Chapter 11.

Thermal Processing of Metal

Alloys
| Home | | Up | | Chapter 1. Introduction | | Chapter 2. Atomic Structure and Bonding |
| Chapter 3. Structure oI Crystals | | Chapter 4. ImperIections | | Chapter 5. DiIIusion |
| Chapter 6. Mechanical Properties oI Metals |
| Chapter 7. Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms | | Chapter 8. Failure |
| Chapter 9. Phase Diagrams | | Chapter 10: Phase TransIormations in Metals |
| Chapter 11. Thermal Processing oI Metal Alloys |
| Chapter 13. Ceramics - Structures and Properties |
| Chapter 14. Ceramics - Applications and Processing | | Chapter 15. Polymer Structures |
| Chapter 16. Polymers. Characteristics, Applications and Processing | | Chapter 17. Composites |
| Chapter 19. Electrical Properties |
Annealing Processes
11.1 Introduction
Annealing is a heat treatment where the material is taken to a high temperature, kept there Ior
some time and then cooled. High temperatures allow diIIusion processes to occur Iast. The time
at the high temperature (soaking time) is long enough to allow the desired transIormation to
occur. Cooling is done slowly to avoid the distortion (warping) oI the metal piece, or even
cracking, caused by stresses induced by diIIerential contraction due to thermal inhomogeneities.
BeneIits oI annealing are:
relieve stresses
increase soItness, ductility and toughness
produce a speciIic microstructure
11.2 Process Annealing
DeIorming a piece that has been strengthened by cold working requires a lot oI energy. Reverting
the eIIect oI cold work by process annealing eases Iurther deIormation. Heating allows recovery
and recrystallization but is usually limited to avoid excessive grain growth and oxidation.
11.3 Stress Relief
Stresses resulting Irom machining operations oI non-uniIorm cooling can be eliminated by stress
relieI annealing at moderately low temperatures, such that the eIIect oI cold working and other
heat treatments is maintained.
11.4 Annealing of Ferrous Alloys
Normalizing (or austenitizing) consists in taking the Fe-C alloy to the austenitic phase which
makes the grain size more uniIorm, Iollowed by cooling in air.
Page 1 oI 3 Chapter 11. Thermal Processing oI Metal Alloys
12/9/2014 http://www.virginia.edu/bohr/mse209/chapter11.htm
Full anneal involves taking hypoeutectoid alloys to the austenite phase and hypereutectoid alloys
over the eutectoid temperature (Fig. 11.1) to soIten pieces which have been hardened by plastic
deIormation, and which need to be machined.
Spheroidizing consists in prolongued heating just below the eutectoid temperature, which results
in the soIt spheroidite structure discussed in Sect. 10.5. This achieves maximum soItness that
minimizes the energy needed in subsequent Iorming operations.
Heat Treatment of Steels
1.5 Hardenability
To achieve a Iull conversion oI austenite into hard martensite, cooling needs to be Iast enough to
avoid partial conversion into perlite or bainite. II the piece is thick, the interior may cool too
slowly so that Iull martensitic conversion is not achieved. Thus, the martensitic content, and the
hardness, will drop Irom a high value at the surIace to a lower value in the interior oI the piece.
Hardenability is the ability oI the material to be hardened by Iorming martensite.
Hardenability is measured by the Jominy end-quench test (Fig. 11.2). Hardenability is then given
as the dependence oI hardness on distance Irom the quenched end. High hardenability means that
the hardness curve is relatively Ilat.
11.6 Influence of Quenching Medium, Specimen Size, and Geometry
The cooling rate depends on the cooling medium. Cooling is Iastest using water, then oil, and
then air. Fast cooling brings the danger oI warping and Iormation oI cracks, since it is usually
accompanied by large thermal gradients.
The shape and size oI the piece, together with the heat capacity and heat conductivity are
important in determining the cooling rate Ior diIIerent parts oI the metal piece. Heat capacity is
the energy content oI a heated mass, which needs to be removed Ior cooling. Heat conductivity
measures how Iast this energy is transported to the colder regions oI the piece.
Precipitation Hardening
Hardening can be enhanced by extremely small precipitates that hinder dislocation motion. The
precipitates Iorm when the solubility limit is exceeded. Precipitation hardening is also called age
hardening because it involves the hardening oI the material over a prolonged time.
11.7 Heat Treatments
Precipitation hardening is achieved by:
a) solution heat treatment where all the solute atoms are dissolved to Iorm a single-
phase solution.
b) rapid cooling across the solvus line to exceed the solubility limit. This leads to a
supersaturated solid solution that remains stable (metastable) due to the low
temperatures, which prevent diIIusion.
c) precipitation heat treatment where the supersaturated solution is heated to an
intermediate temperature to induce precipitation and kept there Ior some time (aging).
Page 2 oI 3 Chapter 11. Thermal Processing oI Metal Alloys
12/9/2014 http://www.virginia.edu/bohr/mse209/chapter11.htm
II the process is continued Ior a very long time, eventually the hardness decreases. This is called
overaging.
The requirements Ior precipitation hardening are:
appreciable maximum solubility
solubility curve that Ialls Iast with temperature
composition oI the alloy that is less than the maximum solubility
11.8 Mechanism of Hardening
Strengthening involves the Iormation oI a large number oI microscopic nuclei, called zones. It is
accelerated at high temperatures. Hardening occurs because the deIormation oI the lattice around
the precipitates hinder slip. Aging that occurs at room temperature is called natural aging, to
distinguish Irom the artiIicial aging caused by premeditated heating.
11.9 Miscellaneous Considerations
Since Iorming, machining, etc. uses more energy when the material is hard, the steps in the
processing oI alloys are usually:
solution heat treat and quench
do needed cold working beIore hardening
do precipitation hardening
Exposure oI precipitation-hardened alloys to high temperatures may lead to loss oI strength by
overaging.
Terms:
Annealing
Artificial aging
Austenitizing
Full annealing
Hardenability
1ominy end-quench test
Overaging
Natural aging
Precipitation hardening
Precipitation heat treatment
Process annealing
Solution heat treatment
Spheroidizing
Stress relief
Page 3 oI 3 Chapter 11. Thermal Processing oI Metal Alloys
12/9/2014 http://www.virginia.edu/bohr/mse209/chapter11.htm