1

CHAPTER 1

PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS


1.1 Introduction

Fluids mechanics deals with study of fluids-liquid and gases. The study can
be behavior of liquid fluids at rest (static) and in motion (dynamic). The study of
fluid mechanics is important because our life depend on them. The air we breathe,
flight of birds in air, the motion of fish in water, circulation of blood in veins of
human body, flow of oil and gas in pipelines, transportation of water in pipe, all
follow the principles of fluid mechanics. Engineers have applied these principles in
the design of dams, construction of ships, airplanes, turbo-machinery etc. Fluids in
motion are potential sources of energy and can be converted into useful work to drive
a water turbine or windmill. The principles of fluid mechanics are also applied to
fluid power system in which pressured fluid is used to transmit power. Hydraulic
drives and controls have become more and important due to automation and
mechanization. Today, a very large part or modern machinery is controlled
completely or partly by fluid power.

Fluid can be defined as substance that has ability to flow. Gases expand
whereas liquids do not. Liquid have no shape of its own but rather take the shape of
the container in which it is placed. That means if liquid or volume less than volume
of the container is poured into container the fluids will occupy a volume of the
container and will have a free surface. Gases expand and occupy full volume of the
container. Gases are compressible which means their volume changes with pressure
where as liquids are incompressible. Compressible flows are again divided into
subsonic and supersonic depending on gas velocity less or greater than sound
velocity. Their application is in jet propulsion system, aircraft and rockets.

1.2 International System of Units (SI)

In the text we shall use SI units. The dimension in any system can be
considered as either primary or secondary dimensions. In the SI units there are 4
primary dimensions.

2
a) Primary Units

Dimension International Symbol Unit
Mass M Kilogram (kg)
Length L Meter (m)
Time T Second (s)
Temperature K Kelvin (K)
Electric Current A Ampere (A)


b) Secondary Units
Secondary units is a combination of primary units such as Newton (N or kgm/s
2
1.3 Specific weight and mass density
),
J oule (J or Nm), Watt (W or Nm/s) etc.


Two important parameters that tend to indicate heaviness of the substance are
specific weight and mass density. The specific weight in the weight of substance per
unit volume and is commonly designated by Greek letter gamma ( ). In equation
form,

V
W
Volume
Weight
= =

Mass density is the mass per unit volume of the substance. It commonly
designated by a Greek letter rho ( ). In the equation form,

V
m
Volume
mass
= =

There exist an important relation between specific weight and mass density.

Weight of the substance w =mg

Weight of the substance/unit volume,

g
V
mg
= =
3

For ideal gases, the density of gas is depended on the pressure and temperature of the
gas. The density can be obtained by the gas equation;

mRT PV =

or

RT P =

where
M gas molar
t Coefficien gas Universal
R

= =
_
_ _


Thus the specific weight is the product of mass density and acceleration due to
gravity.
In the SI units, will be expressed in N/m
3
and in kg/m
3
. The values of specific
weight and mass density of water at different temperature are given in Table 1.1 and
Table 1.2 gives

Table 1.1 Physical Properties of Water

Temperature Specific
Weight
Mass
Density
Dynamic
Viscosity
Kinematic
Viscosity
Surface
tension
T


(C) (kN/m) (Kg/m) N-s/m m/s N/m
0 9.81 1000
1.75 x 10
3
1.75 x 10
6

0.0756
30 9.77 996
8.00 x 10
4
1.02 x 10
7

0.0712
60 9.65 984
4.60 x 10
4
4.67 x 10
7

0.0662
90 9.47 956
3.11 x 10
4
3.22 x 10
7

0.0608


the mass density for common fluids. From this table, other fluids can be compared
with water in terms of density and specific of weight.

4




Table 1.2 Physical Properties of Common fluids at Standard Atmospheric Pressure

Fluids Specific
Gravity
Specific
Weight
Mass
Density
Dynamic
Viscosity
Kinematic
Viscosity
s


- (kN/m) (kg/m) N-s/m
m
2
/s
Air 0.0012 11.8 1.20
1.81 x 10
5
1.51 x 10
5

Ammonia 0.830 8.31 829
2.20 x 10
4
2.65 x 10
7

Glycerine 1.263 12.34 1258
950 x 10
3
7.55 x 10
4

Kerosene 0.823 8.03 819
1.92 x 10
3
2.34 x 10
6

Mercury 13.60 133.1 13570
1.56 x 10
3
1.14 x 10
7

Methanol 0.79 7.73 788
5.98 x 10
4
5.58 x 10
7

SAE 10 Oil 0.87 8.71 869
8.14 x 10
2
9.36 x 10
5

SAE 30 Oil 0.89 8.71 888
4.40 x 10
1
4.95 x 10
4

Turpentine 0.87 8.51 868
1.38 x 10
3
1.58 x 10
6

Water 1.00 9.79 998
1.02 x 10
3
1.02 x 10
6

Sea Water 1.03 10.08 1028
1.07 x 10
3
1.04 x 10
6



1.4 Specific gravity

It is the ratio of specific weight of the substance to the specific weight of water
at 4C. A convenient method to measure sp. gravity is by means of a hydrometer. It
is dipped into the liquid and a calibrated scale gives the specific gravity. It should be
noted that specific gravity is a dimensionless number and its value for a particular
substance is the same regardless of the system of units. It is abbreviated as (s).

w
f
o
C at water of weight specific
fluid of weight specific
gravity Specific

= =
4 _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _
_

5
The specific gravity can also be expressed as ratio of mass density of the substance to
mass density of water at 4C.



Example 1.1

A tank of glycerol has a mass of 1200kg and volume of 0.95m
3
(a) Weight of glycerol
. Determine:

(b) Density
(c) Specific weight
(d) Specific gravity

(a) From Newtons Law;
Solution:


W=mg

Thus, W=1200 x 9.81 =11.76kN

(b) From equation (1.2)

3
/ 1265
95 . 0
1200
m kg
V
m
= = =

(c) From equation (1.3)

3
/ 38 . 12 81 . 9 1263 m kN g = = =

(d) From equation (1.4)

6
26 . 1
1000
1265
= = =
W
s
s

1.5 Viscosity

Fluids offer resistance to shearing force. Viscosity is the property of the fluid
that determine amount of this resistance.

Consider a fluid in between two parallel plates Figure 1.1 where the upper
plate is moving with velocity V and lower plate is stationery. The distance between
the plates is y. The layer in contact with the upper plate is moving with velocity V
where as the layer is contact with lower plate which is fixed will have zero velocity.
The deformation of the fluid under the action of shear stress is assumed proportional
to the rate of change of velocity, may be expressed in the equation form,
Lower plate (fixed)
Velocity =0
The rate of change of velocity
=[(v+dv)-v] / dy =dv/dy
v +dv
v
dy
y
Upper plate (moving)
Velocity =V

Figure 1.1

The displaced fluid due to shear stress acted and the shear stress is assumed
proportional with the velocity gradient. It can be illustrated in the equation;
7

y
v

= (1.5)

Where,
= shear stress
= proportional coefficient
y
v

=velocity gradient

The shear force, F
D
A F
D
=
acting on the lower plate surface is given by;



Where A=surface area of the lower plate

The unit of dynamic viscosity, is SI unit is (N-sm
-2

or Pas). Kinematics viscosity

which is usually, denoted by the Greek letter nu (v) is determined by dividing
dynamic viscosity () by mass density of the fluid ( ). In the equation form;

= (1.6)

When the fluid is at rest the velocity gradient dv/dy is zero and therefore no shearing
force exists. The viscosity varies with temperature therefore values of for given
fluid are usually tabulated at various temperatures. There are experimental methods
to calculate viscosity. One such experimental method is Falling Sphere Viscometer.
In this method a sphere of known diameter is dropped into a liquid. By determining
the time required for the sphere to fall through a certain distance, its terminal velocity
(v) can be calculated. The stokes equation can be written as

= 1
18
2

gd
v
8

Where d =diameter of sphere
= sphere density
= fluid density
= kinematics density

A number of viscometers are available in the market. These viscometers are electronic
devices with digital panel and measured viscosity most of the liquids such paint,
lubrication oil, polymer compound, chemical compositions etc.
Fluids obeying Newtons law of viscosity (equation 1.6) and for which has a
constant value are known as Newtons fluids. Most common fluids such as air, water
and oil come under this category for which shear stress in proportional to velocity
gradient. The fluids that do not obey Newtons law of viscosity are known as non-
Newtonian fluids such as human blood, lubrication oils, molten rubber and sewage
sludge etc.
A general relation between shear stress and velocity gradient for non-
Newtons fluids may be written as;

n
dy
dv
B A

+ = (1.7)

Where A and B are constants. Based on the value of power index n non
Newtonian fluids are classified as;

Pseudoplastic (such as milk, cement, clay) n<1
Bingham-plastic (such as sewage sludge, toothpaste) n=1
Dilatent (such as lubrication oil, butter, printing ink) n>1

A Newtonian fluid is a special case of nonNewtonian fluid for which A =0 and
power index n =1.

The dynamic viscosity of various fluids at various temperatures is shown in Figure
1.2.
9
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.06
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
6
4
3
2
1 x 10
-3
6
4
3
2
1 x 10
-4
6
4
3
2
1 x 10
-5
5
Temperature,
o
C
Castor Oil
Glyserin
SAE 30 oil
SAE10 oil
Crude oil (SG 0.86)
Kerosene
Aniline
Mercury
Carbon tetrachloride
Ethyl alcohol
Water
Gasoline (SG 0.68)
Benzene
Helium
Carbon
Dioxide
Air
Hydrogen


Figure 1.2 Dynamic viscosities versus Temperature

u=0

t
R
Example 1.2
The viscosity of a fluid is to be measured by a viscometer constructed of two 75cm
long concentric cylinders as shown in Figure E1.2. The outer radius of the inner
cylinder is 15cm, and the gap between the two cylinders is 0.12cm. The inner cylinder
is rotated at 200rpm, and the torque is measured to be 0.8Nm. Determine the viscosity
of the fluid.

Figure E1.2
A
b
s
o
l
u
t
e

v
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y

,

N

.

s
/
m
2

10

The shear force,
Solution:

RL
y
v
A F
D
2

= =

Where shear force can be calculated by

N
R
Torque
F
D
33 . 5
15 . 0
8 . 0
= = =

V= 2Rf = 2(3.142)(0.15)(200)/60 = 3.14 m/s

s m
t
u V
y
v
/ 67 . 2616
0012 . 0
0 14 . 3
=

Thus, the dynamic viscosity:


2
/ 0029 . 0
) 67 . 2616 )( 75 . 0 )( 15 . 0 ( 2
33 . 5
m Ns = =

1.6 Compressibility and Bulk Modulus

Consider a mass of fluid m whose initial pressure and volume is P and V
respectively. Let the fluid be compressed by application of force such that final
pressure is P+dP and volume reduced to VdV. Hence, change in pressure is dp and
change in volume is dV. Volumetric strain in defined as change in volume divided
by original volume and is dV/V. The bulk modulus denoted by k and is defined as
change in pressure to volumetric strain;

k=Changes in pressure/Volume strain

or

11
dV
dP
V k = (1.8)

Let mass of fluid is m:

m = V (1.9)

After differentiation of equation (1.9):

0 = + Vd dV

d dV
V
= (1.10)

Substitute V/dV into equation (1.8), thus;

d
dP
k = (1.11)

From equation (1.11) the value of k is dependent on the relationship between pressure
and density. For liquids, changes of density with pressure are small and Bulk
modulus k is high. These liquids can be considered incompressible. However, for
gases the compressibility is so large that value of k is not a constant but proportional
to pressure. For gases relation between pressure and mass density in obtained from
characteristic equation of a gas and particular relation between pressure and density is
established depending on type of compression process.

(i) For an isothermal process where the temperature is maintained constant the
characteristic equation is written as

. const
P
d
dP
= =

. const
P
=

(1.12)

. const
P
d
dP
= =

(1.13)
12

Substitute dP/d into equation (1.6) gives

k=P (1.14)


(ii) For an adiabatic process where no heat is allowed to enter or leave during
compression the relation between pressure and density is given by
. const
P
=

(1.15)

After differentiation will give;

P
d
dP
= (1.16)

where = ratio of specific heats at constant pressure and at constant volume or =
C
P
/C
1.7 Mach no. and Compressibility
V


Again substitute dP/d into equation (1.11) will give;

k=P (1.17)

The ratio of adiabatic bulk modulus is equal to the ratio of specific heat of fluid as
constant pressure to that at constant volume. For liquids is almost equal to one, but
for gases the difference is large for example for air =1.4.


Mach. No. is defined as ratio of velocity of flow (v) to local velocity of sound
(a) and is a measure of compressibility effects.
a
v
M = (1.18)

13

The velocity of propagation of sound waves in a fluid, flow is expressed as

d
dP
a = or
d
dP
a =
2
(1.19)

Substituting the value of dP/d in equation (1.11) we get

2
a k = (1.20)

Substituting value of a in equation (1.12) we get

k
v
M

2
= (1.21)

For liquids the bulk modulus k is large and velocities small and, hence, Mach. No. is
negligible or effect of compressibility is neglected. Gas velocities are high bulk
modulus is low, and hence, Mach. no. is high and compressibility cannot be
neglected. Gases can only be treated as incompressible if pressure changes are small
and Mach. no. is less than 0.3.

1.8 Surface tension

The molecules of the liquid are attracted by the molecules of the same liquid
by a force known as Cohesion. This force keeps the molecules bonded together.

The force of attraction between molecules of two different liquids that do not
mix each other or between liquids molecules and solid boundary containing the liquid
or between molecules or liquid on side and molecules of air (or gas) on the other side
is known as adhesion.
14
Liquid
Vapor
B
A

Figure 1.3

Figure 1.3 is shown a molecule of liquid at the surface is acted on by
imbalance cohesion and adhesive forces giving rise to surface tension. It is
commonly denoted by Greek letter, sigma () and is defined as force per unit length
of the surface. In the equation, it can be written as
L
F
= (1.22)

The units of in SI units will be N/m. In many engineering problems surface
tension forces are very small compared with other forces acting on the fluid and may
therefore be neglected. However, surface tension can cause serious errors in capillary
effects particularly in manometer.

For a droplet or a half bubble, the surface tension effect can be illustrated by
analyzing a free-body diagram as shown in Figure 1.4.

PR
2R
2R
2

Figure 1.4

The pressure force exerted in the droplet is given by
15

2
R P F =

The force due to surface tension is

R F 2 =

The pressure force and tension must be balance each other;

R R P 2
2
=

R
P
2
= (1.23)

1.9 Capillarity

If a small diameter glass tube is inserted into water through a free surface the
water will rise in the tube. This phenomenon is known as capillarity and is caused by
cohesive force of the liquid molecules and adhesion of liquid surface to solid glass
surface.

The rise in level of the capillarity tube will depend on and angle of contact,
as shown in Figure 1.5.

B
A
h
Parallel Plates
F
Tube
B A

dL

Figure 1.5

16
Length of line of contact of the liquid with the tube = d

Vertical component of the surface tension force = (d)..cos

Weight of column of liquid, W=

h d
2
4


Thus, for the equilibrium of surfaces tension and gravity forces requires as

h d d
2
4
cos =

d
h

cos 4
= or
d
P
cos 4
= (1.24)

Consequently, when one does not wish a meniscus to rise appreciably in a
tube, a large value of diameter is chosen. It is believed that trees, even very tall ones,
send water to their highest branches by means of capillarity effects. Hence, capillary
passages must be extremely fine. In water and certain other liquids that exhibit
capillarity the meniscus is concave. These liquids wet the glass and angle of contact
is less than 90. In some other liquids such as mercury the meniscus is convex. The
liquids do not wet the solid surface and angle of contact is more than 90. Glass
tubes are commonly used in manometer and capillary action is a serious source of
error in reading levels in such tubes. They should have as large a diameter as is
conveniently possible to minimize errors due to capillarity.

1.10 Vapor Pressure

Cavitation is given to the phenomenon that occurs at the solid boundaries of
liquid streams when the pressure of the liquid is reduced to vapor pressure of the
liquid at the prevailing temperature. Any attempt to reduce the pressure still further
merely causes the liquid to vaporize more quickly and clouds of vapor bubble form.
The bubbles of vapor formed in the region of cavitation move downstream to a region


17

of higher pressure where they collapse (see Figure 1.5). It is repeated formation and
collapse of vapor bubbles which can have damaging effects upon the walls of the
solid surface. The actual time between formation and collapse may not be more than
1/100 of a second, but dynamic force caused by this phenomenon may be very severe.
It is only a matter of having enough bubbles formed over a sufficient period of time
for the destruction of the metal begins. Cavitation may occur in pumps, turbines,
hydrofoils, propellers, and in venture-meters. In the case of turbines, cavitation is
most likely to occur on the blade surfaces near the tail race where as for pumps it is
most likely to occur at inlet to the impeller. Cavitation can also occur if a liquid
contains dissolved air or gases, since solubility of gases in liquid decreases as the
pressure is reduced. Gas and air bubbles will be released as vapor bubble with the
same damaging effects. Care should be taken to avoid cavitation as far as possible but
if this proves impracticable, than the parts likely to be affected by cavitations should
be constructed of especially resistant metals such as stainless steel.


Figure 1.5 Cavitation phenomena inside the nozzle







18
Problems

1. Determine the density of air, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide at an absolute
pressure of 300kN/m and a temperature of 38.8C.

2. Calculate the specific weight and density of air at absolute pressure of 445 kPa
and a temperature of 38 C.

3. If the volume of liquid decreases by 0.2% for an increase of pressure from 6867
kN/m to 15696 kN/m, calculate the bulk modulus of elasticity of the liquid.

4. A soap bubble 51 mm in diameter has an internal pressure in excess of outside
pressure of 2.06 x 10
-2
kPa, calculate the tension in the soap film.

5. If the pressure inside a water droplet is 0.2 kPa in excess of external pressure,
and given surface tension of water in contact with air at 20C is equal to 0.0736
N/m, determine the diameter of the droplet.

6. Air is introduced a nozzle into a tank of water to from a stream of bubbles. If
the bubbles are intended to have diameter of 2 mm, determine the pressure of air
at the nozzle exceed that of surrounding water (given tension of water =0.0736
N/m).

7. The air in an automobile tyre is at 2.943 MPa absolute at 26.6C. Assuming no
change in the volume of air if the temperature rises to rises to 62.2C, determine
the air pressure.

8. A gas occupying a volume of 300 liters at a certain temperature and pressure of
0.34 N/mm is compressed isothermally to 150 liters. Calculate the initial and
final bulk modulus of elasticity.

9. At a certain point in a fluid, the shear stress in 0.22 N/m and the velocity
gradient is 0.167 sec. If the mass density of the fluid is 1293 kg/m
3
, determine
the kinematic viscosity.
19

10. A liquid flows between two fixed parallel boundaries. The velocity distribution
near to lower wall is given in the following table:


y (mm) v (m/s)
1.0 1.00
2.0 1.99
3.0 2.98
4.0 3.00
5.0 3.00

Determine the maximum and minimum shear stresses (The dynamic viscosity of
fluid is 0.05Pas).

11. Two plates are arranged as in Figure Q11 in the liquid. The top plate is moving
with the velocity of 0.5m/s and the middle plate is moving with the velocity of
2m/s in opposite direction. The area of both plates area 0.25m
2
3mm
3mm
2m/s
0.5m/s
. Plot the velocity
profile on all surfaces and determine the force acting on the middle plate (Take
the viscosity of liquid is 0.01Pas).


Figure Q11

12. Mercury does not adhere to a glass surface, so when a glass tube immersed in
a pool of mercury, the meniscus is depressed, as a shown in Figure Q12. The
surface of mercury is 0.514 N/m and the angle contact is 40C. Calculate the
depression distance in a 1 mm glass tube.


20
40
o
d
Mercury

Figure Q12

13. The vapor pressure of water at 100C is 101 kN/m, because water boils under
these conditions. The vapor pressure of water decreases approximately linearly
with decreasing temperature at a rate of 3.1 kN/m/C. Calculate the boiling
temperature of water at an altitude of 3000 m, where the atmospheric pressure is
69 kN/m absolute.








-oooOOOooo-

21
CHAPTER 2

HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE


2.1 Introduction
A fluid at rest is characterized by absence of relative motion between adjacent
fluid layers. Under such a condition, the velocity gradient is zero and there is no
shear stress, therefore, viscosity of fluid has no effect on fluids at rest. But fluids at
rest do exert forces on the solid boundary. Knowledge of force variation or more
appropriately pressure variations in a static fluid is important to an engineer.
There are so many practical examples of fluids at rest such as water retained
by a dam, an overhead tank supplying water to the public, gas or fuel in a tank truck.
The object of this chapter is to measure pressure variations in a static fluid to discuss
pressure and pressure measurement and laws of fluid pressure.

2.2 Hydrostatic Pressure
In the gravity environment, the static pressure in the fluid is proportionally increased
linearly with the depth and always acted perpendicular or normal to the surface as
shown in Figure 2.1.

1
2
h
h
2
h
1
depth

Figure 2.1 Static pressure increased linearly with the depth

The hydrostatic pressure at every location with the depth, h from the free surface is
given as
22

gh P P
atm
+ = (2.1)

by neglecting P
atm
gh P =
equation 2.1 becomes

(2.2)

and this is called gage pressure that always use in the calculation of static pressure. As
a example, for point 1 and 2 in Figure 1 can be written as:

1 1
gh P = (2.3)

2 2
gh P = (2.4)

Thus, the pressure different between points 1 and 2 can be written as:

h g P P P = =
1 2
(2.5)
where h=h
2
-h
A
B
C D
F
E
1


The fluid pressure at rest is constant along the horizontal line. In other words, the
pressures for all points with similar depth have same magnitude, and it is independent
of the shape or cross section area of the fluid container (see Figure 2.2). This may be
stated as the equal level-equal pressure principle that forms the basis for many
pressure-measuring devices such as barometer and manometer. It also contributes to
the operation of a hydraulic jack that a small input force creates a larger output force.

Figure 2.2 Pressures are equal for all points along horizontal plane
23

Example 2.1
A tank is connected to a vertical tube is filled with water (= 9810N/m
2
(a) Absolute pressure at levels A, B, C, D, E, and F
). Determine:
(b) Gage pressure at levels A, B, C, D, E, and F
0.7
1.8
0.9
0.4 D
C
B
A
Water
E
F
Patm

Figure E2.1

(a) Absolute pressure
Solution:


From equation 2.1, it can be written as

Point A: P
A
=P
atm
+ h
A
, where h
A
=0
=101.3(10
3
) +9810(0)
=101.3kPa

Point B: P
B
=P
atm
+ h
B
, where h
B
=0.7m
=101.3(10
3
) +9810(0.7)
=108.2kPa

Point C: P
C
=P
atm
+ h
C
, where h
C
=2.5m
=101.3(10
3
Point D: P
) +9810(2.5)
=125.8kPa

D
=P
atm
+ h
D
, where h
D
=3.4m
24
=101.3(10
3
) +9810(3.4)
=134.7kPa

Point E: P
E
=P
C
since h
E
=h
C


Thus, P
E
=125.8kPa

Point F: P
F
=P
atm
+ h
F
, where h
F
=3.8m
=101.3(10
3
) +9810(3.8)
=138.6kPa

(b) Gage pressure
P
gA
=P
A
- P
atm
=0kPa

P
gB
=P
B
- P
atm
=6.87kPa

P
gC
=P
C
- P
atm
=24.5kPa

P
gD
=P
D
- P
atm
=33.4kPa

P
gE
=P
E
- P
atm
=24.5kPa

P
gF
=P
F
- P
atm
F1 F2
2
1
A1
A2
Plunger or
piston
Hydraulic fluid,
=37.3kPa

Now consider a simple hydraulic jack in Figure 2.3:

Figure 2.3 Hydraulic J ack
25

Using equilibrium principle, the pressure exerted by the fluid on a plunger or a
piston is written as
A
F
P = (2.6)

From which it follows that
1
1
1
A
F
P = and
2
2
2
A
F
P =

Since the pressure at points 1 and 2 is equal (i.e. same level), we have

2
2
1
1
A
F
A
F
= (2.7)

which can be used to solve for F
2
if F
1
, A
1
and A
2
are given, or vice versa.

Example 2.2:
For a hydraulic jack as shown in Figure E2.2, determine the weight that could be
lifted if the 400N input force F
1
F1 F2
2
1
A
1
A
2
Plunger or
piston
Hydraulic fluid,
is applied to the plunger. The diameters of the
plunger and the piston are10mm and 75mm, respectively

Figure E2.2





26
1
2
1 2
A
A
F F =
Solution:

From equation 2.7 above;



where
2 5 2
1
10 855 . 7 4 / ) 01 . 0 ( m A

= =

2 5 2
2
10 42 . 4 4 / ) 075 . 0 ( m A

= =

Therefore, F
2
2.2 Pressure and head
=22.5kN

There are several types of pressure-measuring devices available. Devices such as a
barometer, Bourdon gage, and manometer are among commonly used instruments
to measure, either a gage, vacuum or absolute pressure. A pressure gage measures
a pressure relative to the local atmospheric pressure when the pressure is above the
atmospheric pressure whereas a vacuum gage is used when the pressure is below
the atmospheric pressure.

P
atm

P
gage
P
vacuum
P
absolute
P
absolute
P
absolute
= 0

Figure 2.4 Type of pressure

27
2.3 Mercury Barometer
A typical mercury barometer is shown in Figure 2.5 and used to measure
atmospheric pressure. It consists of a vertical closed glass tube with a column of
mercury inside. The barometer is constructed so as to avoid having any trapped air at
the end of the tube. It can be assumed that the space between the mercury and the end
of the tube contains a vacuum with zero pressure.
At the bottom of the column, mercury is contained in a small reservoir in a
small reservoir. The pressure acting on the surface of the reservoir is atmospheric
pressure P
atm
. Thus, the atmospheric pressure can be calculated as

P
atm
P =0
h
P
atm
= gh (2.8)



Figure 2.5


2.4 The Bourdon Gauge
This is most common type of pressure gauge which is compact, reasonably
robust and simple to use. A curved tube of elliptical cross-section is closed at one end
is free to move, but the other end-through which the fluid enters is rigidly fixed to the
frame as shown in Figure 2.6.

28
X
X
Section at X-X
Pointer
Flattened
phosphor-bronze
tube

Figure 2.6

When the pressure inside the tube exceeds outside pressure (usually
atmospheric), the cross-section tends to become circular, thus causing the tube
uncurve slightly. The movement of the free end of the tube is transmitted by a
suitable mechanical linkage to a pointer moving over a scale. Zero reading is of
course obtained when the pressure inside the tube equals the local atmospheric
pressure. By using tubes of appropriate stiffness, gauges for a wide range of pressure
may be made.

2.5 Manometric Pressure
The barometer analysis shows that vertical columns of liquid can be used to
measure pressure. The science of this measurement is called manometer.
There are different types of manometers with varying degrees of sensitivity which
embody the principle already derived and used for pressure measurement.

2.5.1 Simple U-tube Manometer
29

h
1
h
2
C
D
B
P
atm

A
P
1

Figure 2.7

Consider the U-tube manometer connected via a small hole to a pipe (Figure
2.7) carrying a fluid of density
1
at pressure P
A
(which is to be measured).
Let the open end of the U-tube be subjected to atmospheric pressure, P
atm
.

At the common surface B-C with the configuration as shown in the diagram
we have :

P
A
+
1
gh
1
=P
B
=P
C
=P
D
+
2
gh
2

P
,
or
A
+
1
gh
1
=P
D
+
2
gh
2
(2.9)

Now P
A
is the pressure to be measured (P) and P
D
=P
atm
.
Thus P P
atm
=(
2
h
2
-
1
h
1
)g (2.10)

2.5.2 Differential Manometer

This is used to measure the pressure differential between two fluid reservoirs
as shown in Figure 2.8.

P
A
+
1
gh
1
=P
D
+
3
gh
3
+
2
gh
2
,

Or differential pressure is given by
30

P
A
P
D
=(
3
h
3
+
2
h
2
-
1
h
1

h
1
h
2
C
B
D
1

A
h
3 3

)g (2.11)



Figure 2.8

2.5.3 Inverted U-tube Manometer

Another type of differential manometer as shown in Figure 2.9

P
B
+
1
gh
1
=P
A

P
B
+
2
gh
2
=P
C

P
C
+
3
gh
3
=P
D


or P
D

3
gh
3

2
gh
2
+
1
gh
1
=P
A
(2.12)

or P
A
P
D
=(
1
h
1

2
h
2

3
h
3
)g (2.13)
31

h
1
h
2
C
B
D
1

h
3
3

A

Figure 2.9

2.5.4 An Inclined Manometer

An inclined manometer as shown in Figure 4 is used to achieve a greater
accuracy and sensitivity in pressure measurement. This is because the slight
pressure change could cause a noticeable change in L.

h
Zero
level
y
P1
AIR
Diameter, D
Fluid density
Diameter of tube, d
L
P2

Figure 2.10 Inclined Manometer

Applying the equal level-equal pressure principle, we have

P
1
=P
Gas


But P
1
=P
2
+ h and h= L sin. The above equation then becomes,
32

( ) sin
2 1
L P P + = (2.14)

h
A
B
air,
air
P
air

P
atm

Mercury, sg =13.6
Example 2.3
U-tube manometer containing a mercury (sg=13.6) as a working fluid is connected to
a tank that contains air as shown in Figure E2.3. The other end of the manometer is
exposed to the atmosphere. Determine the pressure in the tank if h=0.4m.

Figure E2.3

Solution:

Since the density of air is neglected, the pressure at point A will correspond to
the pressure of air in the tank.


P
A
=P
Air
(1)

Applying equal level-equal pressure principle, we have

P
A
=P
B
(2)

But

33
P
B
=P
atm
+
Hg
h (3)
Where
Hg
= sg (
Hg at 4deg.
) =13.6 (9810) =133416N/m
) 4 . 0 ( 13341 ) 10 ( 100
3
+ = + = h P P
Hg atm udara

2


Substitute (3) and (2) into (1) will give



kPa P
udara
4 . 153 =

Example 2.4
The manometer is used to measure the pressure in the pipe and is connected to the
pressurized tank containing gas and water as shown Figure E2.4. Pressure gage
attached to the tank reads 80 kPa, determine the gage pressure in the pipe. (Given h
1
=
40cm, h
2
=84cm, h
3
=57cm, h
4
Gas
Water
h1 =40cm
h2 =84cm
h3 =57cm
h4 =45cm
Mercury ,
sg =13.6
A
h
3
Oil , sg =0.8
h1
h2
h4
=45cm)

Figure E2.4
From equal level-equal pressure,

D C B
P P P = =

But,
3
h P P
Hg E D
+ =

Where ) (
2
h P P
w F E
+ =

And kPa P P
gas F
80 = =
34

And also
4
h P P
oil B A
+ =

Substitute (2), (3) and (4) into (1);

4 3 2
) ( h h h P P
oil Hg water gas A
+ + + =

P
A
=80(10
3
) +9810(0.84) +13.6(9810)(0.57)+0.8(9810)(0.45)

=167kPa.

Example 2.5
Figure E2.5 show a three-fluid manometer containing oil (sg=0.82), mercury (sg=
13.6) and water used to measure large pressure differences. Determine the pressure
difference between A and B. Given h
1
=45cm, h
2
=70cm, h
3
=25cm and h
4
Water
Gas
A
h
4
h
3
Oil,
sg =0.82
Gasoline,
Sg =0.7
Mercury,
Sg =13.6
B
h
2
h
1
=20cm.
Neglect the air density.

Figure E2.5

D C A
P P P = =
Solution:



but
1 1
h P h P P
W A W D E
+ = + =

35
and
1
h P P P
W A E F
+ = =

Also
2
h P P
Hg G F
+ =

but
G H
P P =

Also
4 3
h h P P
oil gasolin H B
+ + =

Substituting 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 give

4 3 2
h h h h P P
oil gasolin W Hg B A
=

or ) (
4 3 2
h sg h sg h h sg P P
oil gasolin Hg W B A
=
=(9810)[(13.6)(0.7)-(0.45)-0.7(0.25)-0.82(0.2)]
=85.7kPa.


Problems

1 The Crosby gage tester shown in the figure is used to calibrate or to test
pressure gages. When the weights and the piston together weigh 89.0 N, the
gage being tested indicates 179kPa. If the piston diameter is 20mm, what is
the percentage error exists in the gage?
Weight
Piston
Air
Oil

Figure Q1

2. Two hemispheric shells are perfectly sealed together and the internal pressure
is reduced to 10% of atmospheric pressure. The inner radius is 15 cm, and the
36
outer radius is 15.5 cm. The seal is located half way between the inner and
other radius. If the atmospheric pressure is 100kPa, what force is required to
pull the shells apart?

3. If exactly 20 bolts of 2.5-cm diameter are needed to hold the air chamber
together at A-A as a result of the high pressure within, how many bolts will be
needed at B-B? Here D =50 cm and d =25 cm.

Figure Q3

4. The reservoir shown in the figure contains two immiscible liquids of specific
weights
A
and
B
, respectively, one above the other where
A
>
B
Liquid B
Liquid A
. Which
graph depicts the correct distribution of gage pressure along a vertical line
through the liquids?

p p p p
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure Q4

5. This manometer contains water at room temperature. The glass tube on the left
has an inside diameter of 1 mm (d =1.0 mm). The glass tube on the right is
three times as large. For these conditions, the water surface level in the left
tube will be a) higher than the water surface level in the right tube, b) equal to
37
the water surface level in the right tube, c) less than the water surface level in
the right tube. State your main reason or assumption for making your choice.
d 3d

Figure Q5

6. A tank is fitted with a manometer on the side, as shown. The liquid in the
bottom of the tank and in the manometer has a specific gravity (s) of 3.0, the
depth of this bottom liquid is 20 cm. A 10-cm layer of water lies on top
bottom liquid. Find the position of the liquid surface in the manometer.
7.
Water
Liquid
h =?
10 cm
20 cm

Figure Q6

7. Determine the gage pressure in pipe A.
Mercury
0.5 m
1.0 m
Water
1.3 m
A
Oil (SG =0.90)

38
Figure Q7

8. Considering the effects of surface tension, estimate the gage pressure at the
center of pipe A.

10 cm
Glass tube ( 1mmID. 4 mmOD)
Water level in tube
A

Figure Q8

9. What is the pressure at the center of pipe B?
50 cm
10 cm
4
3
50 cm
B
=10 kN/m
3
=20 kN/m
3

Figure Q9









39


10. Find the pressure at the center of pipe A.
Water
A
150 cm
Oil
(SG=0.8)
Mercury
(SG =13.6)
90 cm
Water
30 cm
30 cm

Figure Q10

11. The top of an invented U-tube manometer is filled with an oil of specific gravity
of 1.01. Determine the pressure difference in Pa between two points A and B at the
same level at the base of the legs when the difference in water level h is 75mm.
40
CHAPTER 3
FLUID STATICS


3.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter it was noted that the hydrostatic pressure parts of fluid static.
In this chapter we shall develop equations to calculate the magnitude and location of
forces acting on submerged surfaces. We shall also examine problems involving
ability of floating bodies. Such analysis of fluid helps in the design of dams, gates,
ships and submarines.
In this chapter, the submerged surfaces are divided into the following types; a)
straight horizontal and vertical surfaces, b) straight inclined surfaces, and c) curved
surfaces.

The analysis of hydrostatic force on submerged surfaces assumes the following
conditions.
1. Force is always perpendicular to the surface since there is no shear
stress for fluids at rest.
2. Pressure varies linearly with depth for incompressible fluid.
3. The resultant fluid force passes through the point called the center of
pressure

3.2 Horizontal and vertical surface
Any given depth h, the resultant fluid force F
R
F
R
h
h
F
R
P=gh
on the horizontal and vertical
surfaces may be represented as shown in Figure 3.1.


Figure 3.1
41

Magnitude of the resultant force F
R
PA F
R
=
at the bottom of the tank, Figure 3.1 is given
by

(3.1)

where A is the area of the surface upon which the pressure is acting. For the
vertical
Surface. Figure 5.8(b), we have
PA F
R
2
1
= (3.2)

3.3 Inclined Surface
The surface tilted at an angle from the horizontal is shown in Figure 3.2. The
pressure variation and hence the resultant hydrostatic force F
R
p
c
F
R
O
A
P
C
X
C
X
P
y
y
c
yp

h
c
h
p
, on the surface can be
presented as shown in Figure 3.2.


Figure 3.2




42

Magnitude F
R
A P F
C R
=
can be written as

(3.3)

where P
C
C o C
gh P P + =
is a pressure at the centroid surface (point C) and is written as:

(3.4)

This pressure is equivalent to the average pressure on the surface.
we can see that
a) the magnitude of the force is independent of the angle ,
b) it is perpendicular to the surface, and
c) it passes through the point of application called the center of pressure
(point P).

In many cases, the pressure at point O is the atmospheric pressure and may be
ignored in the analysis. This simplifies equation (3.4) to

C C
gh P = (3.5)

Noticed that when =90, the surface becomes vertical and when =0, the
surface becomes horizontal.

3.3.1 Center of Pressure
Next we need to determine the line of action of the resultant force F
R
distance y
P
and hence its location below the free surface, hp. It is found that T action y
P
C
X
P
Ay
I
y =
is given
by

(3.6)

43
where
X
I is the moment of inertia of the area with respect to the x axis. Using
parallel axis
2
C X X
Ay I I + = , equation (3.6) can be rewritten as

C
X
C P
Ay
I
y y + = (3.7)

where
X
I is the moment of inertia of the area with respect to the centroid axis.
X
I
commonly used shapes is given in Figure 3.3. Observe that the center pressure P
below the centroid C of the surface since 0 / >
C X
Ay I ,

Expressing y
P
=h
P
/sin and y
C
=h
C
C
C P
Ah
I
h h + =
/sin, we obtain from equation 3.7



Where
2
sin
X
I I = . In some textbooks, the location of the centroid of the submerge
surface from the fluid free surface,
C
h is denoted as h and y
C
y as .

Figure 3.3 shows the centroid y for the simple shape objects and Figure 3.4 shows
the second moment of area
X
I
for the simple shapes.
44

45

Figure 3.3

1. First Moment of Area
Note:
It is used to determine the centroid for a complex shape. It can be calculated using
the following method:
46
x
a
b
A1
A2
A3
=
-

b A a A x A
3 2 1
=
Where A
1
, A
2
, and A
3
y
x y
x
dA
are the areas and x, a, and b are the centroid for the
above shapes respectively.

2. Axial Moment of Inertia of an Area
The axial moment of inertia of an area is the summation of the axial moments
of inertia of the elements.

dA y I
x

=
2

dA x I
y

=
2


3. Parallel Axis Theorem
The parallel axis theorem states that the axial moment of inertia of an area
about any axis equals the axial moment of inertia of the area about a parallel
axis through the centroid of the area plus the product of the area and the
square of the distance between the two parallel axes.
47
x
y
0
x
y
n
m


2
Am I I
x x
+ =


2
An I I
y y
+ =



3.4 Moment of a Force
The resultant force F
R
and its location y
P
or h
P
M=Fd
A C
F
B
d
A C
=
, are determined, thus the calculation of
the moment needed to overcome the resulting moment due to this force about certain
point. Consider a force F acting perpendicular to the body at point B as shown in
Figure 3.4.


Figure 3.4

This force tends to rotate the body about point A in a counter-clockwise direction.
The tendency of a force to rotate the body is called the moment of a force about that
point. The magnitude of this moment about point A is given by:

Fd M
A
=



48

where d is the perpendicular distance from point A to the point of application of the
force. The direction of the moment is indicated using either clockwise or counter-
clockwise. In this case, M
A
is in the counter-clockwise direction Figure 3.4.

(a) The resultant hydrostatic force exerted on the gate AB
Example 3.1:
Consider a rectangular gate AB hinged along A to support the water pressure as
shown in Figure E3.1. Determine:

(b) The center of pressure
(c) The force acting on the stopper at B

The gate width is 3m.

Water
=9810N/m
3
h
l
h =10 m
l =6 m
A
B

Figure E3.1
(a) Resultant force
Solution:


F
R
= h
C
A (1)

where A=6(3) =18m
2
and h
C
=4 +3 =7m

From equation (1);

49

F
R
(b) Location of center of pressure
=9810 (7) (18) =1.24MN


C
C P
Ah
I
h h + =

where
4 2 3 2
54 ) 90 ( sin ) 6 )( 3 (
12
1
sin m I I
X
= = =

m h
P
43 . 7
) 7 )( 18 (
54
7 = + =

(c) The force acting at the stopper B

Taking moment at A,

) 4 ( =
P R B
h F l F

MN F
B
71 . 0
6
43 . 3 24 . 1
=

=

Water
10m
60
F=
Example 3.2:
Determine the friction coefficient required to hold the dam from moving as shown in
Figure E1.2. The normal force of dam is 50MN/m.

Figure E1.2
50

m kN A h F / 8 . 424 60 sin / ) 10 )( 5 ( 9810 = = =

Solution:
Hydrostatic force per unit width acting on the dam surface:

For force acts along horizontal component:

m kN F F
H
/ 9 . 367 30 cos 8 . 424 30 cos = = =



Therefore, the friction factor required to hold the dam;

0074 . 0
50
10 9 . 367
3
=

=




3.5 Curved Surface

For the curved surface as shown in Figure 3.5, the pressure variation and hence the
resultant hydrostatic force F
R
A
B
B
A
F
2
D
F
V
F
R
F
h
W
P
G
F
1
F
R
P
on the surface can be represented as shown.

Figure 3.5

Let F
h
=horizontal force exerted on the fluid mass
F
v
F
=vertical force exerted on the fluid mass
1
=resultant force of the fluid exerted on the surface AD
51
F
2
2
F F
h
=
=resultant force of the fluid exerted on the surface BD
W =the weight of the enclosed volume supported by the curved AB and
that W =gV where V is volume of the enclosed liquid block, and it passes
through the centroid of this volume.

The force balances under static equilibrium and obtain the following equations:



W F F
v
+ =
1


The magnitude of the total resultant fluid force acting on the curved surface is given
by:

2 2
v h R
F F F + =

Example 3.3:
A water channel with a 3m long quarter-circular section AB of radius 2.4m is
designed as shown in Figure E3.3. Determine the total resultant force exerted by
water on section AB. Given
air
=9.81kN/m
3
2.4 m
3.6 m
A
B
WATER
.

Figure E3.3

Solution:

Total resultant force is given by
52

2 2
v h R
F F F + =

where F
v
=F
1
+W and F
h
=F
A h F
C
=
1
2


For each force components;



where A=2.4(3) =7.2m
2
and h
C
kN F 3 . 254 ) 2 . 7 )( 6 . 3 ( 9810
1
= =
=3.6m



V gV W = =

Where
3 2 2
57 . 13 ) 3 ( ) 4 . 2 (
2
1
4
1
m l r V = = =
kN W 2 . 133 ) 57 . 13 ( 9810 = =

A h F
C
=
2


Where A=2.4(3) =7.2m
3
and h
C
kN F 339 ) 2 . 7 )( 8 . 4 ( 9810
2
= =
=3.6 +1.2 =4.8m



Therefore, F
v
=254.3 +133.2 =387.4kN

F
h
=F
2
=339kN
And
F
R
=(387.4
2
+339
2
)
1/2

=514.8kN


53

P
Hinge
2m
2m
Water
0.5m
Example 3.4
Determine the force per unit width P, required to hold the gate as shown in Figure
E3.4.

Figure E3.4
m kN A h F
H
/ 62 . 19 ) 2 )( 1 ( 9810 = = =
Solution:
Hydrostatic force acting on the control volume;


By taking moment at hinge:
m kN P / 7 . 15
5 . 2
62 . 19 2
=

=


3.6 Buoyancy, Floatation and Stability
When a body is completely submerged or floating in a fluid, the resultant fluid
force acting in an upward direction on the body is called the buoyancy force. This
force tends to lift the body upward and its existence is due to the fact that (1) the
fluid pressure increases with depth, and (2) the pressure force acting from below is
larger than the pressure force acting from above.

3.6.1 Buoyancy and Floatation
Consider a body submerged completely in a fluid as shown in Figure 5.12.
The resultant force on the bottom surface of the body is greater than the
resultant force on the top surface of the body.
54
h
F
B
F
top
=
f
h
1
A
F
bottom
=
f
h
2
A
h
1
h
2

Figure 3.6 Buoyancy force acting on a submerged body

The difference between these two forces is the buoyant force which gives
the net upward force. This buoyant force will pass through the point called
center of buoyancy or the centroid of the displaced volume, C
B
hA A h A h F F F
f f f top bottom B
= = =
1 2
which
happened to be at the same point as the center of gravity of the body, G in
the case of a completely submerged body. Writing force balance on the
body, we have



However, the term hA is basically the volume of the fluid body (or volume
of the displaced fluid by the body). Expressing this volume as V = hA, we
may write the equation above as

V F
f B
=

where V is volume of the displaced fluid. Thus, we conclude that the
buoyant force acting on the body is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the body and therefore, proportional to the density of the
fluid.

In the case of a floating body, Figure 3.7, the weight of the entire body must
be equal to the buoyant force, which is the weight of the fluid whose volume
is equal to the volume of the submerged portion of the floating body.
55

F
B
V
sub
F
B
(a) (b)
(c)
V
total
mg
FB
FB=mg
mg

Figure 3.7 Buoyancy force acting on a floating body

Thus, for a floating body in static equilibrium, we may write

W F
B
= or
total body sub f
V V =

where
total
V =total volume of the body or volume of the entire body

sub
V =volume of the submerged, portion of the body, which is equal to
the
volume of the displaced fluid (Figure 3.7(c))

Rewriting the above equation as
f
body
f
body
total
sub
V
V

=

We observe that the body is completely submerged when the density ratio is
equal to 1 that is when the density of the body is equal to the fluid density.
We can conclude that a body immersed in a fluid will

(1) Rise to the surface of the fluid and float when the density of the body
is less than the fluid density,

(2) Remain at rest at any point in the fluid when its density is equal to the
fluid density, and

56
(3) Sink to the bottom when the density of the body is greater than the
fluid density.

body
<
f
: floating

body
<
f
: suspended

body
<
f
: sinking

Figure 3.8 Situations of a body immersed in a fluid: float, remain at rest, or
sink depending on the density of the body relative to the fluid density

Example 3.5

A cuboids has the size of bhw is floating in the water (
air
=9.81kN/m
3
) as
shown in Figure E3.5. Determine the portion of body that above the water
surface, a if
J asad
=3.5kN/m
3
h
water
a
w
, b=5m, h=8m dan w=6m.


Figure E3.5
Solution:
w b h V
w b ) a h ( V
total
sub
=
=


From the relationship,

f
body
f
body
total
sub
V
V

=
57

=
9800
3500
1 8 1 ) ( h a
f
body

a = 5. 14m

Note: Observe that from equation above, the portion above the water
surface will be less if the density of the body is higher

Example 3.6
Balloon has a mass of 20kg and the diameter of 10m is filled with the helium
gas (Figure E3.6). The density of helium gas is 0.81kg/m
3
. Determine the
acceleration of the balloon after it releases from the ground (Take air density
as 1.2kg/m
3
10m
Helium
).

Figure E3.6
Solution:
The forces in equilibrium position as in equation below:

a m g m F
T T B
=

) 20 (
) 20 (
V
g V V
a
He
He air

+
+
= , where
3 3
6 . 523 5
3
4
m V = =

Thus, the acceleration is

58
2
/ 07 . 4
) 6 . 523 81 . 0 20 (
81 . 9 ) 6 . 523 81 . 0 20 ( ) 6 . 523 )( 81 . 9 2 . 1 (
s m a =
+
+
=


3.6.2 Stability of Floating and Immersed Bodies
Stability is an important issue for a floating and immersed body such as in
the design of a ship, submarine and barge (Figure 3.9).


Figure 3.9 A barge used for transportation at Kuala Kurau

In the vertical direction under static equilibrium, the weight and the buoyant
force on a floating or immersed body will balance each other, and such body
is said to be vertically stable (vertical stability).

For the rotational stability, the condition depends upon the relative location
of the center of gravity G of the body and the center of buoyancy C
B
, Figure
3.10. A floating or immersed body is stable if the point G is below point C
B
,
Figure 3.9(a). Under this condition, the body will return to its original stable
position due to the restoring moment or couple produced by the body.
59

(a) stable
(b) neutral (c) unstable
w
F
B
C
B
G
w
F
B
C
B
G
w
F
B
C
B
G
(d) Restoring Couple
Restoring
Moment
w
F
B
Overturning
Moment
(e) Overturning Couple
w
F
B

Figure 3.10 Stability of an immersed body (a) stable with restoring couple
as shown in (d), (b) neutral, and (c) unstable with overturning
couple as shown in (e).

However, a floating body will still be stable even if G is above C
B
. See
Figure 3.11. This is because the body will still produce the restoring moment
since the centroid of the displaced volume is now shifted to the side to point
C
B
. The lines of action of the buoyancy force before and after rotation will
meet at the point called the meta-center C
M
.
The distance between G and C
M
is called the metacentric height h
M
and is
used as a measure of stability for a floating body. The larger it is, the more
stable the floating body will be. Note that the floating body is unstable if the
point C
M
W
G
CB
W
CM
CB
FB
G
Restoring
Couple
h
M
is below point G.

Figure 3.11 Stability of an immersed body

To determine whether the floating body is stable or not is given by the
following equations:
60
V
I
C C
B M
=

and for the body is in stable condition when it rotate at certain angle resulting
from the reversed moment, it must has the following conditions:

0 > =
G M M
C C h Stable
0 = =
G M M
C C h Neutral
0 < =
G M M
C C h Unstable

Example E3.7:
The shifting of a portion of cargo of mass 25000kg, through a distance of 6m
at right angles to the vertical plane containing the longitudinal axis of a vessel,
causes it to heel through an angle of 5. The displacement of the vessel is 5000
metric tons and the value of second moment of area is 5840m
4
. The density of
seawater is 1025kg/m
3
6m
2500g
CB
CG
CM
. Determine the metacentric height and the height of the
centre of gravity of the vessel above the centre of buoyancy.

Solution:

CM
CG
CB
x
5

Force diagram
Let the horizontal distance between C
G
and C
B
is x,

By taking moment at C
G
0 ) 81 . 9 ( 10 5000 ) 6 )( 81 . 9 ( 2500
3
= + x
:

; where F
B
=m
T
m x 03 . 0 =
g

61
Volume of displacement,
3
3
4878
1025
10 5000
m V =

=

And, m
V
I
C C
B M
2 . 1
4878
5840
= = =

Thus, metacentric height, m
x
h
M
344 . 0
5 sin
03 . 0
5 sin
= = =



And the vertical distance between C
G
and C
B
m
x
C C
B M
857 . 0
5 tan
03 . 0
2 . 1
5 tan
) ( = =

is


3.7 Liquids in Relative Equilibrium
If a vessel containing a liquid is at rest or moving with constant velocity the liquid is
not affected by the motion of the container, but if the container is given continuously
acceleration this will be imparted to the liquid which will take up a new position and
come to rest with respect to its container and come to rest relative to the vessel. The
liquid is in relative equilibrium and is at rest with respect to its container. There is no
relative motion of the particles of the fluid and therefore no shear stress. Fluid
pressure is everywhere normal to the surface on which it acts.

3.7.1 Horizontal Acceleration
Consider a particle O of mass m on the free surface of the liquid as in Figure
3.11.
A C B
a

W
F
R
O

Figure 3.12

62

Since the particle is at rest relative to the tank, it will have the same
acceleration a, and will be subjected to an accelerating force, F

a
g
W
ma F = =

where W=weight of particles.

The accelerating force, F is the resultant of the weight W of the particle acting
vertically downward and the pressure force, R acting normal to the free
surface due to surrounding fluid.

For equilibrium F=W tan, where is the angle of the free surface to the
horizontal.
Thus,
g
a
= tan

and is constant for all points on the surface.

3.7.2 Vertical Acceleration
As the acceleration is vertical the free surface will remain horizontal. Consider
a vertical prism of height h (Figure 3.13) extending from the free surface to x
and let the pressure intensity at x be P.

P
x
B A
a
Prism
Cross sectional
Area =a
h

Figure 3.13

63

Accelerating force at x, F=Force due to pressure weight of prism
=PA - ghA

By Newtons second Law:

F = mass acceleration
a hA F =
Thus,

a hA ghA PA =

or

+ =
g
a
gh P 1

3.7.3 Forced Vortex
The liquid in the vessel is rotated with the vessel at the same angular velocity,
. A particle on the free surface will be in equilibrium under the action of its
weight W (Figure 3.14), the centrifugal accelerating force, F acting
horizontally and the fluid reaction R.

o
w
A
F
y
D
B
A
x
i
s

o
f

r
o
t
a
t
i
o
n
x

Figure 3.14

64

For any point at radius x and a height y from the lowest point O, if is the
angle of inclination of the water surface to the horizontal,

W
F
dx
dy
= = tan

For a constant value of , F will vary with x, since the centrifugal acceleration
is
2
x dan F=(W/g)
2
g
x
dx
dy
2
tan

= =
x.

The surface angle therefore varies and,



Integrating will give,

malar
g
x
dx
g
x
y
x
+ = =

2
2 2
0
2



If y is measured from AB, y=0 when x=0 and

g
x
y
2
2 2

=

The water surface is therefore a parabolic revolution.

Example 3.8
A tank containing water moves horizontally with a constant linear acceleration
a of 3m/s
2
(a) The angle of water surface when the tank is 1.5m
. The tank is 3m long and the depth of water when the tank is at rest
is 1.5m. Calculate:
(b) The maximum pressure intensity on the bottom
65
(c) The minimum pressure intensity on the bottom

Solution:
Given: a=3m/s
2
(a) The angle of water surface to horizontal,
, h=1.5m

o
g
a
17 tan
1
= =



(b) The depth at A (maximum pressure),
m h h h
o
A
96 . 1 17 tan 5 . 1 5 . 1 tan = + = + =

(c) The depth at B (minimum pressure),
m h h h
o
B
04 . 1 17 tan 5 . 1 5 . 1 tan = = + =

Problems
1. Consider the two rectangular gates shown in the figure. They are both the
same size, but one (Gat e A) is held in place by a horizontal shaft through
its midpoint and the other (Gat e B) is cantilevered to a shaft at its top. Now
consider the torque 1' required to hold the gates in places as H is increase.
Choose the valid statement(s): a) T
A
increases with H. b) T
B
increases with
H. c) T
A
does not change with H. d) T
B

does not change with H.
Shaft
Gate B
Gate A
H
Water
Atmospheric
Pressure
H
Water
Atmospheric
Pressure
Shaft

Figure Q1

2. Find the force of the gate on the block.

66
Block
Pivot
4 m x 4 m gate
Water
10 m
2 m
2 m

Figure Q2

3. Neglecting the weight of the gate, determine the force acting on the hinge of
the gate.
3 m
9 m
Atmospheric pressure
On this side of gate
9 m x 9 m gate
water
hinge

Figure Q3

4. The rectangular gate measures 6m by 4m and is pin-connected at point A. If
the surface on which the gate rests at A is frictionless. What is the reaction at
A? Neglect the weight of the gate.

Hinge
Atmospheric
Pressure
Stop
A
Water
6 m
3 m
30
o

Figure Q4

5. A 12m x 12m gate is installed at the end of water reservoir, as shown, and is
hinged at the top. The gate hinge is G m below the reservoir water surface.
The gate is connected to a rectangular tank of water which is 12 m wide (into
67
the paper) and filled with 6 m of water. The weight to the tank is negligible.
How long (L) would the tank have to be open the gate?

Figure Q5

6. The triangular gate ABC is pivoted at the bottom edge AC and closes a
triangular opening ABC in the wall of the tank. The opening is 4 m wide (W =
4 m) and 9 m high (H =9 m). The depth d of water in the tank is 10 m.
Determine the hydrostatic force on the gate and the horizontal force P required
at B to hold the gate closed.
d
H
W
Water
T =20
o
C
View D-D
View E-E
A,C
E
A
B
C
E
D
D
P

Figure Q6

7. Estimate the depth d needed for the rectangular gate to automatically open if
the weight W=60kN as shown in Figure Q7. The gate is 4m high and 2m
wide. Neglect the weight of the gate.

68
5m
Water
4m
d
W
Hinge
Atmospheric
pressure
Gate stop

Figure Q7

8. For the plane rectangular gate (L x W in size), Figure 8(a), what is the
magnitude of the reaction at A in terms of
w
Water Water
L
Hinge Hinge
1/4L
A
4
5
o
A
B
B
1/4L
L

S
i
n

4
5 o
Smooth
Boundary
Rectangular
Gate
and the dimensions L and W?
For the cylindrical gate, Figure 9(b), will the magnitude of the reaction of A be
greater than, less than, or the same as that for the plane gate? Neglect the
weight of the gates.

(a) (b)
Figure 8

9. The floating platform shown is supported at each corner by a hollow sealed
cylinder 1 m in diameter. The platform itself weighs 30kN in air, and each
cylinder weighs 1.0kN per meter of length as in Figure Q9. What total
cylinder length L is required for the platform to float 1 m above the water
surface? Assume that the specific weight of the water is 10,000 N/m. The
platform is square in plan view.
10 m
Diameter =1 m
Floating
Platform
Weight =30kN
L =?
1 m

Figure Q9
69

10. The coffee cup in Figure Q10 is removed from the drag race, placed on a
turntable, and rotated about its central axis until a rigid-body mode occurs.
Determine:

(a) the angular velocity which will cause the coffee to just reach the lip of the
cup
(b) the gauge pressure at point A for this condition
(Take the density of coffee as 1100kg/m
3
r
0

3cm 3cm
3cm
7cm
z
)


Figure Q10