconnectorshavedefinedstandardsto
describethemanufacturingminimumsandtheinstallationrequirements.
Connectionthatmightlookthesamecanhavedifferingpinouts.(Figure820)
Fiberopticcablingismuchmorespecializedthancoppercable.
Threecommonfiberrepairproblemsareasfollows:
Misalignment
Endgapswherefibersdonotcompletelytouch
Poorlyfinishedendscausingpoorclarity
Whenterminatingfiberopticcable,itisimportanttohavetheendsproperlyaligned,fusedand
polishedsothatsignalingremainsstronganddispersionisattheminimum.
Fiberopticlinkscanbegivenabasictestwithaflashlightshininginoneendandlookingforlightat
theother.ItisbesttouseaspecialfiberoptictestdevicecalledanOpticalTimeDomain
Reflectometer(OTDR).
Fiberopticconnectorscomeinavarietyoftypes.StraightTip(ST)formultimodeandtheSubscriber
Connector(SC)forsinglemodearetwoofthemostcommontypesinuse.TheLucentConnectoris
gainingpopularityandcanadapttobothsinglemodeandmultimodecables.