INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE OF LIMBU ON

ECOLOGY, BIODIVERSITY AND ETHNOMEDICINE

Submitted to:
Social Inclusion Research Fund Secretariat
Apprenticeship Grant (SIRF/RF/07)



Submitted by:
Dil Kumar Hangsurung Limbu










April, 2008




ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I acknowledge my thanks to Social Inclusion Research Fund Secretariat for providing
the research fund for this project.
My sincere thanks go to Dr. Laya Prasad Upreti, my supervisor, for the continuous
guidance and encouragement throughout the project work.
Thanks are also due to Narendra Kerung (Lecturer, Panchathar Multiple Campus),
Rabindra Tumbapo (President, Kirant Yakthung Chumlung), Asal Nembang
(Headmaster, Ithung High School), and Teaching staffs of Saraswati High School for
their active support in the field work.
I also extend my thanks to Mr. Basanta Kumar Rai, research assistant of this project,
for his untiring help.
Last but not the least; I am thankful to the healer duo Mr. Amritman Tumbapo and
Mr. Mahasher Nembang, and many other key informants for gladly agreeing to
cooperate in this project.
ABSTRACT
An exploratory survey of indigenous Limbu knowledge on ecology, biodiversity and
ethnomedicine was carried out between November 2007 and February 2008 taking
Chokmagu and Ranitar VDC of Panchthar district (East Nepal) as the representative
sites. The study revealed that Limbu people use over 200 plants (apart from common
cereals and garden vegetables) for a multiplicity of purposes. About 110 medicinal
plants are found in various degrees of abundance while some 119 plants (including
unavailable ones) are used against a wide range of illnesses, ranging anything from
common cold to fracture. Allowing overlapping of usages, about 59 plants are used
for food, 107 for fodder, 28 as wild foods, 28 for veterinary purpose, 38 for murcha
making, and 37 for religious purposes. Almost all the plants (96%) studied had Limbu
names, which implies that the natives had been in close association with these plants
from eons past. The sensory attributes of the botanicals are often related to the
treatment of a specific disease. Contrary to the assumption, the abundance of plants
did not show association with the frequency of use or knowledge about them. Five
plants (chamlayo, asaare phul, budhi okhana, tinpate, and galgale) could not be
identified scientifically. Limbu people of the study site were found to carry out
subsistence farming (based on integration of livestock and agriculture activities) in a
very sustainable manner (conservation tillage, mini dike construction, crop rotation,
relay cropping, farmyard- and green manuring, and integrated pest management).
Because of the topographical and microclimatic constraints, however, the VDCs still
suffer from staple grain deficit. They make up for the deficit, among other things, by
barter system, trade of value-added products, and employments (self-, wage-, and
foreign). There is scope for intensive farming to improve food security status. Limbu
people of the study sites cope with natural calamities (landslides and flashflood, fire,
etc.) by traditional methods; they also use prophylactic measures utilizing local
resources and indigenous ideas. They do not know much about the link between
environment and biodiversity but are contributing their bit to it in their own ways
(e.g., by establishing devithan, and raniban to protect segments of forests). Based
on interview, to the best of the natives knowledge, no significant deterioration of
environment and biodiversity has occurred, even after the introduction of monoculture
(e.g., tea and cardamom) in parts of the VDCs. Gradual dwindling of murcha plants,
however, is of concern. Based on accumulated data, the most common illnesses were
cuts/wounds, fracture, diarrhea, worms/helminthes, piles and jaundice. Fortunately,
they have adequate knowledge for carrying out the primary care of these illnesses by
traditional means. In particular, methods used by the local healers to treat fracture
appear intriguing enough to warrant further scientific investigations.


CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .........................................................................................i
ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................ii
CONTENTS................................................................................................................ iii
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES........................................................................... v

CHAPTER - I
INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Background.......................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem..................................................................................... 1
1.3 Objectives of the Study........................................................................................ 3
1.4 Rationale of the Study.......................................................................................... 3

CHAPTER - II
LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................................... 5
2.1 Indigenous Knowledge and Its Scope.................................................................. 5
2.1.1. Indigenous People of Nepal ......................................................................... 7
2.1.2 Indigenous Knowledge of Nepal .................................................................. 8
2.2 Biodiversity and Its Scope ................................................................................... 9
2.2.1 Biodiversity in Nepal .................................................................................... 9
2.3 Traditional Ecological Knowledge .................................................................... 11
2.3.1 TEK and Scientific Ecological Knowledge ................................................ 11
2.3.2 Practical Significance of TEK .................................................................... 12
2.4 Traditional Medicines ........................................................................................ 13
2.4.1 Status of Medicinal Plants of Nepal............................................................ 14

CHAPTER - III
MATERIALS AND METHODS .............................................................................. 18
3.1 Rationale for Choosing the Research Site ......................................................... 18
3.2 Data Sources ...................................................................................................... 18
3.3 Sampling Frame................................................................................................. 18
3.4 Data Collection Techniques............................................................................... 19
3.5 Focus Group Discussion .................................................................................... 19
3.6 Case Studies....................................................................................................... 19
3.7 Data Analysis and Interpretation ....................................................................... 20
3.8 Limitations of the study ..................................................................................... 21

CHAPTER - IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION................................................................................ 22
4.1 Demographic and Related Details of the Study Site.......................................... 22
4.1.1 Chokmagu VDC.......................................................................................... 22
4.1.2 Ranitar VDC ............................................................................................... 22
iv
4.2 Focus Group Discussion .................................................................................... 23
4.2.1 Medicinal Plants of Chokmagu and Ranitar VDC...................................... 24
4.2.2 Interpretation............................................................................................... 36
4.3 Statistical Analysis............................................................................................. 51
4.4 Knowledgebase on Biodiversity and Ecology ................................................... 51
4.5 Use of Botanicals is Traditional Medicine......................................................... 55
4.5 Case Study ......................................................................................................... 65
4.5.1 Chokmagu VDC.......................................................................................... 65
4.5.2 Ranitar VDC ............................................................................................... 67
4.6 Interpretation...................................................................................................... 69

CHAPTER - V
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................ 71

REFERENCES........................................................................................................... 73
APPENDICES............................................................................................................ 80


v
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
Tables
Table 4.1 Summary of response of the Focus Group on traditional uses of plants ..... 38
Table 4.2 Wild plants used for food purposes ............................................................. 44
Table 4.3 Plants used for veterinary purposes ............................................................. 45
Table 4.4 Plants used for religious purposes ............................................................... 46
Table 4.5 Plants used for murcha preparation ............................................................. 48
Table 4.6 Occurrence of illness term in the text. ......................................................... 65
Table A-I.1 Details of the key informants from Chokmagu VDC .............................. 80
Table A-I.2 Details of key informants from Ranitar VDC. ......................................... 81
Table A-II.1 Selected list of diseases taken for the interview..................................... 82

Figures
Fig. 3.1 Map of study site (shaded portion) ................................................................. 20
Fig. 4.1 Availability of medicinal plants in Chokmagu and Ranitar VDC.................. 50
Fig. 4.2 Intensity of the use of plants for medicinal purpose....................................... 50
Fig.A-I.1 Some key informants at Chokmagu VDC.................................................... 80
Fig.A-I.2 Some key informants at Ranitar VDC ......................................................... 81
Fig. A-III.1 Budhi okhana (used for fever treatment).................................................. 84
Fig. A-III.2 Aule gurans (used for treating bone fracture) .......................................... 84
Fig. A-III.3 Chimphing................................................................................................ 85
Fig. A-III.4 Herbarium of tinpate. ....................................................................... 85
Fig. A-IV.1 Sale of murcha cake in a local market ..................................................... 86
Fig. A-IV.2 Pakhanbhed on sale in a local market ...................................................... 86
Fig. A-IV.3 Hadchur on sale in a local market ............................................................ 87
Fig. A-IV.4 Research assistant engrossed in interview at Ranitar VDC..................... 87





CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Nepal, a country with disproportionately rich cultural and ethnic diversity, is located
between the latitudes 26
o
22'-30
o
27' N and longitudes 80
o
40'-88
o
12' E. Its area,
147,181 km
2
, represents just 0.1% of the global land surface. Remarkably, however, it
claims over 2.04% of the worlds flowering plant-, 4.2% of mammal-, and 8.5% of
bird species. Due to altitudinal and climatic variations, there are almost all types of
climatic zones. There is a striking vertical zonation in natural vegetation and diversity
in flora, with 118 ecosystems, comprising 75 vegetation types, and 35 forest types
(MFSC, 2006).
The genetic resources of Nepal currently in demand can be classified within three
categories (Chongtenli and Sharma, 2006): (i) Agriculture and horticulture, (ii) Livestock
and fisheries, and (iii) Non-timber forest products (NTFPs). They are found in farms,
fields and forests. The use, propagation, and conservation of genetic resources are
based upon Nepals indigenous knowledge systems. Found in more than eight bio-
climatic zones, Nepals indigenous knowledge systems stretch across the country,
from the sultry tropical habitats of the Terai to the alpine and frigid habitats of the
high Himalaya.
There are 59 different ethnic groups, accounting for more than 43% of the kingdoms
population (Ukyab and Adhikari, 2001). These people, otherwise identified as
janajatis or nationalities, make up the lowest socio-economic and political strata.
They speak 75 different indigenous languages (Shrestha, 1997) and use over 800 plant
species for different purposes (Manandhar, 1997). They are known to employ diverse
traditional systems in environment management, agriculture, pastoral practices, and
health delivery. In fact, well above 80% of the population still rely on traditional
healing system for primary health care. The consultation and treatment provided
Government health services to the needy are barely about 10% and 3%, respectively
(Yakthung Chumlung, 2004).
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Today, indigenous knowledge (IK) is recognized as a critical factor for sustainable
development (Gorjestani, 2004) because local knowledge is not only the beliefs
transmitted from generation to generation, obtained as a result of experience but also a
dynamic resource modified by contemporary experience and experimentation.
Indigenous knowledge and biodiversity (which includes species-, genetic-, and
ecological diversity) are considered to be complementary phenomena essential to
human development (Warren, 1992). Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) has
already been successfully applied to management questions in different parts of the
world, such as Alaska, Australia, South America, etc. Ignoring indigenous knowledge
has had several disastrous consequences in the past (Hagen, 2000). This is why there
is a growing interest in TEK among the resource managers: they want to employ this
knowledge in creative management and restoration strategies. Therefore, it is not
surprising that a growing cadre of researchers is pursuing creative approaches to
2
recovering various aspects of TEK and vetting this knowledge scientifically (Striplen
and DeWeerdt, 2002).
Biodiversity is increasingly becoming recognized as important beyond its purely
scientific interest. Social and economic values of biodiversity are assuming greater
significance as a range of different groups, including indigenous peoples, assert their
claims and interests. Biodiversity provides diverse environment, which in turn
provides an important storehouse for the raw materials used in a range of products and
processes, such as in agriculture, medicine, and cosmetic. The pharmaceutical
industry is arguably the largest commercial user of plant genetic species, and the
development of these products can create significant opportunities for economic
growth for this industry sector (Davis, 1998). It is worthwhile noting that 25% of
prescription drugs are derived from plants, and that of these some 75% have been
developed with some input from traditional knowledge (Young, 2001).
The contribution of indigenous and local communities to the conservation and
sustainable use of biological diversity goes far beyond their role as natural resource
guardians. However, due to rapid modernization, many of the indigenous practices are
on the verge of extinction. The condition is going worse from bad in many countries
because IK has not been accorded the share of attention it so well deserves.
Today, interest in indigenous peoples knowledge and cultures is stronger than ever
and the exploitation of those cultures continues. Indigenous medicinal knowledge and
expertise in agricultural biodiversity and environmental management are used, but the
profits are rarely shared with indigenous peoples themselves. For indigenous peoples
all over the world the protection of their cultural and intellectual property has taken on
growing importance and urgency. They cannot exercise their fundamental human
rights as distinct nations, societies and peoples without the ability to control the
knowledge they have inherited from their ancestors.
The ethnic groups of Nepal have overwhelming representation in relation to
population (43% of kingdoms population), ethnic diversity (59 ethnic groups), and
indigenous knowledge systems. However, despite worldwide appreciation of
indigenous knowledge systems, there is paucity of researches on the same in Nepal.
A preliminary study on the knowledge of Limbus in Taplejung, Terhathum, Ilam,
Dhankuta, Sankhuwasabha and Panchthar (Yakthung Chumlung, 2004) districts
reveals that they use around 280 plants for medicinal purpose. Their healing practice
and folklore have been described to some extent but a holistic research on their
knowledge base as regards ecology, biodiversity conservation and ethnomedicine is
still scanty.
Limbus have been using hundreds of plants for the treatment of diseases (Siwakoti,
1998; Subba, 2006), ranging anything from diarrhea, constipation, to fracture.
Conservation and revival of this knowledge base is very crucial because traditional
medicines are still the most important primary healthcare sources for the vast majority
of the rural mass.
Most Limbus lead a rural life, normally adjacent to forests. Forest continues to play an
important part in their life. But these resources, and the complex system that ensure
their survival, are under threat. The greatest current threats are social, ecological,
economical, and political. Undervaluation of native crops and animals, lack of secure
land tenure, erosion and marginalization of traditional knowledge, inappropriate
agricultural policies, commercial extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFP),
3
etc., are some of the known threats facing these people. Despite the wealth of
traditional practices available in Nepal, unfortunately, no comprehensive data exist
vis--vis their inventory, contribution towards sustainable development, and the
magnitude of impact they have on our lives. At this point, since indigenous
knowledge is intimately associated with our identity (and even survival), any effort
expended on any of its aspects should be more than justified (Rai, et al., 2006).
As newer trends set in, Limbus fear that the body of knowledge they have might one
day be lost for ever. Earlier studies also show similar indications. It is therefore very
essential that a thorough documentation of their indigenous practices and the
implication(s) of these practices on sustainable development, their very own survival,
biodiversity and resource management, and enrichment of the culture be carried out
before it is too late
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The main objective of the study was to carry out an exhaustive documentation of the
knowledge base of Limbus and explore its relationship with biodiversity,
ethnomedicine and ecology.
This study concentrated on the following specific objectives:
a. to document and analyze indigenous knowledge system of eco-friendly
agricultural practice, and forest and landslide management;
b. to document and analyze indigenous knowledge of plants used for food (and
related use), pest management, and medicine;
c. to ascertain and explicate the effects of traditional practices on ecology,
environment and livelihood.
The study was based on following simple but fundamental questions:
1. What indigenous knowledge systems are being used by the inhabitant for
agricultural practice, natural resource management, and overcoming natural
calamities? And are they sustainable?
2. What is the knowledge base of plants used for food, fodder and medicine?
How is it being transmitted to the new generation? What is its contribution to
rural socio-economy?
3. What is the diversity of medicinal plants? Why are some plants more likely to
be medicinal than others? Do organoleptic and symptomatic properties of
plants relate to treatment of specific illness?
1.4 Rationale of the Study
Nepal is endowed with a bountiful of floral diversity. High altitude regions in
particular are rich in medicinal plants. It is conceivable that the sustainable use of this
common heritage has far-reaching practical implications. And because it is
increasingly becoming clear that indigenous knowledge base offers the most
sustainable way of managing these natural resources, many rightly believe that
indigenous knowledge may hold the key to future.
A greater awareness on the importance of IK is likely to help preserve the knowledge
base for the use and benefit of the local community. Governments and international
development agencies are now recognizing that local-level knowledge and
4
organizations provide the foundation for participatory approaches to development that
are both cost-effective and sustainable (Warren, 1992). Little wonder, then, a host of
international NGOs and funding agencies have focused on and supported the
development of databases. The World Bank itself maintains an online database that
can be searched using regional and thematic keywords. Other databases can be
accessed from websites maintained by the International Development and Research
Center (IDRC), Conservation International, and Consultative Group on International
Agricultural Research (CGIAR) among others (Agrawal, 2002).
As such, the objective of databases on indigenous knowledge is typically twofold.
First, they are intended to protect indigenous knowledge in the face of myriad
pressures that are undermining the conditions under which indigenous peoples and
knowledge thrive. Second, they aim to collect and analyze the available information,
and identify specific features that can be generalized and applied more widely in the
service of more effective development and environmental conservation (Agrawal,
2002).
The present study can be of immense academic and practical value in the sense that
researchers working on similar themes may use it as a reference. The field visits and
the concomitant interaction with the inhabitants will be helpful in bringing awareness
among them on the importance of indigenous knowledge they possess. The finding
will be helpful in reducing the social divide between the haves and have-nots by
documenting, promoting, encouraging, and disseminating the indigenous
innovativeness for the benefit of the community themselves. The data generated in the
study will also be useful in relevant policy making (e.g., policy on extraction of non-
timber forests, conservation of biodiversity, etc.) by concerned bodies and the
government at the local, regional and national level. In the long run the finding can be
useful in the protection of cultural and intellectual property.
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Indigenous Knowledge and Its Scope
The term indigenous is a generalized reference to the thousands of small scale
societies who have distinct languages, kinship systems, mythologies, ancestral
memories, and homelands (Grim, 2001). These different societies comprise more than
300 million people throughout the planet today (Kihwelo, 2005).
Indigenous knowledge (IK) has been defined in different ways by different experts
and organizations (Johnson, 1992; Warren, 1992; Lugeye, 1994; Brush and Stabinsky,
1996; Grenier, 1998; Mugabe, 1999; WIPO, 1999). According to Johnson (1992),
indigenous knowledge is a body of knowledge built by a group of people through
generations living in close contact with nature. It includes a system of classification, a
set of empirical observations about the local environment, and a system of self-
management that governs resource use. This definition associates indigenous
knowledge with environment rather than knowledge related to artworks, handicrafts
and other cultural works and expressions (which are considered as elements of
folklore).
IK permeates every aspect of rural life, be that agriculture, natural resource
management, biodiversity, environment, food security, disaster control, health
practices, or pest control, in a sustainable way (Oniango, et al., 2003). This is why
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), signed by more than 150 states, has made
a very authoritative provision for dealing with indigenous knowledge in its Article
8(j) (UNEP, 1997).
Today, indigenous knowledge has come to occupy a privileged position in discussions
about how development can best be brought about so that finally, it really is in the
interests of the poor and the marginalized (Agrawal, 2002). A central argument is that
sustainable development must be embedded in indigenous knowledge systems, and
ignorance of the systems will certainly lead to failure in development (Lin, 2007).
Weatherford (1994) argued that indigenous people may be the only people capable of
salvaging the modern civilization. As indigenous people have gradually lost their
cultural identities, we are actually losing indigenous knowledge, our connections to
the past, and jeopardizing our future. According to Semali and Kincheloe (1999),
indigenous knowledge reflects the dynamic way in which the residents of an area
have come to understand themselves in relation to their natural environment and how
they organize that folk knowledge of flora and fauna, cultural beliefs, and history to
enhance their lives.
The work of protecting and promoting indigenous knowledge, however, is
challenging. The following urgent issues need to be examined and evaluated. First, it
is important to conduct research on how people can preserve the natural environment
of the indigenous people, since indigenous knowledge and their natural habitats go
hand in hand. Second, whether the existing Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) system
can be applied or extended to indigenous knowledge remains highly controversial
(Marinova and Raven, 2006). In this regard, emphasis must be placed on the
development of Traditional Resource Rights (TRRs) which can protect the interests of
indigenous peoples and strengthen the practice of their self-determination
6
(Plenderleith, 2004). Third, a unique institutional system for the advancement of
indigenous knowledge needs to be developed (Lin, 2007).
International and national development agencies have recognized the value of
participatory approaches to decision-making for sustainable approaches to
development. During the past decade a rapidly growing set of evidences indicates a
strong relationship between indigenous knowledge and sustainable development.
Development agencies are beginning to review the role of indigenous knowledge in
the development process at the policy level (Warren, 1992). According to U.S.
National Research Council (1992), compilation and documentation of indigenous
knowledge should be a research priority of the highest order: and because indigenous
knowledge is being lost at an unprecedented rate, its preservation, preferably in
database form, must take place as quickly as possible.
Development activities that work with and through indigenous knowledge and
organizational structures have several important advantages over projects that operate
outside them. Indigenous knowledge provides the basis for grassroots decision-
making, much of which takes place at the community level through indigenous
organizations and associations where problems are identified and solutions to them
are determined. Solution-seeking behavior is based on indigenous creativity leading to
experimentation and innovations as well as the appraisal of knowledge and
technologies introduced from other societies (Warren, 1992).
In the recent years, a number of organizations, including the United Nations system,
have been active in promoting the rights of indigenous people. To date, there are some
37 indigenous knowledge resource centers worldwide established for preparing the
database on indigenous knowledge (Anon, 2001). This growing global network of
regional and national indigenous knowledge resource centers is involved in
documenting the historical and contemporary indigenous knowledge of numerous
ethnic groups around the world. Much of this knowledge is at as much risk of being
lost as is the case with biodiversity (Linden 1991). These centers reflect new values
that recognize indigenous knowledge as an important national resource. The centers
are establishing national indigenous knowledge databases, giving recognition to their
citizens for the knowledge they have created, providing a protective barrier for the
intellectual property rights of knowledge that could be exploited economically by the
country of discovery, and laying the foundation for development activities that build
on and strengthen the existing knowledge and organizational base produced through
many generations of creative effort by local communities (Warren, 1992).
Innovative technologies discovered and used in one part of the world can often work
equally well in similar ecozones in other parts of the world. National centers are in a
position to facilitate and control the sharing of indigenous knowledge. This type of
information exchange has already begun through multilateral and bilateral donor
efforts. Two examples are based on indigenous knowledge from South Asia. The
World Bank has disseminated information at the global level on the traditional use of
vetiver grass in India for soil and moisture conservation (Greenfield, 1989). The use
of neem (Azadirachta indica) tree seeds to produce non-toxic biopesticides has also
spread from India to other parts of the world through development agencies such as
U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) and German Agency for
Technical Cooperation (GTZ) (Radcliffe et al., 1992).
National indigenous knowledge resource centers are organizational structures through
which indigenous knowledge is recorded, stored, screened for potential economic uses
7
at the national level, and distributed to other centers in appropriate ways. These
centers can serve as vehicles to introduce indigenous knowledge components into the
formal curricula from primary school through the university as well as in extension
training institutes. This can help augment the declining capacity of the traditional
means of transmission of this knowledge due to universal primary education now
operating in most newly-independent nations (Ruddle, 1991; Ruddle and Chesterfield,
1977).
National indigenous knowledge resource centers are beginning to conduct inventories
of knowledge that can be of primary utility in development programs. Examples
include indigenous crop pest management systems, farmers perceptions of positive
and negative characteristics of crop varieties, and indigenous approaches to the
management of soil, water, and biodiversity resources. National centers can also
identify and delineate the structure and functions of indigenous organizations that
exist in every rural community. Virtually every grassroots organization plays a
developmental function within the community. Strengthening the capacity of these
existing organizations can greatly facilitate sustainable approaches to development
(Warren, 1992b; Atte, 1992).
2.1.1. Indigenous People of Nepal
With distinct language, religion, customs, folklore, culture, knowledge and ancient
territory, 59 ethnic groups of Nepal have now received the legal recognition as
indigenous people (otherwise identified as janajatis or nationalities). These groups
have been consolidated through Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities
(NEFIN), a national level organization constituted by the government, as the umbrella
organization (Sherpa, 2005). NEFIN has defined 10 of the 59 janajati groups as
endangered, 12 as highly marginalized, 20 as marginalized, 15 as
disadvantaged, and two as advantaged or better off.
Janajatis account for more than 43% of the kingdoms population (Ukyab and
Adhikari, 2001; NEFIN). These people make up the lowest socio-economic and
political strata. They speak 75 different indigenous languages (Shrestha, 1997).
Although janajatis are largely excluded from main streams of national policies they
are contributing own cultural wisdom on restoration, conservation, and wise use of
biodiversity, natural resources, and traditional knowledge associated with their life
from millennia (Sherpa, 2005).
Limbus are one of the major ethnic groups of Nepal (Siwakoti and Siwakoti, 1998).
According to census 2001, they represent 1.58% of the kingdoms population and are
concentrated mainly in Terhathum (40,041), Panchthar (81,408) and Taplejung
(56,324) districts, totaling 359,379 in population (CBS, 2003). The literacy rate of this
nationality is 58.12% (CBS, 2001). They have a very rich cultural, ethnobotanical,
and food heritage (Bista, 1967; Bairagi Kainla, 1996; Subba
1
, 1999; Subba
2
, 1999;
Sherma, 1999). Their scripture is called Mundhum. Phedangba, Shamba and Yeba-
Yema are their sacred specialists. These shamans are not only performers but also
healers. Limbus celebrate the dance festivals of Kelang popularly known Chyabrung
(two-sided drum) and Yarak (paddy dance) as major events. Limbus have their own
script called Sirijunga. There are many books written in the Limbu language. Apart
from their culture and folklore, their traditional knowledge on medicinal plants and
food has been described in general (Yakthung Chumlung, 2004; Rai et al., 2005).
8
Limbus have excellent traditional knowledge base (Rai et al., 2005) and extraordinary
innovativeness. They are worshippers of nature or animists (Subba
1
, 1999). Unlike in
most nationalities, problem of gender parity has never been observed in the Limbu
community. Their relationship with ecology, biodiversity and ethnomedicine merits
special mention because this is what has enabled them to survive the odds of the
hostile environment and sustain the fragile ecosystem. Unfortunately, work on this
specific area is still scanty.
2.1.2 Indigenous Knowledge of Nepal
Nepalese indigenous peoples residing in diverse physiographic zones with traditional
life styles are closely attached with ecosystem, biodiversity, natural resources, and
environment from millennia. Biodiversity and natural resources are valuable sources
for food/fodder, medicine, fiber, building materials, etc., for these people. The rich
cultural heritage of Nepal has evolved over the centuries. This multidimensional
cultural heritage encompasses within itself cultural diversities of various ethnic, tribal,
and social groups, located at different altitudes, and is also manifested in various other
forms, including music and dance; art and craft; folklores and folktales; languages and
literature; philosophy and religion; festivals and celebrations; and foods and drinks.
Sporadic attempts have been made by different organizations and individuals (both
within the country and abroad) at different times to document the traditional
knowledge base. The works range from customs, folklore, language, rituals,
technology, food/fodder, medicine, to management of natural resources. Given the
diversity of community and the ecology they survive in, it is conceivable that there
could well be many more traditional knowledge systems yet to be unearthed.
Nepal has been recently placing much emphasis on traditional knowledge and its
research, with its becoming party to CBD, in particular. Nepal signed the CBD
in1992. With ratification of articles from the Parliament in 1993, Nepal became the
party in 1994 in accordance with the provision of the Convention. The Ministry of
Forests and Soil Conservation (MFSC) serves as the national focal point to this
Convention. Nepal submitted the Third National Report to CBD in 2006. The report
reveals that Article 8(j) and related provisions has yet to be addressed at the
government level. The report further mentions that the country is facing difficulty in
registering biodiversity and associated traditional knowledge, skill, techniques,
innovations and practices due to limited financial and technical assistance.
Nevertheless, preparation of national registers on traditional knowledge is in the
priority list. An updated national register of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs)
has already been prepared in 2004 (MFSC, 2006).
In Nepal, IUCN has remained a major player in the promotion and research on
indigenous knowledge. However, as Dangol (2004) puts it, in working with the spirit
of CBD, we need assurance that our traditional knowledge will remain secured from
misappropriation by national and international authorities/ individuals/ agencies
before we decide to document it for the benefit of our present and future generations.
Without a doubt, traditional knowledge plays an important role in health, food
security and agriculture. It is often a catalytic force in the protection, conservation and
sustainable use of biodiversity and ecosystems. It can also provide a benchmark for
controlling biopiracy and future commercial use of plant and animal genetic
resources, an issue that is becoming critical as Nepal negotiates to enter the World
Trade Organization (WTO) (Banskota, 2004).
9
It is relieving to find that indigenous technologies are slowly finding their ways into
academic curricula. For instance, M. Tech. (Food) Degree of Tribhuvan University
has included Indigenous Foods of Nepal in its curriculum (CCT, 2002). Department
of Environmental Science of the Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science (IAAS)
has designed two courses: (i) Fundamentals of Ethnobiology offered to B.Sc.
Agriculture students majoring in Conservation Ecology, and (ii) Applied
Ethnobotany for M.Sc. Agriculture students majoring in Conservation Ecology
(Dangol, 2007).
2.2 Biodiversity and Its Scope
Biodiversity refers to the variety of all life forms - the different plants, animals and
microorganisms, the genes they contain, and the ecosystems of which they form a
part (Davis, 1998).
Indigenous knowledge and biodiversity are complementary phenomena essential to
human development. Today, the relationship of biodiversity with indigenous people is
gaining more importance than ever. Indigenous people are custodians and stewards of
their lands and environments. The traditional methods they use to manage the natural
resources have been considered very sustainable. It is conceivable, therefore,
traditional system of resource management holds key to the future.
Global awareness of the crisis concerning the conservation of biodiversity is assured
following the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in
June 1992 in Rio de Janeiro. Of equal concern to many world citizens is the uncertain
status of the indigenous knowledge that reflects many generations of experience and
problem-solving by thousands of ethnic groups across the globe. Very little of this
knowledge has been recorded, yet it represents an immensely valuable database that
provides humankind with insights on how numerous communities have interacted
with their changing environment including its floral and faunal resources (Warren,
1992).
The importance of and global commitment towards the conservation of biodiversity is
no longer questioned. The accelerating rates of loss of floral and faunal species and
the projected negative impacts of this loss of germplasm on humankind have been
eloquently described by a growing number of prominent biological scientists.
Numerous international foundations, development agencies, and international
agricultural research centers are also adding the power of their collective concern and
resolve to deal with the circumstances leading to the loss of species. Their focus has
been on the immediate and long-term negative biological and economic consequences
of the loss of biodiversity. Some have introduced the complementary importance of
cultural diversity that is often reflected in the indigenous knowledge of natural
resource management including that of plants and animals (Warren, 1992).
2.2.1 Biodiversity in Nepal
Nepal is a sovereign country with just 0.1% of global land surface. Remarkably,
however, it claims over 2.04% of the worlds flowering plant-, 4.2% of mammal-, and
8.5% of bird species. It occupies 25th and 11th position on biodiversity in the World
and Asia respectively (Sherpa, 2005; MFSC, 2006).
Nepal is rich in cultural, biological and ecological diversities due to its diverse
physiographic zones, climatic contrasts and altitudinal variations, which in turn
provide habitats for biological species of both Indo-Malayan and Palaeoarctic realms,
10
including endemic Himalayan flora and fauna. It is reported that 118 types of
ecosystems comprising 75 vegetation types and 35 forest types have been identified
within the area. Nepal has over 167 species of mammals, 860 species of birds, 50
species of amphibians, 130 species of reptiles, and 7000 species of higher plants
(Barchacharya et al., 1988; Joshi and Joshi, 1991; Wikipedia, 2007; Shrestha, 1998).
Some of these appear in the list of critically endangered-, endangered-, near
threatened-, threatened-, and extinct species.
The flora of Nepal contains about 1000 economic plants (440 spp. wild foods, 71 spp.
fiber yielding, 50 spp. fish poison, 30 spp. wild spices, and over 100 spp. fodder-
yielding trees) (Bhattarai, 2003). About 100 species of medicinal and aromatic plants
(MAPs) are exploited for commercial purposes (Mall, et al., 1993).
Biodiversity possesses ecological, economic and societal values. Biodiversity and its
products are used in different occasions from the birth to the death in Nepal.
Biological resources and associated traditional knowledge play a vital role in the
livelihood of Nepalese society. It is linked with food security, human health, and
environment. Conceivably, Nepals biodiversity is the mainstay of the countrys
economy and the well-being of its people. Its protection and sustainable use therefore
remains a top priority. To this end, Nepal has given utmost importance for the
conservation of biodiversity with peoples willing participation within and outside
protected areas. Nepal has also promoted sustainable use of biodiversity and benefit
sharing through policy and legal instruments (MFSC, 2006).
Despite this fact, however, growing population, poverty, deforestation and habitat
loss, erosion of crop genetic diversity, etc., have always remained a challenge. In
order to best conserve and sustainably use Nepalese biodiversity for meeting the
national goal of poverty reduction, additional financial support is required for raising
awareness among stakeholders, institutional strengthening, capacity building,
technology transfer, and bioprospecting. Nepal has already initiated biodiversity
documentation program in collaboration with national non-governmental
organizations (MFSC, 2006).
The most objectively verifiable indicators to efforts expended towards biodiversity
conservation are the establishment of Protected Areas (19% of the total land mass),
and National Forests being handed over to communities in the form of Community
Forests (CF). During the fiscal years 2002/03 and 2003/04, the Ministry of Forests
and Soil Conservation (MFSC) through its institutional network formed over 1400
Community Forestry User Groups (CFUGs). These activities respect traditional use
and rights of local people relating to forest resources for their basic needs.
Participatory conservation programs have been expanded for better forest
management, social mobilization, income generation and institution building at the
grassroots level. In the recent years, Nepal has approached to use forest products as
one of the major resources for poverty reduction as well. Conservation of wild flora
and fauna has been taken care by shifting the species protection to sustainable
utilization and benefit-sharing regime (MFSC, 2006).
Peoples participation and empowerment is the key for natural resource management.
Biodiversity documentation has been started. Contribution of medicinal herbs and
non-timber forest products (NTFPs) has been greatly realized for poverty reduction
(MFSC, 2006).

11
2.3 Traditional Ecological Knowledge
Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) represents experience acquired over
thousands of years of direct human contact with the environment. Although the term
TEK came into widespread use in the 1980s, the practice of TEK is as old as ancient
hunter-gatherer cultures. In addition to ecology, the study of traditional knowledge is
valued in a number of fields. For example, in agriculture, pharmacology and botany
(ethnobotany), research into traditional knowledge has a rich history. In fact, in
comparison to these fields, the study of indigenous knowledge in ecology is relatively
recent (Freeman, 1989).
The earliest systematic studies of TEK were done by anthropologists. Today, there
has been growing recognition of the capabilities of ancient agriculturalists, water
engineers and architects. Increased appreciation of ethnoscience, ancient and
contemporary, paved the way for the acceptability of the validity of traditional
knowledge in a variety of fields. Ancient ways of knowing started to receive currency
in several disciplines, including ecology. Various works showed that many indigenous
groups in diverse geographical areas from the Arctic to the Amazon had their own
systems of managing resources. Thus, the feasibility of applying TEK to
contemporary resource management problems in various parts of the world was
gradually recognized.
Professionals in applied ecology and resource management fields such as fisheries,
wildlife and forestry have been slow to take up the challenge of TEK. The reasons for
this are as complex as they are perplexing (Freeman, 1989). With the recognition of
the value of TEK, the growth of the field has been rapid, however. It should be noted
though that most of these contributions have come from interdisciplinary scholars
rather than from ecology and resource management professionals.
There is no universally accepted definition of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK)
in the literature. The term is, by necessity, ambiguous since the words traditional
and ecological knowledge are themselves ambiguous (Lasserre and Ruddle, 1982;
Ruddle and Johannes, 1989; Freeman and Carbyn, 1988). A working definition is as
follows (Inglis, 1993): TEK is a cumulative body of knowledge and beliefs, handed
down through generations by cultural transmission, about the relationship of living
beings (including humans) with one another and with their environment. Further, TEK
is an attribute of societies with historical continuity in resource use practices; by and
large, these are non-industrial or less technologically advanced societies, many of
them indigenous or tribal (Berkes, 1993).
2.3.1 TEK and Scientific Ecological Knowledge
There are both similarities and differences between traditional science and western
science because they both are the result of the same general intellectual process of
creating order out of disorder (Berkes, 1993). There are also major differences,
however, between the two kinds of science, some of them substantive and some
perceptual. Opinions differ, but there is a great deal of evidence that traditional people
do possess scientific curiosity, and that traditional knowledge does not merely
encompass matters of immediate practical interest. According to Berkes (1993), TEK
in general differs from scientific ecological knowledge in a number of substantive
ways: (i) TEK is mainly qualitative (as opposed to quantitative); (ii) TEK has an
intuitive component (as opposed to being purely rational); (iii) TEK is holistic (as
opposed to reductionist); (iv) In TEK, mind and matter are considered together (as
12
opposed to a separation of mind and matter); (v) TEK is moral (as opposed to
supposedly value-free); (vi) TEK is spiritual (as opposed to mechanistic); (vii) TEK is
based on empirical observations and accumulation of facts by trial-and-error (as
opposed to experimentation and systematic, deliberate accumulation of fact); (viii) TEK
is based on data generated by resource users themselves (as opposed to that by a
specialized cadre of researchers); (ix) TEK is based on diachronic data, i.e., long time-
series on information on one locality (as opposed to synchronic data, i.e., short time-
series over a large area).
In contrast to scientific ecology, TEK does not aim to control nature, and is not
primarily concerned with principles of general interest and applicability (i.e., theory).
TEK is limited in its capacity to verify predictions, and it is markedly slower than
scientific ecology in terms of the speed at which knowledge is accumulated. A major
way in which TEK may be further distinguished from scientific ecology concerns the
large social context of TEK. TEK is not merely a system of knowledge and practice; it
is an integrated system of knowledge, practice and beliefs (Berkes, 1993).
2.3.2 Practical Significance of TEK
It follows from these considerations that the preservation of TEK is important for
social and cultural reasons. For the group in question, TEK is a tangible aspect of a
way of life that may be considered valuable. For the rest of the world, there are also
tangible and practical reasons why TEK is so important, quite apart from the ethical
imperative of preserving cultural diversity. The following paragraphs are adapted
from the IUCN Program on Traditional Knowledge for Conservation (IUCN, 1986):
1. Traditional knowledge can be used for new biological and ecological insights.
New scientific knowledge can be derived from perceptive investigations of
traditional environmental knowledge systems.
2. Traditional knowledge can be used for resource management because much
traditional knowledge has proved to be relevant for contemporary natural
resource management.
3. Traditional knowledge can be used for protected areas and for conservation
education. Especially where the local community jointly manages such a
protected area, the use of traditional knowledge for conservation education is
likely to be very effective.
4. Traditional knowledge can be used in development planning by involving
local people. The use of traditional knowledge may benefit development
agencies in providing more realistic evaluations of environment, natural
resources and production systems.
5. Traditional knowledge can be used for environmental assessment. People who
are dependent on local resources for their livelihood are often able to assess
the true costs and benefits of development better than any evaluator coming
from the outside. Their time-tested, in-depth knowledge of the local area is, in
any case, an essential part of any impact assessment.
In addition to these practical uses for TEK, it is also significant, that a newfound
awareness of TEK in mainstream western society can enhance our appreciation of the
cultures that hold this knowledge.
In the past, western science alone provided biological and ecological insights, the
knowledge base for resource management, conservation, development planning, and
13
environmental assessment. At this stage of the development of TEK, it is possible to
say that indigenous peoples and the knowledge held by them do have something to
contribute to each of the above areas. But traditional knowledge is complementary to
western science, not a replacement for it (Knudtson and Suzuki, 1992).
However, just what TEK can contribute and how is yet to be operationalized. As well,
the question remains as to how scientific knowledge and TEK can be integrated - and
whether such integration is desirable in the first place. Rooted in different world
views and unequal in political power base, these two systems of knowledge are
certainly not easy to combine. Serious attempts at integration inevitably come up
against the question of power-sharing in decision-making (Knudtson and Suzuki,
1992).
2.4 Traditional Medicines
The comprehensiveness of the term traditional medicine and the wide range of
practices it encompasses make it difficult to define or describe, especially in a global
context (WHO, 1991).
Traditional medicine has a long history. It is the sum total of the knowledge, skills and
practices based on the theories, beliefs and experiences indigenous to different
cultures, whether explicable or not, used in the maintenance of health, as well as in
the prevention, diagnosis, improvement or treatment of physical and mental illnesses.
The terms complementary / alternative / non-conventional medicine are used
interchangeably with traditional medicine in some countries (WHO, 2000).
The WHO Traditional Medicine Strategy Paper 2002-2005 explains that traditional
medicine attracts the full spectrum of reactions, ranging from uncritical enthusiasm to
uninformed skepticism. Yet the use of traditional medicine remains widespread in
developing countries. In many parts of the world, policy-makers, health professionals
and the public are wrestling with the question about the safety, effectiveness, quality,
availability, preservation and further development of this type of health care.
Meanwhile, in many developed countries, complementary / traditional medicine is
becoming more and more popular.
Practices of traditional medicine vary greatly from country to country, and from
region to region, as they are influenced by factors such as culture, history, personal
attitudes and philosophy. In many cases, their theory and application are quite
different from those of conventional medicine. Long historical use of many practices
of traditional medicine, including experience passed on from generation to generation,
has demonstrated the safety and efficacy of traditional medicine. However, scientific
research is needed to provide additional evidence of its safety and efficacy. In
conducting research and evaluating traditional medicine, knowledge and experience
obtained through the long history of established practices should be respected (WHO,
2000).
Despite its existence and continued use over many centuries, and its popularity and
extensive use during the last decade, traditional medicine has not been officially
recognized in most countries. Consequently, education, training and research in this
area have not been accorded due attention and support. The quantity and quality of the
safety and efficacy data on traditional medicine are far from sufficient to meet the
criteria needed to support its use worldwide. The reasons for the lack of research data
are due not only to health care policies, but also to a lack of adequate or accepted
research methodology for evaluating traditional medicine. It should also be noted that
14
there are published and unpublished data on research in traditional medicine in
various countries, but further research in safety and efficacy should be promoted, and
the quality of the research should be improved (WHO, 2000).
The methodologies for research and evaluation of traditional medicine should be
based on the following basic principles: On the one hand, the methodologies should
guarantee the safety and efficacy of herbal medicines and traditional procedure-based
therapies. On the other hand, however, they should not become obstacles to the
application and development of traditional medicine. This complex issue has been a
concern for national health authorities and scientists in recent years (WHO, 2000).
The discussion of methodologies for research and evaluation of traditional medicine is
divided into two parts: (i) herbal medicines, and (ii) traditional procedure-based
therapies. However, successful treatment is often the consequence of both types of
treatments acting synergistically. Thus, the efficacy of traditional medicine has to be
evaluated in an integrated manner, taking into account both treatment types.
Consequently, efficacy assessment of traditional medicine may be quite different to
that of conventional medicine. As traditional medicine relies on a holistic approach,
conventional efficacy assessment measures may not be adequate (WHO, 2000).
National policies are the basis for defining the role of traditional and complementary/
alternative medicine in national health care programs, ensuring that the necessary
regulatory and legal mechanisms are created for promoting and maintaining good
practice; assuring authenticity, safety and efficacy of traditional and complementary/
alternative therapies; and providing equitable access to health care resources and
information about those resources (WHO, 2001).
Recently, traditional medicine has become more mainstream even in the industrialized
world. To this end, WHO has recommended integration of traditional healing into
primary health care, and throughout the world governments have begun to consider
whether and how these alternative medicines should be regulated by the state (Young,
2001). It has been estimated that some 80% of the worlds population rely on
traditional medicine for primary health care, either because it is cheaper and/or more
easily accessible, or because it is more culturally appropriate.
Because of the increasing importance of traditional medicine in primary health care,
nations all over the world are carrying out vigorous researches on medicinal plants
and animal parts. The basis of research is of course the traditional knowledge held by
the natives. The examination of folk knowledge and health practices allows a better
understanding of human interactions with their local environment, and aids in the
formulation of appropriate strategies for natural resource conservation. It is well
known that the ethnopharmacological information reported forms a basis for further
research to identify and isolate bioactive constituents that can be developed into drugs
for the management of a large number of diseases.
2.4.1 Status of Medicinal Plants of Nepal
The diversity of species in Nepalese flora offers great opportunities for the search of
medicinal substances, not yet described or discovered. Medicinal herbs could be
viewed as a significant source of income for rural communities. Increasing worldwide
demand for medicinal plants also invites the danger of over exploitation and
extinction of species. Therefore, the world community as the consumer and the
natural resource rich countries as the exploiter would both need information as their
management tools (MFSC, 2006).
15
Medicinal and aromatic plants occur in all the bioclimatic zones of Nepal. Some of
the reputed medicinal plants like Rauvolfia serpentina and Terminalia chebula occur
in the tropical zone (1000 m asl); Dioscorea deltoidea, Adhatoda vasica, and Swertia
chirayita in the sub-tropical zone (between 1000 and 2000 m asl); Aconitum ferox,
Cactyorhiza hatagirea, and Lycopodium clavatum in the temperate zone (2000-3000 m
asl); and Nardosctachys grandiflora, and Rhododendrom anthopogon in the sub-alpine
zone (3000-4000 m asl). The steppic dry desert biome in the trans-Himalaya is rich in
Ephedra gerardiana, Hippophae tibetica, Artemisia sp., and Allium sp.
Nepal has a record of over 700 species of medicinal plants. There is a store of still
unwritten and undocumented traditional knowledge on the use of plants for healing
purposes. Shakya and Malla (1985) have confirmed 510 species of medicinal plants,
the distribution in the tropical, subtropical, and sub-alpine zone being 340 spp, 225
spp., and 140 spp., respectively. Nepal has a recently prepared a registry of MAPs
(MFSC, 2006).
The MAPs (also called jadibuti) database of Nepal covers 1624 species of plants
found in wild state or cultivated or naturalized or imported belonging to 938 genera
and 218 families. These are known to be used as medicine in Nepal (Koirala, 2005).
Manandhar (2002) has given an excellent account of more than 1,500 plants of Nepal,
most of which have great importance in traditional medicine.
The use of medicinal herbs in Nepals traditional medical system dates back to at least
500 AD. In Nepal, traditional medicine, although low profile, has been an integral part
of the national health system. Parallel to the allopathic system, traditional medicine is
encouraged in all spheres because of its efficacy, availability, safety, and affordability
when compared to allopathic drugs (Khakurel, 1996).
As of now, about 80% of the populations of Nepal have to depend on the traditional
medicinal care system (HMG-N, 1998). The consultation and treatment provided
Government health services to the needy are barely about 10% and 3%, respectively
Yakthung Chumlung, 2004).
The important traditional health delivery systems of Nepal include ayurvedic,
homeopathic, ethnobotanical, amchi (Tibetan medicine or healing practice), and
spiritual approach. Belief on witchdoctors is also rife. Countrywide, there are around
400,000 traditional healers/practitioners (Koirala, 2005). Ayurvedic system is an
official system of medicine and has now been integrated with allopathic medicine.
Formal education in ayurveda started in 1928 and as of now, there are 9 educational
institutions and 33 ayurveda pharmaceuticals.
The export of MAPs and NTFPs has had significant contribution to the national
economy from very early times. Thus, use of NTFPs and trade are traditional
phenomena in Nepal and the rural poor in the hills since time immemorial have been
involved in collection of NTFPs for sale and household use.
Nepal Government made efforts to improve export of crude herbs as early as 1937.
However, an organized department was not visualized until 1960. The Department of
Medicinal Plants currently renamed as the Department of Plant Resources oriented
itself towards scientific validation and research of Nepalese medicinal plants.
The export of medicinal herbs from Nepal was limited to India and China until 1960.
Nepals trade diversification has promoted herbal trade to oversea countries. Data
from the Trade Promotion Center show that export quantities amounted to over 4000
MT during mid 70s but the trend declined sharply during the 80s (Malla, 1994).
16
However, the trend is on the increase again, reaching about 13,600 MT in the year
1992-93. The major bulk of trade is still with India, amounting to 99% (Malla et al.,
1995).
As of 90s, about 10,000-15,000 MT of crude medicinal plants were collected
annually and much of these were traded to foreign countries. This trade is an
important source of livelihood and cash income to rural people, and is estimated in the
order of US$ 10 million. In certain cases, NTFPs, including MAPs, provide 50% of a
familys (Edward, 1996).
In a recent publication, Rawat (2007) has mentioned that about 20,000 MT of MAPs
worth US$18-20 million are traded every year, and about 90% are harvested in
uncontrolled fashion. Considering the increasing value of medicinal and aromatic
plants, both in terms of primary health care and as a critical source of livelihoods and
income for the rural poor in the region, International Center for Integrated Mountain
Development (ICIMOD) with support from the Common Fund for Commodities
(CFC), The Netherlands, is implementing a four-year project entitled Medicinal
Plants and Herbs: Developing Sustainable Supply Chain and Enhancing Rural
Livelihoods in the Eastern Himalayas in three countries (Nepal, Bangladesh and
Bhutan), with India as the technical expertise provider. Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants Program in Asia (MAPPA), a program of funded by International Development
and Research Center (IDRC) and Ford foundation has also been in operation in Asia
since its initiation in 1994.
The forestry share of the GDP is estimated at 15% (HMG-N, 1989). The Nepal-India
trade in NTFPs represents 4% of the total contribution of the forestry to the national
economy.
The Biodiversity Program Unit of the Asian Network for Small Scale Bioresources
(ANSAB) has focused its activities on assisting communities and development
practitioners to sustainably utilize NTFPs while conserving the ecosystems. Currently
some 18 research projects on various aspects of development, management and
sustainable use of wild plant resources including medicinal and aromatic plants are
being undertaken in different parts of the country. Likewise, some 10 institutions have
been provided with various types of technical assistance to conduct study and to
promote conservation, management and local level value-addition on various NTFPs
including medicinal and aromatic plants.
In the Nepalese context, although considerable research activities are being carried
out by various organizations and individuals, a serious lack of specific information
and mechanism for dissemination of available information has been urgently
experienced. However, the recently initiated Nepal NTFP Network, assisted by
ANSAB, is a forum for individuals and institutions to obtain, study and compare
research findings, as well as to disseminate information for the advancement of
understanding of the importance of development and management of biological
diversity and the sustainable utilization of the benefits and result from wild plant
resources. At present some 400 NTFP - related researchers and research organizations
are directly attached with the network. To this end, the collaborative work by
ICIMOD and the Netherlands on medicinal plants, as also the research support by
MAPPA, can be of great significance. Contribution at the individual level is also
accruing, for instance, work done by Ghimire (1999), Shrestha et al. (2000), Ghimire
et al. (2000), Lama et al. (2001), Ghimire (2001), Ghimire et al. (2002), Aumeeruddy
et al. (2002), Ghimire et al. (2004), Aumeeruddy et al. (2004), Malla and Malla
17
(2004), Pant and Panta (2004), Rokaya and Ghimire (2004), Rai et al. (2004),
Shrestha and Ghimire (2004), Shrestha et al. (2004), Yakthung Chumlung (2004),
Ghimire et al. (2005a), Ghimire et al. (2005b), Koirala (2005), Kunwar et al (2006),
Acharya and Pokhrel, (2006), Bhattarai et al. (2006), Pandey (2006), Rajbhandari et
al. (2007).
From the foregoing review, it is clear that indigenous knowledge and biodiversity are
intertwined and often strengthen each other. However, with the introduction of
modern/commercial systems, the local communities are on the brink of being caught
between the dynamics of exclusion and process of acculturation. The remoteness of
the rural areas has deprived the Limbu inhabitants of the modern amenities like access
to education, health facilities, communication and transport. This in turn has been a
determinant factor in their being excluded from the privileged section of the
population. Development has no doubt taken place in some areas but not without cost,
viz., erosion of traditional knowledge, propensity towards inappropriate acculturation,
and transition to unsustainable practices such as overharvesting of non-timber forests
(mainly murcha plants and medicinal herbs).
CHAPTER III
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Rationale for Choosing the Research Site
Panchthar has the densest population of Limbus. There are 41 VDCs situated at
different elevations. The selection of two VDCs, namely Chokmagu and Ranitar, for
the present study as the representative sites stems from following facts and
assumptions:
1. these VDCs are relatively easy to access (for the study);
2. the elevation of these VDCs ranges from about 700 m to 3000 m, thereby
making them excellent for the study of biodiversity;
3. these VDCs have very rich distribution of Limbu nationality (and therefore
their indigenous knowledge);
4. because of the recent introduction of cardamom and tea cultivation, it is
necessary to assess whether plant and animal diversity are at stake;
5. because these areas have easy access to roadhead, overharvesting of NTFPs
might be taking place; and
6. people of Panchthar say that these VDCs have some of finest traditional
healers.
3.2 Data Sources
The primary data were obtained on site through participant observation, semi-
structured interviews (Key Informant and Focus Group), and questionnaires.
The data included details of the interviewees and questionnaire-respondents;
physiographic details of the study site; floral species (photographs), their occurrence
and abundance; video clips; discursive data (from interview); and questionnaire
responses. The general topics of interviews and questionnaires pertained to
biodiversity, ethnomedicine, traditional knowledge, natural resources and their
management, management of natural calamities, perception of environmental
changes, and the like.
The secondary data were obtained from District Development Committee, different
literatures such as those from Central Bureau of Statistics, WHO, National Reports on
CBD, ANSAB, IUCN, and various national and international journals dealing with
ethnomedicine, biodiversity, traditional knowledge, and sustainable utilization of
natural resources.
Documents from District Development Committee were used for abstracting data on
population distribution, ethnoprofile, area of VDCs, and basic amenities like
communication, education, transportation, and health services.
3.3 Sampling Frame
Because Panchthar district contains 41 VDCs, a significant number of them not
readily accessible within the given time frame for a census survey, a sample survey
was worked out by taking only two VDCs, viz., Chokmagu and Ranitar. Also,
because of the time constraint as well as scope of our study, a purposive sampling of
19
wards was carried out by selecting at least 4-5 wards or amalgamation (Ward No. 2, 3,
4, 6/7, and 8 of Chokmagu VDC and 2, 4, 6, and 8 of Ranitar VDC) as the sub-
sample. The purposive sample was thought to be very pertinent in relation to the case
study on ethnomedicine, which entailed interviewing of most well-known traditional
healer. This decision for the selection of wards was taken after consultation with
knowledgeable persons such as VDC secretaries, school teachers, and local members
of Yakthung-Chumlung (an organization of Limbu nationality) of the VDC in
question and a baseline survey. The consultation was made more effective by
explaining to them the purpose and implications of our visit. Nevertheless, attempt
was made to include all the elevational extremes within the VDC to facilitate
collection of as much of detail on biodiversity, ecology, ethnomedicine and traditional
knowledge as possible. A redrawn (to scale) map of the study site is given in Fig. 3.1
(wards not shown).
3.4 Data Collection Techniques
From each VDC, 9-10 key informants were selected by consultation with
knowledgeable persons of the VDC and interviewed in issues related to
ethnomedicine (using a combination of semi-structured questionnaires and free-listing
technique). A checklist of pertinent questions asked in the interview and details of the
key informants are given in Appendix-I and II.
3.5 Focus Group Discussion
Focus group discussion was carried out on ecology and biodiversity, for which 25
knowledgeable participants (selected by consultation with senior citizens, local
authorities) were invited. The incidental joining by other persons to share the
information was not considered objectionable. A checklist of pertinent questions used
in the interviews is given in Appendix-II. Use of discursive method was thought
important in contextualizing the quantitative data. Utilizing this approach, questions
were asked to stimulate conversation. Our participation was limited to occasional
asking for clarification. Only when discussions ended or strayed to a topic clearly
unrelated to illness did we ask another of the topical questions. A palm-top PC
containing database of some 300 medicinal plants from earlier study was used during
the interview for quick referencing and cross-checking the vernacular names of the
plants the participants mentioned.
3.6 Case Studies
Two case studies on traditional healing were planned for both the VDCs (one case
study each), the topical questions for which are given in the Appendix-II.
The interviewees for the case study were chosen by free-listing technique. Five to six
local respondents were asked to name a few well-known traditional healers in the
VDC. The response data on the domain were ranked. A new respondent was taken
and the response data reranked. Addition of new respondent and calculation of the
new rank went on until the ranks remained relatively stable. This was taken to be
adequate agreement about the domain. The healer with the highest rank was thereafter
selected for the interview. Having completed the selection process, the interviewee
was personally approached (a day earlier to the interview date) with request for
cooperation.
20
Taplejung
Amarpur
Nagi
Tharpu
Oyam
Falaicha
Panchami
Suvang Ekteen
Memeng
Chyangthapu
Yanganam
Sidin
Prangbung
Lungrupa
Phidim
Ranigaun
Chilingdin
Yasok
Mangjabung
Sarangdanda
Aangna
Mauwa
Hangum
Aarubote Rabi
Kurumba
Limba
Olane
Ranitar
India
Ilam
Terhathum
Morang
Ilam
Dhankuta
N
LEGEND
Boundaries
Study site
International
District
VDC
NEPAL
10 0 20 kilometers 10

Fig. 3.1 Map of study site (shaded portion)
For archiving discursive data (interview), a movie camera was used during the
interviews. The information was also noted in the field notebook simultaneously as a
precautionary measure, should the electronic device fail (Fig. A-IV.3). A digital
camera with a resolution of 6 Megapixel was used for taking photographs of the study
sites (aerial view), plant specimens, and key informants. Plants that could not be
readily identified (scientifically) were collected for herbaria preparation (for
identifying them later on). For plants that were not available during that season,
another round of field trip (at an appropriate time) was planned. During the field trip
across the VDC, altitude was recorded with a barometer at regular intervals (every
two hours or so of trekking) so that the altitude could be correlated with the
occurrence of floral diversity.
3.7 Data Analysis and Interpretation
The study entailed collection of both qualitative and quantitative data. The discursive
data were interpreted with emic perspective as described by Casagrande, (2002). The
possibility of integration of discursive and quantitative data for statistical treatment
21
has been described by Coxon (2005). However, this requires especially written
computer programs, and was therefore not attempted in this study. The demographic
and other similar quantitative data were tabulated and/or given graphical
representation for meaningful comparison.
A correlation (association) was worked out between abundance of medicinal plants in
the vicinity and knowledge about their use. For this, Spearman-ranked correlation was
used (Casagrande, 2002) utilizing GENSTAT software (Payne et al., 1996). The
perception of medicinal properties in relation organoleptic quality of the plant was
also described. The prevalence of illnesses was ranked by word count of the illness-
related term in the text.
3.8 Limitations of the study
The main limitation of the present study was in its not being a census survey. While
some generalizations can be made out of the finding, they will not adequately
represent the practices of all Limbus (of Terhathum and Taplejung, for example). To
this end, the generalizations will not even be representative of the Panchthar district
(because only two of the 41 VDCs have been studied). Since most of the data were
based on interviews, the possibility of incidental omission of some pieces of
information is expected. Besides, some healers tend to keep their art a closely guarded
secret, which must be respected as per the general norms of research. Also, due to
time and budget constraints, the efficacy of the medicinal plants could not be
subjected to scientific assessment.
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Demographic and Related Details of the Study Site
The study site is given in Fig. 3.1. The demographic and other details abstracted from
personal communication and District Development Plan document are given in the
following paragraphs.
4.1.1 Chokmagu VDC
According to District Development Survey (2001) Chokmagu VDC has a population
of 3624 (1856 male and 1768 female), population density of 191/km
2
, and 603
households. Limbu nationality of this VDC represents 62% of households. There are
about 11 settlement areas (Bhadaure, Chokmagu, Maidane, Kerabari, Kolbote,
Mahadevpokhari, Mathillo Sirsaule, Sindupauwa, Tallo Sirsaule, Tineghare,
Tinmaule) in which Tumbapo (a sub-caste of Limbu) is the dominant group.
According to census 2001 (CBS, 2003) the literacy rate is 85%, with a slightly higher
literacy in female (44%).
Along with staple items, Chokmagu also produces ginger, vegetables, and citrus
fruits. However, 79% of households suffer from staple-grain deficit. They make up
the food deficit by barter, trading NTFPs and cash crops. Earning from foreign
employment also has a significant contribution. The Maoist insurgence has been
implicated for worsening the problem.
There is a single kaccha road (motorable during the winter) that joins the
administrative head quarter (Phidim) and three other VDCs. The VDC has no
electricity supply from the national grid. A few households used solar system for
lighting. Almost all the households (98.5%) depend on firewood for cooking food.
Although telephone booths (conventional) are non-existent, a number of personal
mobiles (CDMA) are available. There is one public high school (Saraswati Ma Vi),
and 4 primary schools (public). The total enrollment in schools is 1885 but only 59%
of the children are attending school.
Mention of Chokmagu water supply project 1994, undertaken by District Water
Supply Office, has been mentioned in the District Development Committee
documents. Around 460 households have piped water supply. The rest of the
households use shallow wells, springs, stone taps and water falls. Chokmagu
irrigation project irrigates about 70 ha of land in Chokmagu VDC. There is one health
post for the VDC.
4.1.2 Ranitar VDC
According to District Development Survey (2001), Ranitar VDC has a population of
7484 (3914 male and 3570 female), population density of about 225/km
2
, and 1200
households. Limbu nationality of this VDC represents 33% of households. However,
personal communication revealed that Limbu population in Ranitar assumes the third
position. This VDC has a very rich ethnic diversity (Limbu, Sherpa, Rai, Gurung,
Sunuwar, Magar, and Tamang). There are about 34 settlement sites (Aagrigaun,
Asine, Barbote, Barkhedanda, Baskote, Bhainsekharka, Bhaalukhop, Bhirgaun,
23
Chaamathung, Chhaiyagaun, Chiuribote, Daandagaun, Devithaan, Ghalegaun,
Ghumaunetar, Hamphabung, Ithung, Jhaklekhop, Kaaligaun, Khandung,
Laamichhane gaun, Mahabir, Maklabung, Maanedaanda, Mangsire, Muldaanda,
Nanglapa, Nunthala, Raigaun, Ranitar, Sukhepokhari, Syaudaanda, Tamakhe,
Thangregaun, Yangsuwa). According to census 2001 (CBS, 2003) the literacy rate is
84%, with an equal literacy rate in female.
Along with staple items, Chokmagu also produces cardamom and tea. A tea
processing plant (Kanchanjungha Tea Estate, launched in 1984) has made a
significant contribution to the livelihood of the local people. More than 100 farmers
have pooled their land to form a cooperative with 94 ha land. The estate employs
more than 200 people. Personal communication revealed that Ranitar VDC was the
first to produce tea on a commercial scale in Panchthar district. However, 90% of the
households still suffer from staple grain deficit. This is of course made up by cash
crops, NTFPs, etc. Foreign-, self-, and wage employment are also important means of
covering the deficit.
There is a single kaccha road (motorable during the winter) that joins the three other
VDCs (Lungrupa, Naagin, and Pauwasartap) but some parts of the VDC (ward no. 6)
has access to highway. Some parts of the VDC have electricity supply from the
national grid. There is widespread use of solar energy for lighting. Almost all the
households (99%) depend on firewood for cooking food. There are a few telephone
booths (conventional) but a number VHF and CDMA-based telephones and mobiles
are available. This VDC also has post offices. There are 3 public high schools (Ithung
Ma Vi as the resource center) and 1 private high school, and 12 primary schools
(public). During the visit, however, a number of English medium schools (private,
primary and lower secondary) were also seen. According to census 2001, the
enrollment in the schools is 3340 but only the attendance is mere 65%.
Around 836 households have piped water supply. The rest of the households use
shallow wells, springs, stone taps and water falls. Chamthum irrigation project
irrigates about 14 ha of land in Ranitar. There is one health post for the VDC.
Topographically, Ranitar has fewer ridges and folds compared to Chokmagu. The
VDC also has some plain settlement areas (called tar), e.g., Ranitar, Ghumaunetar 1,
and Ghumaunetar 2. Tiktung River is the main source of water.
4.2 Focus Group Discussion
Focus group discussion on ethnomedicine and biodiversity revealed that the
participants possessed a wealth information on the traditional healing methods,
knowledge about the plants and their use, as well as their importance. As expected,
the survey also showed the trend of erosion in the knowledge. This was inferred from
the inability of some of the younger participants to elicit as much information as the
senior citizens and traditional healers participating in the discussion. A pooled data
about the knowledge on different plants and their uses obtained by interviewing 25
participants each of Chokmagu and Ranitar VDC is given in Table 4.1. The table also
provides insight into the diversity of medicinal plants.
Additional details on the multiplicity of uses for uses other than medicine are given in
Table 4.2 (wild foods), Table 4.3 (veterinary use), Table 4.4 (religious use), and Table
4.5 (murcha preparation). Murcha is an amylolytic starter cake used for the
preparation of traditional, cereal-based alcoholic beverages such as jand (undistilled)
and raksi (distilled, congeneric).
24
4.2.1 Medicinal Plants of Chokmagu and Ranitar VDC
Both Chokmagu and Ranitar VDC had similar trends in the use and diversity of
medicinal plants. Data regarding the traditional concept and use of these plants are
discussed in the following paragraphs. The food, fodder and other uses are presented
separately in Tables 4.2- 4.5.
1. Aaru
Scientific name: Prunus persica
Limbu name: Khamrek
Medicinal use: Tender bud paste is applied on wound. The extract is also
considered antiemetic (against vomiting).
2. Abijalo / Abhijaalo
Scientific name: Drymaria cordata
Limbu name: Wana
Medicinal use: Whole plant paste is used as antidote, anthelmintic. This plant is
also used for treating stuffy nose. Essentially, the plant is wrapped in leaves and
baked under hot cinders. The astringent smell is inhaled until no longer bearable.
3. Adhuwa / Aduwa
Scientific name: Zingiber officinale
Limbu name: Haabek
Medicinal use: Roasted rhizome is chewed for flu, cough and cold.
4. Aiselu / Ainselu
Scientific name: Rubus ellipticus
Limbu name: Tingrek
Medicinal use: Root and tender bud extracts are useful in diarrhea and
dysentery. The bud paste is applied on skinburn and also as an antidote.
5. Alainchi
Scientific name: Amomum subulatum
Limbu name: Arengi
Medicinal use: Seed and root rhizome paste are effective against skinburn. Seed
is taken as diuretic.
6. Amala
Scientific name: Phyllanthus emblica
Limbu name: Angwara
Medicinal use: Fruit is masticated as cathartic and appetizer. The fruit is a good
source of Vitamin C. The bark extract has antidiarrheal and antidandruff
properties.
7. Amarlata / Sunlahara
Scientific name: Cuscuta reflexa
Limbu name: Chimchimpona
Medicinal use: Plant extract is taken for jaundice and piles. Its paste is used for
the treatment of wounds. Additional details on this plant are given in Section
4.5.
8. Ambak
Scientific name: Psidium guajava
Limbu name: Lupse
25
Medicinal use: Bark extract is taken as antidiarrheal. It is also taken as astringent
and for toothache. Additional details on ambak are given in Section 4.5.
9. Amliso
Scientific name: Thysanolina maxima
Limbu name: Sealo
Medicinal use: Root extract has as anthelmintic, antipneumonia, abortifacient,
and antiseptic properties. Additional details on amliso are given in Section 4.5.
10. Angeri
Scientific name: Lyonia ovalifolia
Limbu name: Tabea
Medicinal use: Its paste is used to treat scabies. It has an antiseptic property.
Additional details on angeri are given in Section 4.5.
11. Angeri (khane)
Scientific name: Osbeskia nepalensis
Limbu name: Mendamakla
Medicinal use: Root extract is taken for tonsillitis.
12. Aankh
Scientific name: Calotropis gigantea
Limbu name: ?
Medicinal use: Bark and leaf paste is applied on dislocated joint. Because of its
anti-inflammatory property, the leaves are heated and pressed against muscle
sprains. Additional details on aankh are given in Section 4.5.
13. Arari kaanda
Scientific name: Mimosa rubicaulis
Limbu name: Sidingba
Medicinal use: Root bark paste is applied on skinburn and is also effective in the
treatment of dislocated joints.
14. Asuro
Scientific name: Adhatoda vasica
Limbu name: Sikchakwa
Medicinal use: Root extract is taken for epilepsy and food poisoning. Leaf
infusion is useful against malaria. Stem extract works as an antacid.
15. Babari
Scientific name: Ocimum basilicum
Limbu name: Andangphung
Medicinal use: Leaf paste is applied on skinburn. Additional details on this plant
are given in Section 4.5.
16. Bakaina
Scientific name: Melia azederach
Limbu name: Thumrangse
Medicinal use: Fruit paste is smelled and put on head for headache relief. Leaf
and bark paste is used to treat scabies.
17. Ban ghiraula
Scientific name: Trichosanthes cucumerina (cucurbita sp.)
Limbu name: Tambhung toryan
26
Medicinal use: Fruit extract is taken as purgative. Fruit net (dry) extract is
considered to be very effective in jaundice and sinusitis treatment. In practice, a
small piece of the net is soaked overnight is a glass of water and the extract
drunk in the morning. The extract is very bitter. Additional details on this plant
are given in Section 4.5.
18. Ban lasun
Scientific name: Allium wallichii
Limbu name: ?
Medicinal use: Bulb paste is applied on cut and wound. It is also thought to be
useful in snake bites. Additional details on this plant are given in Section 4.5
19. Ban tarul
Scientific name: Dioscorea bulbifera
Limbu name: Tamphung khe
Medicinal use: Stem paste is applied on piles.
20. Baans
Scientific name: Bambusa arundinaceae
Limbu name: Pha
Medicinal use: Root decoction is taken for jaundice. Extracts from young buds
are applied on insect bite.
21. Bel
Scientific name: Aegel marmelos
Limbu name: Anjamse
Medicinal use: Slurry of seed dust is taken for ulcer.
22. Bethu
Scientific name: Chenopodium album
Limbu name: Sinang
Medicinal use: Its seed is cooked with milk and taken as antacid.
23. Bhairungpati
Scientific name: Juniperus recurva
Limbu name: Sange
Medicinal use: Leaf and stem are burned and the smoke is smelled for headache
and stomachache.
24. Bhirgaule
Scientific name: Coix lachrymajobi
Limbu name: Phinjari
Medicinal use: Root extract is taken as anthelmintic. It helps discharge placenta
in child delivery. Additional details on this plant are given in Section 4.5
25. Bhuin aiselu
Scientific name: Rubus nepalensis
Limbu name: Kakwa tingrek
Medicinal use: Leaf extract is applied on wound. Root extract has stomachic
property.
26. Bhuichampa
Scientific name: Kaempferia rotunda
Limbu name: Khamchakphung
27
Medicinal use: Rhizome paste is applied on bone fracture and dislocated joint.
Additional details on this plant are given in Section 4.5.
27. Bhyagur
Scientific name: Dioscorea deltoidea
Limbu name: Sukhe
Medicinal use: Root paste is applied on wound.
28. Bikhma
Scientific name: Aconitum spicatum
Limbu name: ?
Medicinal use: Small piece of rhizome is taken as febrifuge. The rhizome paste
is used to treat rabies, stomach disorders and as antidote and appetizer.
Additional details on this plant are given in Section 4.5.
29. Bojho
Scientific name: Acorus calamus
Limbu name: Sedakpa
Medicinal use: Its paste and extract are used to treat scabies. Root paste is
smelled for sinusitis. Additional details on bojho are given in Section 4.5.
30. Chabo
Scientific name: Piper chaba
Limbu name: ?
Medicinal use: Root paste is applied on wound.
31. Chari amilo
Scientific name: Oxalis sp.
Limbu name: Sukroti
Medicinal use: Plant paste is applied on dog bites. Plant extract is applied as
rubefacient and the clear filtered extract is used in eye treatment.
32. Chhatiwan
Scientific name: Alstonia scholaris
Limbu name: Phakluppa
Medicinal use: Bark extract is taken for piles.
33. Chilaune
Scientific name: Schima wallichii
Limbu name: Yangsingba
Medicinal use: Fruit extract and bark paste are applied on scorpion sting. Bark
decoction is taken for jaundice.
34. Chimphing
Scientific name: Heracleum nepalense
Limbu name: Chimphing
Medicinal use: Fruit extract is taken for stomachache or similar gastrointestinal
disorders. Elsewhere, it is also used as febrifuge. Additional details on this plant
are given in Section 4.5.
35. Chiraito
Scientific name: Swertia chirayita
Limbu name: Sunghingba
Medicinal use: Decoction/infusion from whole plant is taken as febrifuge. It is
also effective against headache. More detail on chiraito is given in Section 4.5.
28
36. Chitu
Scientific name: Plumbago zeylanica
Limbu name: Chitu
Medicinal use: Root paste is applied on dislocated joint. Root extract is taken as
abortifacient and appetizer. It is taken for jaundice. Additional details on this
plant are given in Section 4.5.
37. Chiuri
Scientific name: Madhuca butyrica
Limbu name: Imsewa
Medicinal use: Seed oil is applied on fungus infection in feet. Bark and seed
paste is applied on fracture and also in piles.
38. Chutro
Scientific name: Berberis aristata
Limbu name: Lakpuche
Medicinal use: Root extract is taken for menstrual disorders, jaundice and piles.
39. Daarim
Scientific name: Punica granatum
Limbu name: Lalimse
Medicinal use: Root extract is applied as antirabies and as an astringent.
40. Dhaenro
Scientific name: Woodfordia fructicosa
Limbu name: Pangwari
Medicinal use: Flower extract is taken for dysentery. Bark paste is applied on
skinburn.
41. Dhusure
Scientific name: Colebrookea oppositifolia
Limbu name: Lajesing
Medicinal use: Clear extract of tender bud is used in eye and ear problem.
42. Dubo
Scientific name: Cynodon dactylon
Limbu name: Sambok
Medicinal use: Its paste is applied as antidote. The plant juice is useful in
controlling diabetes. Additional details on this plant are given in Section 4.5.
43. Gahat
Scientific name: Dolichos biflorus
Limbu name: Phekluse
Medicinal use: Cooked seeds and its soup have lithotriptic property (dissolve
kidney stone). The soup is also beneficial in measles.
44. Gahate jhaar
Scientific name: Polygala abyssinica
Limbu name: Pheksukse yan
Medicinal use: Plant extract is taken for dysentery.
45. Gaitihare (Bakhra kane)
Scientific name: Oxyspora paniculata
Limbu name: Lambetangma
Medicinal use: Root extract is taken for stomachache.
29
46. Gayo
Scientific name: Bridelia retusa
Limbu name: Yangkhek
Medicinal use: Bark extract is taken as antidiarrheal and appetizer. Tender bud
paste is applied for the treatment of scabies.
47. Ghangharu
Scientific name: Pyracantha crenulata
Limbu name: ?
Medicinal use: Root paste is applied on skinburn.
48. Ghanti phul (Krisnakali)
Scientific name: Fuchsia hybrida
Limbu name: Kingna phung
Medicinal use: Leaf / flower extract is taken for diabetes. It is also used in ear
pain.
49. Ghiukumari
Scientific name: Aloe vera
Limbu name: Lupse
Medicinal use: Leaf juice is applied on skinburn. Succulent leaf is chewed as
diuretic. Additional details are given in Section 4.5.
50. Ghoda khori
Scientific name: Viburnum cylindricum
Limbu name: Hangangse
Medicinal use: The oil from its seed is used for rubbing on muscle sprains and
swellings. Additional details on this plant are given in Section 4.5.
51. Ghodpuchre (Sallibisalli)
Scientific name: Equisetum sp.
Limbu name: Hondok
Medicinal use: Root extract is taken as anthelmintic and diuretic. The plant is
used in the treatment of bone fracture. Additional details on this plant are given
in Section 4.5.
52. Ghodtapre
Scientific name: Centella asiatica
Limbu name: Sidasakchi
Medicinal use: Plant extract is taken for pneumonia, stomachache, ulcer, and as
diuretic.
53. Gujargano
Scientific name: Tinospora cordifolia
Limbu name: Kengban
Medicinal use: Rhizome piece is chewed for menstruation problem. Rhizome
paste is applied as plaster in fracture. The rhizome is also used for piles and
stomachache.
54. Gurans (Lali gurans)
Scientific name: Rhododendron arboreum
Limbu name: Thokpet
Medicinal use: Dry flower is taken for dissolving fish bone stuck in the throat. It
is taken to combat swelling of spleen and liver. Flower extract is applied on eye
to relieve eye strain. Additional details on this plant are given in Section 4.5.
30
55. Hadchur (Hadchoor, Harchur)
Scientific name: Viscum album
Limbu name: Khewalangba
Medicinal use: Whole plant paste is applied on bone fracture. More detail on this
plant is given in Section 4.5.
56. Harro
Scientific name: Terminalia chebula
Limbu name: Hangam
Medicinal use: Ripe fruit is chewed for flu and as an appetizer and for cough,
piles. Additional details on this plant are given in Section 4.5.
57. Indreni (Saya)
Scientific name: Trichosanthes tricuspidata
Limbu name: Saya
Medicinal use: Root extract is taken as diuretic. It is used for discharging
placenta in child delivery.
58. Jamuna
Scientific name: Syzygium cumini
Limbu name: Chambho
Medicinal use: Root paste is applied on fracture. Bark extract is taken as
antidiarrheal. Fruit is taken as antidiabetic.
59. Jatamansi
Scientific name: Nardostachys jatamansi
Limbu name: Pangwanphung
Medicinal use: Root extract is taken for epilepsy and menstruation problem. It is
also considered cathartic.
60. Jhyau
Scientific name: Graphis sp.
Limbu name: Lungasekra
Medicinal use: Plant body dust is applied on fresh cut.
61. Kaali jhaar
Scientific name: Eupatorium odoratum
Limbu name: Makyamma
Medicinal use: Tuber paste is applied on wound. Root extract is used in the
treatment of rabies and sinusitis.
62. Kaabhraa
Scientific name: Ficus lacor
Limbu name: Khaitrang
Medicinal use: Stem latex is applied on wound.
63. Kadam (Saruwa)
Scientific name: Jatropha curcas
Limbu name: Ranikhel
Medicinal use: Latex is applied on toothache. Additional details on this plant are
given in Section 4.5.
64. Kainjal
Scientific name: Bischofia javanica
Limbu name: Mukumba
31
Medicinal use: Bark extract is taken with milk as astringent. Additional details
on this plant are given in Section 4.5.
65. Kalo Unyu
Scientific name: Tectaria macrodonta
Limbu name: Kumakla katekwa
Medicinal use: Pieces of rhizome are chewed /masticated to relieve toothache.
66. Kaalobesar
Scientific name: Curcuma longa
Limbu name: Kumakla harandi
Medicinal use: Rhizome extract is taken for piles.
67. Kandesiundi
Scientific name: Euphorbia royleana
Limbu name: Lungdinwa
Medicinal use: Stem latex is taken as an appetizer.
68. Kaphal
Scientific name: Myrica esculenta
Limbu name: Chilingse
Medicinal use: Bark dust is taken with water as antacid and for sinusitis. It is
also used in the treatment of jaundice and fracture. Fruit is taken as antidiabetic,
antirheumatic and decongestant while its paste is useful in wounds and piles.
69. Khirlo (Aule)
Scientific name: Holarrhena pubescens
Limbu name: Yengoba
Medicinal use: Bark dust is taken with water for gastric and for piles. Bark
decoction is used to treat menstrual irregularity.
70. Kirne kanda
Scientific name: Lantana camara
Limbu name: ?
Medicinal use: Seed paste is applied on piles.
71. Khanakpa
Scientific name: Evodea fraxinifolia
Limbu name: Khanakpa
Medicinal use: Fruit extract is taken for food poisoning and similar
gastrointestinal disorders.
72. Koiralo
Scientific name: Bauhinia purpurea
Limbu name: Ajiba
Medicinal use: Bark extract is taken to dissolve stones in the kidney.
73. Kudki
Scientific name: Neopicrorhiza scrophulariifolia
Limbu name: ?
Medicinal use: Root extract is taken as febrifuge as well as appetizer.
74. Kurilo
Scientific name: Asparagus racemosus
Limbu name: Nakkhamma
Medicinal use: Root extract is used as antacid.
32
75. Lahare siundi
Scientific name: Ipomoea hederaceae
Limbu name: Iwa lungdinnba
Medicinal use: Fruit paste is used as antidandruff.
76. Lalchan (Belchanda)
Scientific name: Hibiscus sabdariffa
Limbu name: Sutsutte
Medicinal use: Calyx decoction is taken as astringent. Additional details on this
plant are given in Section 4.5.
77. Lankasani (Red)
Scientific name: Mirabilis jalapa
Limbu name: Pipipa
Medicinal use: Root extract is taken for dysentery. Seed extract is taken as
diuretic.
78. Lapsi
Scientific name: Choerospondias axillaris
Limbu name: Imbuwa
Medicinal use: Fruit decoction is taken as anthelmintic.
79. Lunde
Scientific name: Amaranthus spinosus
Limbu name: China Mangra
Medicinal use: Slurry of root dust is taken as diuretic.
80. Maidal kanda
Scientific name: Xeromphis spinosa
Limbu name: Lungdingba
Medicinal use: Its latex is applied on wound.
81. Mahuwa
Scientific name: Engelhardia spicata
Limbu name: Yakpapma (Yakopma)
Medicinal use: Bark paste is applied on fracture and also on fresh cuts/wounds.
Additional details on this plant are given in Section 4.5.
82. Mehel
Scientific name: Pyrus pashia
Limbu name: Thambenchhe
Medicinal use: Fruit decoction is used for dysentery. Additional details on this
plant are given in Section 4.5.
83. Naageswori
Scientific : Mesua ferrea
Limbu name: Anjamse
Medicinal use: Stem paste is applied on wound. Bark paste is applied topically
to treat hydrocele (scrotal swelling).
84. Neem
Scientific name: Azadirachta indica
Limbu name: Khajase
33
Medicinal use: Leaf decoction is taken as febrifuge and in toothache. It is also
used to treat menstrual irregularity. Bark extract is taken as diuretic. Additional
details on this plant are given in Section 4.5.
85. Okhar
Scientific name: Juglans regia
Limbu name: Khesik (Khause)
Medicinal use: The fruit portion is taken as purgative.
86. Pakhanbhed
Scientific name: Bergenia ciliata
Limbu name: Yakpegma
Medicinal use: Root paste is applied on fracture and extract is taken for throat
sore and toothache. Root extract is taken for uterus problem and by lactating
mother. Additional details on this plant are given in Section 4.5.
87. Padamchal
Scientific name: Rheum emodi
Limbu name: ?
Medicinal use: Root paste is applied on fresh cut and extract is taken as
abortifacient
88. Padina/Pudina
Scientific name: Mentha arvensis
Limbu name: Padena
Medicinal use: Plant extract is taken for flu and paste is applied on cut. It is also
taken as appetizer and diuretic.
89. Paiyun
Scientific name: Prunus cerasoides
Limbu name: Umphung
Medicinal use: Bark paste is applied on bone fracture. Elsewhere, it is applied
on skinburn.
90. Paanch aunle
Scientific name: Dactylorhiza hatagirea
Limbu name: Tigem
Medicinal use: Paste of rhizome is applied on fresh cut wound. Rhizome extract
is taken for epilepsy and as aphrodisiac. Rhizome is chewed as appetizer and as
antiulcer agent.
91. Paangraa
Scientific name: Entada phaseoloides
Limbu name: Neghek
Medicinal use: Fruit paste is applied on bone fracture. Fruit dust is used as
antidandruff agent.
92. Pani amala
Scientific name: Neprolepis cordifolia
Limbu name: Thambal
Medicinal use: Tuber extract is drunk as diuretic.
93. Phachyang
Scientific name: Zingibar cassumunar
Limbu name: Kherabe
34
Medicinal use: It is eaten for stomachache. Additional details on this plant are
given in Section 4.5.
94. Pire jhaar
Scientific name: Spilanthes acmella
Limbu name: Chasuk
Medicinal use: Stem and leaf is chewed for toothache.
95. Rajbriksha
Scientific name: Cassia fistula
Limbu name: Samrising
Family: Leguminosae
Medicinal use: Fruit pulp is taken as purgative. Seed is eaten as diuretic.
Additional details on this plant are given in Section 4.5.
96. Rato Gujurgano
Scientific name: Tinospora sp.
Limbu name: ?
Medicinal use: Rhizome paste is applied as plaster in fracture.
97. Ritthaa
Scientific name: Sapindus mukorossi
Limbu name: Phimbrikwa
Medicinal use: Fruit leather paste is used to wash hair for removing dandruff.
Seed extract is taken as purgative.
98. Sano chiple
Scientific name: Pouzolzia hirta
Limbu name: Saghangtuna (Tuiremba)
Medicinal use: Root paste is applied on bone fracture. It is also applied on
wound.
99. Sal
Scientific name: Shorea robusta
Limbu name: Sasing
Medicinal use: Plant bark paste is applied on wound. It is also applied as plaster
in fracture.
100. Sarpa jibre
Scientific name: Arisaema flavum
Limbu name: Osek maki
Medicinal use: Plant extract is taken for epilepsy.
101. Sarpagandha
Scientific name: Rauvolfia serpentina
Limbu name: ?
Medicinal use: Root piece is chewed for diabetes and root extract is applied as
an antidote.
102. Siltimur
Scientific name: Lindera neesiana
Limbu name: Warekpa
Medicinal use: Fruit decoction is applied as a treatment for scabies. Elsewhere,
it is used as antirheumatic and antacid.

35
103. Simal
Scientific name: Bombax ceiba
Limbu name: Tengo sing
Medicinal use: Bark paste is applied on effected area of measles. Bark extract is
taken as diuretic. Latex is taken for dysentery. Root extract is taken as laxative.
104. Siru
Scientific name: Imperata cylindrica
Limbu name: Ning
Medicinal use: Root extract is drunk as anthelmintic. Its paste is applied as
antidote. Additional details on siru are given in Section 4.5.
105. Sisnu
Scientific name: Urtica dioica
Limbu name: Sikwa
Medicinal use: Its paste is applied on wound of dog bite. Young bud and leaf are
cooked and eaten to control high blood pressure. Additional details on sisnu are
given in Section 4.5.
106. Sugandhawal
Scientific name: Valeriana jatamansi
Limbu name: Panwakphung
Medicinal use: Root extract is taken for epilepsy. Leaf extract is taken as
antidiarrheal. It is also used as cathartic and perfume.
107. Sungur kande
Scientific name: Cirsium verutum
Limbu name: Chingyakma
Medicinal use: Paste of tender bud is applied as antidote. Root extract is taken as
diuretic.
108. Taate simi
Scientific name: Dolichos lablab
Limbu name: Khesepa
Medicinal use: Root extract is taken as abortifacient. It is also taken for epilepsy.
109. Thade unyu
Scientific name: Thelypteris appendiculoides
Limbu name: Katekwa
Medicinal use: Bud extract is applied on cut. Elsewhere, it is used to treat
scabies.
110. Til
Scientific name: Sesamum orientale
Limbu name: Thang
Medicinal use: Seed paste is applied on measles.
111. Timur
Scientific name: Zanthoxylum armatum
Limbu name: Meadhing
Medicinal use: Decoction of fruit is taken as antacid and febrifuge. Additional
details on this plant are given in Section 4.5.
112. Tite karela
Scientific name: Mormodica charantia
36
Limbu name: Tukrumse
Medicinal use: Young bud extract is taken for stomachache. Root extract is
applied on wound.
113. Tite phapar
Scientific name: Fagopyrum tartaricum
Limbu name: Kyabo
Medicinal use: Young plant is cooked and taken for heart diseases.
114. Titepati
Scientific name: Artemisia indica
Limbu name: Namyoba
Medicinal use: Tender bud and leaf is made warm and is put on dislocated
joints. It is also useful in treating scabies and epistaxis. Leaf extract is taken as
antirheumatic. Root extract is taken as antacid. Additional details on this plant
are given in Section 4.5.
115. Totala
Scientific name: Oroxylum indicum
Limbu name: Nepphe
Medicinal use: Mixture extract of fruit flower and bark is taken for jaundice and
diarrhea. Bark extract is used to treat jaundice, acidity and stone. The paste is
beneficial in swellings. Additional details on this plant are given in Section 4.5.
116. Tulasi
Scientific name: Osimum sanctum
Limbu name: Muchoklung
Medicinal use: Plant leaf is chewed in toothache and measles.
117. Ulte kuro
Scientific name: Achyranthes aspera
Limbu name: Apli
Medicinal use: Root extract is taken as anthelmintic. It is also taken for
pneumonia.
118. Yarsagumba
Scientific name: Cordycep sinensis
Limbu name: ?
Medicinal use: Plant extract is taken as aphrodisiac
4.2.2 Interpretation
Table 4.1 shows multiplicity of uses (as food, medicine, fodder, and others) of many
plant types. The data reveals some interesting facts about the plants. The notation ?
given in the table (Table 4.1) and elsewhere indicates missing knowledge or
information about the plant. The missing information with respect to Limbu names of
plants (there are 8 such plants in the list) indicates, inter alia, following possibilities:
1. These plants are not indigenously used by the Limbus, which may mean that
the plants were not native to the region in question.
2. The occurrence and/or use of the plants became so common/prevalent in other
communities that their vernacular names slowly replaced the Limbu names
(erosion of knowledge).
37
In the present study, 5 plants (asaare phul, tinpate, chamlayo, galgale, and budhi
okhana) could not be scientifically identified. This could be an indication that these
plants are endemic to this study area and therefore warrant further study.
As is evident from Table 4.1, some plants were not found in the study sites (9 plants
are in the list, denoted by 0, Table 4.1) but Limbus possess a good knowledge about
them. This gives rise to (but not limited to) following possibilities:
1. They acquired knowledge about these plants from other people
2. The plants have (or reportedly have) noted or exceptional medicinal or other
properties
3. Limbus brought along with them knowledge about these plants during
migration
4. Because of patrilocal residence system, women who get married from distant
places might have been instrumental in the transmission of the knowledge.
As can be seen from Tables 4.2, 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5, many botanicals have no vernacular
names. Where vernacular names are available, Limbu names are not available. The
data also show considerable overlapping of uses. It is obvious that symbiotic plants
like yarsagumba (Cordycep sinensis) are not available in these regions. Familiarity of
the natives with such plants despite unavailability quite simply indicates that the
knowledge about their use might have been transmitted through some mechanisms.
The existence of a Limbu name (sometimes more than one name) for almost all the
plants studied herein shows the richness of ethnobotanical knowledge among Limbus.
As will be evident in the latter sections, the medicinal importance of these plants in
most cases has been verified.
Table 4.1 shows that 66 (55%) plants are profusely abundant, 37 (31%) moderately
abundant, 7 (6%) scarce, and 9 (8%) unavailable (Fig. 4.1). This is of course not an
exhaustive list of the plants available in the region. Cereals and many very common
garden plants and flowers, as well as trees have been omitted for obvious reasons. Of
the medicinal plants listed, 107 (90%) have fodder value, 59 (50%) have food value,
and 31 (26%) have other uses as well. It may be noted that there is considerable
overlapping in the use. Consequently, about 50% of the plants listed in Table 4.1 have
both food and fodder use. The knowledge in food, fodder, and medicinal use is
variable. About 50% of the plants given in Table 4.1 have no known food use. Of the
medicinal plants in the food use category, the proportion of plants that more than
50% of the respondents agreed to have food use was 76%. Other uses referred to in
the text implies use in starter preparation, religious purpose, animal bedding,
composting, thatching ghoom (a covering used to protect oneself from rain), etc.
There are some variations in the response under fodder use category also. This is
natural because what is perfectly palatable to goat may not be so for cow. Besides,
many people may not know that certain plants can also be used as fodder. This
indicates knowledge gap between the people. Furthermore, ruminants are rather
selective in the glut season.


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3

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A
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M
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F
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F
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4

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D
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b
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k
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R
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5

B
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a
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D
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P
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R
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V
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P
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6

B
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D
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7

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9

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1
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4

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5

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6

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1
7

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M
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1
8

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1
9

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2
0

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4
5
T
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4
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3

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1

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2

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p
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3

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p
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4

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l
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5

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6

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R
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W
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7

B
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W
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8

B
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k
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A
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P
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L
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9

B
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A
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c
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R
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T
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1
0

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k

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1
1

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1
2

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P
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1
3

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H
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Q
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1
4

C
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B
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R
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B
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Q
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1
5

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M
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b
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Q
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1
6

G
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B
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D
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1
7

G
h
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a

a
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P
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B
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1
8

H
a
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a
l
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m

K
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1
9

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T
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B
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2
0

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B
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2
1

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4
6
T
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4
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3

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c
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p
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2
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2
4

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2
5

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2
6

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2
7

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2
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2
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3
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F
r
u
i
t

L
i
v
e
r
f
l
u
k
e

3
2

U
k
h
u

S
a
c
c
h
a
r
u
m

o
f
f
i
c
i
n
a
r
u
m

S
h
o
t

P
l
a
n
t

B
a
b
e
s
i
o
s
i
s

T
a
b
l
e

4
.
4

P
l
a
n
t
s

u
s
e
d

f
o
r

r
e
l
i
g
i
o
u
s

p
u
r
p
o
s
e
s

S
.

N
.
V
e
r
n
a
c
u
l
a
r

n
a
m
e

S
c
i
e
n
t
i
f
i
c

n
a
m
e

L
i
m
b
u

n
a
m
e

F
a
m
i
l
y

U
s
e
s

1

A
m
l
i
s
o

T
h
y
s
a
n
o
l
i
a

m
a
x
i
m
a

S
e
a
l
o
k

G
r
a
m
i
n
e
a
e

R
i
t
u
a
l

c
y
c
l
e

2

A
r
a
r
i

k
a
a
n
d
a

M
i
m
o
s
a

r
u
b
i
c
a
l
i
s

S
i
d
i
n
g
b
a

L
e
g
u
m
i
n
a
c
e
a
e

R
i
t
u
a
l

c
y
c
l
e

3

B
a
j
r
a
t
h

Q
u
e
r
c
u
s
l
a
m
e
l
l
o
s
a

K
h
i
c
h
i
n
g
s
e

F
a
g
a
c
e
a
e

R
i
t
u
a
l

c
y
c
l
e

4

B
h
a
l
a
a
y
o

R
h
u
s

j
a
v
a
n
i
c
a

C
h
a
i
r
e
k

A
n
a
c
a
r
d
i
a
c
e
a
e

R
i
t
u
a
l

c
y
c
l
e

5

B
o
j
h
o

A
c
o
r
u
s

c
a
l
a
m
u
s

L
u
p
l
a
n
g

A
r
a
c
e
a
e

I
n
s
e
c
t
i
c
i
d
e

6

B
u
k
i

p
h
u
l

A
n
a
p
h
a
l
i
s

t
r
i
p
l
i
n
e
r
v
i
s

S
i
r
o
g
a
k

C
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
a
e

R
i
t
u
a
l

c
y
c
l
e

7

C
h
i
n
d
o

L
a
g
e
n
a
r
i
a

c
i
c
e
r
a
r
i
a

P
h
u
w
a
n
t

C
u
c
u
r
b
i
t
a
c
e
a
e

R
i
t
u
a
l

c
y
c
l
e

8

C
h
u
w
a

P
l
u
m
e
r
i
a

r
u
b
r
a

M
a
r
o
t
i

A
p
o
c
y
n
a
c
e
a
e

R
i
t
u
a
l

c
y
c
l
e

9

D
h
u
p
i

J
u
n
i
p
e
r
u
s

r
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c
u
r
v
a

S
a
n
g
e

C
u
p
r
e
s
s
a
c
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a
e

R
i
t
u
a
l

c
y
c
l
e

1
0

D
h
y
a
n
g
r
e

s
a
l
l
a
a

A
r
a
u
c
a
r
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a

b
i
d
w
i
l
l
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S
a
n
g
e

s
i
n
g

A
r
a
u
c
a
r
a
c
e
a
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W
i
t
c
h

d
o
c
t
o
r

s

d
r
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m

1
1

D
u
b
o

C
y
n
o
d
o
n

d
a
c
t
y
l
o
n

S
a
m
b
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k

G
r
a
m
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n
a
e

R
i
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l

c
y
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e

(
c
o
n
t
i
n
u
e
d

.
.
)



4
7
T
a
b
l
e

4
.
4

P
l
a
n
t
s

u
s
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d

f
o
r

r
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l
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g
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p
u
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s

(

.
c
o
n
t
i
n
u
e
d
)

S
.

N
.

V
e
r
n
a
c
u
l
a
r

n
a
m
e

S
c
i
e
n
t
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f
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c

n
a
m
e

L
i
m
b
u

n
a
m
e

F
a
m
i
l
y

U
s
e
s

1
2

G
h
o
d
a

k
h
o
r
i

V
i
b
u
r
n
u
m

c
y
l
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n
d
r
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c
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m

H
a
n
g
a
n
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e

S
a
m
b
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a
c
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R
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t
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l

c
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1
3

G
h
u
n
g
r
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n
g

N
e
y
r
a
r
i
d
i
a

m
a
d
a
g
a
s
c
a
r
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n
s
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s

M
u
k
t
o

?

R
i
t
u
a
l

c
y
c
l
e

1
4

H
a
r
r
o

T
e
r
m
i
n
a
l
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a

c
h
e
b
u
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a

H
a
n
g
a
m

C
h
a
m
b
r
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t
a
c
e
a
e

D
y
e

1
5

J
a
m
u
n
a

S
y
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y
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m

c
u
m
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n
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C
h
a
m
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n

M
a
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t
a
c
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a
e

R
i
t
u
a
l

c
y
c
l
e

1
6

K
a
i
j
a
l

B
i
s
c
h
o
f
i
a

j
a
v
a
n
i
c
a

M
u
k
u
m
b
a

E
u
p
h
o
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b
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a
c
e
a
e

D
y
e

1
7

K
a
a
u
l
o

P
e
r
s
e
a

o
d
o
r
a
t
i
s
s
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m
a

C
h
a
m
j
i
n
g

L
a
u
r
a
c
e
a
e

R
i
t
u
a
l

c
y
c
l
e

1
8

K
e
r
a

M
u
s
a

p
a
r
a
d
i
s
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c
a

T
e
l
a
s
e

M
u
s
a
c
e
a
e

R
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t
u
a
l

c
y
c
l
e

1
9

K
h
a
m
a
a
r
i

G
m
e
l
i
n
a

a
r
b
o
r
e
a

H
a
n
g
e
s
i
n
g

V
e
r
b
e
n
a
c
e
a
e

M
u
s
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c
a
l

I
n
s
t
r
u
m
e
n
t

2
0

K
o
i
r
a
a
l
o

B
a
u
h
i
n
i
a

P
u
r
p
u
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a

A
j
i
b
a

L
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g
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m
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n
o
c
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e

D
y
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2
1

M
a
j
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R
u
b
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a

m
a
n
j
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t
h
a

P
a
n
d
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R
u
b
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D
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e

2
2

M
a
l
a
b
a
n
s

D
e
n
d
r
o
c
a
l
a
m
u
s

s
t
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c
t
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s

L
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s
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n
g

p
h
a

G
r
a
m
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n
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e

R
i
t
u
a
l

c
y
c
l
e

2
3

M
a
l
i
n
g
o

T
h
a
m
n
o
c
a
l
a
m
u
s

s
p
a
t
h
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f
l
o
r
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s

S
e
m
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k
l
a

G
r
a
m
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n
a
e

M
u
s
i
c
a
l

I
n
s
t
r
u
m
e
n
t
.

2
4

M
a
u
w
a
/
M
a
h
u
a

E
n
g
e
l
h
a
r
d
i
a

s
p
i
c
a
t
a

Y
a
k
p
a
p
m
a

J
u
g
l
a
n
d
a
c
e
a
e

D
y
e

2
5

M
u
s
u
r
e

k
a
t
u
s

C
a
s
t
a
n
o
p
s
i
s

t
r
i
b
u
l
o
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d
e
s

S
i
g
a
p

F
a
g
a
c
e
a
e

R
i
t
u
a
l

c
y
c
l
e

2
6

P
a
i
y
u
n

P
r
u
n
u
s

c
e
r
a
s
o
i
d
e
s

U
m
b
h
r
u
n
g

R
o
s
a
c
e
a
e

R
i
t
u
a
l

c
y
c
l
e

2
7

P
h
a
l
e
d
o

E
r
y
t
h
r
i
n
a

s
t
r
i
c
t
a

M
a
n
g
a
l
o
k

L
e
g
u
m
i
n
o
s
a
e

R
i
t
u
a
l

c
y
c
l
e
/
M
u
s
i
c

2
8

S
a
k
h
u
w
a

S
h
o
r
e
a

r
o
b
u
s
t
a

S
a
s
i
n
g

D
i
p
t
e
r
o
c
a
r
p
a
c
e
a
e

R
i
t
u
a
l

c
y
c
l
e

2
9

S
i
l
t
i
m
u
r

L
i
n
d
e
r
a

n
e
e
s
i
a
n
a

W
a
r
e
k
p
a

L
a
u
r
a
c
e
a
e

I
n
s
e
c
t
i
c
i
d
e

3
0

S
i
m
a
l

B
o
m
b
a
x

c
e
i
b
a

T
e
n
g
o
s
i
n
g

B
o
m
b
a
c
a
c
e
a
e

M
u
s
i
c
a
l

i
n
s
t
r
u
m
e
n
t

3
1

S
i
m
a
l
i

V
i
t
e
x

n
e
g
u
n
d
o

S
i
w
a
l
i

V
e
r
b
i
n
a
c
e
a
e

R
i
t
u
a
l

c
y
c
l
e

3
2

S
i
r
u

I
m
p
e
r
a
t
a

c
y
l
i
n
d
r
i
c
a

N
i
n
g

G
r
a
m
i
n
a
e

R
i
t
u
a
l

c
y
c
l
e

3
3

T
i
m
u
r

Z
a
n
t
h
o
x
y
l
u
m

a
r
m
a
t
u
m

M
e
a
d
i
n
g

R
u
t
a
c
e
a
e

I
n
s
e
c
t
i
c
i
d
e

3
4

T
i
t
e
p
a
t
i

A
r
t
e
m
i
s
i
a

i
n
d
i
c
a

N
a
m
y
o
b
a

C
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
a
e

R
i
t
u
a
l

c
y
c
l
e
/
I
n
s
e
c
t
i
c
i
d
e

3
5

T
o
t
a
l
a

O
r
o
x
y
l
u
m

i
n
d
i
c
u
m

N
e
p
p
h
e

B
i
g
n
o
n
i
a
c
e
a
e

R
i
t
u
a
l

c
y
c
l
e

3
6

U
t
t
i
s
h

A
l
n
u
s

n
e
p
a
l
e
n
s
i
s

W
a
s
o
a
m
a

B
e
t
u
l
a
c
e
a
e

M
u
s
i
c
a
l

i
n
s
t
r
u
m
e
n
t

3
7

?

G
a
u
l
t
h
e
r
i
a

g
r
i
f
f
i
t
h
i
a
n
a

S
i
n
j
a
n
g
o

E
r
i
c
a
c
e
a
e

R
i
t
u
a
l

c
y
c
l
e



4
8
T
a
b
l
e

4
.
5

P
l
a
n
t
s

u
s
e
d

f
o
r

m
u
r
c
h
a

p
r
e
p
a
r
a
t
i
o
n

S
.

N
.

V
e
r
n
a
c
u
l
a
r

n
a
m
e
s

S
c
i
e
n
t
i
f
i
c

n
a
m
e

L
i
m
b
u

N
a
m
e

P
l
a
n
t

p
a
r
t
s

u
s
e
d

1

A
b
h
i
j
a
a
l
o

D
r
y
m
a
r
i
a

c
o
r
d
a
t
a

W
a
n
a

W
h
o
l
e

2

A
d
u
w
a


Z
i
n
g
i
b
e
r

o
f
f
i
c
i
n
a
l
e

H
a
m
b
e
k

R
h
i
z
o
m
e

3

A
n
a
r
a
s

A
n
a
n
a
s

c
o
m
o
s
u
s

?

L
e
a
f

4

B
h
a
t
u

C
l
e
r
o
d
e
n
d
r
o
n

i
n
d
i
c
u
m

?

T
e
n
d
e
r

s
h
o
o
t

5

B
h
i
m
s
e
n
p
a
a
t
i

B
u
d
d
l
e
j
a

a
s
i
a
t
i
c
a

K
h
a
y
a
m
m
a

L
e
a
f

a
n
d

t
e
n
d
e
r

s
h
o
o
t

6

B
u
k
i

p
h
u
l

A
n
a
p
h
a
l
i
s

t
r
i
p
l
i
n
e
v
i
s

?

W
h
o
l
e

7

C
h
a
a
b
o

P
i
p
e
r

c
h
a
b
a

C
h
a
b
o

W
h
o
l
e

8

C
h
h
a
t
r
e

I
n
u
l
a

s
p
e
c
i
e
s

?

W
h
o
l
e

9

C
h
i
n
i

j
h
a
a
r

S
c
o
p
a
r
i
a

d
u
l
c
i
s

?

W
h
o
l
e

1
0

C
h
i
t
u

P
l
u
m
b
a
g
o

z
e
y
l
a
n
i
c
a

C
h
i
t
u

W
h
o
l
e

1
1

D
h
a
e
n
r
o

W
o
o
d
f
o
r
d
i
a

f
r
u
c
t
i
c
o
s
a

P
a
n
g
w
a
r
i

F
l
o
w
e
r

1
2

D
u
d
h
e

I
c
h
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Unavailable
Scarce
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Fig. 4.1 Availability of medicinal plants in Chokmagu and Ranitar VDC (2007)
The bar diagram (Fig. 4.2) gives an overall knowledge status of the interviewees on
medicinal properties of the plants tabulated in Table 4.1. The bar diagram may require
a brief explanation here. The x-axis gives the grouping of interviewees based on the
yes response in percentage (out of 25 interviewees). The y-axis gives the
corresponding % of medicinal plants from Table 4.1.
0
5
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1-10 11-20 21-20 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 71-80 81-90 91-100
% Agreement on medicinal use (25 respondents)
%

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Fig. 4.2 Intensity of the use of plants for medicinal purpose
Thus, there is 91-100% agreement on the medicinal importance of about 30% of
plants in the list. From the same graph, it can be seen that only 1-10% of the
respondents agree on the medicinal importance of about 2.5% of plants in the list. The
lower degree of agreement does not necessarily imply that the plants in question have
lower efficacy or are of dubious value. It could as well mean that knowledge about the
medicinal use of these plants have eroded overtime. In the same light, higher degree
of concordance does not necessarily mean that the plant in question is highly
medicinal. The popularity could merely be due to ready availability, or even rarity.
For instance, everyone knew about yarsagumba (Cordycep sinensis), which is not
available in region.
51
4.3 Statistical Analysis
It has been found in similar work that abundance (ready availability) of plants in the
vicinity is correlated with the frequency of use for medicinal purpose (Casagrande,
2003). However, the present study did not show such an association between the
variables in the underlying population (r
s
= -0.261, df = 117, adjusted for ties = -0.414,
P < 0.001, t Approximation = -4.91). Table 4.1 was used for correlation analysis
utilizing Spearmans ranked correlation (Payne et al., 2006). The table shows that
people have significant information on unavailable plants also. This indicates to the
possibility that rarity of the plant is associated with medicinal value.
The same analysis for knowledge on food use showed some degree of association
(r
s
= 0.206, df = 57, adjusted for ties -0.06, P = 0.615, t Approximation = -0.51).
Medicinal plants with no known food use were omitted in the test, thereby giving only
61 pairs of samples.
As will be discussed in the subsequent section, people often tend to associate
particular appearance and other sensory attributes of plants to medicinal properties.
For instance, bitterness is associated with febrifuge property (e.g., chiraito and
bikhma). Alkaline and sour tastes are associated with stomachic property. These
findings are in accordance with those of Casagrande (2003) and Pieroni and Torry
(2007). The latter workers mention that taste retains an importance in determining
emic medicinal perceptions of the botanicals.
Murcha plants generally tend to be sweeter in taste. The sweet taste is due to simple
sugars. It is explicable at this point that murcha plants support the growth and
proliferation of yeasts and molds by providing readily assimilable sugars. This implies
that only select plants can serve as a habitat for murcha flora. This assumption is also
supported by the earlier works (KC et al., 1999) that there are only select plants that
can serve as habitat for murcha flora.
4.4 Knowledgebase on Biodiversity and Ecology
It is known that floral diversity in any particular location depends on habitat
manipulation, endemism, and microclimatic conditions. Sharp variation in elevation
over short distance also has a material influence on the floral diversity.
The knowledge on biodiversity and ecology was found to be eroding slowly. Most
informants had only a feeble memory of what their predecessors would do or say in
times of natural disasters.
The key informants of Chokmagu VDC remember planting plenty of banana trees in
the kitchen garden as a precautionary measure against fire. Throwing chopped banana
stems over the conflagration is considered a very effective means of controlling the
fire, especially in places where water is scarce. The practice of keeping hay and dried
fodders (which catch fire easily) at some distance from the house is another
prophylactic measure. It was relieving to find that the natives do not remember any
fire disaster in the recent years.
Flash floods and erosion are the major abiotic problems facing farmers in upland
slopes of hills. Attempts are made to control them by constructing stone dikes on the
banks of the rivulets in a traditional way. Terracing and mini dike construction is
widely practiced to conserve topsoil and increase fertility, and these have been in
practice from eons past. They are fully aware that landslides and erosion can be
controlled by planting shrubs and trees, especially bamboo (Bambusa and
52
Dendrocalamus spp.) and simali (Vitex negundo). Planting amliso (Thysanolina
maxima) is more popular these days but had been in practice from ages.
The use of simali, bamboo and amliso for controlling erosion is well documented. In
addition, simali has a number of medicinal and insecticidal uses (Chadha, 1976). This
plant is generally a host to sunlahara (Cuscuta reflexa). The leaves of simali are
aromatic and are considered tonic and vermifuge. The extracts from the leaves contain
2 alkaloids (nishindine and hydrocotylene) and many other bioactive components that
endow the plant with medicinal properties (Chadha, 1976). The plant is also
considered analgesic. Leaves are applied externally to reduce arthritic pain. A leaf
decoction brings the uterus to normal size after delivery. The seeds are used to correct
skin disorders (IRRI, 1994).
In the recent years, Chokmagu VDC is experiencing unprecedented landslides at some
places. We observed the some lengths of kaccha road (motorable in the winter)
leading to the VDC slowly sliding down. In some places, the condition is very severe
(the road has dropped down by as much as 10 m). There is very little the villagers can
do to prevent this because the whole ridge seems to be spontaneously inching its way
downward. Most probably, the construction of the road might have destabilized the
most sensitive spot of the ridge, which catalyzed the landslide.
Subsistence agriculture is widely practiced. The production system is based on an
integration of agricultural and livestock activities and this allows a somewhat rational
use of the soil capabilities in a sustainable way. The natives have an average farm size
of 0.5-0.75 ha and family members carry out most farm operations. They have
adopted mixed farming, crop rotation, and planting multipurpose trees. In some
places, swidden agriculture is also followed but this is being restricted because of the
emergence of community forests. Maize, rice, and millet are the major cereals. We
came to know that only the local varieties of maize, millet and rice are being used.
More than 1836 varieties of rice germplasms have been registered in Nepal. There are
4 wild types of rice. Nepal is the only place where rice plantation is carried out in
places that are from 70 m to 2850 m masl. In Nepal, more than 50 improved rice
varieties have been released but only about 20 varieties are widely grown in the
country. Rice varieties that have been developed for the hills need to be introduced in
these areas also. Maize is the major crop, with its usage in food, beverage, feed and
seed approximately 54, 24, 16, and 1%. The rest (4%) is sold or bartered. Maize
contributes to about 46% of food grain. Maize is planted in bari (slopes) as well as
khet (terraced plots for rice) with pre-monsoon rains. Maize planting in bari is
usually relayed with millet, potato and other crops.
The modern concept of biodiversity conservation has not fully permeated the regions.
Although they seem to understand how environment is being constantly degraded by
human activities, they could not relate biodiversity with environment and
sustainability. Although oblivious of the far-reaching consequences of biodiversity,
the villagers were found doing things their own way to conserve the local
environment. They set up religious forests such as Raniban and sacred places such
as Devithan (altar for worshipping deity). They have a very strong belief that these
religious areas should not be defiled. According to some of the informants, the natural
drinking water source is guarded by nag (serpent God). Anyone who defiles the
water source (e.g., by defecating, urinating, etc.) will not escape the wrath of the
serpent God. This belief, be it a superstition, is serving a good purpose by guarding
the water source against contamination. Drying up of drinking water sources was
53
observed in several wards of both Chokmagu and Ranitar VDC. People believe that
this is due to cemented (concrete) structures (reservoir). How natural ponds are more
sustainable than the cemented structures is still unclear but the natives believe that
paniko mool (water source) tends to shift upon such interventions.
During the interviews, particularly in Chokmagu VDC, women were found to possess
an astounding wealth of knowledge about medicinal plants and their use, often
surpassing their male counterpart. It appears that the patrilocal residence system has a
role to play in the transmission of traditional knowledge by women. It is known that
women very avidly distribute/share among themselves plant seeds and knowledge.
These days, cardamom- and tea plantation are growing very popular in Chokmagu and
Ranitar VDC, According to personal communication with the head master of a local
school, Ranitar VDC was the first to carry out tea plantation in Panchthar district on a
commercial scale. Cardamom plantation is more intensive in Ranitar VDC and this
has been a major source of cash income for these people. Shady ravines and gullies
that would otherwise have no use are being intensively used for cardamom farming.
Dikes have been constructed to control the flow of water, which in turn have helped
control landslide and erosion. We did not observe any ecological imbalance due to
cardamom farming. The respondents said that they not yet observed ecological
disturbances due to tea and cardamom plantation. It may be too early to say that
things will remain this way for a long time, given the expansion of cardamom and tea
plantation still taking place. At this time, tea, cardamom, ginger, lemongrass and
cinnamon produced in these areas (under Kanchanjungha Tea Estate) have been
certified by National Association of Sustainable Agriculture, Australia (NASAA) as
organic. This implies that a very heavy emphasis is being given in indigenous
methods of plant nutrition.
Chemical fertilizers and pesticides are used in modest amounts (when available) in
other crops. When used appropriately, this will contribute to intensive farming,
without much environmental effects. Indiscriminate use must be discouraged, as this
will not only degrade the environment but also affect the entire trophic levels. Some
forms of integrated pest management do exist but this has to be intensified further to
reduce the chemical inputs.
Integrated pest management is widespread in both the VDCs. People use biopesticides
such as titepati (Artemisia indica), bojho (Acorus calamus), stinging nettle or sisnu
(Urtica dioica), neem (Azadirachta indica), etc., to protect their seeds during storage.
Wood ash and cow urine or dung slurry is sometimes used on the standing crop. Most
grain storage structures they use have a remarkable scientific basis. Storage of maize
cobs in thankro (stacks), for example, has been scientifically proved to be more
efficient than any other methods available in the rural setting. This is a very good
method to prevent grains from going moldy. Moldy grains have the risk of developing
aflatoxin, a potent carcinogenic toxin that brought a death toll of 106 people in India
in 1974.
Acorus calamus has been used worldwide in the form of medicine (for cough, motion
sickness, ulcer, etc.). However, recent researches on Acorus calamus of the Indian
subcontinent have shown that it contains -asarone, a component that can cause
cancer. The FDA (Food and Drug Association) has therefore put a ban on the use this
plant (or its parts) as food additive. The plant (rhizome) can be used in the
preservation of grains (e.g., wheat, maize), particularly against the weevils, Sitophilus
54
species in particular (Paudyal, 2005). Given the carcinogenic property of the plant, its
use should be limited to the preservation of seed grain only (not food grain).
The effects of titepati on caterpillars have been studied by Yamazaki et al (2004) and
the results are encouraging. In fact Japanese have been doing work on titepati in
Nepal since the establishment of Titepati Promotion and Research Center (TPRC) in
2001 (Anon, 2003). Chanphen et al (1998) have shown the presence of several
bioactive compounds (e.g., exiguaflavone A and B, mackiain, and benzofuran
derivatives). Exiguaflavone A and B have antimalarial properties.
The use of neem as a pesticide is well established. Its extract has been shown to be
active against some 65 worms. The mode of action is very varied. Depending on the
worm, it inhibits molding (of larva), mating, chitin (exoskeleton) formation, and
swallowing. A range of bioactive components have been isolated from neem but the
most potent component is azadirachtin A (Laura and Martin, 1996).
The effects of Urtica extracts on aphids have been studied (Gaspari et al., 2007) but
the effect of sisnu (Urtica dioica) in particular is not very encouraging. The traditional
use of sisnu in grain protection might have stemmed from the sting that this plant
gives. The painful sensation in the sting has been attributed to the presence of formic
acid, serotonin, choline and histamine. Today, this plant is being used in commercial
medications for the treatment of a range of illnesses such as seasonal allergies,
rhinitis, sinusitis, arthritis, high blood pressure, and hair loss (Anon, 2008).
Application of farmyard manure (FYM) is the most important soil fertility
management practice farmers use. They make considerable effort to increase FYM
by collecting jungle foliage and composting it with dung. Green manuring (directly or
indirectly) by sowing local legumes and botanicals is also carried out. Kalo dal (Vigna
mungo), bhatmas (Glycine max), masyam (Vigna umbellata), etc., are intercropped
with rice by planting them on the mini-dikes. Ghansi (Sesbania aculeata) is also
grown for green manuring. Moisture conservation and weed control are achieved by
mulching, hoeing, etc., in a traditional way. Intensive farming has not reached its limit
and there is ample scope for improving the output. Encouraging intensive farming,
coupled with integrated pest management is required to avoid ploughing of additional
hectares of land for feeding the ever-growing population (McNicoll, 2000). This is not
only sustainable but also environment-friendly and thus has to be encouraged. As
Bhowmik (2000) puts it, the economic losses (in developing countries) account for
33% of the total losses due to pests, followed by 26% by pathogens, and 20% by
insects. Recent estimates show that average crop yield reductions (worldwide) due to
weeds vary from 12% to 72% depending on the crop. Much can therefore be done
through integrated pest management.
Depending on the crop, farmers in the study site were also found to adopt minimum-
tillage and no-tillage cropping. This system, called conservation tillage, has been
considered very effective in saving top soil from erosion elements. Besides protecting
the top soil, this method also saves rivers and water supplies from vast amount of
pollution by natural contaminants and chemical inputs.
Chokmagu has no community forests but planting and nurturing of essential trees (for
fodder, fruits and a host of other purposes) is very common. In Ranitar VDC, there are
2 community forests and some Community Forest User Groups (CFUG). Although
the concept of community forest has an element of modern science, the traditional
management practice has been greatly emphasized and respected.
55
The contribution of plants to rural economy is obvious. Plants provide food, fodder,
building materials, medicines, and cash. Cardamom, tea, fruits, ginger, vegetables,
and jadibuti are the major source of plant-based income. Their trade provides both
wage and self employment. Some of the important jadibuti that are commercially
traded in these sites are majito (Rubia majitha), pakhanbhed (Bergenia ciliata),
chiraito (Swertia chirayita), and bojho (Acorus calamus). Details regarding their
contribution to the rural economy could not be assessed because of the lack of data.
Middlemen still operate as the necessary evils between the farmgate and the large
scale collectors.
The natives are also involved in many value-addition activities (of agricultural
produce). Preparation of sinki and grundruk (fermented vegetable products) in the
glut season, preparation and sale of local alcoholic beverages (jand and raksi,
described elsewhere), collection and sale of murcha plants, preparation and sale of
murcha, etc., are some of the important value-addition activities that have
significantly contributed to the rural economy. Murcha trade is a very lucrative
business. The collection, use, and sale of murcha plants (plants that are used as an
ingredient in murcha making) are taking an unsustainable form these days.
Overharvesting has occurred in some places, putting at stake the floral diversity of
murcha plants (there are some 40 species of murcha plants) as well as the livelihood
of the dependents. A serious study is needed to address this problem.
4.5 Use of Botanicals is Traditional Medicine
The responses on the use of different plants or their parts for the treatment of diseases
are as follows:
Stomachache
Stomachache is the most common ailment in the region. Two informants had no idea
about what to do in stomachache. A few respondents said that they used chimphing
(fruit part of Heracleum wallichii, Appendix-III, Fig. A-III.3). Most of the
respondents said that they resorted to dhami-jhankri (witch-doctor). The knowledge
gap in the treatment of stomachache is explicable because stomachache results from
various reasons and no single medication is applicable in all cases. Under such
circumstances, the trial-and-error used by the natives cannot be expected to produce
results that can be easily generalized.
Fever
Most informants said that they use chiraito (Swertia chirayita) infusion (obtained by
boiling in hot water). This treatment is effective against headache also. A few them
said that they use timur (Zanthoxylum armatum) oil. This finding suggests that there
exists a void in the transmission/dissemination of traditional knowledge. The different
views regarding the treatment are natural because fever results from different reasons,
ranging from food poisoning to flue. People seemed to relate persistent bitterness of
plants to cure for fever. An informant at Chokmagu VDC showed me a plant called
budhi okhana (Appendix-III, Fig. A-III.1) whose extract could cure fever. The plant
is very bitter in taste. The scientific identification of the plant could not be possible.
Today, several literatures on the active components of these plants are available.
Chiraito is credited with tonic-, febrifuge-, laxative-, stomachic, anthelmintic-, and
hypoglycemic properties. This plant contains several bitter principles like ophelic
acid, chiratin (glucoside), amarogentin (glucoside), and swerchirin as the active
56
component (Anon, 2002). The preparations from this plant are under GRAS
(Generally Recognized as Safe) list of the FDA (Food and Drug Administration). In
Nepal, this plant (unprocessed) is used for the treatment of fever and malaria (Anon,
2006). Timur (bark, fruit and seeds) is extensively used in indigenous system of
medicine as a carminative, stomachic and anthelmintic. It can also be used in fever
and dyspepsia. Essential oil of the fruit contains linalool, linalyl acetate, citral,
geranoil, methyl cinnamate, limonene and sabinene, which probably account for its
antiseptic properties (Chadha, 1976).
Fracture
A number of items were named by the respondents for the treatment of fracture, viz.,
mahuwa /mauwa (Engelhardia spicata) bark, honey, eggs, milk, mistletoe or
hadchoor (also spelt harchur, hadchud, Fig. A-IV.3) (Viscum album), pakhanbhed
(also spelt pakhanved or pasanabhed, Fig. A-IV.2) (Bergenia ciliata), horsetail or
sallibisalli/ghodpuchre (Equisetum sp.), bhuinchampa (Kaempferia rotunda),
chamlayo (?) bark, and snails. The information given by the respondents were based
on hearsay. They were not themselves bone setters. As can be seen from the case
study (Section 4.5) with the bone setters, the ingredients mentioned by the informants
of Focus Group Discussion do not necessarily match with those mentioned by the
bone setters themselves. This shows that the distribution of knowledge is not uniform
among the natives. The consumption of milk can be related to supply of calcium
necessary of the regeneration of bone tissue.
Information on active ingredients from some of the above plants is available.
Sallibisalli (ghodpuchhre) is known to contain salicic acid, nicotine, palustrine,
palustridine, sterols and malic acid. These ingredients have antimicrobial, antiseptic,
and anti-inflamatory effects. These properties become important in the treatment of
bone fracture.
Researches show that pakhanbhed rhizomes contain an active principle, bergenin. It
also contains gallic acid, glucose, mucilage/wax, -sitosterol and four flavonoids. The
drug is reported to possess astringent tonic-, antiscorbutic-, and laxative properties. It
is given in pulmonary infection, dysentery, ulcers, dysuria, spleen enlargement, cough
and fever. It also helps dissolve kidney stone (Anon, 2002). A recent research by
Rajbhandari et al (2007) has shown that methanolic extracts of Bergenia ciliata
rhizomes have antiviral properties (against influenza virus A). There relevance of
these properties in the treatment of fracture is not very clear.
Traditional medicinal uses of hadchoor bark have been mentioned by various authors
(Widmann et al., 203; Bishokarma et al., 2001) but details on its chemical
composition and active ingredients are not available.
Bhuinchampa tubers are used as local application in tumors, swellings and wounds.
They are also stomachic and given in stomach complaints. Rhizomes and leaves are
used for flavoring (Chadha, 1976).
Dental problem
All the interviewees named clove oil and timur oil as the most effective treatment.
Other options included latex from saruwa kadam (Jatropha curcas), extracts from
kaalo unyu rhizome (Tectaria macrodonta), neem, pakhanbhed, pire jhaar (Spilanthes
acmella), tulasi (Osimum sanctum), and guava bark. Additional details on medicinal
aspects of these plants have been mentioned earlier in Section 2.2.1 Some informants
mentioned of tantrik (casting spells) treatment also. Traditionally, it is believed that
57
toothache is due to worms and the latter can be removed by a combination of tantrik
method and medication. However, people of this region do not have much dental
problem.
Epistaxis (nosebleed)
This condition occurs occasionally, and there are several reasons leading to this
condition. Minor irritation and rupture of small veins of the septum of the nose are the
main reasons. These veins may rupture spontaneously, or the rupture may be caused
by a cough or sneeze that raises the blood pressure inside the veins of the nose. People
drop extracts from dubo (Cynodon dactylon) or titepati (Artemisia indica) into the
nostrils for stopping the nosebleed. It is common to plug the nostrils with rolled leaves
of titepati to clot the blood. Some informants mentioned that they rub soot from the
mud (or stone) tripod of traditional firewood stove on the forehead. The details of
reactions that may/may not take place when plant extracts are administered are a
subject of further study (except that they have proven antiseptic property) but the use
of soot appears to have a psychological role. It is obvious that plugging of the nostril
with rolled leaves provides counter pressure and stops bleeding. The components of
titepati have been mentioned earlier (Section 4.4).
The use of dubo in cuts and wounds by Bantar community of Morang district of Nepal
has been mentioned by Acharya and Pokhrel (2006), which shows that this plant can
be used for other purposes also. Chopra et al (1986) have mentioned that a decoction
of the root is diuretic. The infusion is also useful in stopping bleeding from piles and
treatment of fresh cuts and wounds.
Scabies
People use juice squeezed from titepati (Artemisia indica), bojho (Acorus calamus), or
angeri (Lyonia ovalifolia) shoots. Angeri is a very potent medicine but it gives an
intense burning sensation. For the sensitive ones, treatment with angeri can be very
agonizing and therefore care must be taken during its administration. According to the
people, angeri is simply an absolute medicine for scabies. Scabies is a contagious skin
disease caused by itch mite (Sacroptes scabiei). The disease is characterized by
intense itching. To counteract this itching, people resort to the above mentioned most
painful phytochemical alternatives. Modern treatments of scabies involve topical
application of lotions containing permethrin and lindane.
The active components bojho and the associated implications have been mentioned
earlier (Section 4.4). The use of angeri buds in the treatment of skin diseases and
external parasites have been mentioned by Chadha (1976), Manandhar (2002) and
Chopra et al (2005) also but the active components responsible for this are still
elusive. According to Chadha (1976), the leaves contain a toxic substance,
andromedotoxin, and are insecticidal, and this may be responsible for the antiparasitic
property.
Wart
Wart is a benign tumor caused by papilloma virus. In modern treatments, it can be
removed by surgical method, burning with electric needle, etc. People of the study site
use juice obtained by crushing kagekira (potato leaf hopper). A small lesion is made
around the wart and the juice applied. Within a few days, the tissue supporting the
wart gets septic and the wart subsequently falls off. The principle here is the decaying
of tissues at the foot of the wart. However, care must be taken not to aggravate the
58
sepsis. Some people mentioned using murcha. When scientifically viewed, this also
does the same work of bringing about sepsis.
Burns
Many natives have heard about use of ghiu kumari (Aloe vera), and some of them use
it. Babari (Ocimum basilicum) juice, harro (Terminalia chebula) oil, Ghoda khori
(Lyonia ovalifolia) oil and ranikhel or saruwa kadam (Jatropha curcas) sap are also
used. A few informants told that they dip the affected portion in raksi (a local,
distilled alcoholic beverage). Tantrik method is also used to speed up the recovery.
The use of Aloe vera is prevalent in other regions of Nepal also and it appears that the
practice is not indigenous to the study site. These medicines may have chemicals the
topical application of which may lessen the pain or hasten the healing but this needs
further study to validate it. The dipping in alcohol may serve two functions, viz., as a
pain reliever (local anesthesia) and disinfectant.
As such, the origin of Aloe vera is believed to be in the Mediterranean region. This
plant has a viscid gel in the interior of the leaf and a yellow liquid between the leaf
and the gel. In modern practice, the gel is used for skinburn and cuts, the yellow
portion is used as a potent laxative, and the leaf is used to prepare a range of
medicines.
There are more than 800 publications about the Aloe vera and research is going on to
this day. Among other things, carbohydrates termed veracylglucan B and C have been
found to be very bioactive. Veracylglucan B is anti-inflammatory, cytotoxic,
antibacterial and antiviral. Veracylglucan C is anti-inflammatory and cell proliferative
(Eusa, 2006).
Saruwa kadam seeds possess poisonous and purgative properties. However, they are
rarely used as purgative. The toxic principles of the seeds are curcine and curcasin (a
toxalbumin resembling ricine) with nauseating and purgative properties. The twig
yields a translucent sap and this is reported to relieve toothache and strengthen gums.
Rural people often use twigs from this plant for brushing teeth (Chadha, 1976).
Chadha (1976) has mentioned several uses of babari. The oil is used in food products,
perfumes, etc. It is also effective against mosquitoes, houseflies, and bacteria. The
plant is stomachic, anthelmintic, expectorant, and antipyretic. The infusion is used for
gargle for foul breath, nasal douche, throat irritation, and ringworm.
Jaundice
Jaundice results from various conditions, but all of which stem from the health of the
liver. The tantrik method of treatment is very rife. They also follow a strict diet
regimen. The patients are encouraged to drink black sugarcane juice and eat a lot of
papaya. This is justifiable because the liver is weak and easily assimilable forms of
foods are needed under these conditions. The functional ingredients found in these
foods may well play complex and synergistic role in speeding up the recovery. There
is growing interest in the scientific community on functional foods but the
information is still fragmentary. Besides diet regimen, they also administer juice of
sunlahara or amarlata (Cuscuta reflexa) and aqueous extracts of ban ghiraula
(Trichosanthes cucumerina) in modest doses. Some were found to be using totala
(Oroxylum indicum) bark. This item has also been mentioned by Ramdev (a yoga
guru from India).
59
Most parts of totala find use in traditional medicine (Chadha, 1976). Root bark is
tonic and astringent, and is used in diarrhea and dysentery. The stem and root bark
contain three flavones (oroxylin A, baicalein, and chrysin), which may be responsible
for the medicinal value. Tender shoots and flowers are considered a delicacy by some
people.
Sunlahara is a yellow-colored epiphytic plant that finds an important place in
ayurveda. It is used in bilious disorders (Chopra, 1986), protracted fever, and as
purgative (Chopra, 1986; Manandhar, 2002). The use of this plant in the treatment of
jaundice may have relation to the sensory property of this plant, namely, the golden
color. Recently, Muhammad Ali (2004) has carried out a very extensive study on the
components of sunlahara, in which 26 components were isolated (1 new and 25
known). The author has also discussed the anticancer properties of some of these
components.
The tantrik method is simply an illusion, as we saw some of the healers performing. In
practice, the healer takes a brass cup half-filled with cooking oil. He chants mantra
and swings a small bunch of dubo (submerged in the oil) until a lumpy mass is
formed. The healer considers formation of lump (which is nothing but an emulsion) as
the successful extraction of the jaundice (also called gayo). People mention of
occasional argument between the gayo healer and allopathic health personnel on the
tantrik method. Thus, the tantrik method is only a psychological one. However, one
must not forget that psychology has a very great effect on the well being of humans.
According to Chadha (1976) the root of ban ghiraula is used as a cure for bronchitis,
headache, and boils. Both root and fruit are considered cathartic. Leaves are used in
biliousness.
Dysentery
The natives, especially of Chokmagu VDC use budhi okhona (?) and pakhandbhed
(Bergenia ciliata). The medicine is masticated like betel nut. Dysentery as we know is
a condition of food poisoning caused by bacteria. The oral administration of the
above-mentioned herbs may have actions similar to antibiotics that are used to combat
dysentery. In Ranitar, they use lalchan or belchanda (Hibiscus sabdariffa), and
rhizomes of kaalo unyu / kaalo nigure (Tectaria macrodonta). Lalchan can be eaten as
such but the rhizomes of kaalo nigure are first rubbed on a stone with some water and
slurry that results is taken orally.
Among other things, belchanda contains gossypetin, hibiscin, anthocyanins, pectic
substances, vitamin C and many other organic acids (Duke, 1983). Elsewhere, this
plant is used for numerous therapeutic purposes, ranging from the treatment of
allergic eczemas to the control of inflammation. The extracts are reported to be
laxative, antibacterial, and antifungal.
Other plant-based medicines reported to be used in both the VDCs are guava (Psidium
guajava) bark and mehel chook (concentrate of Pyrus pashia juice).
Recent researches show that guava contains more than 20 identified components from
leaves, -selinene, guajavarin, quercetin (and a number of flavonoids), to name a few.
Reports validate that quava leaf and bark extracts can be effective against
hypertension and diarrhea (Belemtougri, 2006)
On the whole, people were found to relate acidic or alkaline taste of plants (or their
parts) with the treatment of dysentery.
60
Altitude sickness
Although not very common, people were familiar with altitude sickness. According to
them, chewing ginger or eating saatu (flour prepared from roasted corn) can be
beneficial in altitude sickness.
Tonsillitis
Tonsillitis, incorrectly called tonsil by the natives, is the inflammation of tonsils of
the mouth, caused by either bacteria or virus, which makes the throat very sore and
can lead to fever and ear ache. The natives believe that chewing corn seed is
beneficial in tonsil. Abhijaalo (Limbu name: wana or varanthungna) (Drymaria
diandra) can also be chewed to soothe the pain. These medicines most probably work
by destroying/inhibiting the causative organisms, much like the antibiotics used in
allopathic treatment.
Modern treatments involve administration of antibiotics for acute tonsillitis and
surgical treatment (tonsillectomy) for recurrent tonsillitis. Ding et al (2005) have
discussed the presence of 3 cyclic peptides and 4 flavone glucosides (drymareatin A,
B, C, and D) in abhijaalo plant. The plant is also used by the Chinese in the treatment
of acute hepatitis (Ding et al., 2005).
Sinusitis
Sinusitis is a skull disease that occurs due to inflammation (caused by bacterial
infection) of the membrane lining a sinus of the skull. This problem is not very
common but they know what to use in its treatment. A plant called haachhyun jhaar
(Dichrocephala integrifolia) is very popular but this is not a permanent remedy. The
plant induces sneezing, which temporarily relieves the condition. Some people also
said that they administer juice of ban ghiraula (Trichosanthes cucumerina) through
the nostrils (Section 2.2.1). Hot salt water was reported to stabilize the complication.
In modern therapy, acute sinusitis is treated with antibiotics but chronic sinusitis is
difficult to eradicate.
Boils/Abscess
Boils result from staphylococcal infection beneath the skin. In the survey, it was
found that people deliberately made boils more septic by topically applying extracts
from freshwater shrimps called jhinge machha (Machrobrachium sp.), murcha, etc.
Sometimes paste prepared from amliso (Thysanolina maxima) roots is also used.
Bringing about septic condition fills the boils with pus and can be easily squeezed out.
Although this method is risky, particularly for immuno-compromised subjects, people
seem to have no other alternatives. The septic boils are poked with hard thorns or
sharp glass chips to rupture them. The pus is then slowly squeezed out. This practice
appears to be somewhat acceptable compared to using non-sterile needles or similar
materials.
Piles
People have heard eating meat of common mynah called ruppi (Acridoheres tritis)
and kalchundo(Myiophoneus caeruleus) (both are birds) but no one seemed to have
tested it. Some people narrated the hearsay that raw blood of deer can be beneficial. A
few people mentioned use of harro (Terminalia chebula). Some people even
mentioned drinking of raksi made from fox meat. Since these methods are hardly
used by the people, it does not appear sensible to direct research in it. At any rate,
61
modern science attributes piles to several factors such as stress, constipation,
pregnancy, and so forth. The treatments include, among other things, control over
diet, improvement in sitting habit, and use of medications that keep stool soft.
Whether or not the above mentioned items have relation to this fact needs further
study.
Harro (also called harra) seeds are extensively used in medicinal and non-medicinal
uses. The most important non-medicinal use is in tannery. A good number of
literatures are available regarding its processing. The seed flesh is rich in tannin
(mainly chebulagic acid, chebulinic acid, and corilagin). The fruit is credited with
laxative, stomachic, tonic, and alterative properties. The main purgative ingredient of
triphala (a well-known Indian ayurvedic medicine) is harro.
Snake bite
People use black bikhma (Aconitum spicatum syn bisma) as the primary aid. Biting
garlic (Allium wallichi) and sucking out of blood from the wound is a very effective
first aid. Some people mentioned of quasi-universal tourniquets with lachha (artificial
hair braid extension) or siru (Imperata cylindrica). Although this tourniquet
alternative appears sound, it is strongly discouraged by most experts on the grounds
that it increases local complication by increasing tissue anoxia (oxygen deficiency)
and triggering severe systemic envenoming (increasing poisoning) right after its
removal. Garlic and bikhma may be effective as an antitoxin (though not exactly like
an anti-snake venom serum, ASVS). Sucking out of blood from the affected area
seems logical but may be dangerous. The tying of upstream part with flexible cord is
very logical as it delays the spread of toxin. Success stories were also narrated but we
would like to take these reports with some reservation because only about 22 of the 77
species of snakes found in Nepal are really poisonous enough to take our life (Sharma
et al., 2004).
Bikhma contains five diterpene alkaloids: palmatiscine, vakognavine, vakatisine,
vakatisinine, and vakatidine. The root is intensely bitter (like quinine). It is effective
against bowel pains, diarrhea and vomiting. It can be externally used for rheumatism
and cuts or wounds (Chadha, 1976). A number of plants from Aconitum genus are
poisonous. Some contain pseudaconitine (a potent neurotoxic alkaloid). Aconitine is
easily absorbed through skin and poisoning may occur through this route simply by
picking the leaves. Therefore, care must be taken in identifying only the correct plant.
Allium wallichi has a wide range of culinary and medicinal uses. As a medicine, it
finds use in cough, cold, altitude sickness, and so on. It is also used to reduce
cholesterol level (Manandhar, 2002). Bulb part is mostly used. The extract contains
numerous antiseptic chemicals and sulfur compound (e.g., allyl isothiocyanate) that
impart the characteristic flavor.
Worms
Aqueous extracts of firewood ash is used by all. Many people also use lemon juice.
Some people use root extracts of siru (Imperata cylindrica), amliso (Thysanolina
maxima), sallibisalli (Equisetum sp), bhirgaule (Coix lachrymajobi), and ulte kuro
(Achyranthes aspera). The roots are rubbed on a stone and the aqueous dispersion
orally administered. Some people mentioned using fruit decoction of lapsi
(Choerospondias axillaris). Opposing views can be seen in the use of ash and lemon
because ash is alkaline whereas lemon is acidic. The role of root extracts of amliso
62
and siru is unclear but might function, at least in some cases (as there are several types
of worms), very much like deworming drugs.
It is known that rhizomes of siru contain, inter alia, appreciable amounts of
dimethylsulfopropionate and potassium. The moisture absorbing ability of these
components has been commercially exploited by various herbal companies by
including rhizome extracts in lotions and ointments. Elsewhere, siru extract is
combined with other herbs to prepare liver cleansing medicines. It has antibacterial-,
diuretic-, febrifuge-, and anthelmintic properties (Yeung, 1985; Manandhar, 2002).
Fresh wounds/Cuts
People topically apply extracts or juices of kaali jhaar (Eupatorium odoratum), titepati
(Artemisia indica), tinpate (?), and certain lichens. Some people also topically apply
hairs of dhusure (Colebrookea oppositifolia). Under normal health conditions, cuts
and wounds tend to heal themselves but septic condition may develop if the healing
time is longer. The above plants extracts obviously work as disinfectant. Some may
also work as pain reliever. In Ranitar, VDC, some informants were found to use
tender shoots of thaade unyu (Thelypteris appendiculoides) and rhizomes or leaves of
chiple (Pouzolzia hirta). One unknown plant, called Limbuni phul (could not be found
in the study site) and kherabe (a Limbu name) or phachyang (Zingiber cassumunar)
were used by some of the informants. Cinnabar or vermilion (called simrik or
shingraff or hingula in the Indian subcontinent, which is mineral rather than plant) is
believed to be helpful in speedy healing of septic wounds and cuts.
Zingiber cassumunar is an aromatic plant. Elsewhere, rhizomes of this plant are used
for curing nausea and headache. A small piece of rhizome may be chewed and
swallowed or paste topically applied for the same. The plant is believed to ward off
evil spirits and repel snakes.
Chemically, cinnabar is a sulfide of mercury. Today, ayurvedic companies prepare
pure shingraff (as used in medicine) by grinding raw cinnabar in goat milk for over
6 hours followed by grinding this mixture in lime juice for 1 hour. Mercury in very
modest amounts increases red blood corpuscles (RBC) but excess can lead to
poisoning. Shingraff is considered to be extremely efficacious in liver complaints
(Anon, 2002). Excess ingestion of this mineral reportedly leads to infertility in both
sexes.
Muscle Sprain
Muscle sprain is treated by applying paste of chitu (Plumbago zeylanica) root. Some
people also use aankh (Calotropis gigantea) leaves. The leaves are baked on fire or
under hot cinders and pressed over the sprain while still hot (the heat may sometimes
become unbearable). The process is repeated for a number of times. The treatment, in
some respects, is similar to radiation therapy used for backaches, sciatica,
rheumatism, etc. People also said that they use ghoda khori (Viburnum cylindricum)
oil and rifle oil (whenever available) to rub over the sprain. This massaging relieves
pain and speeds up healing.
Several uses of aankh have been mentioned in the Wealth of India (Chadha, 1976).
The root bark contains -amyrin, -amyrin, taraxasterol, gigantin, giganteol, etc. The
latex gives cardiac glycosides, calotropin, uscharin, calotoxin, colactin and uscharin.
The calotropin and calotropain comlponent of the latex have anti-inflamatory and
anthelmintic properties. Warmed leaves are bandaged to soothe swellings and sprains.
63
The traditional use of ghoda khori oil for rubbing against pain and backache has been
mentioned by Chadha (1976) and (Widmann, 2003). The oil can also be used for
burning. Extracts from the aerial part of plant show antiprotozoal activity (Chadha,
1976).
Rabid dog bite
Bark of kaphal (Myrica esculenta) tree or stinging nettle or sisnu (Urtica dioica)
root is ground into paste and applied over the affected area. A small amount the paste
is also administered orally. Some people mentioned use bikhma (Aconitum spicatum)
and root extracts of kaali jhaar (Eupatorium odoratum). Tantrik methods are also
used. As we know today, rabies occurs through rabies virus. It is unknown how these
traditional medications work against the virus. However, the villagers use this
approach only as a primary treatment. They all know that allopathic treatment is
available for the treatment of rabies. They also know how to ascertain whether the dog
was rabid after all.
According to Chadha (1976), kaphal bark is astringent, carminative and antiseptic. A
decoction of the bark is useful in asthma, diarrhea, fever, etc. The bark is rich in
tannins. The fruit part is eaten. The active components of the botanicals mentioned
above have been described earlier.
Sore throat
People eat corn seed, pumpkin seeds, and laligurans (Rhododendrom arboreum)
flower to relieve sore throat.
Rhododendron has been shown to possess antiviral properties by Rajbhandari et al
(2007). Rhododendron lepidotum flower in particular is effective against fever, cough,
cold and tonsillitis. Rhododendron arboreum is used in the preparation of a kind of
snuff. Tender leaves are stated to be used as a vegetable, and also applied to the
forehead to relieve headache. They have, however, been reported to produce toxic
symptoms when eaten by livestock, and in view of the poisonous compounds in them,
their utilization as a vegetable appears doubtful. Green leaves contain a glucoside
called ericolin. Eating flowers in large amounts causes intoxication. Petals can be
used in diarrhea and dysentery (Chadha, 1976). There are about 31 species of
rhododendron in Nepal. It must be noted that some Rhododendron species, e.g., R.
campanulatum and R. ponticum, are extremely poisonous. Indiscriminate of
rhododendron is therefore not advisable.
Constipation
Constipation occurs in these sites only occasionally, in which case they suck the black
coatings of rajbrikhsa or rajbrikcha (Casssia fistula) seed. It is also believed that ghee
from black cow can relieve the condition. Since rajbriksha treatment is popular among
other people also, it is difficult to say when and from where the practice began. In the
Ranitar VDC, people mentioned indreni (Trichosanthes tricuspidata) roots, chewed in
modest amounts, are very effective against constipation. The scientific explanation for
constipation, among other things, is due to faulty dietary habits. Prolonged intake of
food lacking dietary fiber causes constipation. Since the rural diet is seldom poor in
dietary fiber, it is logical to expect low probability of constipation incidence in the
village.
A great deal of literatures are available on Cassia fistula. An extensive review by
Bahorun et al (2005) shows that this plant contains potent phenolic antioxidants such
64
as anthraquinones, flavonoids and flavanol derivatives. Rajbriksha used has purgative,
antipyretic, analgesic and antibacterial properties. It is also widely used in the
treatment of stomach disorder.
Rash due to allergy
People believe in a very peculiar treatment method. Puwalo mala (a type of beaded
necklace) is rubbed against the rashes, which is later pressed with janto (a hand
operated attrition mill made from a pair of circular stone; used to pulverize grain
seeds). Another very effective treatment is to rub phachyang (Zingiber cassumunar)
over the affected area. This plant also supposedly wards off evil spirits.
Common cold
People drink in modest amounts unboiled aqueous extract of titepati. This medication
is also helpful in pneumonia. Some people drink a lot of heavily-seasoned, hot
chicken soup to drive away the cold. It is a general belief that fried (sizzled in a small
amount of oil) raksi can also relieve cold. As such, common cold is a viral disease
with no absolute treatment to this day. Unless complication arises, it passes away after
a few days. The treatments mentioned above may be helpful in moderating the effect.
It is also common to chew ginger rhizomes (hot, baked under cinders) to counteract
the irritation in throat and relieve the coughing. Although less common, lasun (Allium
wallichi) and gurans (Rhododendron lepidotum) are also eaten in modest amounts to
get relief from common cold.
Diarrhea
Diarrhea by itself is not a disease. It is a symptom of numerous disorders, such as
food poisoning from contaminated foods or beverages, infections by viruses and
bacteria, or anxiety. The condition is characterized by frequent passage of abnormally
loose, watery stool, often accompanied by abdominal pains. Severe diarrhea leads to a
condition called dehydration.
In the study sites, immature banana and guava are considered beneficial in the
treatment of diarrhea. Barks extracts of jamuna (Syzygium cumini), gayo (Bridelia
retusa), and ambak (Psidium guajava); fruit extracts of totala (Oroxylum indicum);
tender bud extracts of ainselu; and leaf and root extracts of sugandhawal (Valeriana
jatamansi) were also mentioned as having antidiarrheal properties. Although they are
familiar with home-based electrolytic treatments such as nun-chini-pani (salt-sugar-
water) and jivan jal against dehydration, as anyone knows, these are not their
discoveries. People were found to believe that immature banana owes its medicinal
property to alkaline taste. Guava is supposed to cure diarrhea because of the profuse
seeds (which help harden the stool!).
In general, most discussions about illnesses and plant-based treatments take place
among family members and visiting friends. They talk about diagnoses, etiology and
possible curing strategies. This is also the primary mechanism by which children learn
medicinal plants and by which knowledge is transmitted.
Women spend more time in the households than men, spend more time with other
women than men, and are more likely to discuss childrens health among themselves.
Not surprisingly, the survey showed that women tend to know more about local plants
that grow near households and men are more likely to have learned plants that grow in
other communities. The patrilocal residence system is also very important in the
transmission of knowledge through women.
65
The above results and discussion are based on emic perspective. Pharmacological
analysis to test the efficacy of plant-based treatments is very difficult.
Pharmacological data, especially screenings for bioactivity of phytochemicals, to
determine the relative efficacies of the medicinal plants appears logical but is rather
involved.
During the survey, salient characteristics (e.g., bitterness, sourness, etc.) were found
to be associated with treatment, even when dealing with unfamiliar plants, e.g.,
avoidance of curcumin (yellow colored) with the treatment of jaundice.
The frequency at which a given illness occurs in a rural setting is rather difficult to
assess because people tend to forget the episodes unless they are very important. Here,
an attempt was made to determine the frequencies of the illnesses by counting the
frequency of a particular word in the text. Based on this method, following results
(Table 4.6) were obtained. The ranking of illness (1 = highest incidence, 8 = lowest
incidence) in Table 4.6 is in general explicable. Agriculture in the hills is obviously
very difficult. It involves a lot of physical work, often in jungles, among thorny
bushes, and eerily steepy slopes. In fact, there isnt a day without cuts and wounds.
The higher incidence of fracture is justifiable for the same reason.
Table 4.6 Occurrence of illness term in the text.
Illness Frequency in text Rank
Cuts and wounds 35-40 1
Fracture 30-35 2
Diarrhea 25-30 3
Worms / helminthes 20-25 4
Piles and jaundice 15-20 5
Sinusitis, scabies, tooth ache, fever, and sore throat 10-15 6
Dysentery, sprains, dog bites, stomachache,
boils/abscess, tonsillitis, snake bite, and constipation
5-10 7
Other illnesses in the list relate mostly to lack of sanitation and faulty food habit.
Although these illnesses appear benign, they do affect a lot in ones ability to work.
An ill person naturally cannot work as well as a healthy one. This in turn will lead to
food insecurity, malnutrition and hence the vicious cycle. Improvement in the food
habit and sanitation can have a significant effect in the lives of these people.
The survey data shows that some of the traditional methods of treatments have rather
questionable or dubious status, the treatments used for piles, snake bite, jaundice, and
rabies in particular. Awareness program that addresses the scientific reasons of these
illnesses, prophylactic measures, and possible treatment methods is very pertinent at
this point. Incidences of diseases such as food poisoning, toothache, constipation,
worms, etc., can be reduced by several simple and effective measures such as
sanitation, personal hygiene, and improved eating habits.
4.5 Case Study
4.5.1 Chokmagu VDC
Using free-listing method (altogether 10 respondents) Amritman Tumbapo, a
septuagenarian healer of Chokmagu-3 (Tinmaule village) was selected for the case
study on traditional herbal healing. He is literate, and carries out subsistence farming
66
and bone setting as the main occupation. His feat has received wide acclaim, even
outside the VDC. The school teachers of the local high school (Saraswati Ma Vi) also
appeared to know a lot about the miraculous feats of this legend.
Following is a translation of the interview carried out with this respondent:
1. Are you a descendant of a traditional healer?
Yes, but I do not quite remember the number of generations involved in this art. The
story of how our forefathers learnt the secret of bone setting is both miraculous and
interesting. Story has it that our forefathers used to go to the Tamor river for fishing.
One day, as usual, they packed their days collection in some plant leaves and
returned home. When they opened the pack, to their greatest astonishment, they saw
that all the fish had stuck into a lump. After some twiddling, they found that the fish
had been packed in leaves of hitherto unfamiliar plant. They thus concluded that this
particular plant was responsible for the joining of fish bones. It is said that our
forefathers have used this plant [he offers to show the plant the next day as it was
already dusk] for bone setting ever since.
2. Where/how/when/from whom did you learn the art of traditional healing?
I learnt the art from my father, who in turn learnt from my grandfather. I was about 20
at that time.
3. How long have you been practicing this art?
I am running 70 and it is almost two 20 years that I have carried out this practice.
4. Success rate?
One hundred percent [displays a wide grin (of accomplishment)]. I have even cured
animals, mostly pigs.
5. Explanation for failure?
I do not remember my treatment having failed, may be except for some pigs.
6. Have you documented/disseminated this art so that others can succeed you?
Yes, I have a successor, my brother (Chhatra Bahadur Tumbapo), who is working
very well. I am getting older day by day and hopefully this young lad (not present in
the scene) will continue the art our forefathers have learnt.
7. Have you made discoveries of your own? If yes, have you applied them with
success?
No, I have not made discoveries of my own.
8. How many people have benefited from your service?
I guess 2-3 patients a day on average. To this day, it should be several thousands.


67
9. Any extraordinary feats you have performed (with respect to traditional
healing)?
Yes, yes. I have cured several patients already surrendered by doctors. People come
from far and wide and I have successfully dealt with all cases.
10. What views do you have on allopathic treatment of the diseases you are
currently handling?
I do not have much idea about the allopathic treatments. But what I know is I have
cured a patient that Bir Hospital (Kathmandu) could not take care of.
11. Any decrease in faith in traditional healing methods with the advent of
allopathic alternatives?
No, not till now.
12. Can you name the plants that you use for bone setting?
Umm[becomes uncomfortable]... you see, if I reveal the names of the plants, they
will lose efficacy[however, upon persuasion he reveals the names of some of the
plants he uses for treatment of fracture]. Well, there are four types of plants that I use.
One is called kokphung in Limbu. I think it is called Aule gurans in Nepalese
language it is a climber with fig-like leaves..white, large flowersroots are
used.. Okay, Id better show you the plant.. [he calls someone, a male, out of the
house and tells him to bring some leaves from a tree (already silhouetted) behind the
cowshed]. Okay, another plant is, you know it, mauwa (a Nepalese name) and its bark
is used[after some reflection].. you know there are three types of mauwa and it is
only the one with very small leaves and thick bark that is used. The next one is
jamuna (a Nepalese name), and from this also, bark is used. The fourth plant is called
mukumba in Lumbu language, I think you call it kainjal in Nepalese language. Here
also, the bark is used.
13. How do you carry out the treatment?
Everything is ground into a thick paste and applied around the affected area. You need
to apply splints to align the bones and support the fractured area.
14. Do you grow medicinal plants?
No. I havent thought about that.
15. What is the present status of medicinal herbs? Is it declining?
The plants used in bone setting as well as other medications are of course declining.
Some of them have to be fetched from cliffs and steep slopes.
4.5.2 Ranitar VDC
Using free-listing method (altogether 10 respondents) Sukpal Nembang, a healer in
his mid seventies was selected from Ranitar VDC (Ward 4, Tamakhe village) for the
case study on traditional herbal healing. He is literate, and carries out subsistence
farming and bone setting as the main occupation. He is popularly known as baidang, a
local term used for vaidya (herbal healer). Witnesses to his miraculous bone setting
feat include school teachers, senior citizens, and commercial herb collectors.
68
Following is a translation (with emphasis on verbatim) of the interview carried out
with this respondent:
1. Are you a descendant of a traditional healer?
Yes, I am a son of baidang.
2. Where/how/when/from whom did you learn the art of traditional healing?
I learnt it from my father. The old man is no longer on this earth.
3. How long have you been practicing this art?
Since I was about 35. I am still practicing it.
4. Success rate?
I would say 80 to 90 out of 100 cases. In addition to herbal treatment, I also do tantra-
mantra to ward off evil spirits that may foil the treatment.
5. Explanation for failure?
No failure
6. Have you documented/disseminated this art so that others can succeed you?
Yes I had a successor (Rudraraj Nembang, 34, Ranitar VDC, Ward 8) but this guy
helped me for only one year. He is now abroad (doing other jobs).
7. Have you made discoveries of your own? If yes, have you applied them with
success?
Yes, I have made several discoveries. I have them all in my dreams.
8. How many people have benefited from your service?
At times, I have treated 9-10 patients a day. I have treated several thousands of
them[settles for about 3000 after we insist on his mentioning the exact number].
9. Any extraordinary feats you have performed (with respect to traditional
healing)?
I have so many of them. I tell you, these people are witnesses, I have cured a boy
whose leg was completely cut off, dangling by mere skin. The case was declared
untreatable by the Ilam hospital. When the case reached me, the wound was almost
septic. Why not now ask me where that boy is? He went to Malaysia in 2004 for
work. He is live and kicking.
10. What views do you have on allopathic treatment of the diseases you are
currently handling?
I dont have any idea about that

69
11. Any decrease in faith in traditional healing methods with the advent of
allopathic alternatives?
What can I say? People are still coming.
12. Can you name the plants that you use for bone setting?
I use several things, including two herbs [he forgets or does not want to disclose the
names], one animal part, and shingraf (cinnabar or vermilion). Some plants cannot be
found here. I will tell you about them only if you give me gaindako nabi (part of
rhinoceros). I badly need that, you know.. [Even after much coaxing, he does not
disclose the names of these plants].
13. How do you carry out the treatment?
Well, I can tell you that. Wash the affected area, align the bonesshow no mercy
even if the patient screams with pain.., apply the paste over the fracture, and fix it
in place with splints. You will also need some oral medicines, taken twice a day. Then
I cast some spells to ward off the evils. Thats all. If you want to know more, you
need to be my chela (formal disciple).
14. Do you grow medicinal plants?
I have grown only two plants. There are well over 100 plants (and many animal parts)
that I use. Many plants cannot be grown in the kitchen garden.
15. What is the present status of medicinal herbs? Is it declining?
Still abundantly available.
4.6 Interpretation
The above discursive data show that both the healers (from Chokmagu and Ranitar
VDC) have acquired knowledge of bone setting from their forefathers. The practice of
handing down knowledge (indigenous) is therefore very rooted in these regions. The
data also shows the significance of traditional herbal therapy for primary health care.
And as can be gathered from the interviews, the practice will continue to play a very
important role in the rural areas where modern health care facilities are almost non-
existent. The interviews also reveal the respondents reluctance to disclose the names
of the plants used in the therapy, which could basically be due to their deep-seated
belief that plants and/or methods may lose efficacy if disclosed. However, when
linked to todays concept of intellectual property rights, we need to respect their
tradition. Some of the plants named in the interviews have a Limbu name, which is
probably because these plants are endemic to the region. Although it is important that
such plants be identified and conservation status assessed, we could not obtain the
specimen of a number of them despite our repeated visits to the site. This obviously is
of serious concern, not only to the conservationists but also the natives who directly or
indirectly depend on these plants for primary health care.
In general, the availability of the plants used in bonesetting does not appear to be
seriously threatened. However, plants whose roots and barks are widely used should
be of some concern. Stripping the plants off their bark or uprooting them can in the
long run lead to decreased availability.
70
The practice of planting the essential (medically) plants is not so widespread and this
could be due to their (most) ready availability.
The method used by these bonesetters for treating the fractures encompasses scientific
as well as intriguing aspects. Alignment of fractured bones and use of splinters is
explicable (as these are done in modern practice also) but the topical application of
herbal concoction and casting spells for a faster cure cannot be outright linked with
the joining of bones. The herbal concoction most probably works as anti-
inflammatory and/or antiseptic, which is essential to prevent microbial infection of the
affected area. However, its role in direct joining of the bones defies modern theories.
It is unknown whether or not the concoction compounds (can) penetrate the epithelial
tissues and induce physiological reactions that hasten healing. Despite this room for
suspicion, people take it for granted because the medication has simply stood the test
of time. At the moment, researching on this aspect can be quite expensive, time
consuming, and may also invite ethical problem. For instance, to design a test for
finding out the efficacy of herbal concoction on fracture healing would require, at the
least, healthy (similar physiological status) homozygous twins of a vertebrate.
Fractures must be inflicted on these poor animals. The degree and pattern of fracture
should be precisely the same in both of them. Finally, the experiment will require
several replications (with control) to obtain statistically valid data.
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
SUMMARY OF MAJOR FINDINGS
The aim of the present investigation was to document and analyze indigenous Limbu
knowledge on ecology, biodiversity and ethnomedicine taking Ranitar and Chokmagu
VDCs as the representative study sites.
The people of Chokmagu and Ranitar VDC were found to have a rich knowledge
system of eco-friendly agricultural practice and forest and landslide management.
Subsistence agriculture is widely practiced. The production system is based on an
integration of agricultural and livestock activities and this allows a somewhat rational
use of the soil capabilities in a sustainable way. Because of the topographical and
microclimatic reasons, these VDCs still suffer from staple cereal deficit. There is
therefore scope of intensive farming. Food security measures must be undertaken to
cope with the increasing population.
Apart from the common vegetables, staple cereals, and condiments, people of
Chokmagu and Ranitar VDC use over 200 botanicals for various purposes (medicine,
food, fodder, religious, veterinary and allied uses). Existence of Limbu names for
almost all the plants studied implies how TEK has permeated the lives of Limbu
people. About 110 medicinal plants are found in various degrees of abundance. These
plants are extensively used for diseases ranging anything from cold and cough to
fracture. Conservation and revival of this knowledge base is very crucial because
traditional medicines are still the most important primary healthcare sources for the
vast majority of the rural mass. People were found to use 28 plants as wild foods.
Additionally, they use 28 plants for veterinary purpose, 37 for religious purpose, and
38 for murcha making. A few plants are also used as biopesticides for storage pest
control. This indicates that some form of integrated pest management is in place. The
modern concept of biodiversity conservation has not fully permeated the regions.
Some form of awareness program needs to be initiated.












72
CONCLUSIONS
Limbus have remarkable ethnobotanical knowledge. Ethnomedicine is still the most
important system for primary health care. However, there is an urgent need to
disseminate among them some of the recent startling discoveries. For instance, bojho
and gurans (widely used in primary health care) have been found to contain potent
toxins, the cumulative effect of which can be life-threatening.
The sensory attributes of plants were found to have relation in their use for specific
diseases. Contrary to the assumption, abundance of plants showed no association with
their frequency of use or knowledge about them.
Five medicinal plants from the study area could not be scientifically identified. There
is, therefore, significant scope for renewed botanical inventory.
Women were found to possess an astounding wealth of knowledge about medicinal
plants and their use, often surpassing their male counterpart. It appears that the
patrilocal residence system has a role to play in the transmission of traditional
knowledge by women. Since this tradition of orally transmitting the knowledge has its
own serious disadvantage, a parallel documentation practice must be encouraged.
The traditional practice at present is sustainable in terms of ecology and environment.
However, some loss of floral diversity (mainly murcha plants) and erosion of
traditional knowledge (use of medicinal plants) that have occurred in the study sites
merits attention.
Some traditional treatment methods (e.g., for piles, jaundice, rabies, etc.) have rather
dubious status and thus merits concern. Adoption of prophylactic measures such as
sanitation, personal hygiene, change in food habit, etc., can be very helpful in
reducing incidences of common illnesses like food poisoning, toothache, constipation,
etc. (and therefore food security).


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APPENDICES
APPENDIX-I
Details of Key Informants
Table A-I.1 Details of the key informants from Chokmagu VDC
S.N. Name Age (yrs) Occupation Address Education
1 Agni Prasad Tumbapo 55 Teaching Chokmagu-8 SLC
2 Amritman Tumbapo 70 Farming (healer) Chokmagu-3 Literate
3 Dhan Raj Tumbapo 26 Teaching Chokmagu-3 B. Ed
4 Ganga Prasad Tumbapo 57 Farming Chokmagu-2 Literate
5 Kabindra Tumbapo 66 Social activist Chokmagu-7 B. A
6 Mahendra Tumbapo 55 Farming (VDC
vice president)
Chokmagu-6 Literate
7 Netra Maya Tumbapo 35 Farming Chokmagu-2 Literate
8 Purna Kumar Tumbapo 50 Teaching Chokmagu-8 I. A.
9 Rup Kumar Tumbapo 65 Farming (healer) Chokmagu-2 Literate
10 Sita Nembang 27 Teaching Chokmagu-8 B. A.

Photographs of some of the key informants from the above list are provided in Fig. A-I.1.




Rabindra Kumar Tumbapo Amritman Tumbapo Agni Prasad Tumbapo



Purna Tumbapo Mahendra Tumbapo Netramaya Tumbapo
Fig.A-I.1 Some key informants at Chokmagu VDC


81
Table A-I.2 Details of key informants from Ranitar VDC.
S.N. Name Age (yrs) Occupation Address Education
1 Asal Nembang 45 Teaching Ranitar-4 M. A.
2 Sher Bahadur Nembang 32 Farming Ranitar-6 I. A.
3 Sukpal Nembang 77 Farming (healer) Ranitar-8 Literate
4 Man Kumar Nembang 44 Farming Ranitar-4 Literate
5 Mahasher Nembang 75 Farming (healer) Ranitar-8 Literate
6 Rudraraj Nembang 68 Farming Ranitar-6 Literate
7 Man Bahadur Wanem 35 Teaching Ranitar-8 I. Sc
8
9
10

Photographs of some of the key informants from the above list are provided in Fig. A-
I.2.


Mahasher Nembang Sukpal Nembang Asal Nembang

Man Kumar Nembang Man Bahadur Wanem Rudraraj Nembang
Fig.A-I.2 Some key informants at Ranitar VDC
82
APPENDIX-II
Checklist of questions to be asked to the key informants

Issue: Ethnomedicine
Table provides the selected list of diseases taken for interviewing the people. The
informants were also asked to provide information on the part(s) of plant(s) used for the
treatment of particular disease. The method of preparation, administration, the amount to
be used, and similar related information were also collected during the interview.
Table A-II.1 Selected list of diseases taken for the interview
1 Wounds and boils 2 Head
Cuts
Wounds
Boils and abscess
Fever
Common cold
Sinusitis
3. Orthopedic treatments 4. Stings and bites
Fracture
Muscle sprain
Snake bite
Dog bite
5. Skin problems 5. Ear, nose and throat
Scabies
Rashes/allergy
Wart
Burns
Toothache
Sore throat
Tonsillitis
Epistaxis
6. Gastrointestinal diseases/disorders 7. Others
Stomachache
Worms
Dysentery
Diarrhea
Constipation
Piles
Jaundice
Altitude sickness
Piles
Snake bite
Rabid dog bite

Questionnaires and topics of interview (Focus Group)

Area: Ecology and biodiversity

Pertinent questions

1. Is environment protection necessary? Why?
2. What efforts have been made for the protection of environment using traditional
techniques?
3. How is Limbu community related to biodiversity?
83
4. What traditional techniques are adopted for overcoming natural calamities like
flash floods and landslides?
5. What traditional methods are being used for the protection of forest resources?
6. What is the present status of medicinal herbs used in traditional healing?

Questionnaires for case study on bone setting/fracture treatment

The questions to be asked to the interviewees will be basically the same as those for the
key informants. A checklist of additional pertinent questions to be asked to the
interviewees will be as follows:

1. Are you a descendant of a traditional healer?
2. Where/how/when/from whom did you learn the art of traditional healing?
3. How long have you been practicing this art?
4. Success rate?
5. Explanation for failure?
6. Have you documented/disseminated this art so that others can succeed you?
7. Have you made discoveries of your own? If yes, have you applied them with
success?
8. How many people have benefited from your service?
9. Any extraordinary feats you have performed (with respect to traditional healing)?
10. What views do you have on allopathic treatment of the diseases you are currently
handling?
11. Any decrease in faith in traditional healing methods with the advent of allopathic
alternatives?
12. Do you grow medicinal plants?
13. What is the present status of medicinal herbs? Is it declining?
84
APPENDIX-III
Photographs of some medicinal plants

Fig. A-III.1 Budhi okhana (used for fever treatment)

Front Rear
Fig. A-III.2 Aule gurans (used for treating bone fracture)
85

Fig. A-III.3 Chimphing


Fig. A-III.4 Herbarium of tinpate
86
APPENDIX-IV
Miscellaneous photographs

Fig. A-IV.1 Sale of murcha cake in a local market

Fig. A-IV.2 Pakhanbhed on sale in a local market

Fig. A-IV.3 Hadchur on sale in a local market
87


Fig. A-IV.3 Research assistant engrossed in interview at Ranitar VDC