1995 - Zhi Ling Qiu - A Theoretical and Experimental Study On Dynamic Characteristics o

University of Wollongong
Research Online
University of Wollongong Tesis Collection University of Wollongong Tesis Collections
1995
A theoretical and experimental study on dynamic
characteristics of journal bearings
Zhi Ling Qiu
Research Online is the open access institutional repository for the
University of Wollongong. For further information contact Manager
Repository Services: morgan@uow.edu.au.
Recommended Citation
Qiu, Zhi Ling, A theoretical and experimental study on dynamic characteristics of journal bearings, Doctor of Philosophy thesis,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Wollongong, 1995. htp://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/1567
AMENDMENTS
"A Theoretical and Experimental Study on Characteristics of
Journal Bearings"
by
Zhi Ling Qiu
Addition to the end of page 86
The calculated bearing has two 20 axial grooves. At very low eccentricity, the oil film
starting boundary is close to the oil groove. If the perturbation amplitude is larger than
some value, the starting boundary could shift from up-stream of the groove to down-
stream of the groove at the perturbed position. This big shift (about 20) results in
sudden increase in the variation of the bearing coefficients as shown in Figure 3.18(a).
At normal eccentricity the starting boundary is far from the groove, the boundary shift is
normally less than 2 (depends on perturbation amplitude), thus the calculated bearing
coefficients do not change as dramatically at those at very low eccentricity.
Addition to page 325. following conclusion (7)
To measure the bearing coefficients in situ in an operating machine, the impact excitation
(Chapter 8) and the step force excitation (Morton, 1975) could be used if the force-
applying equipment is installed in advance. For Morton's method, the estimation is
affected by the dynamic characteristic of the foil baring, through which the step force is
applied to the journal. N o practical method has been reported to improve this method.
Additional references
Holmes, A.G., Ettles, C.M.M. and Mayes, I.W.,1978, "The Aperiodic Behaviour of a
Rigid Shaft in Journal Bearings," Int. Journal for Numerical Methods in
Engineering, 12, p685-702.
Akkok, M . & Ettles, C , 1984, "Journal Bearing Response to Excitation and Behaviour
in the Unstable Region", Trans. ASLE, 27, p341-351.
A THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL
STUDY ON DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF
JOURNAL BEARINGS
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
from
Department of Mechanical Engineering
THE UNIVERSITY OF WOLLONGONG
by
Zhi Ling Qiu
B.Sci. (SJTU) M.Sci (SJTU+SMERI)
1995
Supervisor: Associate Professor A.K. Tieu
UNIVERSITY OF
WOLLONGONG
LIBRARY
0
DEDICATION
To my father, Mr. Bin Zhong Qiu
ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to express his deepest thanks to his supervisor, Associate
Professor A.K.Tieu for his continuous encouragement. Without his help, patient
guidance and shared pride in the work, this thesis could not have been written.
Gratitude is expressed to the University of Wollongong for providing the
Postgraduate Research Award to support this research project The Australian Electricity
Supply Industry Research Board is acknowledged for its financial assistance in this
research.
Great appreciation is expressed to Mr. R. Marshall, who did painstaking work in
manufacturing the test rigs and was very helpful during the experimental stage. The
author is also grateful for the help of Mr. S. Watkins, T. Kent, K. Maywald, R. Young
and Mr. M . Morillas during the experimental stage. M r R. W e b b is acknowledged for his
help in calibrating the load cells.
Special appreciation to Mr. N. Freund for his cooperative efforts in designing and
commissioning the main bearing test rig and its instrument system. Thanks to him also
for letting the author use his program of acquiring the temperature data from
thermocouples.
Appreciation is also expressed to Mr. Des Jamieson for his enthusiastic guidance
on various computer software.
Thanks are also expressed to Dr. Y.X.Yao, Dr. X.D.Fang, Mr. M . Mackenzie,
and Dr. B. Kosasih. Their encouragement and friendship have benefited the author in
writing this thesis.
Special appreciation is expressed to his beloved wife, Mei for her moral support
and continuous encouragement.
iii
SUMMARY
(1) Three different numerical methods are developed to calculate the static and dynamic
characteristics of circular journal bearings with different slenderness ratios and
different geometries. The Reynolds equation with Reynolds boundary condition is
solved by the finite difference method and finite element method. The bearing oil
film force coefficients are calculated by the finite perturbation method and the
infinitesimal perturbation. The calculated results agree well with data from available
literature
Static and dynamic characteristics of grooved and ungrooved bearings with 5
different slenderness ratios are presented in 13 tables.
The relation of eight linear force coefficients of journal bearing with the perturbation
amplitudes is also studied. The m a x i m u m perturbation amplitudes for different
coefficient variations are also presented.
(2) The oil whirl property and stability of the rotor-bearing system is studied. The
dynamic performances of the rotor-bearing system under the impulse excitation,
position perturbation, unbalance excitation and harmonic excitation, are simulated
considering both linear and non-linear bearing forces. The linear scope in which
the linear force coefficients can be used is determined.
(3) The misalignment effects on all bearing characteristics, including static
characteristics, bearing force coefficients, critical stable speed and whirl frequency,
are studied.
(4) Three different experimental methods are proposed to estimate force coefficients of
journal bearings from harmonic, impact and unbalance responses.
For the harmonic excitation method, the traditional data process technique, which
can only identify 8 bearing force coefficients of one journal bearing, is extended to
identify 16 bearing force coefficients of two asymmetric journal bearings. T w o
iv
different data processing techniques are developed for the separated excitation and
combined excitation procedures.
For the impact excitation method, an explicit coefficient estimator on least-square-
estimation is developed on the transfer functions of the impulse responses to the
impact forces, all 16 bearing coefficients can be calculated through one operation.
A new unbalance excitation method is proposed and is successfully used to identify
16 force coefficients of two practical journal bearings. From the unbalance
responses under two or more sets of trial unbalance masses, all bearing coefficients
can be calculated by solving a set of simultaneous linear equations.
The impact and the unbalance methods can be conveniently applied to estimate the
coefficients of large journal bearings on-site, without relying on the expensive
excitation equipment to apply large dynamic forces to excite the rotor as required by
previous methods.
All the three experimental methods are thoroughly simulated on computers.
To perform the proposed experimental methods two bearing test rigs are modified.
T w o eccentric-mass vibrators are firstly used to excite the rotor-bearing system.
The dynamic coefficients of two grooved bearings and two ungrooved bearings
under different loads are estimated. The estimated coefficients correlated well with
the theory especially when the misalignments are considered in the theoretical
calculation. The experimental results verify that the misalignment can improve the
stability of the rotor-bearing system.
The sensitivity and uncertainty of the estimated coefficients to the measurement
errors are analysed.
Applicable experimental procedures, data processing techniques for all three
excitation methods are proposed and performed on different test rigs.
A data re-sampling technique is used to avoid the alias of frequency characteristics
and reduce the noise affection.
A data pre-processing method is developed to remove outliers and other
unreasonable data from the experimental signal without changing its phase.
(7) More than 210 figures and 33 tables on theoretical and experimental results are
presented. One hundred and sixty-three references are listed.
vi
PUBLICATIONS FROM THIS THESIS
Journal Papers
(1) Tieu, A.K. & Qiu, Z.L., 1994 " Identification of Sixteen Force Coefficients of
T w o Journal Bearings from Experimental Unbalance Responses", Wear , Vol 177,
pp63-69
(2) Qiu, Z.L. & Tieu, A.K., 1994 "Misalignment effect on the static and dynamic
characteristics of grooved hydrodynamic journal bearings". A S M E / S T L E Tribology
Conf., Hawaii. Accepted for publication in J .of Tribology
(3) Tieu, A.K. & Qiu, Z.L., 1994 "Stability of finite journal bearings-linear and
nonlinear bearing forces" A S M E / S T L E Tribology Conf, Hawaii. Accepted for
publication in STLEiTribology Transactions
(4) Qiu, Z.L. & Tieu, A.K., 1994 "The effect of the perturbation amplitudes on
eight force coefficients of journal bearing" Accepted for publication in STLE: Tribology
Transactions
(5) Qiu, Z.L. & Tieu, A.K., 1994 "Stability and the oil whirling frequency of a rigid
rotor in journal bearings" Proc. 4th Int. Tribology Conf., Perth, Australia, pp717-724.
Accepted for publication in JEAust: Mechanical Engineering Transactions
(6) Qiu, Z.L. & Tieu, A.K. "The Nonlinear Effect on the Linearised Force
Coefficients of Journal Bearing" Under review by Tribology International, 1994
(7) Tieu, A.K. & Qiu, Z.L., 1995 " Experimental study on the characteristics of
misaligned journal bearings part I: method and static characteristics " Under review of
STLEiTribology Transactions
vii
(8) Qiu, Z.L. & Tieu, A.K., 1995 " Experimental study on the characteristics of
misaligned journal bearings part I: method and static characteristics " Under review of
STLEiTribology Transactions
Conference Papers
(9) Qiu, Z.L. & Tieu, A.K., 1992 "An optimization of the orifice restrictors of
hydrostatic journal bearing with 4 circular Recesses, 11th Australasian Fluid Mechanics
Conf, pp901-904
(10) Tieu, A.K. & Qiu, Z.L., 1992 " An experimental study on the dynamic
behaviour of a hydrodynamic journal bearing" 11th Australasian Fluid Mechanics Conf.,
pp893-896
(11) Qiu, Z.L. & Tieu, A.K., 1993 "Full determination of dynamic coefficients of
fluid film bearing from impulse responses" Proc. of 4th ASIA-PACIFIC Vibration
conference, Kitakyushu, Japan, Nov.14-18, Vol.2, pp527-532
(12) Tieu, A.K. & Qiu, Z.L., 1994 "The data processing in estimating the dynamic
coefficients of journal bearing from synchronous unbalance vibration" Int. Conference
on Vibration Engineering, Beijing, China, June 15-18
viii
CONTENTS
Chapter page
DEDICATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT iii
SUMMARY iv
PUBLICATIONS FROM THIS THESIS vii
CONTENTS ix
LIST OF FIGURES xvii
LIST OF TABLES xxvi
NOMENCLATURE xxviii
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1
2.0 LITERATURE SURVEY 4
2.1 Solution of Reynolds Equation 5
2.2 Calculation of dynamic characteristics 8
2.3 Stability analysis 13
2.4 Misalignment effects on the bearing characteristics 21
2.4.1 Misalignment effects on static characteristics 21
2.4.2 Misalignment effects on dynamic characteristics 23
2.5 Experimental methods to determine the linear bearing force coefficients 25
3 CALCULATION OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF JOURNAL
BEARING 31
3.1 INTRODUCTION 31
3.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF JOURNAL BEARING 34
3.2.1 Solution of Reynolds equation 34
3.2.2 Bearing forces 36
3.2.3 Attitude angle 37
3.2.4 Load capacity and Sommerfeld number 38
3.2.5 Side flow 39
ix
3.2.6 Friction force 40
3.2.7 Calculation of dynamic coefficients 42
C O M P U T A T I O N B Y FINITE DIFFERENCE M E T H O D 47
-JMTNJTESIMAL PERTURBATION (FDM-IFP)
3.3.1 Finite difference and over-relaxation method 47
3.3.2 Static pressure and boundaries 50
3.3.3 Dynamic coefficients 51
3.3.4 Programming the FDM-IFP 51
3.4 COMPUTATION B Y FINITE E L E M E N T M E T H O D 53
-FINITE PERTURBATION (FEM-FP)
3.4.1 Variational principle 53
3.4.2 Element equations 54
3.4.3 System equations for global assembly 58
3.4.4 Boundary condition 59
3.4.5 Calculation of the dynamic coefficients 60
3.4.6 Program by F E M 60
COMPUTATION B Y FINITE E L E M E N T M E T H O D 61
-INFINITESIMAL PERTURBATION (FEM-IFP)
C A L C U L A T E D BEARING CHARACTERISTICS 65
3.6.1 Element size and pressure distribution 65
3.6.2 Comparison among different methods 69
3.6.3 Comparison with literatures 72
3.6.3.1 Sommerfeld number and attitude angle 75
3.6.3.2 Static flow 75
3.6.3.3 Friction force 76
3.6.3.4 Dynamic coefficients 76
3.6.4 Characteristics of different circular journal bearings 80
EFFECT OF PERTURBATION AMPLITUDE O N D Y N A M I C 85
COEFFICIENTS
8 CONCLUSION ON THEORETICAL CALCULATION 90
STABILITY OF ROTOR-BEARING SYSTEM 92
1 INTRODUCTION 93
2 SYSTEM M O D E L OF A RIGID R O T O R SUPPORTED O N T W O 95
S Y M M E T R I C A L BEARINGS
4.2.1 Whirl frequency from journal motion trajectory 96
4.2.2 Linear bearing forces 97
4.2.3 Nonlinear bearing forces 97
3 LINEAR STABILITY ANALYSIS 98
4.3.1 Critical whirl frequency 98
4.3.2 Critical speed 100
4.3.3 Critical whirl frequency ratio and speeds of sleeve bearings 101
4.3.4 Stability of flexible rotor on symmetric bearings 105
4.4 NONLINEAR SIMULATION ANALYSIS 107
4.4.1 Impact excitation 109
4.4.2 Position perturbation 112
4.4.3 Unbalance excitation 115
4.4.4 Harmonic excitation 118
4.4.5 Discussion 122
5 CONCLUSION O N STABILITY ANALYSIS 125
0 EFFECT OF MISALIGNMENT ON BEARING 127
CHARACTERISTICS
1 INTRODUCTION 128
2 DEFINITION OF MISALIGNMENT 129
3 EFFECT OF MISALIGNMENT ON STATIC CHARACTERISTICS 134
5.3.1 Load capacity 134
5.3.2 Attitude angle 138
xi
5.3.3 Side flow 143
5.3.4 Friction force 143
5.3.5 Misaligned moments 143
5.4 EFFECT O F MISALIGNMENT O N D Y N A M I C CHARACTERISTICS 147
5.5 M I S A U G N M E N T EFFECT O N BEARING STABILITY 157
5.6 CONCLUSION 160
6.0 IDENTIFICATION OF ALL DYNAMIC COEFFICIENTS OF TWO 162
J O U R N A L BEARINGS B Y H A R M O N I C EXCITATION M E T H O D
6.1 INTRODUCTION 163
6.2 SYSTF^MCraLCFRlGJDRCttaiCNTWOASYMMEIRICBEARINGS 164
6.21 Harmonic excitation 168
6.22 Impact excitation 169
6.2.3 Unbalanced excitation 170
6.3 COEFFICIENTS ESTIMATION 171
6.3.1 Dimensionless model 171
6.3.2 Estimation method 173
6.3.3 Elimination of initial vibration effect 176
6.3.4 Selection of sample duration tN 177
6.4 SIMULATION TESTS 179
6.4.1 Procedure of numerical experiments 179
6.4.2 Separated excitation 182
6.4.3 Combined excitation 185
6.4.3.1 Symmetric bearings 185
6.4.3.2 Asymmetric bearings 188
6.4.4 Noise effects 190
6.4.5 Initial unbalance effect 191
6.4.6 Effect of non-periodical responses 193
6.4.7 Coefficient estimation at different running conditions 193
xii
6.5 SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS 196
6.5.1 Condition number of one-direction excitation 198
6.5.2 Condition number of two-direction excitation 199
6.6 CONCLUSION ON THE HARMONIC EXCITATION METHOD 201
7.0 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON THE CHARACTERISTICS OF
JOURNAL BEARINGS 203
7.2 JOURNAL BEARING TEST RIG 205
7.2.1 Design of the bearing test rig 205
7.2.2 Tested bearings 208
7.2.3 Tested journal 208
7.2.4 Loading and excitation system 209
7.2.5 Lubrication system 210
7.2.6 Parameters of the rotor bearing system 212
7.2.7 Instrument system 213
7.3 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EXPERIMENTAL JOURNAL
BEARINGS 215
7.3.1 Determination of hot bearing centres 215
7.3.2 Data pre-processing 217
7.3.3 Eccentricity and the attitude angle 218
7.3.4 Pressure distribution 222
7.3.5 Supply flow 226
7.3.6 Temperature distribution 227
7.4 THE ESTIMATION OF THE BEARING FORCE COEFFICIENTS 229
7.4.1 Experimental procedures 229
7.4.2 Data processing 229
7.4.2.1 Separated excitations 230
7.4.2.2 Combined excitation 237
xiii
7.4.4 Estimated bearing coefficients 241
7.4.5 Critical speeds 246
7.5 ERROR ANALYSIS 247
7.5.1 Precision of transducers 247
7.5.2 Manufacturing tolerance 248
7.5.3 Errors caused by experimental methods 249
7.5.4 Data processing error 250
7.5.5 Uncertainty in the estimated bearing coefficients 251
7.6 CONCLUSION O N THE H A R M O N I C EXCITATION M E T H O D 252
8.0 IDENTIFICATION OF ALL DYNAMIC COEFFICIENTS BY THE
I M P A C T EXCITATION M E T H O D 255
8.2 SYSTEM M O D E L 256
8.3 DERIVATION OF THE COEFFICIENTS ESTIMATOR 257
8.4.1 Symmetric bearings 262
8.4.2 Asymmetric bearings 264
8.4.4 Initial unbalance effect 270
8.5 EXPERIMENT 270
8.5.1 Bearing test rig 270
8.5.2 Experiment procedure 274
8.5.3 Data processing procedure 274
8.5.4 Example 275
8.5.5 Verification of simulation 280
8.5.6 Discussion 281
8.6 CONCLUSIONS 283
xiv
.0 DETERMINATION OF ALL DYNAMIC COEFFICIENTS OF TWO
JOURNAL BEARINGS FROM THE SYNCHRONOUS 0
UNBALANCE RESPONSE 284
9.2 SYSTEM MODEL 286
9.3 DERIVATION OF THE COEFFICIENTS ESTIMATOR 287
9.3.1 Selection of the unbalances 290
9.3.2 Elimination of initial unbalance 290
9.3.3 Selection of sample duration tN 291
9.4.1 Symmetric bearings 293
9.4.3 Effect of running times 298
9.4.4 Asymmetric bearings 299
9.4.5 Initial unbalance 301
9.4.6 Effect of time shift 302
9.5 E X P E R I M E N T 304
9.5.1 Bearing test rig 304
9.5.2 Experiment procedure 305
9.5.3 Data processing procedure 305
9.5.4 Example 307
9.6 E X P E R I M E N T A L RESULTS 313
9.7 E R R O R ANALYSIS 318
9.7.1 Transducers error 318
9.7.2 Lateral coupling force effect 318
9.7.3 Experimental errors 319
9.7.4 Uncertainty in the estimated bearing coefficients 320
9.8 C O N C L U S I O N S 321
xv
10 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 323
11 REFERENCES 329
APPENDICES
A Instruction to use program calculating bearing characteristics by F D M -
IFP 346
B Nonlinear simulation program 350
C Transducer calibration 353
D Method to remove outliers from experimental signals 361
xvi
LIST OF FIGURES
3.1 Circular bearing with two horizontal oil grooves
3.2 Friction force calculation
3.3 Pictorial representation of oil-film coefficients
3.4 Flow chart of the computation program by FDM-IFP
3.5 Nodal number system
3.6 Computation program by FEM-IFP
3.7 Sommerfeld number vs different element numbers
3.8 Pressure distributions at different eccentricities
(a) e=0.2
(b) e=0.4
(c) e=0.6
(d) e=0.8
3.9 Pressure distributions at mid plane
3.10 Calculated Sommerfeld number and attitude angle (6 = 20)
(a) Sommerfeld number
(b) Attitude angle
3.11 Calculated Sommerfeld number and attitude angle (6 = 10)
(a) Sommerfeld number
(b) Attitude angle
3.12 Calculated side flow (0 = 20)
3.13 Calculated side flow (6 = 10)
3.14 Calculated friction force by FDM-IFP (9 = 20)
3.15 Calculated friction force and comparison with literature (9 = 10)
3.16 Calculated dynamic coefficients (9 = 20)
(a) Dimensionless stiffness coefficients
(b) Dimensionless damping coefficients
3.17 Calculated dynamic coefficients (9 = 10)
xvii
3.18(a) Stiffness coefficients calculated at different perturbation amplitudes( =0.2)
3.18(b) Stiffness coefficients calculated at different perturbation amplitudes( e=0.6)
3.18(c) Stiffness coefficients calculated at different perturbation amplitudes( =0.8)
3.19(a) Damping coefficients calculated at different perturbation amplitudes( =0.2)
3.19(b) Damping coefficients calculated at different perturbation amplitudes( =0.6)
3.19(c) Damping coefficients calculated at different perturbation amplitudes( =0.8)
4.1 Rotor-bearing system with a rigid rotor
4.2 Coordinate system for journal movement
4.3(a) Critical whirl ratios of grooved bearings(two 20- axial grooves)
4.3(b) Critical speeds of grooved bearings(two 20 -axial grooves)
4.4(a) Whirling frequency ratios of ungrooved bearings
4.4(b) Critical speeds of ungrooved bearings
4.5(a) Dimensional critical speeds of grooved bearings
4.5(b) Dimensional critical speeds of ungrooved bearings
4.6 Rotor-bearing system with a flexible rotor
4.7 Flow chart of nonlinear simulation program
4.8 Trajectory comparison with that of Akers(1971)
4.9(a) Trajectories responding to impact forcesstable system
4.9(b) Trajectories responding to impact forcesunstable system
4.9(c) Trajectories responding to impact forcesat critical condition
4.9(d) Simulated parameters and impact force
4.10(a) Journal trajectories due to position perturbation-stable system
4.10(b) Journal trajectories due to position perturbation-at critical status
4.10(c) Journal trajectories due to position perturbation-unstable system
4.10(d) Whirl frequency ratios of different stability status
4.11 (a) Trajectory due to synchronous unbalance forcestable system
4.11 (b) Trajectory due to synchronous unbalance forceat critical status
xviii
(nonlinear bearing forces)
4.11 (c) Trajectory due to synchronous unbalance force-unstable system
4.11 (d) Whirl frequency ratios of different speeds
4.11 (e) Frequency characteristic of displacement signals-due to unbalance force
4.12(a) Whirl trajectories under harmonic excitation-stable system
4.12(b) Whirl trajectories under harmonic excitation-at critical status
4.12(c) Whirl trajectories under harmonic excitation-unstable system
4.12(d) Whirl ratios of systems at different speeds-due to harmonic excitation
4.12(e) Frequency characteristics of different systems-due to harmonic excitation
4.13 Effect of excitation frequencies on the vibration amplitude
4.14 Steady motion trajectories under different unbalance forces
5.1 Misaligned journal bearing
5.2 Pressure distributions for different misalignments
(a) Vertical misalignment
(b) Horizontal misalignment
5.3a Load capacities of grooved bearing under vertical misalignments
5.3b Load capacities of grooved bearing under horizontal misalignments
5.3c Load capacities of ungrooved bearing under vertical misalignments
5.3d Load capacities of ungrooved bearing under horizontal misalignments
5.3e Load capacities of experimental bearing with a circumferential groove
5.4a Attitude angles of grooved bearing under different misalignments
5.4b Attitude angles grooved bearing under different misalignments
5.4c Attitude angles of experimental bearing with circumferential groove
5.5a Side flow of grooved bearing under different misalignments
5.5b Side flow of ungrooved bearing under different misalignments
5.6a Friction coefficients of grooved bearing under different misalignments
5.6b Friction coefficients of ungrooved bearing under different misalignments
5.7a Moments of grooved bearing under vertical misalignment
xix
5.7b Moments of grooved bearing under horizontal misalignment
5.7c Moments of ungrooved bearing under vertical misalignment
5.7d Moments of ungrooved bearing under horizontal misalignment
5.7e Misaligned moments of experimental bearing
5.8a K
n
of grooved bearings with different misalignment
5.8b K
n
of ungrooved bearings with different misalignment
5.9a K
x y
of grooved bearings with different misalignment
5.9b Kxy of ungrooved bearings with different misalignment
5.10a Kyx of grooved bearings with different misalignment
5.10b Kyx of ungrooved bearings with different misalignment
5.11a Kyy of grooved bearings with different misalignment
5.11b Kyy of ungrooved bearings with different misalignment
5.12a Bxx of grooved bearings with different misalignment
5.12b Bxx of ungrooved bearings with different misalignment
5.13a Bxy of grooved bearings with different misalignment
5.13b Bxy of ungrooved bearings with different misalignment
5.14a Byy of grooved bearings with different misalignment
5.14b Byy of ungrooved bearings with different misalignment
5.15a Whirl ratio for misaligned bearings (L/D=l, 9=20)
5.15b Whirl ratio for misaligned ungrooved bearings (L/D=l, 9=0)
5.16a Misalignment effect on the rotor/bearing stability (grooved bearing)
5.16b Misalignment effect on the rotor/bearing stability (ungrooved bearing)
6.1 Typical rotor-bearing system with different excitation forces
6.2 Kinematic system of the rotor
6.3 The flow chart of the simulation program
6.4 Simulated harmonic force and their displacement responses
(a) Harmonic excitation forces
(b) Simulated responses under two excitations
xx
. 5 Simulated displacement responses under combined excitations
(6i=
2
= 0.6, Q = 5 0 Hz)
(a) Simulated displacement responses
(b) Frequency response without U
0
6.6 Simulated displacement responses of asymmetric bearings
(6i= 0.6, e
2
=0.5, Q = 5 0 Hz)
(b) Frequency characteristics
6.7 Simulated harmonic responses of symmetric bearings
(e
1=
e
2
= 0.6, Uo =f
io
/2, Q=50 Hz)
(a) Simulated harmonic responses in time domain
(b) Frequency response with U
0
=fio/2
6.8 Estimated results of full bearing from simulated noisy displacement responses
(a) Stiffness coefficients
(b) Damping coefficients
6.9 Condition number of two-direction excitation
(a) K( A ) versus eccentricity
(b) K ( A ) versus excitation frequency
7.1 Common configurations of journal bearing test rigs
7.2 Configuration of journal bearing test rig
7.3 General view of the journal bearing test rig
7.4 Tested journal bearing
7.5 Journal in bearing test rig
7.6 Loading and excitation system
7.7 Lubrication system
7.8 Coordinate system of the journal bearing test rig
7.9 Distribution of transducers in the journal bearing test rig
7.10 Data acquisition system of the journal bearing test rig
xxi
7.11 Determination of the bearing centre
7.12 Signal X2pbefore and after the pre-processing
7.13 Method to determine the eccentricity in the probe plane
7.14 Measured Sommerfeld number vs eccentricity
7.15 Measured attitude angle vs load
7.16 Experimental clearance curve and its fitting curve
7.17(a) Measured pressures and oil film thickness
7.17(b) Theoretical pressures at the fitted misalignment parameters
7.17(c) Theoretical pressure distribution at the fitted misalignment parameters
7.18(a) Pressures and oil film thickness at heavy load
7.18(b) Experimental and theoretical pressures at heavy load
7.19 Experimental and theoretical supply flow
7.20 Temperature distribution around two bearings at different loads
7.21 (a) Experimental signals in time domainf \
7.21(b) Experimental signals in time domainf
2
7.21(c) Experimental signals in time domainxi
7.21(d) Experimental signals in time domainyi
7.21(e) Experimental signals in time domainx
2
7.21 (f) Experimental signals in time domainy
2
7.22(a) Frequency characteristics of two excitation forces
7.22(b) Frequency responses to excitation force fj
7.22(c) Frequency responses to excitation force f
2
7.23(a) Displacement x\ under combined excitation of f i and f
2
7.23(b) Displacement y i under combined excitation of f i and f
2
7.23(c) Displacement x
2
under combined excitation of f i and f
2
7.23(d) Displacement y
2
under combined excitation of f i and f
2
7.24(a) Frequency characteristics of excitation forces f \ and f
2
7.24(b) Frequency responses under the combined excitation of fi and f
2
7.25(a) Estimated bearing stiffness coefficient K
xxii
7.25(b) Estimated bearing stiffness coefficient K
x y
7.25(c) Estimated bearing stiffness coefficient K ^
7.25(d) Estimated bearing stiffness coefficient Kyy
7.26(a) Estimated bearing damping coefficient B
n
7.26(b) Estimated bearing damping coefficients B
x y
and B
x y
7.26(c) Estimated bearing damping coefficient Byy
7.27 Dimensionless critical speeds of the experimental system
8.1 Rotor bearing system
8.2 Flow chart of the simulation program
8.3(a) Simulated impact force f
x
or f
y
8.3(b) Simulated impulse responses to f
x
8.3(c) Simulated impulse responses to f
y
8.3(d) Power spectrum of the impact forces f
x
and f
y
8.3(e) Transfer functions symmetric bearings with 10-40% noise
8.4 Simulated impulse responses and their transfer functions
asymmetric bearings with unbalanced rotor
(a) Impulse responses at bearing 1 due to f
x
(b) Impulse responses at bearing 2 due to f
x
(c) Impulse responses at bearing 1 due to f
y
(d) Impulse responses at bearing 2 due to f
y
(e) Power spectrum of the impulse responses due to f
x
(f) Transfer functions of the impulse responses to f
x
8.5(a) Photo of the small journal bearing test rig
8.5(b) Configuration of the small journal bearing test rig
8.5(b) Tested bearingtop grooved
8.6 Impact hammer
8.7 Data processing schedule
8.8(a) Measured and simulated impact f
x
xxiii
8.8(b) Measured and simulated impact f
y
8.8(c) Measured and simulated displacements at bearing 1 due to impact f
x
8.8(d) Measured and simulated displacements at bearing 2 due to impact f
x
8.8(e) Measured and simulated displacements at bearing 1 due to impact f
y
8.8(0 Measured and simulated displacements at bearing 2 due to impact f
y
8.9(a) Measured and simulated transfer functions to f
x
8.9(b) Measured and simulated transfer functions to f
y
9.1 Rotor-bearing system
9.2 Flow chart of the simulation
9.3 Simulated unbalance responses contaminated with 10-60% noise
9.3 (a) Unbalance responses due to Ui
9.3 (b) Unbalance responses due to U
2
9.3 (c) Unbalance responses due to U3
9.3 (d) Unbalance responses due to U4
9.4 Unbalance responses contaminated with initial unbalance force
9.5 Journal bearing test rig
9.6 Data processing schedule
9.7 Displacement x before and after trial unbalance Ui
9.8(a) Measured unbalance responses to Ui
9.8(b) Measured unbalance responses to U
2
9.8(c) Measured unbalance responses to U3
9.8(d) Measured unbalance responses to U 4
9.9 Estimated bearing stiffness coefficients
9.10 Estimated bearing damping coefficients
9.11 Critical speed predicted from estimated coefficients of ungrooved bearings
C. 1 Calibration curve of force cell SG2
C.2 Calibration curve of proximity x
2p
at different temperatures
xxiv
C.3 Former calibration mechanism of proximity probes in shaft
C .4 Calibration of proximity probe in site
C.5 Calibration curve of proximity probe xi in shaft
C.6 Calibration of pressure transducers
C .7 Calibration curve of the pressure transducer Pi
xxv
LIST OF TABLES
3.1 Characteristics of grooved circular bearing (L/D=l, 9=20, FDM-IFP)
3.2 Characteristics of grooved circular bearing (L/D=l, 6=20, FEM-IFP)
3.3 Characteristics of grooved circular bearing (L/D=l, 6=20, FEM-FP)
3.4 Characteristics of grooved circular bearing ( L/D=l, 6=10, FDM-IFP)
3.5 Characteristics of grooved bearing (L/D=0.5, 0=20
p
)
3.6 Characteristics of grooved bearing (L/D=0.75, 6=20)
3.7 Characteristics of grooved bearing (L/D=l.25, 6=20)
3.8 Characteristics of grooved bearing (L/D=l.5, 0=20)
3.9 Characteristics of ungrooved bearing (L/D=0.5)
3.11 Characteristics of ungrooved bearing (L/D=l)
3.12 Characteristics of ungrooved bearing (L/D=l .25)
3.14 Coefficient errors and maximum perturbation amplitudes
4.1 Average whirl ratio under different excitations
6.1 Estimated coefficients by separated or combined excitation procedures
(Two symmetric bearings, i= e
2
= 0.6 Si=S
2
=0.131)
6.2 Given and estimated coefficients of two asymmetric bearings
(!= 0.6 , e
2
=0.5, Si=0.131,S
2
=0.194)
6.3 Estimated coefficients at different sample duration
(symmetric bearings, i=
2
= 0.6 , Si=S
2
=0.131, a>i=26 Hz, u)
2
=35 Hz)
6.4 Given and estimated coefficients estimated from the simulated
responses excited in one direction
(i= 0.6 ,
2
=0.6, Si=S
2
=0.131)
7.1 Sensors in the journal bearing test rig
7.2 Estimated coefficients estimated from the experimental responses by two
different harmonic excitation methods
7.3 Estimated coefficients of bearing 1
xxvi
7.4 Estimated coefficients of bearing 2
7.5 Precision of the transducers
8.1 Given and estimated coefficients with different noise level
(Two symmetric bearings)
8.3 Estimated coefficients from impulse responses
9.1 Given and estimated coefficients with different noise level
9.3 Given and estimated coefficients with different data convention times
9.4 Trial masses distribution
9.5 Estimated coefficients(S= 0.2078, Q^l.SSxlO
5
, C
b
=696.3)
C Calibrated formulae of the transducers used in this thesis
xxvii
NOMENCLATURE
B , B equivalent damping matrix, B=BIC
b
dimensionless
b
(
j, B^ i,j=x,y, damping coefficient, N/m/s ; B
ij
=b
ij
fC
b
dimensionless
bfj, Bfj s = 1,2; i,j=x,y damping coefficient of s-th bearing, N/m/s ;
Efj = bfj/C
b
dimensionless
c, ci,c
2
bearing clearance, m; c=(ci + c
2
)/2
Cb damping factor, N.s/m Cb=W/ci in Chapters 3,4 and 5
n(clR)
Cb = WSI cQ, = _, ,
x3
in the system models of Chapters 7, 8 and 9
Qt stiffness factor, N/m; Ct=W/c in Chapters 3,4 and 5
C
k
= WS/ c = ^ 5 - in the system models of Chapters 7,8 and 9.
* /r(c//?)
3
'
v
Cfk k= 1.2, factor matrices of the excitation forces
Q = 6 / i Q / c
2
( )
2
constant
c
D diameter of bearing, m
e , e eccentricity (m) and eccentricity ratio e=e/c
Eb, Et errors for damping and stiffness coefficients respectively, dimensionless
F exciting or dynamic force , N
F Fourier transform operator
F F T Discrete Fast Fourier transform
fei ^ external exciting forces, i=x, y, N; F
ei
= f^/W, dimensionless
F^ = max( F
ei
), peak of impact force, dimensionless
F
e
exciting force vectors
F
x
, F
y
impact exciting force vectors
F
t
friction force on the journal surface, N
F
t
i viscosity induced friction force, N
Ft2 pressure induced friction force, N
fi, f
2
excitation forces, N
f
t
=F
t
R/WcQ, friction coefficient, dimensionless
FDM-IFP Finite Difference Method-Infinitesimal Perturbation
xxviii
F E M - F P Finite Element Method-Finite Perturbation
FEM-IPP Finite Element Method-Infinitesimal Perturbation
FP Finite Perturbation
F(jco) Fourier transformation of F
G gyroscopic matrix
h , H, Hmin oil-film thickness, m ; H=h/c, Had,, = min (H)
Hj oil film thickness at node j ( j=l ,2,3, and 4)
H, j oil film thickness at the coordinates (i, j ) in FDM-IFP
Ib'b'l Inverse Fast Fourier transform
IFP Infinitesimal Perturbation
Ix= Iy = It transverse mass moment of inertia of the rotor, kg.m
2
; i, = /, /1%
Iz = L polar mass moment of inertia of the rotor, kg.m
2
; i
p
=I
p
/1%
K equivalent stiffness matrix, K=KIC
k
dimensionless
k
eq>
K
eq equivalent stiffness of journal bearing, N / m ; K^ = k
eq
/C
k
dimensionless
kjj, K^ i,j=x,y, stiffness coefficient, N / m ; K
ii
=k
ii
/C
k
dimensionless
* stiffness coefficient of s-th bearing, s=l,2; i,j=x,y , N / m
K'j =ky/C
k
dimensionless
J Jacobian matrix
j unit imaginary number
L width of bearing, m;
Lo span of two bearings, m; Lo= Li + L2
Li, li i=l, 2, distance from rotor gravity center to the i-th bearing, m; li = Li /Lo
Lif, lif i=l, 2, distance from excitation force to the i-th bearing, m ; ltf = Lif/Lo
L
e
equivalent oil film width in the cavitation zone, m
m shaft mass, kg; number of trial unbalances or division number of oil film
in circumferential direction
mi, m
2
trial masses, kg; or numerical coordinates corresponding to the start and end
boundaries of the pressure oil film
xxix
Mj, Mj misaligned moment, i=x or y, N.m; M
A
= '
2
Mi dimensionless
LiflRL
n number of division in axial direction
Nj interpolation functions (j=l,2,3 and 4)
n
t
total nodal number in F E M
p , P pressure in the oil film, N/m
2
; P = - ( )
2
dimensionless
6/iQ /?
J vector of all nodal pressure in F E M
Pi pressure at global node i, i=l, 2,..., n
t
P
t
j pressure at the difference point (i, j), dimensionless
PJ pressure at the node j (j=l,2,3 and 4) of r-th element, r=l,2,...nxm
P
0
static pressure at the equilibrium position, dimensionless
ps groove pressure
qs, Qs bearing side flow, m
3
/s; Q, = dimensionless
Re QL
q, Q vibration displacements, m or dimensionless
R radius of the bearing, m
Rj, rj trial mass distributing distances, i=l,2, m; rj = R, /Lo
S B
U9*k
{
*r Sommerfeld number
nW c
Si, Si probe distributing distances, i=l,2, m; Si = Sj /Lo
T, T
0
sample intervals, s
T
aV
e average temperature measured around bearing, C
tN sample duration, s
U tangential velocity of the journal surface, m/s
Uk unbalance matrix, k=0,l,...,m; kg.m
V^ circumferential velocity of the lubricant (see 3-2), m/s
V
x
journal velocity in x direction, m/s
V
y
journal velocity in y direction, m/s
W static load, N
Wi Gauss integration point in \ direction
xxx
W'
n
Gauss integration point in r| direction
Ax, X perturbed journal centre displacement in x direction, m; X - Ax / c
Ax, X perturbed journal velocity in x direction, m/s; X = Axl (eft)
Ay, Y perturbed journal centre displacement in y direction, m ; Y = Ay / c
Ay, Y perturbed journal velocity in y direction, m/s; F = Ay/(cii)
z, Z, A Z bearing axial coordinate, m; Z=z/R; AZ=(L/R)/n
Z coefficient matrix
Ze axial coordinate of oil film in cavitation zone
Zj axial coordinate of node j (j=1,2,3 and 4) of the number r element in F E M
a acceleration factor, l < o c < 2
cci ,a
2
force acting angles in the harmonic excitation method.
8
C
pressure convergence criterion
8^ attitude angle convergence criterion
|i lubricant viscosity, N.s/m
2
<j>, cp, 4>o angular coordinate and attitude angle, rad; 2 end boundary of the pressure oil film, rad
$i angular coordinate in F D M - I F P (i=l,2 mi)
u) frequency, rad/s
co,- natural frequency (= critical speed) of rotor, rad/s or H z
Q rotational speed of the journal, rad/s
Qcrit journal critical rotation speed, rad/s
y misalignment angle to the load direction
X lubricant shear stress, N/m
2
; or misalignment ratio, dimensionless
k, Xcrit whirl frequency ratio and the critical ratio, dimensionless,
X=C0/Q, Arit=aVftcrit
p lubricant density, kg/m
3
Pi i=l or 2, distributing radius of trial mass m j , m
2; coordinate linearly transferred from q>, rad
xxxi
T| coordinate of the oil film thickness, m ;
or coordinate linearly transferred from Z, rad
subscripts o at static condition or at the equilibrium position
k indicates the responses at k-th excitation
p
displacement measured at the probe plane
superscript
r
real part of the frequency response
1
imaginary part of the frequency response
xxxii
dEIAIPTTIEIE 11
INTRODUCTION
With the development of manufacturing technology, rotating machinery become
increasingly powerful with higher and higher rotation speed. Fluid lubricated journal
bearings are widely used in large rotating machinery because of its low cost, long life,
silent operation, high radial precision and simple application. The journal bearing herein
means the plain bearing with lubricant which generates dynamic pressure to support its
journal under rotation. The dynamic characteristics include the dynamic bearing forces,
linearised force coefficients, stability of the rotor-bearing system and critical speed. It is
well known that the journal bearing cannot be looked upon as only a supporting or
guiding device of a shaft. The dynamic characteristics of the fluid film dominate the
dynamic behaviour of all rotor-bearing systems. With increased speed, the bearing's
dynamic characteristics become more and more important. Unstable bearing could cause
catastrophic vibration and damage to the entire rotating machinery.
Although there is a considerable amount of publications in the theoretical calculation
and experimental measurement of the dynamic characteristics of journal bearings, there is
still incomplete understanding on the bearing dynamics. It is c o m m o n that different
lubrication authorities present different calculation results because they use different
assumptions. For example, the eight theoretical dynamic coefficients of the linearised
bearing forces are not the same in different publications. The experimental results also
show poor agreement with each other or with theory. There are a few "hot" topics in the
bearing research. For example, different assumptions on the oil film boundary condition
still confuses people. The pressure in the cavitation zone also causes controversy. It is
not clear that up to what vibration amplitude that the linearised bearing force coefficients
can be used. The misalignment effect on the bearing dynamic characteristics has not been
l
systematically reported. All these mean more investigations are still necessary.
This thesis presents:
(1) the development of software to calculate the bearing static and dynamic
characteristics. Three pieces of software are developed for different numerical
methods (finite difference+infinitestimal perturbation, finite element method+finite
perturbation and finite element method+infinitestimal perturbation). The
relationship among eight linear force coefficients and the perturbation amplitudes is
also presented.
(2) an investigation of the stability of the rotor-bearing system. The critical stable
speed and whirl frequency are predicted based on the linear theory. The dynamic
performances of the rotor-bearing system under the harmonic excitation, impulse
excitation and unbalance excitation are simulated considering both linear and non-
linear bearing forces. The scope in which the linear force coefficients can be used
is determined by comparing the dynamic behaviour simulated with linear and non-
linear bearing forces.
(3) an investigation of the misalignment effects on all bearing characteristics, including
static characteristics, bearing force coefficients, critical stable speed and whirl
frequency.
(4) three experimental methods to estimate force coefficients of two journal bearings are
studied.
The traditional harmonic excitation method, which can only identify 8 bearing force
coefficients of one journal bearing or two symmetric bearings, is extended to
identify 16 bearing force coefficients of two asymmetric journal bearings. Two
different data processing techniques are developed for the separated excitation and
combined excitation procedures.
2
For the impact excitation method, an explicit coefficient estimator on least-square-
estimation is developed; all 16 bearing coefficients can be calculated through one
operation.
A new unbalance excitation method is developed in this thesis and is successfully used to
identify 16 force coefficients of two practical journal bearings on test rig.
Applicable experimental procedures, data processing techniques for all three excitation
methods are developed and performed on two test rigs.
3
enAPraiR
LITERATURE SURVEY
The journal bearing is a wide subject with many factors to be considered, and many
investigations have been done in this field. It is difficult to include all literature in this
thesis so only closely related and available literature is mentioned here. T o simplify the
review, the literature is classified into the following sections:
2.1 Solution of Reynolds Equation
2.2 Calculation of dynamic characteristics
2.3 Stability analysis
2.4 Misalignment effects on the bearing characteristics
2.5 Experimental methods to determine the linear bearing force coefficients.
4
2.1 SOLUTION OF REYNOLDS EQUATION
Journal bearings have been widely used for a long time but their lubrication
principle was unknown until 1886 when Reynolds derived his well known Reynolds
equation. Under a number of assumptions, the Reynolds equation gave a basic
relationship of the pressure of a convergent oil film in an eccentric bearing with the
bearing parameters, such as the velocity, geometry and lubricant viscosity. Since then
extensive investigations have been carried out in this field by many other researchers
trying to obtain the pressure from the Reynolds equation.
A significant step in the bearing theory was developed by Sommerfeld who in 1904
produced the Sommerfeld solution of Reynolds equation for an infinitely long journal
bearing. B y ignoring the axial gradient of pressure profile and assuming the oil film was
continuous around the 360 bearing, he succeeded in obtaining a complete analytical
solution for the Reynolds equation. Dimensionless parameters were introduced in his
solution which benefited other investigators in studying a variety of bearing geometries
and operation conditions. However, his sine-wave pressure profile around the whole
bearing was later found not in agreement with experimental evidence because normal
fluids can not withstand large and continuous negative pressure without rupture. In
considering these experimental results, the half-Sommerfeld boundary condition, in
which the negative pressure is ignored, was applied.
Study and investigations continued for a better method to solve the Reynolds
equation. In 1931, Kingsbury simulated the pressure distribution of a two-dimensional
journal bearing in an electrolytic tank. Restricted by the difficulty in balancing the current
inputs to all nodes and poor precision of the components used in the simulation network,
the accuracy of the method was not high.
One year later, S.A. M c K e e and T.R M c K e e (1932) experimentally determined the
pressure distribution in whole surface of the vertically installed bearing. From their 9 sets
5
of tests with different clearances, loads, speeds and viscosities, they found that the
positive pressure was only distributed in a film less than K radian circumferentially. The
bell-shaped circumferential distribution and parabola-shaped axial distribution are very
close to today's bearing theory.
In 1941, Christopherson used finite difference method to solve the Reynolds
equation. B y setting the negative pressure to zero, the numerical method can
conveniently realise the Reynolds boundary condition. Limited by the large amount of
manual calculation, the finite difference method was not widely used for the bearing
design at that time.
In 1949, the mechanism of thin film lubrication was systematically investigated by
Cammeron and Wood(1949). They found that the half-Sommerfeld boundary condition
gave flow discontinuity at the exit edge of the oil film. They employed the Reynolds
boundary condition p=0 and dp/d())=0 at the trailing edge to achieve the continuity in the
oil flow. With this boundary condition, their theoretical steady characteristics of the finite
bearings with different L/D ratios agreed well with previous experiments.
Ocvick(1952) and Dubois et al(1955) made another important contribution to the
bearing lubrication theory by eliminating the circumferential pressure gradient from the
Reynolds equation (set dp/d(])=0) and thus obtaining a solution for the narrow bearing. At
this stage, the analytical solution for both infinitely long and infinitely short bearings can
be obtained. Since the practical bearings are of finite length, both infinitely long and
infinitely short bearing theories will result in considerable error in the calculated bearing
characteristics.
With the advent of high-speed digital computer, numerical methods are quickly
used to solve the Reynolds equation. In 1957, Sternlicht et al transformed the Reynolds
equation of a thrust bearing into a difference equation. The bearing surface was divided
into a mesh of m x n nodes. The node pressure was explicitly expressed in terms of the
surrounding pressures, viscosities and film thicknesses. A n iteration method was used to
6
find all the node pressures. In successive iteration, if the pressure was negative, the
pressure was set to zero. The energy equation was coupled with the Reynolds equation,
and the temperature distribution was also obtained. This FDM is easy to understand and
simple in programming and is still widely used today.
To simplify the calculation, Booker(1965) presented a mobility method for the
solution of the dynamic loaded bearing. He introduced a "mobility vector" which is a
function of the eccentricity, attitude angle and the slenderness ratio. The motion vectors
under different parameters were drawn in the clearance circle according to different
bearing theories, such as infinitely long bearing and short bearing theories. Then the
journal motion equation was expressed as a simple function of this mobility vector. The
motion locus of the journal under dynamic load can be solved graphically. The accuracy
of this method is not high and it is time-consuming to draw the motion vectors.
Reddi (1969) developed a finite element method (FEM) to solve the lubrication
problem through the variational functional of the Reynolds equation. The node pressure
was obtained by minimising the variational functional. Employing the FEM with the
pressure in the element expressed as the linear function of the node pressures of the
element, Reddi successfully solved the pressures in the multi-recessed hybrid bearing,
step bearing and conical spiral-groove bearing.
In 1971 Wada and Hayashi presented the application of the FEM in the solution of
Reynolds equation for both infinite width and finite width journal bearings. They also
assumed that the film pressure is linear in each element. The result of FEM is compared
with a numerical solution of FDM and an exact solution of the infinite long bearing. They
claimed that FEM gave more accurate results even when using fewer elements but also
recognised that for the uniform space, the FEM took longer computation time than FDM
for the same accuracy.
From 1971 onward, due to its versatility and adaptability to different film shapes,
FEM has been widely used in bearing problems, where the thermal effect upon density
7
and viscosity (Tieu, 1973), and bearing elasticity (Freund & Tieu, 1993) are considered.
For normal journal bearing where bearing geometry is simple, the F D M is also widely
used for its simpler program and shorter computation time. In 1989, Someya(1989)
published a data book on journal bearings. T w o numerical methods, F E M and
FDM(over-relaxation method), were employed in the theoretical analysis. The Reynolds
boundary condition was used in the theoretical calculation. From these methods, 59
calculations were made to determine the static and dynamic characteristics of the bearings
from different tests. Experimentally, eleven sets of tests were carried out on different
types of bearings, including circular bearing with two oil grooves, tilting-pad bearing and
two-lobe bearing. The bearing characteristics were measured by means of eight different
test rigs. The tests were carried out for both static and dynamic loading.
2.2 CALCULATION OF DYNAMIC COEFFICIENTS
During the past 40 years, a great deal of research and development has been
devoted to gain an understanding of the vibration characteristics and the stability of the
journal bearing. The bearing stiffness and damping properties affect the critical speeds
and the stability of the journal. To simplify the stability analysis, the bearing forces are
linearised and expressed as a linear function of the displacements and velocities of the
rotor. This linearisation yields 4 stiffness coefficients and 4 damping coefficients. These
eight coefficients are normally called "oil film force coefficients" or "dynamic
coefficients". They dictate the dynamic behaviour of a rotor-bearing system. To
determine these force coefficients, researchers around the world have done a lot of
painstaking works and have proposed a few theoretical and experimental methods.
An early breakthrough in this area was made by Sternlicht in 1959. He expressed
the bearing force vector as the linear function of the displacements and static bearing force
found at the equilibrium position. T w o cross-coupling damping terms were eliminated
and two direct damping coefficients were calculated from the loci of force vector at
8
different radial velocities. Employing his F D M , he theoretically calculated four stiffness
coefficients and two direct damping coefficients.
One year later, Holms(1960) linearised the bearing forces for small oscillations
according to Taylor's expansion theorem and neglecting the second and higher order
terms. By differentiating these linear forces with respect to displacements and velocities
and employing the short bearing theory he obtained the analytical solution of the eight
force coefficients.
In 1962, Lund and Sternlicht calculated the linear stiffness and damping coefficients
for small motion about an equilibrium point by numerically differentiating a finite
difference solution to the Reynolds equation.
In 1968, Lund developed a perturbation solution approach to the Reynolds equation
which eliminates the requirement of numerical differentiation to obtain the eight linearized
stiffness and damping coefficients. In 1975, Reinhardt and Lund applied a first order
perturbation solution involving a modified Reynolds number. Eight modified dynamic
coefficients were obtained in order to determine the effect of fluid film inertial forces on
the dynamic properties of a journal bearing. The corrections to the regular amplitude and
velocity coefficient were found to be small but the acceleration coefficients could become
significant for short rotors. Numerical results were given in graphical form with
dimensionless coefficients as functions of the operating eccentricity ratio. Three L/D
ratios of 0.1, 0.5, 1.0 were considered
In 1976, Bannister calculated 28 oil film force coefficients of a 120 partial bearing.
Unlike other researchers, he used first and 2nd order terms of the Taylor expansion to
represent the bearing forces. Finite perturbation method and FDM were employed to find
all the coefficients. Comparing with experimental unbalance trajectories, he found that
using the 28 oil film coefficients can predict more accurately the journal trajectory than
using the eight linear force coefficients when the vibration amplitudes are large.
9
In 1977, Childs et al modified the mobility vector method (Booker, 1965) by
introducing the bearing impedance vectors which define the bearing force as a function of
the bearing motion. A direct analytical method to obtain eight (analytical) coefficients
from impedance descriptions was developed and demonstrated for cavitated bearing.
These coefficients were used for stability analysis of a rotor and the onset-speed-of-
instability results were presented as a function of L/D ratio for a range of bearing
numbers. Damping coefficients were also presented for finite length squeeze-film
dampers.
One year later, Lund and Thomsen(1978) developed an infinitesimal perturbation
method(IFP) to calculate the stiffness and damping coefficients of oil lubricated bearings.
Upon differentiating the Reynolds equation with respect to displacements and velocities,
four new perturbed Reynolds equations were obtained. The perturbed pressures were
found from these perturbed Reynolds equations by the F D M . Integrating these perturbed
pressures produced eight bearing force coefficients. The steady-state characteristics, such
as the Sommerfeld number, attitude angle, side flow and friction coefficient were also
presented. Film rupture was taken into account with the boundary to the ruptured film
zone determined by an iterative procedure. The four stiffness coefficients and the four
damping coefficients were given in tabular form for the two-axial groove bearing,
elliptical bearing, three-lobe bearing and offset cylindrical bearing.
In the early eighties, Makdissy(1980) employed a time marching technique to
simulate the motion trajectories of rotor (operating in laminar region) under the influence
of either a synchronous or non- synchronous out-of-balance exciting force. The eight oil
film coefficients were then obtained from the orbits. The stability characteristics of the
bearing were also determined and the results given in dimensionless charts describing the
onset of instability. The experimental and theoretical results were compared to each other
and were found to be in good agreement
In 1986, Klit and Lund obtained the dynamic bearing coefficients from a solution to
10
the variational equivalent of Reynolds equation. They applied a perturbation method to
find the individual dynamic coefficients and employed F E M in the numerical evaluation of
the equations. The flow was assumed to be laminar, and the lubricant Newtonian.
Comparison with results obtained by other F D M s showed that the method was working
satisfactorily.
More recently in 1988, Kato and Hori employed the Rayleigh-Ritz Method to
calculate the dynamic coefficients of the finite width journal bearing under quasi Reynolds
boundary condition, i.e. where the trailing boundary line was approximated by a straight
line and the continuity of bulk flow across this line was ensured. The time required by
this calculation is much shorter than the F D M . The linear stiffness and damping
coefficients were compared to those in the paper of Lund and Thomsen(1978), and found
to be in good agreement
In 1989, Someya published a data book on journal bearings. In this databook, the
author presented both theoretical and experimental works in determining the static as well
as dynamic characteristics of various types of journal bearing. T w o perturbation methods
were used to calculate the dynamic coefficients of the grooved journal bearings. One is
the infinitesimal perturbation method(IFP), which uses the partial derivatives of the
bearing forces with respect to the displacements and velocities to calculate the coefficients;
the other is the finite perturbation method(FP), which perturbs the journal position and
velocity to a small distance and calculates the coefficients from the finite force difference
with respect to displacements and velocities. The dynamic coefficients were obtained in
the eccentricity-attitude angle coordinate system and then transformed to the horizontal-
vertical coordinate system. With the finite perturbation method, he found that the
calculated coefficients were sensitive to the perturbation amplitudes. H e reported that the
optimum perturbation amplitude is around 0.01 c or 0.0lQc. F D M (over-relaxation
method) and Reynolds boundary condition were used in the calculation of the tabled data.
In the same year, Wang and Tieu (1989) studied the static and dynamic
11
3 0009 03143355 5
characteristics of full journal bearing operating in laminar region. The purpose of their
investigation was to determine the load carrying capacity of journal bearing, the pressure
distribution of the oil film along the mid circumference of the journal and the eight
linearized oil film coefficients. F E M was employed in solving the Reynolds equation
combined with the Reynolds boundary condition. The finite perturbation method (FP)
was used to determine the stiffness and damping properties which were found to be
sensitive to the perturbation amplitudes.
Choy et al (1991) studied nonlinear property of bearing force and also found
perturbation amplitude influencing the linear force coefficients, but he only presented one
stiffness coefficient under three different perturbation amplitudes at one bearing
eccentricity. H o w the perturbation amplitudes affect all eight linear bearing force
coefficients has not been reported.
Today, the perturbation methods IFP and FP are the two most acceptable methods
in the calculation of dynamic coefficients. For IFP the coefficient is calculated by:
dx
For FP the coefficient is calculated by:
Theoretically, when the perturbation amplitude is small enough, the calculated coefficients
of F P should converge to the values calculated from the IFP. For an acceptable
coefficient accuracy, there should be a maximum perturbation amplitude below which the
calculated(or measured) coefficients could be determined within a prescribed accuracy.
Since all the experimental methods need to perturb the journal position to a measurable
distance to determine the bearing force coefficients, it is significant to determine the
m a x i m u m perturbation amplitude. Unfortunately, no previous publication has presented
the m a x i m u m perturbation values for a given coefficient accuracy. Someya(1989)
12
reported the coefficients of the finite perturbation method are sensitive to the perturbation
amplitudes and found the optimum perturbation amplitude is around 0.01 c or O.OlQc.
In his relation curve between the coefficients and the perturbation amplitude, the finite
difference terms diverge from the partial derivatives of the infinitesimal perturbation
method when the perturbation amplitudes are close to zero. This is in conflict with the
linearisation theory which requires the finite difference converging to the partial derivative
when the step size is close to zero. More investigation on the relationship between the
perturbation amplitudes and all eight linear bearing force coefficients is necessary.
2.3 STABILITY ANALYSIS
The demand of high power output increases the speed of rotary machinery, thus
raises the instability problems of rotors supported on hydrodynamic journal bearings. In
1925, using early types of oscilloscopes and non-contact displacement transducers at the
General Electric Research Laboratory, Newkirk and Taylor(1925) clearly demonstrated
not only the oil whirl and whip mechanisms, but also showed one of the cures still
commonly used for prevention of oil whirl and whip. They found that under certain
conditions a rotor mounted in sleeve bearings whipped when the rotor was running at any
speed above double critical speed. The whipping happened when the bearings were
running full of oil and could be stopped by reducing the amount of supply oil. Newkirk
and Taylor qualitatively explained the phenomenon based on the fact that the average
velocity of the oil film is half of the velocity of the shaft rotation, but the explanation
could not explain why oil whip persists at speeds higher than double the critical speed.
Since Newkirk and Taylor firstly reported the existence of violent whipping,
hundreds of papers on oil whirl and oil whip have been written, each adding more
understanding to the bearing dynamics. In 1946, Hagg experimentally tested stability of
the journal bearings with various bearing geometries on a vertically installed test rig.
Employing the flow continuity condition and neglecting the side flow, he concluded that
13
the upper limit of whirl frequency is a half of rotation speed. For heavily loaded bearing,
the upper limit would be reduced by the increased side leakage. His experiments showed
the stability of full plain journal bearing was poor compared with the tilting -pad bearing.
Another early notable contribution to this area was the work of Poritsky in 1953.
He established the rotor motion equation for small eccentricity upon introducing the linear
bearing force based on the infinitely long bearing theory with the half-Sommerfeld
boundary condition. Routh's stability test was applied to derived the stability formula.
Poritsky concluded that the rotor is stable for all speeds below double the critical speed,
and unstable at speeds above double the critical speed. He also clarified the usage of oil
whirl and whip by defining 'whirl' as the self-excited forward circular instability at near
1/2 rotational speed, and 'whip' as the same mechanism when it becomes locked up on
the lateral spring, mass, damper resonance of the rotating system. He pointed out that the
critical speed of a rotor, which neglected the oil film flexibility in calculation, is not the
true critical speed of the rotor bearing system. The true critical speed is lower than the
rotor's critical speed.
In 1953, Pinkus also experimentally investigated stability of a rotor-bearing system.
He found that the whip does not persist at all speeds above the double first critical speed
but drops at the speed of three times the first critical speed, which he found to be the
upper limit of oil whip. Once the whip occurred, the whipping frequency was near the
first critical speed of the rotor. In the following paper (Pinkus,1956), he mentioned that
at low speed, the whip was characterised by a vibration at about half of rotation speed;
when the rotation speed was increased to above the twice the rotor critical speed, the whip
frequency was constant and equal to the rotor's critical speed. What confused him most
was the temperature effect. He consistently found that the hotter oil tends to reduce the
Two years later, Cameron(1955) presented two oil whip theories: the flow
continuity and the resilience theory. The first theory resulted in the conclusion that at a
14
whipping shaft whirls at half rotation speed. Using the resilience theory which considers
the oil film as a spring, he worked out another whirl frequency. He pointed out that
when the whirl frequency predicted by the resilience theory is greater than one half of the
shaft speed, the rotor-bearing system is stable; otherwise, it will be capable of vibration.
Cameron found that at very low eccentricity the critical stable speed increased, which
explained why lightly loaded rotor is unexpectedly stable at low eccentricity (about 0.1 c).
In 1956, Newkirk and Lewis carried out a series of experimental investigations on
the rotor whip in sleeve bearings. They observed that whip occurred at the speeds from 2
to 5.9 times of the first critical speed of the rotor. The upper limit could be higher if the
rotation speed was not limited. The whip frequency was found to be related with L/D
ratio, clearance ratio, rotor weight, supply pressure and the oil viscosity. In general, the
higher eccentricity produced higher whip speed. In the discussion to Newkirk and
Lewis, Poritsky commented that the basic causes of the oil whip and the exact condition
under which the whip will occur still remain unclear.
In 1959, Hori investigated the oil whip both theoretically and experimentally. The
infinite long bearing theory and half-Sommerfeld boundary condition were used in
finding the bearing forces. The rotor motion equation was linearized. Employing the
Hurwitz criteria he obtained the critical speed parameter at different eccentricities. The
self-excited whirl of oil film ( normally at half of rotation speed) could occur at any
frequencyeven lower than the critical speed of the rotor at light load. When the
rotational speed reaches twice the critical speed of the rotor, the oil whirling frequency
coincides with the rotor critical speed and large vibration occurs. This explained why the
whip occurred at about double the rotor critical speed as reported by Newkirk(1925).
After obtaining eight linear force coefficients from the short bearing theory,
Holmes(1960) was able to calculate the critical stable speed according to the Routh's
criteria. The stability contour was drawn against eccentricity ratio. The ratio of critical
whip frequency, above which the system will be unstable, to the rotation speed was also
15
presented. According his theory, all journal bearings of whatever L/D ratio will be stable
above the eccentricity ratio of 0.8. This conclusion is very close to today's theory.
In 1962, Tondl observed the whip (defined as self-excited vibration) can occur at
the speed above the rotor's critical speed. He thought the whip is not a resonance
phenomenon because it occurs over a wide region of rotor speeds, and normally the
region has no upper limit. He defined the subharmonic resonance, which has the
vibration frequency from 1/3 to 1/2 rotation speed and occurs predominantly in the
vicinity of double, or exceptionally, triple the critical speed of the rotor.
In the same year, Reddi and Trumpler(1962) developed the equations of motion for
a full-film bearing and a 180-deg partial-film bearing in order to analyse the phenomenon
of oil-film whirl in bearings subjected to steady loads. The nonlinear motion equations
were firstly solved numerically on a digital computer by the Runge-Kutta-Gill method.
The journal motion loci were used to predict bearing failure. In the evaluation of the
hydrodynamic force, the contribution of shear stress on the journal surface is found to be
negligible for the full- film bearing, whereas for the partial-film bearing it is found to be
significant at small attitude angles. The equations of motion were linearized and the
coefficients of the resulting characteristic equations were used to determine the stability of
the static-equilibrium positions. Unfortunately no experiment was carried out to support
the theory.
Also in that year, Lund & Sternlicht(1962) theoretically analysed the dynamic
response of flexible rotor on fluid journal bearings. The stiffness of rotor, four stiffness
and four damping of journal bearings were coupled in the system dynamic model. The
forces transmitted to the bearing pedestal were expressed as functions of frequency.
According to their conclusion, the fluid film bearing provides an important source of
attenuation to the dynamic vibration.
Still in 1962, Jennings and Ocvirk simulated the bearing whirl on an analog
computer. The oil film forces were obtained by the short bearing approximation and the
16
negative pressure was neglected . Although the simulation accuracy was not satisfactory,
the whirl frequency from the simulated loci was around half of the rotation speed.
At this stage, the causes of the oil whirl and whip are clear. In brief, the oil whirl is
a resonance phenomenon which appears at a frequency from 1/3 to 1/2 rotation speed.
The oil whip is the unstable vibration whose frequency is dependent on the rotor's critical
speed( mass and stiffness) and the properties of the oil film. Possibly the self-excited
vibration reported by Tondl(1962) is the unstable vibration which could happened at any
frequency higher than the critical frequency of rotor-bearing system. The critical
frequency of rotor-bearing system is determined by the flexibility of the rotor and oil film.
When the oil whirl coincides with the rotor's critical speed, the whip normally occurs.
The following efforts were made to predict the whip speed or the critical whirl
frequency and critical speed above which the rotor system will become unstable.
In 1965, the stability speed of a rigid rotor in two full journal bearings was obtained
by Mitchell et al( 1965-66) using nonlinear theory. They used analogue, digital and
experimental techniques to support the theories which were based upon the long bearing
and the short bearing approximations. Holmes(1966) plotted out the stability borderlines
based on eight linear force coefficients obtained from the theories of infinitely long or
infinitely short bearings. The rupture of the oil film was assumed to occur at the position
of minimum oil film thickness.
In 1968 Sternlicht & Lewis(1968) fully discussed the effects of oil film bearing,
seals, bearing pedestals and coupling on the rotor's stability. Formulae to calculate the
system critical speed were given.
In 1971 the work of Mitchell and Holmes(1965) has been extended by Akers et
al(1971). To determine the stability contour of a rigid rotor in finite long bearings, they
simulated whirling trajectories at different trial speeds taking into account nonlinear
bearing forces which was obtained directly from bearing pressure at each journal
17
position. The pressure was solved from the Reynolds equation with the Reynolds
boundary condition by FDM. Friction force was considered in their rotor motion
equation. The position perturbation was used to initiate the dynamic procedure. The
critical stable speed was determined according to the convergence of the whirling
trajectories after the position perturbation. This trial-and-error method requires long
computation time. They found no significant effect of the initial transients on the
stability, which agreed with the previous experimental results . They also found that
when the out of balance load is included in the analysis, the bearing is sometimes more
stable and sometimes less stable than when an out of balance load is absent.
Unfortunately, they did not mention the relationship between their nonlinear results and
those from the linear theory.
In the same year, Lund(1974) developed a method for calculating the threshold
speed of instability and the damped critical speeds of a general flexible rotor in fluid-film
journal bearings. The rotor model could simulate any practical shaft geometry and
support configuration. The bearings were represented by their linearized dynamic
properties and the calculation included hysteretic internal damping in the shaft and
destabilising aerodynamic forces. Application was demonstrated for multi-stage
compressor.
To save the computation time, the short bearing theory was adopted by some
researchers. In 1975, Hahn(1975) determined the threshold speed by solving the
characteristic equation of the rotor-bearing system. Employing the short bearing
approximation and constant lubricant properties, the 8 linear oil-film force coefficients
were obtained and substituted in the characteristic equation. The stiffness of the journal
was also considered in the characteristic equation. The stability speeds were determined
from the roots of the characteristic equation which was solved by an iterative method on a
digital computer. Design maps for both rigid and flexible rotors were presented.
One year later, Kirk and Gunter(1976) developed a piece of general software to
18
simulate the motion trajectories of the rigid rotor in short bearings. The bearing forces
were also integrated from the pressure obtained from the short bearing approximation.
Extensive investigations on the transient response of rotors under position perturbation
and unbalance force were performed. They showed the effects of unbalance, steady
loading rotating loads upon the stability and performance of a short journal bearing. For
systems with eccentricity ratio greater than 0.73, stable conditions existed at any speed.
The concept of whirl is examined and several plots presented the instantaneous whirl ratio
for the various loads and speeds.
Singh et al(1976) used a different nonlinear analysis method in predicting the
journal motion trajectory. They also employed the linear model for the journal motion,
but they calculated the eight linear force coefficients at each journal position. This method
was found time consuming and no other researcher was found to follow this method.
In the same year, Barrett et al(1976) analysed the unbalance effect on the oil whirl.
The short bearing approximation and half-Sommerfeld boundary condition were used in
finding the bearing force in a fixed Cartesian coordinate system. They found the
representation of bearing pressure in fixed Cartesian coordinate system rather than polar
coordinate system provides simpler transient dynamic analysis. The unbalance applied to
a journal operating above the stability threshold speed was found to introduce a
synchronous vibration to the half frequency unstable whirling. Increasing unbalance
amplitude reduced the half frequency component of the whirl motion.
In 1979, Hahn investigated the stability and unbalance response of centrally
preloaded rotors on squeeze film bearings. With the assumptions of K- and 27C-film, the
bearing forces were approximated as the analytical functions of the journal position and
velocities. The stability thresholds for vertical rotor under different unbalance parameters
and eccentricities were plotted according to different oil-film assumptions.
In 1982, stability and unbalance response of different types of turbine bearings
frequently used in practice were studied by Abdul Wahed et al(1982). The stability
19
speeds were determined based on the linear theory. The results showed that all
parameters which stabilised the bearing increased the bearing sensitivity to large
unbalances. The bearing types were ranked in the order of increasing resistance to
unbalance loading: three pockets, three axial grooves, offset three lobes, elliptic and
circular. The unbalance response was simulated by considering the nonlinear bearing
forces which were obtained from the pressure around the bearing. The Reynolds
equation was solved by FDM using the effective viscosity concept and the bearing
unbalance response was investigated for small and large unbalance forces. The validity
of the linear theory was verified by comparing the limit cycle orbits simulated from both
linear and nonlinear theories under small unbalance force. A reasonable agreement was
obtained where the peak-to-peak amplitudes reached a value up to one third or one half of
the clearance space. They did not employ nonlinear simulation to predict the stability
speed as done by Akers et al(1971).
In 1987, Lund briefly reviewed the development of the concept of spring and
damping coefficients for journal bearings. He presented the methods for computing the
coefficients and their use in rotor dynamics calculation (unbalance response, stability).
The limitations imposed by nonlinearities on the application of the coefficients were
illustrated by some examples.
Hori (1988) determined the stability limit of a flexible rotor from the simulated loci
due to the sinusoidal excitation. He found that if a nonlinearity of the second order of
displacement and velocity in the oil film force is considered, the stable limit at small
vibration amplitudes is 16.7% higher than that predicted by the linear force. He has not
extended his conclusion to the rigid rotor.
Choy et al( 1992b) used only odd power(3rd, 5th, 7th) model to approximate the
bearing forces in simulating the transient journal orbit. Finite perturbation and FDM were
used to obtain their higher order force coefficients. Since these nonlinear force
coefficients are considerably sensitive to the perturbation amplitudes, their calculation and
20
application are much more difficult than the linear coefficients. For example, from their
method, the critical mass became nearly zero when the rotational speed is higher than
2500 rpm(Fig.3a, Choy et al, 1992b). This is unimaginable according to the existing
bearing theory.
In the above stability investigations, the relationship between stability contour
determined from the nonlinear simulation and that from the linear theory has not been
reported. For the rotor-bearing systems with the same stability status, knowing their
whirling trajectories under the position perturbation, harmonic force, impact excitation
and synchronous unbalance excitation will be helpful in analysing the system stability.
These problems will be investigated in this thesis.
2.4 MISALIGNMENT EFFECTS ON THE BEARING
CHARACTERISTICS
Due to manufacturing tolerances, deflection of journal and bearing supports,
asymmetric bearing load, etc., journal bearings normally operate at the misaligned
condition. Understanding misalignment effects on bearing characteristics is important in
design and analysis of the rotor-bearing system. M a n y researchers have made
considerable efforts in this field.
2.4.1 Misalignment Effects on Static Characteristics
The effects of misalignment on some static characteristics, such as torque, load
capacity and attitude angle of the journal bearings with some geometric parameters have
already been studied.
Dubois et al(1955, 1957) have experimentally investigated the properties of the
misaligned journal bearings. A known moment was applied to the tested bearing, which
21
was suspended on a rigid shaft, in both vertical and horizontal planes, the misaligned
attitude (misalignment ratio) was determined by measuring the eccentricities at the ends of
misaligned plain bearings. In this way, the relation between the misaligned moment and
the misalignment ratio was experimentally determined. The relation was presented in a
set of design graphs.
In 1965, Rice(1965) calculated the misalignment torque of gas-lubricated bearings.
The pressure was solved from the Reynolds equation by the FDM. Integrating the
product of pressure and distance axially produced the misalignment torque. Design
curves of the misalignment torques for different L/D ratios at different eccentricities were
presented.
Misalignment effects on static characteristics of a 180 partial journal bearing were
theoretically studied by Stokley & Donaldson (1969). The misalignment in their paper
was restricted to that the shaft was tilted around an axis normal to a plane bisecting the
bearing arc. The pressure under misalignment was solved from Reynolds equation with
the Reynolds boundary condition. The calculated bearing static characteristics such as
Sommerfeld number, side flow, friction coefficient, minimum oil film thickness for
L/D=l, 1/2 and 1/4 were presented in design charts and tables.
Asanabe et al(1972) investigated the minimum oil film thickness and friction force
of misaligned journal bearings in 1972. In an approach different from Dubois et
al(1957), Asanabe et al set a known misalignment ratio to the bearing first; then the
minimum oil film thickness were measured at both ends of the bearing. Misaligned
torques and friction forces under different misalignment ratios were determined. The
experimental results agreed well with their theoretical calculation. They concluded that
the misalignment reduced the load-carrying capacity considerably by reducing the
minimum oil film thickness; the maximum pressure was increased by misalignment; but
the friction force did not increase significantly. In their calculation, the misalignment was
only in the plane determined by the journal axis and the bearing axis.
22
Pinkus and Bupara(1979) theoretically analysed the misaligned grooved journal
bearings. The pressure was solved from the Reynolds equation with the Reynolds
boundary condition by the F D M . To avoid solving the attitude angle in advance they
used the eccentricity e and the angle between the centre line and the vertical coordinate as
independent variables. The minimum film thickness, load capacity, misaligned moment,
m a x i m u m pressure, side flow and friction force were calculated. Their method was
modified by Vijayaraghavan and Keith(1989,1990), w h o considered the mass continuity
at both the entry and exit of the oil film and published considerable theoretical data of
different grooved bearings. Since their load direction is a variable dependent on
eccentricity and the misalignment ratio, the static load is not acted in x or y direction of
their coordinate system. The 'vertical' misalignments do not indicate that the journal axis
is tilted in the plane parallel with the load, and their 'horizontal' misalignments are not in
the plane perpendicular to the load. This variable load direction makes their data
application and comparison inconvenient.
Different from Pinks and Bupara, Dceuchi et al(1985) fixed the load direction and
solved the attitude angles at different eccentricities for their circumferentially grooved
bearing. They studied the load capacity, attitude angle and side flow both theoretically
and experimentally. Their experimental results agreed fairly with their calculation.
Unfortunately, Ikeuchi et al only presented the misalignment effects on load capacity and
attitude angle. Buckholz and Lin(1986) also studied the misalignment effect on load.
The effects of the misalignment on all static characteristics, such as load capacity,
attitude angle, side flow, friction force and misaligned moment for the normal vertically
loaded, horizontally grooved bearings have not been reported.
2.4.2 Misalignment Effects on Dynamic Characteristics
The effects of misalignment on some dynamic characteristics of journal bearing
23
have also been studied recently.
In 1976, Bannister presented the misalignment influence on the unbalance
trajectories of a partial bearing. Unfortunately he did not report the misalignment effects
on eight linear bearing force coefficients although he depicted that the misalignment in
vertical plane suppressed the unbalance whirl trajectory significantly.
Choy et al (1992a) have depicted the misalignment effect on one stiffness
coefficient Kxx and critical mass of an ungrooved bearing at one set of misalignment
parameters under some load conditions, the effects on other dynamic coefficients and the
effects of different misalignments and different loads have not been reported.
The effects of misalignment on the dynamic coefficients of hydrostatic or hybrid
bearings have been systematically studied by San Andres(1993) and Bou-Said(1992), but
the misalignment effects on the dynamic characteristic of normal hydrodynamic bearing
has not been reported.
This thesis adopts a fixed coordinate system and assumes all static loads acting in
the vertical direction. All static and dynamic characteristics (including load capacity,
attitude angle, side flow, friction force, misaligned moments and eight linear force
coefficients) under different misalignments and different eccentricities are plotted against
the static load and compared with available experimental data. The effects of
misalignment on all these bearing characteristics and stability are analysed.
24
2.5 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS TO DETERMINE THE
DYNAMIC FORCE COEFFICIENTS.
In the stability research, the oil film stiffness and damping properties were found to
be very important in determining the system critical speed. Since there are still some
incomplete understandings in the bearing theory, such as the boundary conditions,
cavitation and whirl phenomena, it is difficult to calculate the dynamic coefficients
accurately. Researchers around the world have proposed a few experimental methods to
estimate these coefficients.
Hagg and Sankey(1956) were pioneers in this area. In 1956 they obtained two
stiffness coefficients and two damping coefficients from the unbalance responses on a
vertically installed bearing test rig. These four dynamic coefficients were discussed and
experimental data were presented in 1958 (Hagg and Sankey, 1958) for a partial journal
bearing and a tilting pad journal bearing. However the four cross-coupling force
coefficients were neglected in their motion equation, which were later found by other
researchers to be not true especially for partial or circular bearings.
In 1967, Glienicke experimentally measured the eight coefficients of the circular,
two-lobed, pocket and the MGF(three lobed) bearings. The L/D ratios of all experimental
bearings was 0.5. The tested bearing was suspended on a rigid shaft; the static force was
applied on the bearing case by three air bellows; the dynamic forces were applied by two
eccentric-cam exciters positioned at 90 to each other. The exciter cams were driven with
the same speed of the shaft and the synchronous harmonic forces were exerted on the
bearing case through the compressed springs. The measured coefficients of pocket
bearing and the MGF(three lobed) bearings were graphically presented but the
comparison with theoretical results was not given. H o w he worked out the coefficients
from the experimental measurements was not mentioned. His calculation showed that 1 %
error in amplitude and 1 in phase angle will result in 5 % mean error in the estimated
coefficients.
25
T w o years later, Woodcock and Holmes( 1969-70) determined the four damping
coefficients of circular bearing from the unbalance responses. A rigid rotor was
supported by two symmetric bearings, the displacements measured near two bearings
were averaged to obtained the unbalance responses due to a trial mass. Four stiffness
coefficients were measured firstly by the static perturbation method(Mitchell et al, 1965-
1967), then four damping coefficients were determined from two motion equations.
Close agreement with the theoretical calculation was achieved although the experimental
results were scattered. They found the phase accuracy is important in determining the
coefficients.
Morton (1975) is the first investigator to measure the bearing force coefficients in
situ. H e applied a steady lateral force to journal through a narrow foil bearing. By
suddenly breaking the link rod, an approximate step force was applied to the journal.
Eight bearing force coefficients were worked out from the receptance of the journal
motion response to the dynamic force. His method was successfully used to measure the
coefficients of journal bearings as large as 550 m m in diameter at 3000 rpm speed,
although the experimental results were scattered to some extent.
In 1979, Parkins determined all eight dynamic coefficients of a circumferentially
grooved bearing by both theoretical and experimental methods. The tested bearing was
suspended on a rigid shaft, the static load and dynamic excitation forces were exerted on
the bearing case. T w o mutually perpendicular magnetic vibrators were employed to apply
harmonic excitation forces. B y adjusting the phases and magnitudes of two excitation
forces, the journal motion loci were controlled to be in the horizontal and vertical
directions for two consecutive runs which are necessary to determine the coefficients at
one equilibrium position. T w o harmonic forces, two displacements and two accelerations
of the bearing house were measured. At four selected points where two displacements or
two velocities were equal zero respectively, the coefficients can be calculated by eight de-
coupled linear equations. The coefficients calculation is very simple but controlling the
journal loci in straight lines is a painstaking work. The estimated coefficients were also
26
compared with the theoretical results which were obtained by the finite perturbation and
finite difference methods. The time domain signals and estimated coefficients from his
experiments were presented although they were scattered. One significant advantage of
the method is that it avoids the measurement of the vibration phases whose accuracy is
essential to previous methods. This 'selective vibration orbits' method has also be used
by Brockwell & Deochowski(1992).
Employing modern control theory, Burrows and Stanway(1977) developed a
discrete-time domain iteration method to estimate the squeeze bearing coefficients. Upon
exciting the squeeze film bearing by the pseudo-random binary sequence (PRBS), the
motion responses were measured and compared with the predicted responses from the
discrete time under the assumed coefficients. By minimising the residuals between the
measured and predicted responses in time domain, the assumed coefficients can gradually
converge to the true values. Experiments were performed to estimate four damping
coefficients of the squeeze film bearing. The method was later fully simulated by the
authors (Burrows et al, 1986 & 1987; Stanway, 1983).
Dogan et al(1980) also used the PRBS excitation method to identify 8 bearing force
coefficients. Different from Burrows and Stanway(1977), Dogan et al transferred the
displacement responses to frequency domain. A numerical hill-climbing technique was
employed to fit the transfer functions by minimising the energy error between the fitting
system and the experimental system. The method was able to determine eight bearing
coefficients quickly even in the presence of excessive measurement noise. However, the
estimated coefficients showed no well-defined trend although the experimental scatter was
of the same level as obtained from other investigation.
In the same conference, Hisa et al(1980) published their experimental method in
determining the force coefficients of a large journal bearing. Harmonic forces from two
hydraulic exciters were applied to the bearing case. Their experimental results were said
to agree well with theoretical calculations.
27
In the same year, Nordman & Schollhorn(1980) developed an impact method to
identify the eight force coefficients of two symmetric journal bearings. Two impulse
forces were exerted in the middle of a rigid and symmetric rotor, the displacements were
measured at two locations near the bearings and were averaged. The pulse forces and
their impulse responses were transformed to frequency domain and the transfer functions
at different frequencies were found. All eight coefficients were estimated by fitting the
amplitudes of the transfer functions. Since the error criterion is a complex function of
eight fitted coefficients, the estimated results were found to be sensitive to the initial
values of the coefficients input at the start of the fitting iteration.
The time-domain estimation technique was developed further by Sahinkaya and
Burrows(1984) in 1984. To improve the coefficient estimating accuracy, Kalman filter
and sequential least square estimator were developed. They concluded that the proposed
discrete-time domain can be used if the frequency domain estimation technique is not
convenient.
Zhang et al (1987) proposed a method to determine all bearing coefficients from the
unbalance responses. The method uses the forced displacements resulting from
synchronous excitation due to introduced unbalances. They decoupled the mathematical
model of the flexible-rotor-bearing system by a finite element method and solved the
coefficients bearing by bearing. Unfortunately, they have not refined their method to
practical application and no experiment was performed.
In 1989, Lee and Hong(1989) proposed an identification scheme for the dynamic
coefficients by using unbalance responses. The unbalance responses due to two different
sets of trial masses were measured from four sensors at two locations and then were
separated into the "forward" and "backward" whirling vectors. After a series of matrix
operation, all dynamic coefficients can be solved from a set of linear equations. The
scheme can uniquely determine the coefficients of two anisotropic(asymmetric) bearings.
Their theoretical analysis showed that the coefficients of two symmetric bearings cannot
28
be uniquely determined for lack of information regarding to the backward whirl. Since
the displacement or whirling vectors of the numerical examples in the paper was solved
from the system model in frequency domain, the method to determine these displacement
vectors from the noisy time-domain signals was not mentioned.
In 1989, Someya published a data book on journal bearings. In the book, eleven
sets of experimentally data of different types of bearings, such as circular bearing with
two oil grooves, tilting-pad bearing and two-lobe bearing, were collected. The bearing
characteristics were measured by means of eight different test rigs. The tests were carried
out for both static and dynamic loading.
The discrete-time domain estimation technique was developed further by Ellis et al
in 1989 and 1990. The state variable filter method of the parameter identification was
used. In their experiments, the free bearing was excited with random signals with a
frequency range from 16 to 60 Hz. Beside 8 bearing force coefficients, four fluid mass
coefficients were also be estimated. The experimental results showed good trend
although differed from the theoretical prediction.
In 1990, Zhang et al experimentally identified 8 bearing force coefficients in a
symmetric flexible rotor-bearing system. A mechanical pendulum hammer was used to
apply a pulse force to excite the rotor, the transfer functions of the displacement
responses to the excitation forces at different frequencies were found. To avoid the phase
effect of the instrumental system, they dynamically calibrated all instrument system and
subtracted the frequency characteristics from the experimental measurement. Beside
determining the bearing coefficients by optimally fitting the amplitude of the theoretical
transfer functions to the experimental results, as done by Nordman & Schollhorn(1980),
Zhang et al have also developed a least-square method which utilise both amplitudes and
phases of the transfer functions. They found the amplitude fitting method is more reliable
when the phase error is significant.
Most recently, Zheng & Xu (1992) proposed a similar unbalance method as Zhang
29
et al (1987). Their computer simulation proved that the unbalance method is a promising
method although they have not tested the method by practical experiments.
This thesis will extend the existing harmonic and impact excitation methods to
identify 16 coefficients of two asymmetric bearings. For the unbalance method, this
thesis attempts to simplify the coefficient calculation by developing an explicit formula
and will firstly use the synchronous unbalance responses directly measured from
experimental sensors. Experimental procedures, data processing techniques, measured
dynamic coefficients of two cylindrical bearings are all presented for three different
experimental methods.
Bearing dynamics is a wide subject with many "hot" topics still being studied by
many researchers around the world. It is impossible to list all literature herein. Only the
literature which is most related to the study in this thesis is listed here. The publications
in some other topics, such as the thermal hydrodynamics or thermo-elasto-
hydrodynamics, lubricant inertia effect (turbulent flow), fluid compressibility effect and
the oil-film cavitation, are not listed in this thesis although these factor also affect the
bearing characteristics to some extent.
30
cimraiiR 3
CALCULATION OF THE CHARACTERISTICS
OF JOURNAL BEARINGS
Abstract
This chapter describes the calculation methods of all characteristics of the
circular journal bearings. Three pieces of software have been developed to
calculate all bearing characteristics by different numerical methods for
different bearing geometries and slenderness ratios. The bearing
characteristics are presented and compared with the data available in the
literature. The linearized oil-film force coefficients calculated by the finite
perturbation method are compared with those calculated by the infinitesimal
perturbation method. The effect of perturbation amplitudes on eight force
coefficients is also studied. The bearing coefficients calculated by the finite
perturbation method under different perturbation amplitudes are graphically
presented
31
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Since Reynolds derived his well-known Reynolds equation in 1886, great
efforts have been made to solve the equation by the researchers around the world, but
no exact analytical solution has been found for practical finite bearings so far. The
most accurate solution of the Reynolds equation is achieved by numerical methods on
digital computer. Although there are still some incomplete understandings about the
oil film cavitation, the Reynolds boundary condition is most widely accepted today.
To compare with the literature, numerical methods, such as finite element method and
finite difference method, and Reynolds boundary condition are also used in this thesis.
The bearing characteristics are normally classified as static or steady
characteristics and dynamic characteristics. The static characteristics herein include
the Sommerfeld number, attitude angle, side flow and friction force. The dynamic
characteristics normally mean eight oil-film force coefficients and stability threshold.
M a n y static (or steady) and dynamic characteristics have been published for bearings
with some goemetries, but there are still some problems, such as the effects of
perturbation amplitude on the linear force coefficients, the misalignment effect on the
bearing characteristics, which have not been solved satisfactorily.
The coefficients of oil film are main dynamic characteristics of journal bearing.
They dominate the dynamic behaviour of the rotor-bearing system. T o determine these
force coefficients, researchers around the world have proposed a few theoretical and
experimental methods. There are two theoretical methods to calculate the coefficients.
One is the infinitesimal perturbation method (IFP) ( Lund & Thomson, 1978; Zhang,
1979; Someya, 1989), which use the partial derivatives of the bearing forces with
respect to the displacements and velocities to calculate the coefficients. The other is
the finite perturbation method (FP) (Sternlicht, 1959; W a n g & Tieu, 1989; Someya,
1989; Choy et al, 1992a), which perturbs the journal position and velocity to a small
increment and calculates the coefficients from the finite force difference with respect to
32
displacements and velocities. Theoretically, when the perturbation amplitude is small
enough, the calculated coefficients of the finite perturbation method should converge to
the values calculated from the infinitesimal perturbation method. For an acceptable
accuracy, there should be a m a x i m u m perturbation amplitude below which the
calculated (or measured) coefficients are acceptable. Since all the experimental
methods need to perturb the journal position to a measurable distance to determine the
bearing force coefficients, it is significant to determine the m a x i m u m perturbation
amplitude. Unfortunately, no previous publication has presented the m a x i m u m
perturbation values to maintain acceptable accuracy. Someya (1989) reported the
coefficients of the finite perturbation method are sensitive to the perturbation
amplitudes and found the optimum perturbation amplitude to be around 0.01c or
0.0 lQc. In his relation curve between the coefficients and the perturbation amplitude,
results from the finite difference method deviate from the partial derivatives of the
infinitesimal perturbation method when the perturbation amplitudes are close to zero.
This is in conflict with the linearization theory which requiring the finite difference
converging to the partial derivative when the step size is close to zero. Choy et al
(1991) studied nonlinear property of bearing force and also found perturbation
amplitude influencing the linear force coefficients, but he only presented one stiffness
coefficient under three different perturbation amplitudes at one bearing eccentricities.
H o w the perturbation amplitudes affect all eight linear bearing force coefficients has
not been reported so far.
The first aim of this chapter is to develop the general software to calculate the
bearing characteristics. The second aim is to calculate the bearing characteristics of the
experimental journal bearings, whose characteristic data are useful in the design of the
bearing test rig and in the analysis of the experimental data. The third objective is to
carry out the investigation of the effect of perturbation amplitudes on the force
coefficients.
33
Three computer programs on different numerical methods are developed. The
calculated results are compared with the literature. The calculated characteristics of
different circular bearings (L/D=0.5 to 1.5, grooved and ungrooved) are all presented.
The effects of the perturbation amplitude on the coefficients are presented which can be
used as a guide in the experimental design. The maximum perturbation amplitudes for
different coefficient accuracy are also presented.
3.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF JOURNAL BEARING
3.2.1 Solution of Reynolds Equation
For a journal bearing as shown in Fig.3.1, the pressure in the oil film is
governed by the following Reynolds equation for laminar flow (Lund & Thomsen,
1978):
1 A
(
^l*)
+
( 5 1 * ) = " ^ + p(V
x
sin0 + V
y
cos*) + ph
(3-1)
Assuming the lubricant is isoviscous and incompressible with constant density, the
Reynolds equation can be written as the following dimensionless form:
where
H = 1 + ecos($ - ty
0
) ~H
0
+ Axsinty + Aycosty (3-3)
6/zi R
dP
The Reynolds boundary condition P=0 and = 0 can be achieved by satisfying:
o<|>
(i) P(<>,0) = P(<j>,L/R) = 0
34
(ii) P(<|>
0
,Z) = P(<|>2, Z ) = 0, where <j>
2
is a function of Z
(iii) P (<|>, Z ) = P
s
at the grooves
(3-4)
Starting boundary .
1
(jk>IQi
n+1 j
i-l-t-
j-l
+7
10
j-1/2
i-1/2
j+l
^ * r
J+l/2' j
i+1/2
i'
Nodes for the half-step
end boundary ^ finite difference method
Mesh of the oil film
Fig. 3.1 Circular bearing with two horizontal oil grooves
This is the traditionally used oil film boundary condition (Lund & Thomsen, 1978;
Someya, 1989). It assumes that the film starts at the maximum film thickness and ends
at the location of zero pressure. Although more sophisticated boundary conditions
such as considering the mass continuity (Vijayaraghavan & Keith, 1989, 1990) may
give more accurate results, unfortunately there are not enough directly comparable data
available for these suggested boundary conditions. The Reynolds boundary condition
is still being widely used and agrees well with the experiments for moderate to large
eccentricities (Someya, 1989). In applying the Reynolds boundary condition, both
entry (start) and exit (end) oil film boundaries are determined by iteration after setting
the negative pressure to zero. The details of boundary determination will be described
in Section 3.3.2.
The fixed x-y and 4> coordinate systems are selected in this thesis based on the
following considerations:
1) The fixed coordinate system is convenient to apply the groove pressure whose
position is also fixed.
35
2) The bearing forces in both horizontal and vertical directions are directly obtained
by numerically integrating the pressure in the two directions.
3) The journal can be directly perturbed about its equilibrium position to calculate
the linear dynamic coefficients.
4) For the stability study, the fixed coordinate system simplifies the equations of
motion for the rotor. The analysis can be readily extended to more complex
multi-bearing system.
The Reynolds equation (3-2) has not been solved analytically except in the
cases where the bearing is assumed to be infinitely long or infinitely short (assuming
riP r)P
or = 0 respectively ). Since these assumptions are not true for practical
dZ d<p
bearings, the approximate analytical solution will incur some error. With the
development of computer technology, the numerical methods to solve the Reynolds
equation are widely used by today's researchers. The finite difference and the finite
element methods are two most commonly used methods. Both methods divide the oil
film to a finite number of small elements (see Fig.3.1) and the nodal pressures Py are
obtained by numerical approximation. All bearing characteristics are calculated
according to the pressures determined from the Reynolds equation.
3.2.2 Bearing Forces
Bearing forces herein are constraint forces that exerted on the journal by the
bearing oil film. For a normal journal bearing, its forces are dependent on the journal
position and velocities, i.e.:
F
x
-F
x
(x,y,x,y)
F
y
=F
y
(x,y,x,y)
Once the pressure P in oil film is determined, the bearing forces can be obtained
by integrating the pressure in both horizontal and vertical directions :
(3-5)
36
r*2fi
sin<f>
coscj)
J
*
0
J
o ^ cos 6 ^ .
J
o
sin<})
COS(j)
#^Z (3-6)
3.2 J Attitude Angle
The attitude angle is the angle between the static load direction and the line
which connects bearing and journal centers (see Fig.3.1). At steady condition, the
bearing forces should balance the static load of the bearing. Since the static load is
known, setting bearing force vectors equal to the bearing load vector yields:
W = F
X
+ F
y
(3-7)
If W is acted in the vertical direction as in normal bearing applications, the horizontal
force F
x
= 0 . This is equivalent to:
.-iF
x
tan
= 0
Define an error function:
dtf-ttn-
1
!* (3-8)
W h e n dty* = 0 , equation (3-7) will be automatically satisfied. T o solve dty* = 0 ,
Newton-Raphson iteration method (p952, Kreyszig, 1993) can be used:
t
* "'"<*j-*rw.-*r
i
>
(3-9)
In the numerical calculation, if
* J | -
1
y
<h
(3-10)
the (j)* is considered as the attitude angle <f>
0
.
37
Before starting the iteration (3-9), an initial attitude angle fy], value should be
assumed according to which the pressure is solved from the Reynolds equation. Then
d
k
0
{k=\) can be calculated according to the bearing forces at this assumed attitude
angle value.
4 = 5x 1 0
4
rad for all calculations in this thesis. According to the
computation, k=3~6 can satisfy this accuracy requirement for normal eccentricities.
Once <j>o converged, Pij and the oil film boundaries mi (relates to fy
Q
as shown
in Fig.3.1) and ni2 (relates to fa)
can
be determined. All static characteristics, such as
load capacity, Sommerfeld number, side flow and the friction force acting on the
journal surface, can be calculated based on Py.
3.2.4 Load Capacity and Sommerfeld Number
The bearing forces are calculated according to equation (3-6). T o increase the
accuracy, Simpson integration method is used, i.e.:
F<=-C
i
fc*P.swfy dfy dZ
=^
8
sin<j> (g'p. dZ) dfy
C
s
AfyAZ
(m2-ml)/2 (m2-ml)/2
G
ml
sin<|>
mI
+<?
m2
sin(|)
Bl2
+4 G
ml+2i
_
1
sin<|>
ml+2j
_
1
+2 XG
ml+2f
_
2
sin<L
+2i
_
2
(3-11)
(m2-ml)/2
C A d j A Z T (m2-ml)/2 {.mi^ni)i 1
F ^ - ^ s J l G
ml
cos<|>
ml
+G
m2
cos<f>
m2
+4 G
nl+2
j_
1
cos<|)
inl+2i
.
1
+2 XG
ml+2l
._
2
cos<|>
ml+2(
._
2
3 =i '=i J
(3-12)
In which:
C-l
nil nil
(3-13)
P* represents the static pressure Po in the calculation of the load capacity.
38
The Simpson integration proposed requires n and (m
2
-mi) to be even. The
division number n can be set to be even, but (m
2
-mi) may be an odd number because
mi and m
2
are determined by the boundaries. If (m
2
-mi) is an odd number, set m
2
=
m
2
+1. Since the pressure at m
2
+l is zero, this variation will not change the integration
result
The load capacity of the bearing at static condition (F
X
=Q) is:
W = jF* + F? = F, (3-14)
The Sommerfeld number is calculated by:
nW c
3.2.5 Side Flow
The side flow from the bearing can be calculated by (Lund & Thomsen, 1978):
two sides ^
2 _/_ 3Z
two sides
R
2
c&, r^rjsdPo 4>2 3^
Po
ay-ry
leftside
t f*2 Tr3" >, . f2
TT
%Oro , .
J
9o dZ
t
^.iA. OZ ri.Ut.iA.
right side
R
2
c ClAfy f - -3P
oiA
+ 4P-
2
-P
oii3
^ . - 3 ^ , ^ + 4 ^ - P ^ . ,
(3-16)
2 ~
M
2AZ
l,n+l
2AZ
The dimensionless flow is defined as:
39
3.2.6 Friction Force
The friction force acting on the journal surface as shown in Fig.3.2 is given by:
'-- J K,
< o
rt=h
dzdW)
(3-18)
Starting boundary
n+1 j
Fy = W
Fig. 3.2 Friction force calculation
2n
(p=<t>(po
Simplified oil film distribution
The fluid shear stress
>!
3Vi
= H t
tj=h '
L
dp
2^*"-"^
>]
Jn=h
_ flfl h dp
~ P h 2R d(/>
(3-19)
Substituting (3-19) into (3-18) and performing the coordinate transformation
<f> = <f>
0
+ = ^R
2
a
o o
finite
0 0 fl>, 0
=jH9
0 0 00
(3-21)
40
and F
t
j the speed induced friction force
F
t
2 the pressure induced friction force
(p
2
=fa-fy
0
the extent of the pressure fluid film
Le equivalent width of the oil film in cavitation zone
z.= z L
e
/L axial coordinate of the oil film in cavitation zone
In the cavitation zone, the oil is assumed to exist in a continuous width of L
e
.
The equivalent oil film width L
e
can be approximately determined by the flow
continuity condition. In the cavitation zone, the circumferential flow at
J X.TJ
q> ( < 2K) is approximately
. This flow should be equal to the flow at

. . L
e
hU LhJJ ... . . _ \.
boundary <p
2
i.e.: - = , which results m: L
e
=L
2 2 h
dP
(There is no pressure induced flow at fa because
dp
Reynolds boundary condition)
= 0 according to the
kp=<p2
Substituting Ze= z L./L and L
e
=L into the second item of the first equation of (3-21)
h
yields:
IxL , litL j 2L ,
<h 0 q>
2
0 (p
2
0
h
2
and q>
2
are (ktermined during the solution of the Reynolds equation.
The pressure induced friction force F
t2
can be found according to the torque
balance on the total fluid film in the bearing. Referring to (3-18), (3-19) and (3-20), the
friction force on the bearing surface is :
F
'*
=
-1 K ^m)-\\\h%dzd^F
a
*. o
n=o * oo
41
Neglecting the speed induced friction F
n
in the determination of F
t2
, both journal and
bearing surfaces exert a friction force F'
t2
on the fluid as shown in Fig.3.2. The torque
balance equation around the bearing centre is:
W esinh =2-F
t2
R
from it, the pressure induced friction force is determined:
^ _We&in<l>
0
t
ti - *it J^ (3-23)
The negative sign of the friction F'
t2
has been considered in the Fig.3.2 by indicating it
with the opposite direction of F
t
2 .
Substituting (3-22), (3-21) and (3-23) into (3-20) obtains the total friction force:
P2^ 1 2rcL
0 o
h
.
f
'-W(c/R)- L
[
{l li*" tf
2 l+
2
(3
"
25)
Employing the numerical integration, the friction coefficients for misaligned
bearing(see Chapter 5) is:
For the parallel bearing, H has no relation with Z, i.e. H^H^, j=l,2,...,n+l. Thus
the friction coefficients can be calculated by:
,,-*[ 2-J-+* i*
} +
i<2*L (3-27)
i=l "i,n/2 i=W2+l "',/i/2
z
42
3.2.7 Calculation of the Dynamic Coefficients
From (3-5), the linearized bearing forces can be expressed as:
F
x
=k
xx
x + k
xy
y + b
xx
x + b
xy
y
F
y
= k
yx
x + k
yy
y + b
yx
x + b
yy
y
(3-28)
In which eight coefficients are defined
k -
dF
*
~ dx '
b =
9F
*
" dx *
k -
dF
*
xy
~ dy'
b J
F
*
^ dy '
as:
k -
dFy
yx
dx '
h -
dFy
yx
dx '
*. -
dFy
]
^~ dy
dFy
Fig.3.3 pictorially presents eight force coefficients.
Fig.3.3 Pictorial representation of oil-film force coefficients
These coefficients are called as linear oil-film force (or dynamic) coefficients of the
journal bearing. They dominate the dynamic performance of the rotor-bearing system
and they are important in the dynamics analysis. There are two theoretical methods to
calculate the dynamic coefficients. One is the infinitesimal perturbation method (IFP)
and the other the finite perturbation method (FP).
43
Infinitesimal Perturbation M e t h o d (IFP)
The infinitesimal perturbation method uses the partial derivatives of the bearing
forces with respect to the displacements and velocities to calculate the coefficients.
From (3-6), the coefficients are:
K
xx
K
xy
*yx
Kyy
h
D
xx
b
xy
b
yx
h
.yy.
~*F
X
~
^x
dF
y
dx
5
dFx
dx
dFx
fy
dFy
~2F
dFy
[fy\
2 f MR
-
C
A:X
Tasini})
PySin(|)
P
x
cos
PyCOStj)
Px sin <j)
Py sin
Px cos (j)
Py COS <J>
dtydZ
(3-29)
dP
Where P
x
=- , P
v
x
dX
y
pressures.
dP
dY
=
dP
1
3x
dP
, P
x
=
~
an(
* Py~ IT"
are ca
&
G
& as perturbing
Performing partial differentiation with respect to X, Y, X and Y to both sides of
(3-2) yields four new partial derivative equations for Px, P
y
, Px, andPy, plus
equation (3-2) at static condition ( X - Y = 0) there are 5 equations:
44
{Fi'v+iPi"
dH
dPo
dZ
d '*r2^jdPo\
3
d
t
Tj2^jdPo-
r) riP
cos$ - 3^-(H
2
sin<l>^) - 3^-{H
2
sin(,
30 80
d_
3Z
)
forP. = P
0
P. = P
X
^-
3
^
{Hco
^w-
3
^
Hcos
^w
p
*
=p
>
2sin(f> P = P
x
2cos<f>
P*=P,
(3-30)
Where subscript * represents 0, x, y, x and y respectively.
From (3-30), the static pressure P
0
and four perturbing pressures Px, Py, Px, and Py
can be solved. All eight force coefficients can be calculated by integrating these
perturbing pressures as in (3-29).
Finite Perturbation Method (FP)
The finite perturbation method perturbs the journal with small
Ax, Ay, Ax and Ay values from its steady equilibrium position, and uses the force
finite difference with respect to Ax, Ay, Ac and Ay to approximate the force
coefficients. To increase the accuracy, perturbation is normally performed in both
positive and negative directions. Then the partial derivative can be calculated by
averaging the partial differences in both directions. For example, at the equilibrium
dF
position (x< y
0
) the partial derivative ^ (force coefficient k
M
) can be calculated by:
dx
^ = - ^ T [
dF
r
1 F
x
(x
a
+ Ax, y
Q
, x
0
, y
Q
) - F
x
(x
Q
, y
Q
, x
0
, y
p
)
dx~2 Ax
, F
x
(x
n
, y
0
, x
a
, y
0
)-F
x
(x
n
-Ax, y
0
, x
0
, y
Q
)^
Ax
_ F
x
(x
0
+ Ax, y
p
, x
a
, y
o
)-F
x
(x
0
-Ax,y
Q
, x
0
, y
Q
)
2Ac
At the steady state, x
0
= y
0
= 0 ; thus:
45
kxx
_ BF
X
F
x
(x
Q
+Ax, y
a
, 0, 0)-F,(x
o
-Ax, y
n
, 0, 0)
dx 2Ac
(3-31)
Similarly the other stiffness coefficients can be calculated by:
k -
dFy F
y(
x
+ Ax
> yp 0)-F
y
(x
o
-Ax, y
0
, 0, 0)
dx 2 Ax
k
_ dF* _ F
x
(x
Q
, y
Q
+Ay, 0, 0)-F
x
(x
o
, y
a
-Ay, 0, 0)
^ dy 2Ay
k
_ dF
y
F
y
(x
ot
y
0
+ Ay, 0, 0)-F
y
(x
o
, y
Q
-Ay , 0, 0)
"' dy ~ 2Ay
(3-32)
In the same way, the damping coefficients can be calculated by:
b
_ dF
x
_ F
x
(x
0
, y
0
, Ax, 0)-F
x
(x
o
, y
0
,-Ax, 0)
* dx 2Ai
. _ <?F
y
_ F
y
(x
g
, y
g
, Ax, 0 ) - F
y
(x
0
, y
a
,-Ax, 0)
** dx 2Ac
fe =
BF
X
Fxix
0
, y
0
, 0, Ay) - F
x
(x
0
, y
0
, 0,-Ay)
" dy 2Ay
, _ dF
y
F
y
(x
0
, y
0
, 0, Ay)-F
y
(x
0
, y
Q
, 0,-Ay)
dy 2Ay
(3-33)
This finite perturbation method need only to calculate the bearing forces at 8
perturbed positions: (x
0
- Ax, y
0
,0 , 0), {x
0
+ Ax, y
0
,0 , 0), (x
0
, y
0
- Ay ,0 , 0),
(x
0
, y
0
+ Ay ,0, 0), (x
0
, y
e
,-Ax, 0), (x
a
, y
0
, Ax, 0), (x
a
, y
0
, 0, - Ay) and
(**. y
0
, 0, Ay). It is easy in understanding and programming. Since the bearing
forces are complicated nonlinear function, representing them with linear models will
bring on some error if the perturbation amplitude is not small enough. Theoretically,
there should be a maximum perturbation amplitude below which the calculated (or
measured) coefficients can be obtained within an acceptable accuracy. Employing this
finite perturbation method, the maximum perturbation amplitude can be determined for
a given accuracy. This is significant in designing the experimental perturbation values
because all experimental methods have to perturb the journal to a measurable distance
to determine the coefficients.
46
In order to compare with the literature, the coefficients are transformed to the
following dimensionless expressions:
C ii
K
ij~W'
ki
J
=
'C^
n -cLh -h.
D
v ~ w
D
*~ C
b
i, j = x or y respectively (3-34)
33 COMPUTATION BY FINITE DIFFERENCE METHOD
-INFINITESIMAL PERTURBATION (FDM-IFP)
The finite difference method is normally chosen to solve the Reynolds equation
because of its convenience in both understanding and programming. This section will
describe the details of the finite difference method which uses the infinitesimal
perturbation to calculate the eight dynamic coefficients.
33.1 Finite Difference and Over-relaxation M e t h o d
To increase the accuracy, the half-step difference is adopted in calculating the
derivatives:
dP
X
+Yl>l i-V> i
%^ ' A0 *
(3
'
35)
(
m
H
**/-
H
.ft/
(3
_
36)
P -P
(
2!J\
m
iJ+
)i iiH (3-37)
'dZ'
w
A Z
Since
47
H
3 Pi + l,j-Pi.
3 Pi,j-Pi-l,j
'-&
A0
-JH
A(j)
(3-38)
thus
Ar//
3 dP
l
r 3
dP
rzJ
3dP,
d'^
[H
^-
[ff
V*
A0
ff
3
P,*
t
.j+H
3
P.-uj-iH
3
+H
3
)P,j
A0'
Similarly:
(3-39)
^ r w
3
^ I ~
^ K ^ ^ + ^ ^ ^ - ^ ^ K + H'jft
w v
-X '</*** u-H'
AZ
2
(3-40)
^-[^sin^-l^
d/V _AI
;
-
d0 <fy
J,,;
A 0
2
^ rrr2 dPo SU10,-
A
p
{ff'COS0-], ; ^ ^H\^^-
2
d
rrr
7 a^P'i COS0, ,,
^[//
2
cos0],,-Â,
(3-41)
Where:
(3-42)
Substituting (3-41) into (3-30) to obtain the Reynolds equation in difference form:
48
Where:
AL-H*
AI-H*
A
'.'-
0
AZ
)
'-'-*
AL- - AL-
+
AL+AL+AL
(3-44)
and
Ay =
^(
H
i+vi,j-
H
i-V2,j)
for P* = P
A0
A^cosifc - 3 A y - 3 ( ^ )
2
sincfc A y for P. = P*
-A^suKfcÂy "3(^)
2
c^(()
i
Ay for P, = P
y
(3-45)
2A<|>
2
sin<|>
l
. for P*=Pi
2A$
2
cofo for P = Pj
Equation (3-43) can be rewritten in an iteration form:
p
_ A;A+U+AL^-u + ALî
+
AtA;-i - AL
;
~ A
e
-
(3-46)
which can be solved by repeating the iteration node by node. To accelerate the
convergence, the over-relaxation method is used:
A
a
p- J. A
b
J**
-0
+ A
c
pp-v + A
d
P*-* A
f
J\ij
(3-47)
where 1.5< a < 1.9 is the relaxation factor.
During the iteration, if Po < 0, set Po =0. The iterative process is repeated until
the numerical error is smaller than a prescribed convergence criterion c, that is:
^ T ^ * &
(3-48)
49
8c is determined by gradually reducing it until all perturbing pressures converged (i.e.
further reducing 8c will not change the pressures any more). 8c = 1 0
8
for all
calculations in this thesis.
33J2 Static Pressure and Boundaries
The oil film pressure can be solved only after its boundaries are determined.
For the infinitesimal perturbation method, the oil film boundaries are determined
according to the static pressure P
0
. At first, the bearing ends can be used as the axial
boundaries of the oil film; the oil grooves are also used as the internal boundaries. To
solve P
0
from the first equation of (3-30) by (3-47), an initial attitude #J must be
assumed, so that the oil film thickness H can be calculated. Since oil film starts at the
m a x i m u m oil film thickness H
m a x
(Lund & Thomsen, 1978 and Someya, 1989), the
starting boundary is determined after the attitude angle is assumed. A s the terminating
edge of the oil film is unknown at this stage, an initial fa is assumed. The initial fa
should be greater than its true value to make sure that the true edge appears before the
initial fa. (In all the calculations in this thesis, the initial fa =3n/2+(f>l). Then set the
pressures at the starting boundary (at <j>
l
0
) and the ending boundary (at initial fa) to be
zero.
After all the boundaries being determined, the pressure P
0
at the assumed
attitude angle can be calculated by (3-47). Since the assumed fa is greater than the true
value, some nodal pressures near fa will be negative. During the iteration, the negative
pressure is automatically set to zero. W h e n P
0
is converged according to (3-48), the
bearing forces F
x
and F
y
are calculated to check the assumed attitude angle
according to (3-8). If the variation of the attitude angle d<j>
k
(k=l at first) does not
satisfy (3-10), change the attitude angle 0* according to (3-9) and repeat all the above
calculations until (3-10) is satisfied.
50
Once (3-10) being satisfied, the attitude angle is found (0
O
= </>*), and the P
0
at
the last iteration is the static pressure. The film terminating boundary fa is determined
according to the edge beyond which the pressure becomes zero. The nodal numbers
corresponding to the boundaries are recorded and then used as the boundaries in the
calculation of the perturbing pressure P
x
, P
y
, P
x
and P
y
, which are used to calculate
the dynamic coefficients.
333 Dynamic Coefficients
After P
0
being solved, A(>
for p
*.
P
y
p
*
and P
y
can be
calculated by
formula (3-45). Substituting them into (3-47) respectively yields the perturbing
pressures P
x
, P
y
, P
x
and P
y
. Integrating these pressures (as (3-29)) yields all 8
dynamic coefficients. The Simpson integration method is also used.
33.4 Programming the FDM-IFP
A computer program in F O R T R A N (see Appendix A ) to calculate all the above
bearing characteristics at different eccentricity ratios is developed. Fig.3.4 is its flow
chart. It mainly includes the following steps:
i) Read in the bearing data and control parameters.
ii) Divide the bearing surface to n x m elements, number the nodes.
iii) Determine the groove nodes and the axial boundary nodes.
iv) Assume the attitude angle <j>l and initial <J>2.
v) Calculate A * (*=*. b> c, d, e and f for P
Q
; i=l,2,...,m+l; j=l,2,...,n+l) in
(3-44) and (3-45).
vi) Iterate (3-47) until all pressures satisfy (3-48). During the iteration, if P < 0, set
P=0.
vii) Calculate the bearing forces F
x
and F
y
by (3-11) and (3-12).
viii) Check the variation of the attitude angle (3-10).
51
If (3-10) is satisfied, go to the next step.
Otherwise, modify the attitude angle by (3-9). Go to step 5 . This iteration will
continue until (3-10) is satisfied.
be) Set $
0
= 0*, the static pressure P
Q
= P$ . The starting boundary of the oil film
is (j)
0
and the ending boundary is fa which is re-determined according to the zero
edge of P
0
. All static characteristics such as Sommerfeld number S ( by
(3-15)), side flow Qs (by (3-17)) and friction force F
t
( by (3-27) ) can be
calculated based on P
0
.
x) Calculate AL f
r
*** (
SUDScr
ipt *=x, y, x and y) on (3-45).
xi) Iterate (3-47) for P* (*= x, y, x and y) until all P* satisfy (3-48).
xii) Calculate all dynamic coefficients by (3-29), (3-11), (3-12) and (3-13).
Input bearing data such as R, L, c, e, n,
m, p* and groove geometry parameters
Output results
Dividing the bearing suface to
m x n elements.
Determing the groove nodes and
boundary nodes
Assume fa and initial fa
-e-
"<3
-e-
i
-e-
"*3
I
x o
-e-
II
Calculate all coefficients
according to (3-29),
(3-11), (3-12) and (3-13)
Calculate A i j forPo
by (3-44), (3-45)
sups. = a, b, c, d, e, f
Solve P. by (3-47)
Calculate Po by (3-47)
Calculate A y for P*
subs. * = x, y, x and y
Calculate Fx, Fy
d^
k
0
=tan'
lF
Calculate S, Qs, Ft, etc.
Record the nodal numbers
corresponding to
boundaries
Yes
Fig. 3.4 Flow chart of the computation program by FDM-IFP
52
The calculated results by this method (FDM-IFP) as presented in Table 3.1
agree very well with those by Lund and Thomsen (1978) as shown in Section 3.7.
3.4 COMPUTATION BY FINITE ELEMENT M E T H O D
-FINITE PERTURBATION (FEM-FP)
To compare with FDM-IFP, this section describes the finite element method
and employs the finite perturbation method to calculate the dynamic coefficients.
3.4.1 Variational Principle
To use the Finite element method (FEM), a variational functional
corresponding to Reynolds equation (3-2) has to be found (Huebner & Thorton, 1982).
For a variational functional:
I(P) = \JF(<p,Z,P
p
,P
z
,P)d(pdZ (3-49)
A
in which:
> -it
P =
^
9
~dv
z
dZ
its corresponding Euler-Lagrange equation is:
9
(iL) L(2L) + ^ = 0 (3-50)
d 2 dZ d<p
then:
53
dF
dF
dP
z
dF
dP
=
= H
3
= tf
3
-2H
dP
d<p
dP
dZ
H
Substituting them into (3-50), the corresponding Euler-Lagrange equation becomes:
5?) 5?) d<p dZ dZ
This equation is the same as (3-2), which means F is the variational functional of the
Reynolds equation. The corresponding variational functional is:
I{P) = \\FdA
= \\
(
tf
W
K
dz
}
dP
H^-+ 2HP
dq>
(3-52)
dipdZ
According to the variation principle, the stationary solution of (3-2) can be found only
when I(P) attains a minimum. That is:
dl(P) _
n
dP "
U
(3-53)
3.4.2 Element Equations
If the oil film is divided into m x n mesh as shown in Fig.3.5, there are
n
t
=(m+l)x(n+l) nodes. Assume the pressure at node i of element r is P\, one can
write:
dl(P)
dK
- J J *
Ar '
dq>dPrd<p
+
dZdP[
{
dz
}
d ,dp ,dp}
(3-54)
3Ttr
v
-v^' Dnr
dP\
S
d(p dP\
dcpdZ
i J
54
j global node number
element number
local node number n
k
Circulated number is
local node number
Cooordinates transform
2(n+l)+l end boundary
Oil film mesh with the numbered nodes and elements
Fig.3.5 Nodal number system
In the interior of an element as shown in Fig.3.5, the pressure and oil film thickness at
(q>, Z) are expressed by the interpolation polynomials:
p(9,z)=x^;
ff(p,Z) = 2>.ff.
4
;'=i
(3-55)
If the nodes are locally numbered counter clockwise as Fig.3.5, the double-linear
interpolation functions are:
-1
AT
1
= iV
1
(|,r
?
) = i-(l-|-r
?
+ ^ )
N
2
=N
2
(l;
y
Ti) = \(\ + l;-r]-i;r})
^
3
=^
3
(l^)=ia+l+n+^)
N
4
= N^,T}) = l(l-^-T}-^)
(3-56)
and:
55
*&.
=
la+n^ i&-in + ^
^ -
4
(i+m , -35*a+)
d 4^
x
* ^"4
(
* *
}
(3-57)
For the coordinate transform, the Jacobian matrix is:
and:
[J]=
'dq> dZ~
d Z
_dt] drj
=
^, dN
j
' dN,,
+ dNj +dN.
'dN
}
'
dq>
dNj
Idzl
=[/]"
1
'dNj '
dNj
; = 1,2,3,4
(3-58)
(3-59)
From (3-55):
dtp p
x
dq>
J
dz pdz
j
dH ^dN
Jn
dip %d(p
j
(3-60)
and:
d dP dN.
x
dP; d<p dip
d ,dP
)=
dN
{
dP'
(
dZ
}
dZ
dP
dp:
= N
(3-61)
56
Substitute (3-60) and (3-61) into (3-54) yields:
(
dl(P) _
dM 1
Ar \ M L M 7=1
y
7=1 M
\
dydZ
= 0
(3-62)
Therefore:
Ar \ 7=1
r
dN4
^LT^Lp +*LTBLP
dtp p dip
j
dz%dz
i
-\\
dtpdZ
Jy
Ar\
a(
P ;=1
dtpdZ
i = 1,2,3 a/u* 4
;=i y
(3-63)
This is the numerical form of Reynolds equation, which governs the nodal pressure in
each element In terms of the factor of PJ, Eq (3-63) can be written in matrix form:
A
r
P
r
= B
r
(3-64)
This is the element or local pressure equation in which:
and
A
r
=
a[
x
a\
2
o[
3
a[
A
~r ~? ~r ~*
<H\ *22 *23 24
-T ~T ~T ~
T
<H\ 32 33 34
-J r _r _r
L
fl
41
fl
42
fl
43
fl
44j
, P
r
=
rv
^
^
W
, 5
r
=
[VI
*2
r
kJ
4 = JJ|d>W
J
Ar \ J-l
^ ^ _ay
{
a/v;
IN
<fy dp dZ dZ
1 1A 4
-i-iV ;
=1 <fy> d p <?Z <?Z J
y
2 2 4
= ^ ( y ^ . )
3
^ * ^ ^
dipdZ
\J\dtd7]
\J\W\W\
(3-65)
(3-66)
S=i/V3
IJ=1/V3"
57
-li(?j;W-"',A
\
Ar
1 \(
dN>4r
4
dtpdZ
-1-1V
a
i-i
|7|#rff|
2 2
=11
>
=1
J
4 axr 4
|/|wjw;
I=l/V3
IJ=1/V3
The second order Gaussian integration is adopted in the above calculations.
(3-67)
3.43 System Equation for Global Assembly
All the element equations must be assembled to form the global system
equation, which when combined with the prescribed boundary condition will yield the
nodal pressures.
1)
The steps to assemble the global equation can be described as following:
Set up n
t
xn
t
and n,xl null matrices (all zero entries) for A and B of the
system equation which is expressed as:
A
L
P
L*
B
L
(3
-
68)
where P = [P
lt
P
2
, , P^J are the nodal pressures with the global numbered
subscript
A and B are global matrices.
Calculate the element matrices A
r
and B
r
.
Add the element a% in A
r
to the global matrix A in the position corresponding
2)
3)
to the nodal pressures. For example, if:
P - P
r
O nr
r
k
r
Node(rJt)
(3-69)
where Node(r,i)-l, 2, , n
t
is the global number of node i (i is the local node
number as circled in Fig.3.5 ) of element r. n
t
x4 Matrix Node(r, i) stores the
globe nodal numbers of the all elements.
58
The element of the global matrix A is:
a
No*ir,i),NoJ*(r.k) ~ 2^ Cln.
lire
l>No*(r,i) ~ i, ?,-
all related j
Node(j,i)*No<U(rj) ( 3 - 7 0 )
Nodt(j,k)=NoJe(r,k)
allrelatedj
(3-71)
Node(j,i)=Node(r,i)
3.4.4 Boundary Condition
In the solution of the static pressure, the oil film boundaries are determined in
the same way as mentioned in Section 3.3.2. To apply the boundary condition for F E M
is more complicated than for the F D M . After the nodes lying on the boundaries and
grooves are determined, the global matrices B and A are modified by:
a>=^-A(i,i.).J>,
A(i
o
,0 = 0
A(/,/
e
) = 0
A(i.,i.) = 1
i = l, 2, ,n
t
(3-72)
where i
0
is the global number of the boundary node
Since matrix A is symmetric with a narrow non-zero element band, the Gauss-
Seidel iteration (Kreyszig, 1993) on only the non-zero element band is employed to
solve (3-68). During the iteration if there is a negative pressure, the pressure is set to
zero.
For the infinitesimal perturbation method as described in Section 3.3, the
perturbed pressures are much smaller than the static pressure, thus the boundaries will
not change for the perturbed pressures. For the finite perturbation method, the
boundaries at the perturbed positions could be different from those of the static
position. Therefore, the boundaries at the perturbed positions have to be determined in
the same way as at the static position.
59
3.4.5 Calculation of the Dynamic Coefficients
The finite perturbation method is employed to calculate the dynamic
coefficients. The bearing forces at 8 perturbed positions are found and all 8 force
coefficients are calculated according to equation (3-31), (3-32) and (3-33).
3.4.6 Program by F E M
The computer program in FORTRAN developed based on the above method
mainly includes following steps:
i) Read in the bearing data and control parameters.
ii) Divide the bearing surface to n x m elements, number the nodes both locally
and globally.
iii) Assume the initial attitude angle <p
l
0
and ending angle fa.
iv) Calculate the coordinates of each node.
v) Calculate the interpolation functions at the 2x2 Gauss integration points:
| = 1 / V 3 , T7 = 1 / V 3 for each element by (3-56).
dN. dN.
vi) Calculate Jacobian matrix J and derivatives -r
1
- and -
L
(j=1,2,3,4) for
dtp dZ
each element through (3-57), (3-58) and (3-59).
vii) Employ the Gauss integration to calculate a
r
ik
and b\ by (3-66) and (3-67).
viii) Assemble the global matrices A and B.
ix) Apply the boundary conditions to modify the global matrices A a n d B .
x) Solve the system equation A P = B by the Gauss-Seidel iteration. If Pj< 0,
setPi=0(i=l,2,...,n
t
).
xi) Integrate P to get the bearing forces F
x
and F
y
.
xii) Check if
',
p
tan"
1
-*| < 8
f
. If not, modify the attitude angle by (3-9). Then go to
step 4. This iteration will continue until satisfy:
tan
-1
^- <S
4
.
F? *
y
60
xiii) When fa converged, the pressure P
0
at the equilibrium position is found. All
static characteristics such as the Sommerfeld number S, side flow Q
s
and
friction force F
t
can be calculated based on P
Q
.
xiv) Perturb the journal position or velocity individually and repeat step 4 to 11 to
find the bearing forces at each perturbed position.
xv) Calculate all dynamic coefficients by (3-31), (3-32) and (3-33).
3.5 COMPUTATION BY FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
-INFINITESIMAL PERTURBATION (FEM-IFP)
To compare with the results of FDM-IFP, the Reynolds equation is also solved
by the finite element and infinitesimal perturbation method (FEM-IFP). For the
perturbed Reynolds equations (3-30), their equivalent variational functional are (Klit &
Lund, 1986):
H
3
u
dP
0
.2 fdPp^ _rj dPo_
ff
._
p
_
p
F=
,3P dP
v
,3P dP^
[3H
2
^l]-^-+ 3H
2

y
89
J
3\\F(tp
y
Z, P^, P.
z
, P.) dtp dZ
(3-74)
Setting d/>*
= 0 and
treating the variables as in Section 3.4 yield the nodal pressure
equations in each element:
( 4
dqtdZ
dq>dZ
ft>rP*=P
0
-2Jjf cos<(> | ^ 1 <Ap <Z P, =P
X
(3-75)
where i=l, 2,3 and 4.
In a matrix form similar to (3-64):
A
r
P.
r
= B
r
(3-76)
A
r
is the same as (3-66), but:
&P
1
"
dtpdZ M P.=P
0
-
2
u(*)*^
2jjfsin<t> ^\dydZ
aw/
d9
P*=Pi
P*=P<,
62
\J\WM
r
T
i
5=i/-^
IJ=1/V3
_ttU^-l)M
+
3//^^
=1
SSL ^
a
?
3H
az az
az dz
sm0|7|WjW^
cos^|7|W|W^
2 2
- a l l
f=l J = 1
cos^-r-
4
-
|7|w;w
"! |=1/V3
rj=W3
2 2
=1 J=1
I
In which:
sin0
<9^
|/|wjwi
5=1/V3
i=l,2,3and4.
4
J=I
az <?z *
*- and L are calculated according to (3-59)
dtp dZ
for P=P
|=lA/3 P*~
P
x
{-W? P*~Py
7=1/V3
P.=P*
P. = P*
(3-77)
(3-78)
The global matrices are assembled in the same way as in Section 3.4. The
boundaries are determined in the same way as mentioned in Section 3.3.2. After five
pressures Po, Px, Py, Pi, and Py are solved, all dynamic coefficients can be calculated
according to (3-29). Fig. 3.6 shows the flow chart of the computation program.
63
Read in bearing data such as R, L, c, e,
n, m, pa, xo, y
0
and groove parameters.
-e-
I
I
-e-
-e-
II
+
Assume initial <j>i and fa
Dividing the bearing suface to
m x n elements.
Determing the groove nodes and
boundary nodes
Calculate coordinates qx, and Zi
Calculate: Hij, <&, [J ],
dN
t A
dN
{
-T-
2
- a n d ~
dtp dZ
by (3-58) and (3-59)
Calculate a^. and b for P
0
Assemble the global matrix:
A ro
=
Bo
Apply the boundary condition
to modify A and B
Employ Gauss-Seidel
iteration method to solve Po
p(k)
Calculate Fx, Fy
No
Output results
Calculate all coefficients
according to (3-29),
(3-11), (3-12) and (3-13)
Employ Gauss-Seidel
iteration method to solve P
Assemble the global matrix:
1
Calculate b*i for P*
subs. * = x, y, x and y
i
Calculate S, Qs, Ft etc.
Record the nodal numbers
related to boundaries
Yes
Fig.3.6 Computation program by FEM-IFP
64
3.6 CALCULATED BEARING CHARACTERISTICS
3.6.1 Element Size and Pressure Distribution
The calculation accuracy of the numerical methods depends on the elements' size.
Gradually reducing the element size until the results converge can provide the suitable
element size. Fig.3.7 shows the Somemerfeld number calculated under different element
sizes. The calculated bearing is a circular bearing with a slenderness ratio L/D=l and
two 20-axial grooves. The grooves extend over full length of the bearing as shown in
Fig.3.8. Lund and Thomsen(1978) have published the characteristics of the bearing in
1978. From Fig.3.7, for few elements, the F E M can get higher accuracy than the F D M .
W h e n m > 9 0 (A0 < 5
a
) , n 14 , the Somemerfeld numbers are nearly the same for
both methods. From calculation, when m > 9 O ( A 0 < 5 ) , n > 1 4 two crossing
damping coefficients are equal, i.e. B
X
y=Byx, which is the necessary according to Kato
& Hori (1989). W h e n m > 1 8 0 (Atp<2'), n > 1 6 the calculated bearing static and
dynamic characteristics reach converged values. Further reducing the element to its half
size (A0 > 1, A Z = (L/R)/16), the variation on the static characteristics is less than
0.1%, and the maximum variation on the dynamic force coefficients is less than 0.2%.
These variations are negligible in the application of the bearing's characteristics .
Therefore the element size At/) = 2, A Z = (L/R)/16is suitable in the calculation of the
bearing characteristics by the aforementioned numerical methods. Under this element
size (A0 = 2, A Z = (L/R)/16), the calculated Sommerfeld number agrees very well
with that calculated by Lund and Thomsen (1978) as shown in Fig.3.7.
All bearing characteristics are calculated from the oil film pressures. Figs.3.8(a)
to 3.8(d) show the static pressures of the aforementioned bearing at different eccentricity
ratios. The calculation method is F D M - I F P with element size
Atj> = 2, A Z = (L / R ) /16. With this element size, the static pressures for the three
methods (FDM-IFP, FEM-IFP and FEM-FP) are nearly the same (variation <0.2%).
65
The pressures are transformed into dimensional terms using the following bearing
parameters:
Q=3000rpm, c/R=0.15%, H=8.45xl0-
3
N.s/m*, p
s
=0.
From Fig.3.8 the oil film starts (reforms) before the upstream groove although the
pressure before the groove is much smaller compared with the maximum pressure. The
oil film ends (cavitation starts) just before the downstream groove. To compare the
circumferential distributions at different eccentricities, Fig.3.9 shows the pressures in the
bearing mid plane. At higher eccentricities, increasing the eccentricity will increase the
pressure much more significantly than that at low eccentricities according to Fig.3.9.
i 1 ' 1 1 1 1
Method
FDM
FDM
FEM
FEM
FEM
FDM
mxn
12x2
90x14
12x2
90x14
180x16
by Lund (1978)
o
1 L. . 1 1 1 1 ^T HI
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Fig.3.7 Sommerfeld numbers vs element numbers
1.2
0.8
0.4
66
p(bar)
- 6
-4
upstream groove
27C
downstream groove 360 A T X
<|>o=65.7
0
, <J>2=264
0
(at bearing mid plane), p
max
=5.25 bar
Fig.3.8(a) Pressure distribution at =0.2
upstream groove 180
downstream groove
(j>o=52.3, <|>2=262 (at bearing mid plane), p
ma
x=14.1 bar
Fig.3.8(b) Pressure distribution at =0.4
67
p(bar)
180
upstream groove
270
downstream groove
3 6

f 40
30
t 20
10
0
(j)(o)
<t0=42.7
o
, <j>2 =244 (at bearing mid plane), p
max
=35.6 bar
Fig.3.8(c) Pressure distribution at =0.6
upstream groove
downstream groove ^ ,/x
<J>0=31.2
o
, <j>2=230 (at bearing mid plane), Pmax=128 bar
Fig.3.8(d) Pressure distribution at =0.8
68
p(bar)
120
100
80
60
l ' I
40
20
groove
iiimlmi
4
4 4
/V
/ \
/
=0.1
=02
=0.3
=0.4
=0.5
E =0.6 -"
=0.7
4 =0.8
/ . \ groove
60 120 180
240 300 <|> (o) 360
(L/D=l, Q=3000 rpm, c/R=0.15%, ji= 8.45E-3 N.s/m
2
, p
s
=0 )
Fig.3.9 Pressure distributions in bearing mid plane
3.6.2 Comparison Among Different Methods
Theoretically, all three methods should yield the same results for the static
characteristics. For dynamic characteristics, the calculated coefficients by the finite
perturbation method (FP) should converge to the results from the infinitesimal
perturbation method (IFP). To check this theory, the same bearing parameters as
mentioned in Section 3.6.1 are used in the three programs (FDM-IFP, FEM-IFP and
F E M - F P ) , and the calculated results are presented in Table 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3
respectively. Shown in the header of each table are the computation time for calculating
all the characteristics in the table and the memory size of the executing file. To run the
program, a memory size of about 4 times that of the executing file is needed.
Comparing the data in the three tables, the static characteristics for three methods
are nearly the same. For example, the maximum variation of Sommerfeld number
69
among three methods is 0.5% for eccentricities from 0.1 to 0.9. There are small
discrepancies among the dynamic coefficients from different numerical methods. The
maximum discrepancy between the F D M and F E M (B^y at E =0.1 in Tables 3.1 and 3.2)
is 3%, and the maximum combined damping variation (defined later by equation (3-75))
is 0.5%. The difference between FP and IFP depends on the perturbation amplitudes,
which will be discussed in detail in Section 3.7. For Ax=Ay=0.01c and
Ax = Ay = 0.01 c ft, the combined variation between the IFP and FP (see Table 3.2
and 3.3) is less than 0.1%. All these variations are insignificant and acceptable for
engineering application.
Table 3.1 Characteristics of grooved circular bearing (L/D=l, 0=20)
(FDM-IFP, uniform interval, A<j>= 1, n = 20, a = 1.8, fy= 0.0005, 8
C
= lxlO
8
)
(1.2 hours on IBM486, executing file 700 K B )

0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
S
1.512
0.721
0.443
0.294
0.200
0.134
.0845
.0474
.0195
<M)
76.5
65.7
57.9
52.3
47.3
42.3
37.1
31.2
23.5
Q
S
0.066
0.121
0.165
0.201
0.230
0.251
0.265
0.272
0.272
ft
28.78
13.49
8.35
5.75
4.11
2.98
2.14
1.48
0.89
Kxx
1.50
1.54
1.60
1.61
1.52
1.47
1.44
1.46
1.56
Kxv
-3.10
-1.71
-1.30
-1.04
-0.67
-0.37
-0.08
0.29
0.99
Kyx
10.44
5.80
4.42
3.82
3.46
3.34
3.41
3.79
5.05
K
vv
1.53
1.60
1.71
1.91
2.38
3.00
3.99
5.87
11.27
Bxx
6.32
3.66
2.95
2.58
2.00
1.61
1.29
1.04
0.80
B
X
y
1.53
1.66
1.85
2.00
1.84
1.77
1.71
1.72
1.85
B
V
x
1.53
1.66
1.85
2.00
1.84
1.77
1.71
1.72
1.85
B
V
v
20.94
11.72
9.02
7.87
7.14
6.89
7.00
7.67
9.83
70
(FEM-IFP, uniform interval, A<1>= 2, n = 20, fy= 0.0005, o > lxlO"
8
)

0.10
0.20
jo.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
S
1.5134
0.7205
0.4424
0.2950
0.1990
0.1336
0.0841
0.0472
0.0195
<J>o()
76.8
65.8
58.0
52.3
47.2
42.3
37.1
31.1
23.4
(2 hours on'.
Q
s
0.066
0.122
0.164
0.200
0.231
0.250
0.268
0.275
jo.274
ft
28.74
13.47
8.33
5.72
4.11
2.99
2.14
1.47
0.885
[BM48
Kxx
1.48
1.53
1.60
1.54
1.52
1.47
1.45
1.46
1.55
6, executing
Kxv
-3.10
-1.71
-1.30
-0.93
-0.67
-0.38
-0.09
0.28
1.00
Kyx
10.42
5.79
4.42
3.77
3.46
3.34
3.42
3.80
5.03
Slel.l
K
v v
1.55
1.61
1.71
2.00
2.39
3.01
3.98
5.87
11.34
MB)
Bxx
6.31
3.65
2.96
2.37
2.00
1.61
1.31
1.04
0.79
Bxv
1.48
1.63
1.85
1.83
1.85
1.77
1.74
1.73
1.81
B
V
x
1.48
1.63
1.85
1.83
1.85
1.77
1.74
1.73
1.81
B
v v
20.89
11.69
9.01
7.73
7.16
6.91
7.04
7.69
| 9.76
(FEM-FP, uniform interval, A(j>= 2, n = 20; 8^= 0.0005, 8
C
= lxlO"
8
)
(Ax=Ay=0.01 c, Ax = Ay = 0.01 c Q )

0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
S
1.5134
0.7205
0.4424
0.2950
0.1990
0.1336
0.0841
0.0472
0.0195
<M)
76.8
65.8
58.0
52.3
47.2
42.3
37.1
31.1
23.4
(3 hours on IBM486 , executing
Q
s
0.066
0.122
0.164
0.200
0.231
0.250
0.268
0.275
0.274
ft
28.74
13.47
8.33
5.72
4.11
2.99
2.14
1.47
0.885
Kxx
1.49
1.53
1.60
1.54
1.52
1.47
1.45
1.46
1.55
Kxv
-3.10
-1.72
-1.31
-0.95
-0.67
-0.38
-0.09
0.28
1.00
Kyx
10.42
5.79
4.42
3.77
3.46
3.34
3.42
3.80
5.03
He 1.2 MB)
K
vv
1.54
1.61
1.71
2.00
2.39
3.01
3.98
5.87
11.36
Bxx
6.31
3.65
2.96
2.37
2.00
1.61
1.31
1.04
0.79
Bxv
1.48
1.63
1.84
1.83
1.85
1.77
1.73
1.72
1.80
B
V
x
1.48
1.63
1.84
1.83
1.85
1.77
1.74
1.73
1.83
B
V
v
20.90
11.69
9.01
7.73
7.16
6.91
7.04
7.66
9.72
71
According to the differences between the static characteristics, both F D M and
F E M methods have the same level of accuracy. For uniform interval, the F D M can reach
the same accuracy by reducing the element size. Although the element size of the F D M is
a half of that of the F E M as shown in Tables 3.1 and 3.2, the computation time and
memory size is smaller than those of F E M . The advantage of the F E M is that it can deal
with complicated boundary, its disadvantage is that the global matrices require big
memory size and it is also more difficult to apply the boundary conditions.
Table 3.4 Characteristics of grooved circular bearing ( L/D=l, 0=10)
( FDM-IFP, uniform interval A<1>= 1, n =20, a = 1.8, 84,= 0.0005, 8
C
= lxlO'
8
)
E
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
S
1.442
0.690
0.425
0.284
0.194
0.130
.0827
.0467
0.0193
<l>o()
77.5
67.3
60.0
54.3
48.9
43.7
38.1
31.9
23.9
Qs
0.070
0.130
0.180
0.221
0.255
0.281
0.300
0.311
0.316
ft
27.45
12.92
8.04
5.55
3.99
2.91
2.11
1.46
0.88
Kxx
1.64
1.68
1.71
1.65
1.57
1.51
1.49
1.51
1.60
Kxv
-3.69
-2.04
-1.51
-1.09
-0.70
-0.38
-0.07
0.31
1.05
Kyx
10.41
5.75
4.35
3.71
3.39
3.28
3.38
3.79
5.06
Kyy
1.42
1.48
1.59
1.86
2.31
2.94
3.91
5.76
11.18
Bxx
7.52
4.34
3.44
2.75
2.13
1.69
1.36
1.10
0.83
B
X
v
1.68
1.81
1.99
1.98
1.86
1.77
1.73
1.76
1.87
B
V
x
1.68
1.81
1.99
1.98
1.86
1.77
1.73
1.76
1.87
B
V
v
20.86
11.59
8.85
7.59
6.93
6.68
6.84
7.56
9.68
3.6.3 Comparison with Literature
Since the results of the three methods are nearly the same, and it is difficult to
distinguish them graphically, only the results of FDM-IFP are compared with those from
the literature. To compare with the results of Someya(1989), Table 3.4 presents the
results of a circular bearing with two full length, 10 axial grooves. Item by item
comparison is described in the following sections.
72
Circular bearing with two axial grooves:
D/L=l P. =0
A4> = 1 n =20
5* =0.0005 8c=lE-8
0 = 20
-i
2.0
1.5
I*
&
B
9
s
E
o
0.5
0.0
y?
2tT
(a) Sommerfeld Number
jiCIRL R
2
This work (FDM-IFP)
o B y Lund(1978)
o.o
1.0
80
70
60
u
5 50
3 2
<
40
30
20
0.0 0.2
(b) Attitude angle
This work (FDM-IFP)
o B y Lund(1978)
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Fig. 3.10 Calculated Sommerfeld number and attitude angle
73
D/L=l Pi=0
A4>=1 n =20
5+ =0.0005 8c=lE-8
0=10
x
2.0
1.5 -
B
9
u
E

o
(73
1.0
0.5
0.0
y?
i<r
(a) Sommerfeld Number
y&RL ,R
sl
W c
This work(FDM-IFP)
By Someya(1989)
o.o
0.4 0.6
1.0
80
70 -
60 -
BO
w
50
1
I 40 -
30 -
20
0.0
5 r
0.2
(b) Attimde angle
This work(FDM-IFP)
0
By Someya(1989)
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Fig. 3.11 Calculated Sommerfeld number and attitude angle
74
3.6.3.1 Sommerfeld Number and Attitude Angle
Fig.3.10 shows the Sommerfeld number S and the attitude angle fa at different
eccentricity ratios and compared with the results of Lund(1978). Fig.3.11 shows the
Sommerfeld number S and the attitude angle <j>
0
at different eccentricity ratios and
compared very well with the results of Someya(1989). From the curves in both figures,
the calculated Sommerfeld number S and the attitude angle fa agree perfectly with the
literature. This means the methods and programs developed by this work can be
employed to calculate the bearing characteristics with sufficient accuracy.
3.6.3.2 Static F l o w
The side flow is the flow supplied to the bearing by two grooves. It should be
determined before designing the bearing lubrication system. Fig.3.12 and 3.13 show the
calculated dimensionless side flows of two bearings with different groove geometry and
the comparison with the literature.
03
1 '" 1 '
D/L=l Ps=0 9 = 20
A<J> = 1 n =20
. 8+ =0.0005 5c = lE-8
q
Q,=
RcQL
0.2
o.i
0.0
This work (FDM-IFP)
o By Lund(1978)
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Fig. 3.12 Calculated side flow (0 = 20)
1.0
75
0.4
03
*
0.2
0.1 -
0.0
' 1 1
D/L=l ft=0
A$ = l n =20
&> =0.0005 8c=lE-8
q
v
RcQL
y^
/
f
/ o

1 . 1
9 = 10
i i
.
*A
VJ
y
\ \
ay -
This work(FDM-IFP)
By Someya(1989)
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6
E
0.8 1.0
Fig. 3.13 Calculated side flow (0 = 10)
3.6.3.3 Friction force
Friction force determines the power loss of a bearing. Fig.3.14 and 3.15 plot the
calculated friction coefficients and compared with the available data from the published
literature. From Fig.3.15, the calculated friction force is nearly the same as that of
Someya though w e do not k n o w h o w Someya calculated the friction force in the
cavitation zone. Formula (3-47) is used to calculate friction force in this thesis.
3.6.3.4 Dynamic Coefficients
Fig.3.16 and 3.17 show the calculated dimensionless stiffness and damping
coefficients of the cylindrical bearing as mentioned in Section 3.6.1, and compared with
the literature. All characteristics agree very well with those of Lund(1978). They also
agree very well with those of Someya except K
x y
at low eccentricities. This m a y be
caused by the different element size, perturbation method and convergence accuracy used
by Someya(1989) in the calculation of the coefficients.
16
Fig. 3.14 Calculated friction force by FDM-IFP
30
20
10
T i i r
D/L=l Ps=0
A<|>=1
0
n =20
5+ =0.0005 8c = lE-8
9=10
Ft
W (c/ R)
This work(FDM-IFP)
0
By Someya(1989)
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Fig.3.15 Calculated friction force and comparing with the literature
77
D / L = l P = 0
A^ = l n =20
&> =0.0005 8c=lE-8
9 = 20
20
10
*
-10
0.0
This work (FDM-IFP)
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
30
! 1 | 1 f i 1
This work (FDM-IFP)
o Bxx
* Bxy=Byx j By Lund(1978)
A Byy
1.0
Fig. 3.16 Calculated dynamic coefficients (0 = 20)
78
D/L=l Pi =0
A$ = l n =20
8* =0.0005 8c=lE-8
0=10
25
15 -
This work (FDM-IFP)
By Someya (1989)
0
0
A

Kxx
Kxy
Kyx
Kyy
30
This work (FDM-IFP)
o Bxx
o Bxy=Byx j By Someya (1989)
A Byy '
Fig. 3.17 Calculated dynamic coefficients (0 = 10)
79
3.6.4 Characteristics of Different Circular Journal Bearings
Substituting different bearing parameters into the program, the characteristics of
the circular journal bearing with different L/D ratios and grooves are also calculated.
Table 3.5 through 3.8 are characteristics of bearings with two 20 axial grooves but
different L/D ratios. Table 3.9 through 3.13 are characteristics of ungrooved (full)
bearings whose oil is supplied from the top of the bearings.
The supplying oil pressures in Table 3.1 through 3.13 are zero as used by
Lund(1978) and Someya(1989).
Table 3.5 Characteristics of grooved bearing (L/D=0.5, 0=20)
(FDM-IFP, uniform interval, A$= 1, n = 20, a = 1.8, 84,= 0.0005, S
c
= lxlO
8
)
e
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
S
4.486
2.101
1.257
0.806
0.520
0.325
0.187
0.093
0.031
<M)
78.7
69.3
62.1
55.7
49.7
43.7
37.5
30.7
22.4
Qs
0.085
0.161
0.228
0.287
0.339
0.383
0.419
0.450
0.474
ft
85.26
39.10
23.40
15.24
10.23
6.84
4.42
2.64
1.30
K
xx
1.88
1.92
1.92
1.80
1.71
1.63
1.60
1.57
1.60
Kxv
-4.75
-2.56
-1.78
-1.13
-0.68
-0.31
0.01
0.41
1.09
Kyx
10.42
5.81
4.47
3.89
3.66
3.64
3.84
4.33
5.64
Kyy
1.56
1.64
1.83
2.26
2.82
3.61
4.85
7.19
13.59
Bxx
9.65
5.44
4.06
2.93
2.22
1.71
1.35
1.05
0.76
Bxv
1.92
2.05
2.16
2.01
1.90
1.81
1.78
1.77
1.84
B
V
x
1.92
2.05
2.16
2.01
1.90
1.81
1.78
1.77
1.84
B
V
v
20.76
11.46
8.70
7.44
6.89
6.76
7.07
7.93
10.32
80
(FDM-IFP, uniform interval, A(j>= 1, n = 20, a = 1.8, 8= 0.0005, 8
C
= lxlQ-
8
)
e
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
S
2.284
1.078
0.653
0.427
0.283
0.184
0.112
.0595
.0228
<j>o()
77.6
67.3
59.8
53.9
48.4
43.0
37.3
31.0
23.1
Q
s
0.075
0.141
0.195
0.242
0.280
0.310
0.332
0.346
0.353
ft
43.42
20.13
12.24
8.21
5.71
3.99
2.75
1.79
1.00
K
*x
1.65
1.70
1.75
1.69
1.61
1.55
1.51
1.52
1.58
Kxv
-3.74
-2.05
-1.52
-1.07
-0.67
-0.35
-0.04
0.34
1.03
Kyx
10.43
5.80
4.45
3.84
3.54
3.46
3.59
4.01
5.25
Kyy
1.57
1.64
1.77
2.09
2.59
3.28
4.35
6.37
12.09
Bxx
7.62
4.37
3.46
2.73
2.11
1.67
1.34
1.06
0.79
B
X
v
1.68
1.82
2.01
1.99
1.87
1.79
1.76
1.77
1.84
B
VX
1.68
1.82
2.01
1.99
1.87
1.79
1.76
1.77
1.84
Byy
20.85
11.60
8.89
7.63
7.01
6.81
7.02
7.79
9.99
(FDM-IFP, uniform interval, A(|)= 1, n = 20, a = 1.8, 84,= 0.0005, 8
C
= lxlO
8
)
e
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
S
1.155
0.556
0.346
0.233
0.161
0.110
.0715
.0415
.0178
fa()
75.5
64.4
56.5
51.0
46.4
41.8
36.9
31.3
23.7
Os
0.057
0.103
0.139
0.167
0.190
0.206
0.215
0.221
0.217
ft
22.06
10.47
6.58
4.61
3.38
2.51
1.85
1.32
0.83
Kxx
1.40
1.44
1.49
1.52
1.45
1.39
1.38
1.40
1.52
K
X
v
-2.70
-1.50
-1.15
-0.96
-0.67
-0.38
-0.1.1
0.25
0.98
Kyx
10.47
5.81
4.41
3.78
3.40
3.24
3.29
3.65
4.88
Kyy
1.47
1.54
1.64
1.81
2.21
2.82
3.75
5.55
10.86
Bxx
5.50
3.21
2.61
2.34
1.90
1.53
1.25
1.01
0.78
Bxv
1.43
1.55
1.73
1.90
1.82
1.72
1.68
1.68
1.78
Byx
1.43
1.55
1.73
1.90
1.82
1.72
1.68
1.68
1.78
Byy
21.04
11.84
9.15
8.00
7.28
6.94
7.02
7.62
9.62
81
(FDM-IFP, uniform interval, A<j)= 1, n = 20, a = 1.8, 84,= 0.0005, 8
C
= lxlQ-
8
)
e
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
S
.9596
.4664
.2927
.1998
.1400
.0972
.0644
.0382
.0169
fa<?)
74.7
,63.3
55.5
50.1
45.8
41.5
36.8
31.3
23.9
Qs
0.050
,0.089
0.118
0.141
0.159
0.173
0.179
0.182
0.179
ft
18.28
8.77
5.57
3.96
2.95
2.24
1.69
1.24
0.80
Kxx
1.34
1.38
1.43
1.47
1.43
1.37
1.36
1.40
1.54
Kxv
-2.44
-1.39
-1.08
-0.92
-0.68
-0.40
-0.12
0.23
0.96
Kyx
10.48
5.83
4.40
3.76
3.37
3.19
3.22
3.59
4.84
K
v v
1.41
1.47
1.56
1.71
2.07
2.66
3.57
5.33
10.53
Bxx
4.97
2.96
2.43
2.23
1.89
1.52
1.25
1.03
0.81
B
X
v
1.37
1.49
1.67
1.87
1.84
1.72
1.68
1.70
1.83
B
V
X
1.37
1.49
1.67
1.87
1.84
1.72
1.68
1.70
1.83
Byy
21.11
11.94
9.24
8.09
7.37
6.98
7.01
7.60
9.64
Table 3.9 Characteristics of ungrooved bearing (I7D=0.5)
(FDM-IFP, uniform interval, A<j>= 1, n = 20, a = 1.8, 84,= 0.0005, 8
C
= lxlQ-
8
)
e
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
S
4.301
2.020
1.213
.7813
.5067
.3177
.1842
.0913
.0311
fa()
81.8
75.2
68.5
61.8
55.0
48.1
40.8
32.9
23.6
Qs
0.094
0.189
0.283
0.377
0.472
0.565
0.659
0.755
0.850
ft
81.94
37.72
22.58
14.80
10.00
6.72
4.37
2.62
1.29
Kxx
2.36
2.26
2.21
2.16
2.09
2.01
1.92
1.84
1.77
Kxv
-8.34
-4.02
-2.42
-1.53
-0.90
-0.39
0.07
0.55
1.30
Kyx
10.35
5.64
4.28
3.77
3.62
3.69
3.95
4.50
5.83
Kyy
1.26
1.46
1.70
2.04
2.56
3.33
4.58
6.95
13.40
Bxx
16.93
8.54
5.59
4.07
3.07
2.34
1.77
1.30
0.87
Bxv
2.42
2.25
2.20
2.18
2.15
2.10
2.05
2.01
1.99
Byx
2.42
2.25
2.20
2.18
2.15
2.10
2.05
2.01
1.99
Byy
20.55
10.93
8.03
6.84
6.38
6.37
6.75
7.70
10.13
82
Table 3.10 Characteristics of ungrooved bearing (L/D=0.75)
( FDM-IFP, uniform interval, A(j>= 1, n = 20, a = 1.8, 84,= 0.0005, 8
C
= lxlQ-* )
e
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
S
2.099
.9921
.6034
.3967
.2651
.1733
.1065
.0574
.0223
fan
80.8
74.7
68.6
62.4
56.1
49.4
42.5
34.7
25.2
Q
S
0.088
0.176
0.263
0.351
0.437
0.522
0.609
0.694
0.783
ft
40.12
18.65
11.37
7.66
5.37
3.81
2.65
1.76
1.00
Kxx
2.33
2.13
2.06
2.02
1.97
1.92
1.88
1.85
1.84
Kxv
-7.74
-3.76
-2.31
-1.51
-0.91
-0.44
0.00
0.49
1.32
Kyx
10.36
5.58
4.15
3.58
3.38
3.40
3.62
4.14
5.49
Kyy
1.07
1.35
1.58
1.86
2.29
2.93
3.96
5.96
11.67
Bxx
15.71
7.99
5.32
3.96
3.02
2.37
1.86
1.42
0.99
Bxv
2.54
2.18
2.09
2.07
2.04
2.03
2.03
2.05
2.10
B
V
X
2.54
2.18
2.09
2.07
2.04
2.03
2.03
2.05
2.10
Byy
20.68
10.97
7.98
6.72
6.19
6.12
6.45
7.34
9.67
Table 3.11 Characteristics of ungrooved bearing (L/D=l)
(FDM-IFP, uniform interval, A(|)= 1, n = 20, a = 1.8, 84,= 0.0005, 8
C
= lxlO
8
)
e
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
S
1.322
.6279
.3865
.2592
.1778
.1205
.0775
.0444
.0188
fan
79.5
74.1
68.5
62.7
56.8
50.5
43.9
36.3
26.5
Qs
0.081
0.161
0.240
0.317
0.395
0.467
0.544
0.621
0.697
ft
25.35
11.90
7.39
5.10
3.70
2.74
2.02
1.43
.88
Kxx
2.32
2.03
1.94
1.89
1.86
1.84
1.83
1.84
1.91
Kxv
-7.23
-3.56
-2.22
-1.46
-0.92
-0.48
-0.04
0.46
1.35
Kyx
10.39
5.53
4.04
3.42
3.17
3.15
3.35
3.87
5.31
K
vv
0.84
1.20
1.43
1.68
2.04
2.58
3.49
5.28
10.63
B
X
x
14.68
7.55
5.09
3.79
2.96
2.37
1.90
1.50
1.08
B
X
v
2.71
2.15
2.00
1.96
1.94
1.95
1.97
2.04
2.16
B
V
x
2.71
2.15
2.00
1.96
1.94
1.95
1.97
2.04
2.16
Byy
20.84
11.01
7.96
6.64
6.05
5.91
6.17
7.01
9.32
83
e
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
S
.9559
.4574
.2849
.1941
.1361
.0949
.0633
.0379
.0169
fan
78.5
73.4
68.2
62.8
57.4
51.4
45.0
37.4
27.5
Qs
0.074
0.146
0.216
0.285
0.353
0.417
0.481
0.546
0.610
ft
18.39
8.73
5.51
3.89
2.90
2.22
1.70
1.26
.821
Kxx
2.32
1.95
1.83
1.78
1.76
1.77
1.79
1.84
1.95
J ^
-6.96
-3.40
-2.13
-1.42
-0.93
-0.51
-0.09
0.43
1.40
Kyx
10.42
5.49
3.96
3.29
3.01
2.97
3.16
3.70
5.19
Kyy
0.62
1.05
1.28
1.52
1.83
2.30
3.12
4.80
9.99
Bxx
14.14
7.20
4.86
3.65
2.91
2.39
1.95
1.57
1.14
Bxv
2.85
2.15
1.95
1.87
1.86
1.90
1.95
2.05
2.19
Bvx
2.85
2.15
1.95
1.87
1.86
1.90
1.95
2.05
2.19
Byv
20.99
11.08
7.96
6.58
5.94
5.77
5.98
6.78
9.02
( FDM-IFP, uniform interval, A<|>= 1
e
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
S
.7558
.3636
.2291
.1581
.1129
.0804
.0550
.0340
.0158
fan
77.4
72.5
67.7
62.8
57.7
52.2
45.7
38.3
28.2
Qs
0.067
0.132
0.193
0.254
0.312
0.371
0.422
0.478
0.531
ft
14.58
6.98
4.47
3.21
2.46
1.93
1.52
1.16
.786
Kxx
2.35
1.89
1.76
1.70
1.68
1.70
1.75
1.83
1.99
, n = 20, cc =
Kxy
-6.69
-3.28
-2.06
-1.39
-0.92
-0.52
-0.11
0.43
1.43
Kyx
10.45
5.46
3.89
3.20
2.89
2.83
3.02
3.57
5.11
1.8, 8,
Kyy
0.40
0.90
1.13
1.36
1.65
2.09
2.85
4.47
9.53
K= 0.0005, 8
Bxx
13.58
6.93
4.67
3.54
2.85
2.36
1.97
1.60
1.19
Bxv
3.02
2.15
1.92
1.82
1.81
1.83
1.91
2.02
2.21
c
= lxlO-
8
)
B
V
x
3.02
2.15
1.92
1.82
1.81
1.83
1.91
2.02
2.21
B
V
y
21.16
11.16
7.99
6.55
5.88
5.64
5.84
6.58
8.81
84
3.7 EFFECTS OF PERTURBATION AMPLITUDE ON
DYNAMIC COEFFICIENTS
For the infinitesimal perturbation method, the calculated bearing characteristics,
as presented in Table 3.1 and 3.2, are very close for both F D M and F E M methods. The
cross damping coefficients B
x y
and Byx at =0.1 incur the m a x i m u m error of about 3 % .
For the finite perturbation method (FP), the calculated dynamic coefficients are sensitive
to the perturbation amplitudes. T o investigate the effects of the perturbation amplitudes
on the dynamic coefficients, a new program is written on the F D M - F P in order to save
the computer memory and computation time. The program can automatically increase the
perturbation amplitudes and calculated the dynamic coefficients at these perturbed values.
Fig.3.18 depicts the stiffness coefficients under different displacement perturbation
amplitudes at different steady eccentricities. Fig.3.19 shows the damping coefficients
under different perturbation amplitudes. The dash lines in the figures are results
calculated by the F D M - I F P as presented in Table 3.1. Referring to Figs.3.18 and 3.19,
when the perturbation amplitude is close to zero, all the calculated coefficients are
converged to the results from the infinitesimal perturbation method. Actually, if the
perturbation amplitude is less than 0.02c (for displacement) or 0.022c (for velocity), the
coefficient variation between FP and IFP is less than 0.1%. This agrees well with the
coefficient definition:
, _dF
x
_
7
. F
x
(x
o
+Ax,y
o
,0, 0) - F
x
(x
Q
- Ax, y
a
, 0, 0)
^"""2 2 Ax
To describe the accuracy of the coefficients, two variation (or accuracy) criteria
are defined as:
i,j=x,y i,h*,y
where subscript 0 indicates the values calculated from the infinitesimal perturbation
method.
85
Table 3.14 Coefficient variations and maximum perturbation amplitudes
Variation
Eb ,Ek
0.001
0.01
0.025
0.10
=0.2 to 0.4
M a x Ax, Ay
0.05 c
0.07 c
0.11c
0.16 c
Max Ax, Ay
0.03Qc
0.04 O c
0.05Qc
0.10 O c
e=0.6 to 0.8
M a x AJC, Ay
0.02 c
0.03 c
0.05 c
0.08 c
Max Ax, Ay
0.02Qc
0.03Oc
0.04 Oc
0.09Oc
For e= 0.8, to keep stiffness coefficient variation within 2.5% (E^ ^2.5%), the
perturbation displacement amplitude should be less than 0.05c as shown in Fig.3.18(c);
to keep damping coefficient variation within 2.5% (Eb <2.5%), the perturbation velocity
amplitude should be less than 0.04Oc (Fig. 19(c)). From Fig.3.18(c), when the
displacement perturbation amplitude is 0.1c, the stiffness coefficient variation is 15%;
referring to Fig.3.19(c), when the perturbation amplitude is O.lOc, the damping
coefficient variation is 10%.
At lower eccentricity the maximum displacement perturbation amplitude for the
same coefficient accuracy is larger. For example, at =0.2 as shown in Fig.3.18(a),
under the same stiffness coefficient variation of 2.5%, the maximum displacement
perturbation amplitude is 0.11c which is considerably larger than that at =0.6. This is
because at low eccentricity, the bearing forces do not change as dramatically as those at
higher eccentricity. The effect of the eccentricity on the damping coefficient variation is
not significant according to Fig.3.19(a), (b) and (c). Generally, for e=0.2 to 0.8, the
relationship between the coefficient variations and the maximum perturbation amplitudes
is listed in Table 3.14.
86
N
*
I I I I I I I I I
(a) =0.2
T
i i i | i i i i 1 1
Kyx
-2
> - + --^ ;
o Kxx
+ &y
'281
Kyx
A Kyy
Kij. Ax,Ay--0,by IFP
Kxx
Kxy
I 1 1 1 1 r- - t * - -- - t
-4L
i i i '
.0001 .001 .01 Ax/c, Ay/c 1 1
Fig.3.18(a) Stiffness coefficients calculated at different perturbation amplitudes( =0.2)
(L/D=l, FDM-FP, A<|)= 1, n = 20, a = 1.8, 5*= 0.0005, 5
C
= lxlO"
8
)
Fig.3.18(b) Stiffness coefficients calculated at different perturbation amplitudes( =0.6)
87
10
8
I i ^ r m n | i
(c) =0.8
i I I I i
o Kxx
+ Kxy
o Kyx
A Kyy
Kij. Ax,Ay-^0,by IFP
-A--4.- -A- -4- A 4 tir
Kyy
Kyx
Kxx
e o 8 o o e -
a
/
Kxy
t ' >
H 1 1 1
i l
1
" i
oooi .ooi .01 Ax/c, Ay/c i i
( UD=1, FDM-FP, A<j>= 1, n = 20, a = 1.8, 8*= 0.0005, 8
C
= lxlO"
8
)
Fig.3.18(c) Stiffness coefficients calculated at different perturbation amplitudes( =0.8)
14
12 -
10
6 -
2 -
. (a) =0.2
Byy
Bxx
x Bxy
Byx
A Byy
Bij Ax
Bxx
.
Bxy Byx
1 _J 1 1 1 1 II 1 1 L
, Ay-> 0,by IFP
_
^ " * * " * ^
^^t*
.0001 .001 Ax/Oc,Ay/Oc -
1
1
Fig.3.19(a) Damping coefficients calculated at different perturbation amplitudes (=0.2)
88
14
12
ffl
T ^ I I I TTTFT] T 'If 'T^TFTT| I I I I I I
(b) =0.6
Bxx
x Bxy
Byx
A
Byy
Bij Ax, Ay- 0,by IFP
Bxx
Bxy Byx
Bxx
'
.0001 .001 Ax/Oc,Ay/Oc -
1 l
Fig.3.19(b) Damping coefficients calculated at different perturbation amplitudes (E=0.6)
14
12
8 -
6 -
(c)
-
~*

Byy
Bxy
i
=0.8

X

Byx
Bxx
Bxx
Bxy
Byx
Byy
Bij
T T T
n
Ax, Ay--
. . . . i
- i i
r
{
V
0,by IFP
~ ^
^ \
& '
y .
_
-
i

i

i

i

.0001 ooi Ax/Oc, Ay/Oc i
(L/D=l, FDM-FP, A<|>= 1, n = 20, a = 1.8, 8*= 0.0005, 8
C
= lxlO'
8
)
Fig.3.19(c) Damping coefficients calculated at different perturbation amplitudes (=0.8)
89
3.8 CONCLUSION ON THEORETICAL CALCULATION
1) The characteristics of journal bearing are calculated according to the relation of the
bearing film forces with the journal positions. Both Finite Difference Method and
Finite Element Method are adopted to solve the Reynolds equation. The
calculated static characteristics, such as Sommerfeld number, attitude angle, flow
and friction force, for both circular bearings with different horizontal grooves,
agree very well with Lund(1978) and Someya(1988).
2) The FDM is easier in programming and takes smaller computer memory size and
shorter computation time. The F E M can deal with more complicated boundary
condition but requires more computer memory space and longer computation
time.
3) The calculated linear coefficients of journal bearings by the finite perturbation
method converged to the values determined from the infinitesimal perturbation
method if the perturbation amplitude is small enough. For eccentricities up to
0.8, if the displacement perturbation amplitude is less than 0.02c or the velocity
perturbation amplitude is less than 0.02Oc, the discrepancy between the
coefficients from the infinitesimal perturbation method (IFP) and those from the
finite perturbation method (FP) is less than 0.1%. To keep the coefficient
discrepancy lower than 2.5%, for eccentricity ratio up to 0.4 the displacement
perturbation amplitudes should be less than 0.11c, and the velocity perturbation
amplitude should be less than 0.05Oc; for eccentricity ratio from 0.6 to 0.8, the
displacement perturbation amplitudes should be less than 0.1c, and the velocity
perturbation amplitude should be less than 0.04Oc. These perturbation amplitude
values are useful in determining the experimental perturbation amplitudes.
4) At low eccentricity, the bearing forces do not change as dramatically as those at
higher eccentricity. For the same coefficient accuracy, the m a x i m u m
90
displacement perturbation amplitude at lower eccentricity is slightly higher than
that at higher eccentricity. The effect of eccentricity on the damping coefficient
variation is not significant
91
eiEiAipraiR 4
STABILITY OF ROTOR-BEARING SYSTEMS
Abstract
This chapter studies the stability of rotor bearing systems. The stability
contour and oil whirl frequency of a rigid rotor in two symmetric journal
bearings is derived from the linear theory and confirmed by the nonlinear
simulation, where the bearing forces are directly obtained from the pressure
distribution around the bearing at each journal position. The transient whirl
frequency is expressed by an explicit mathematical formula. The relationship
between stability contour determined from the nonlinear simulation and mat from
the linear theory is investigated Typical whirling trajectories under impact
excitation, position perturbation, synchronous unbalance excitation and harmonic
excitation are simulated and presented to explain the stable, critical and unstable
phenomena. The whirl frequencies under different excitations are averaged to
compare with those determined from the linear stability analysis. The whirl
displacement signals are also transformed to the frequency domain, and their
whirling frequencies are analysed according to their frequency characteristics.
Besides, the effect of rotor flexibility on the stability is also analysed
92
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The oil whirl of hydrodynamic journal bearings is one of the main reasons which
causes the instability of high speed rotating machinery. Linear theory is widely used to
predict the stability and trajectories of rotor in bearing system because of its
simplicity(Sternlicht & Lewis, 1968; Singh et al, 1976; Lund & Thomsen, 1978 and
1987; Abdul-wahed et al 1982; Jakeman & Parkins, 1986; etc.). Since the linear
stability analysis neglects the dynamic load and approximates the bearing forces by linear
approximations of displacements and velocities using the eight force coefficients, there is
no indication how these simplifications will affect the system performance; significant
discrepancies exist between the experimental motion trajectories and those simulated with
linear bearing forces when the whirl amplitudes are large. To avoid the error caused by
linear theory, some researchers employed more sophisticated bearing force model in
predicting the journal trajectory. They simulated whirling trajectories at different trial
speeds, taking into account nonlinear bearing forces which was obtained directly from
the bearing pressure at each journal position, and determined the critical stable speed
according to the convergence of the whirling trajectories. This trial-and-error method
requires long computation time. To save the computation time, the short bearing theory
was adopted in some publications(Holmes, 1960 & 1966; Mitchell et al, 1965; Hahn,
1975 & 1979; Kirk & Gunter, 1976; Barrett et al, 1976; Hashimoto et al ,1987 & 1988;
Capone & Russo,1990), but the short bearing theory introduces significant error when
the bearing slenderness ratio is larger than 0.5 (Kirk, 1976). The Taylor expansion
bearing force's model is used by other researchers. Bannister (1976) used the 2nd order
force model with 28 nonlinear coefficients to approximate the forces of a 120 partial
bearing and found a good agreement between the simulated and the experimental journal
trajectories; Choy et al (1991,1992) used only odd power(3rd, 5th, 7th) model to
approximate the bearing forces; since these nonlinear force coefficients are very sensitive
to the perturbation values, their calculation and application are much more difficult than
the linear coefficients. Akers et al(1971) used the nonlinear bearing forces obtained
93
directly from the bearing pressure in simulating the journal trajectories to predict the
stability contour, but they did not mention the relationship between their nonlinear results
and those from the linear theory.
Many researchers(Mitchell et al, 1965; Kirk et al, 1976) have investigated the oil
whirl phenomena both theoretically and experimentally but the transient whirl frequency
and h o w the whirl frequency related to the stability have not been reported in all
aforementioned literatures. Muszynska(1986) investigated whirl frequency
experimentally and tried to express the oil whirl phenomena by an identified system
model, but she has not calculated the whirl frequency theoretically. Lund(1978) derived
the whirl frequency ratio with the linear theory and related the whirl frequency with the
stability, but how the more accurate nonlinear bearing force and dynamic load will affect
the whirl frequency have not been mentioned.
This chapter derived the stability contour of a rigid rotor in two symmetric
journal bearings according to the linear theory and the nonlinear simulation, where the
bearing forces are obtained directly from the pressure distribution around the bearing
solved from the Reynolds equation at each journal position.
The transient whirl frequency is expressed by an explicit mathematical formula.
The trajectories with the nonlinear bearing forces are simulated under different dynamic
loads and speeds. The relationship between stability contour determined from the
nonlinear simulation and that from the linear theory is investigated. The critical stable
speeds according to convergence of the trajectories are analysed and compared with
those from the linear theory.
The average whirl frequency and critical whirl frequency under nonlinear bearing
forces are calculated to compare with the values predicted by the linear theory. Typical
whirling trajectories under impact excitation, position perturbation, synchronous
unbalance excitations, and harmonic excitation are presented to explain the stable, critical
and unstable phenomena. The whirl displacement signals are also transformed to the
94
frequency domain, where their whirling frequencies are analysed according to their
frequency characteristics. Moreover, the effect of rotor flexibility on the stability is also
analysed.
4.2 SYSTEM MODEL OF A RIGID ROTOR SUPPORTED
ON TWO SYMMETRICAL BEARINGS
Bearing 1 Bearing 2
Fy
Linearized bearing forces:
Fy = kyxX+kyyy +byxX +byyy
Fx = kxx X +kxy y +bxx X +bxy y
Fig.4.1 Rotor-bearing system with a rigid rotor
For a rigid rotor with a 2m mass supported by two symmetric bearings as shown
in Fig.4.1, if excitation forces 2 f
ex
and 2f
ey
are acted at the bearing centre, the equations
of motion for the rotor can be written as following:
2mx = 2/
w
- 2F
X
- 2rm
u
Q
2
sin Qt
2my = 2f
ey
- 2F
y
- 2rm
u
Q
2
cos Qt + 2 W
Divided by 2, the equations become:
mx = f
ex
-F
x
- rm
u
Q
2
sin Qt
my = f
ey
-F
y
-rm
u
Q
2
cosQt + W
(4-1)
In dimensionless form:
95
*
=
^ t f -
F
* -
l 7 n
x 2 2 s m r )
=i[^-^-^sinr]
f=i[^-F,+i-Jtco>r]
(4-2)
4.2.1 Whirl Frequency from journal motion trajectory
Oc(Xo, Yo)
Fig.4.2 Coordinate system for journal movement
At steady state, the journal centre will whirl around its equilibrium point O
c
(Xo,
Yo) as shown in Fig.4.2. The swept angle is:
_i X X
0
P = tan
Y-Y
n
and the angular speed is:
P
dt dT (X-X
0
)
2
+ (Y-Y
0
)
2
(4-3)
The frequency whirling ratio is:
X=A (Y-Y
0
)X-(X-X
0
)Y
Q (X-Xof+fY-Yr,)
2
(4-4)
For the linearized system:
96
A =
Y'X'-X'Y'
X'
2
+Y'
2
(4-5)
4.2.2 Linear Bearing Forces
The linear bearing can be expressed as the linear functions of the displacements
and velocities:
F
x =
k
xx
x +
k
xy
y + b
xx
x + b
xy
y
Fy = k
yJ[
X + kyyy + byg X + byy j
(4-6)
The eight force coefficients are calculated by the infinitesimal perturbation method as
described in Section 3.3 to avoid the difficulty in selecting the proper perturbation
amplitudes which can affect the coefficients.
4.2.3 Nonlinear Bearing Forces
The nonlinear bearing forces in this work are obtained by integrating the pressure
solved from the Reynolds equation:
f
d(p
+ -z-\H
dP
dZ\ dZ
dH
J
dip
2(Xsin) (4-7)
The attitude angle fa, H, X and Y are determined according to the journal position at
the last time step. Equation (3-47) can be modified to solve the pressure:
A(j = M(H
i+1/2J
- H
i
_
1
,
2ij
) + 2A<(Xsin<p
i
+ Ycos 0 J (4-8)
The bearing surface is divided into a 90x14 mesh in the nonlinear simulation to save
computation. This mesh results in less than 1 % variation in bearing forces with that of
97
finer mesh (360x20) in the calculation of the eight linear force coefficients for
eccentricity up to 0.8 (see Fig.3.7). The bearing forces can be found according to
equations (3-11) and (3-12).
4.3 LINEAR STABILITY ANALYSIS
For small amplitude vibration, the above equations can be linearised. The static
load W is balanced by the static bearing force. Neglecting unbalance force and external
loads and substituting linear forces (4-6) into Eq(4-1) yield the eigenvalue equation:
mx" + k
xx
x
/
+ k
xy
y' + b
xx
x' + b
xy
f = 0
mf + ky
X
X' + kyy/ + fc^ X' + byy f = 0
(4-9)
43.1 Critical Whirl Frequency
If at the critical state the rotor whirl at the frequency /?=co:
*' = x
0
e
jM
y' = y
0
e
j<
*
substituting them into (4-9) yields:
mco
2
x
0
= (jco b^ + Jc^x,, + (jco b^ + k^y,, = F
x
mco
2
y
0
= (jco b
yx
+ ky
X
)x
0
+ (jco byy + kyy)y
0
= F
y
(4-10)
This means that at a fixed frequency co, the linearised bearing forces F
x
and F
y
are
proportional to the displacement x
0
and y
Q
respectively. The bearing film can be
considered as a rotated spring with an equivalent stiffness:
.2
k
eq =
m(
'
(4-11)
Then:
98
-UO)by
X
+k
yX
)X
Q
+(k
eq
-kyy+JG)byy)y
o
=0
(4-12)
Its condition of non-zero solution is:
(*!-*)-./* -JCQbxy-kxy
-j(Q by
X
~ ky
%
k
gq
~kyy- jG) byy
= 0
(4-13)
The real and imaginary parts of the determinant (4-13) should equal zero respectively,
i.e.:
Oyy \k
gq
K^ ) 4 >; \K
eq
kyy ) 4 Kj^ Dy
X
4 Kyj Pj^y ~ U (4-14)
(
k
eq ~
k
xxMeq ' ^ ^ ^xx^yy + ^xybyx ~
k
xy
k
yx = (
4
"15)
From Eq(4-14):
k b +k b -k b -k b
_ *-xx
u
yy _
IK,
yy
u
xx ^xy
u
yx "-yx
u
xy
byy+bn
v
eq
(4-16)
From Eq(4-9):
2 _ êg *xx)\*eq yy'^yy xy ^yx
b
yybxx ~
b
xy
yx
(4-17)
This is the critical whirl frequency. In their dimensionless forms:
(X
e0
- KjucXKgg - K
yy
)Kyy ~ K Ky
*crit
-8F-
L
eg "-JCC/* "gg **yy/**-yy "-xy "-yx
Byy
B
xx ~
S
xy
B
yx
_ f i ) _ Kêg ~ Kxx)(Keq ~ Kyy)Kyy ~ ^xy %yx
Krit
~n~
"yy"xx "xy "yx
(4-18)
(4-19)
Where Acrit is the critical whirl frequency ratio, and:
* * -
^xc^yy
+
^yyff** ~ %xy Byx ~ ^ y * ff*y
B + B
yy xx
(4-20)
99
4.3.2 Critical Speed
2
For a spring mass system with mass m and stiffness k
eq
, when k
eQ
= m(D or
to = Jk
eq
jm, the system is in its critical condition; if co< Jk^Jm the system is stable;
if co > Jk
eq
fm the system is unstable. Substituting co = Jk
eq
fm in the first equation of
(4 -19) yields the critical speed:
1 L 1 K
ea
W
Gent = T
1
" J"* = T-Âl-^ (4-21)
X
crit
V m A
c W r
V m c
The stable condition co > Jk^/m is equivalent to Q < Q
CTit
, or equivalent to X > X
crit
.
Therefore if Q < Cl
crit
or X > X
crit
, the rotor-bearing system is stable. Once CI > Q
crit
or X < X
crit
, the system will be unstable.
The dimensionless critical stable speed is defined as:
"
C
nr=^V^W=^ (4"
22
)
A
crit
Equation (4-22) relates the critical whirl frequency with the critical speed. From
Eq(4-22), smaller whirl ratio A,
CT
it or higher critical speed Qcrit will result in a more
stable rotor-bearing system. In stability calculation, if Keq <0, the system is absolutely
unstable. If Xî <0, the system is definitely stable.
The square of the dimensionless critical speed is the critical journal mass as defined by
Lund(1978), i.e.:
A^=^-=F^ (4-23)
W A
crit
If the bearing force is due only to the gravity of the rotor, i.e. W = m g, then:
100
4.3.3 Critical Whirl Frequency Ratio and Speeds of
Sleeve Bearings
Substituting the dynamic coefficients in Tables 3.1, 3.5 to 3.12 into (4-19) and
(4-22) results in critical whirling ratios and speeds of different circular bearings as
shown in Figs.4.3 and 4.4. The grooved bearing takes two-20-axial grooves at right
angle to the vertical load; the ungrooved bearing is supplied with lubricant on the top
groove in the load direction. The stability contour of the grooved bearing agrees very
well with that of Lund(1978) according to Figs.4.4(a) and (b). The stability contour of
the ungrooved bearing also agrees with that of Akers(1971), w h o employed the
nonlinear simulation and trial-and-error method in determining the stability contour. The
whirl ratios for normal eccentricities are around 0.5, this explained why the practical
rotors alway whirl at half of the rotation speed. Referring to Fig.4.3 and 4.4 the shorter
bearing is more stable for both grooved and ungrooved configurations.
If c=0.15 mm, and the bearing load is due only to the gravity of the rotor, the
dimensionless critical speed contours for different bearing slenderness are shown in
Fig.4.5. It can be seen from Fig.4.5 that for grooved bearings, the bearing system will
always be stable when eccentricity is larger than 0.8 for the ungrooved bearings
(L/D<1.5); for the ungrooved bearings, the bearing system will always be stable when
eccentricity is larger than 0.75.
101
0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9
Fig. 4.3(a) The critical whirl ratios of grooved bearings(two 20- axial grooves)
Fig. 4.3(b) The critical speeds of grooved bearings(two 20 -axial grooves)
102
0.3 0.5 0.7
Fig.4.4(a) Whirling frequency ratios of ungrooved bearings
B
a
(b) Critical speeds of ungrooved bearings
1 1
o.i
UD=0.5
* IVD=0.75
IJD=1
Lfl>=1.25
+ L/D=1.5
* L/D=l Akers(1971)
Unstable j
6
-A-
Stable
0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9
Fig.4.4(b) The critical speeds of ungrooved bearings
103
10000
8000 -
Fig.4.5(a) The dimensional critical speeds of grooved bearings
10000
4000
0.1 03 0.5 0.7 0.9
Fig.4.5(b) The dimensional critical speeds of ungrooved bearings
104
4.3.4 Stability of Flexible Rotor on Symmetric Bearings
Bearing 1
Bearing 2
Fig.4.6 The rotor-bearing system with a flexible rotor
If the rotor is flexible, the critical speed of the rotor-bearing system will be
different from that of the rigid rotor. Assume the rotor-bearing system is symmetric. If
the stiffness of the rotor is 2k, and the equivalent stiffness of two bearings is 2k
eq
, the
rotor mass 2 m can be considered as being supported by a spring with stiffness 2k, w h o
in turn is supported by a spring with stiffness 2k
eq
. For the half mass, it is supported by
two springs connected in series with half of the stiffness as shown in Fig.4.6.
Therefore the dynamic equation similar to (4-11) becomes:
1
k =
K
eq
K
+
X
-mco
(4-25)
From the first equation of (4-18) one obtains:
~ Acrit &crit
Substituting it into Eq(4-25) yields the critical stable speed of the flexible rotor bearing
system:
** X^lm X
crit
p + klk
e
Jm X^p + k/k,^'
(4-26)
Where co
r
- -Jkl m is the natural frequency (or critical speed) of the rotor.
From eq.(4-26), the critical speed of the rotor-bearing system is dependant not
only on the rotor's critical speed, but also on the oil film properties "Kent and k
eq
. At
critical condition A^t "0.5. If the rotor is very flexible, i.e. k k
eq
, then from (4-26):
105
Q* = -2 J r " "J r = 2CO
r
KruV + Mke, 0.5V1+0 '
This explains w h y the oil whip occurs at approximately double the critical speed of the
rotor as reported by Newkirk & Taylor(1925) and by Pinkus(1953). In fact, the oil
whirl is a resonance property of oil film which appears at a frequency close to 1/2
rotation speed. W h e n the oil whirl frequency coincides with the rotor's critical speed,
the serious vibration (or whip) normally occurs.
If the rotor is much stiffer than the bearing film, such as k >3 k
eq
, the critical
speed of the system will be lower than the critical speed of the rotor according to (4-26).
This agrees with the conclusion of Poritsky(1953).
Re-write (4-26) as dimensionless form:
^^V^^J^Z (4-27)
The critical mass for the flexible rotor is:
^f^-it^h*
(4
-
28)
For W = m g , the dimensionless critical stable speed becomes:
_ -yêq
Cl
crit
= O , Jcfg- = J ^ / _ _ (4-29)
n C
"
f
"' le* Vl + WK^/ck
Referring to (4-27) to (4-29), the stiffness of the shaft decreases the critical
speed. The stiffer the rotor, the higher is the critical speed, the more stable the system
becomes. Therefore in designing the rotor-bearing system, the rotor's flexibility should
be considered if its stiffness is not much greater than the equivalent stiffness of the
bearing film.
106
4.4 NONLINEAR SIMULATION ANALYSIS
Input parameters of
rotor/bearing system
Input initial journal
position (x,y)
JL
Calculate the external forces
I
Solve Reynolds equation, integrate
the pressure to obtain bearing forces
I
Solve X,Y,X a n d Y
by Runge-Kutta method
I
Calculate whirl ratio X
output t, x,y, X
I
Perform F F T on X, Y
I
Stop
t=t+At
Fig.4.7 Flow chart of nonlinear simulation program
A computer simulation taking into account more accurate bearing forces and
external forces can be compared with the aforementioned linear analysis. This is done
by solving the motion equation (4-2) by a 6th-order Runge-Kutta method (Jackson,
1985), which can automatically select the step size to satisfy a given accuracy. For the
accuracy of 10"
6
in this work, the average step size is between 0.2 to 0.6 radian
dependent on the distance of the journal center to the equilibrium point. The minimum
107
step size could be as small as lxlO*
4
radian at the beginning of the simulation. The
nonlinear bearing forces are directly obtained from the pressure distribution around the
bearing solved from the Reynolds equation at each time step. The equilibrium position is
determined according to the static force balance condition. The simulated bearing is an
ungrooved sleeve bearing with the following parameters:
L/D=l, c/R=0.15%, W = m g
Fig.4.7 shows the flow chart of the non-linear simulation program.
Fig.4.8 Trajectory comparison with that of Akers(1971)
To check the simulation program, Fig.4.8 compares the trajectory simulated by
the non-linear simulation program with that by Akers(1971). The numbers on the curve
signify radians of shaft rotation. T w o trajectories agree perfectly with each other when
eccentricity is smaller than 0.7. At larger eccentricity, there is insignificant difference
which could be caused by the different mesh sizes and different Runge-Kiitta methods
108
between that used by Akers(1971) and that in this work. Akers used a 20x20 mesh size
in calculating the pressure and a 4th order Runge-Kutta method with fixed step size of
0.25 radian initially.
4.4.1 Impact Excitation
A pulse consisting of signals with a wide range of frequencies is usually used to
test the system stability. If the rotor is hit with an impact hammer, a bell shape impulse
force as shown in Fig.4.9(d) is exerted on the rotor. The trajectory of the journal motion
responding to the pulse force can reflect the stability of the rotor system. Fig.4.9 depicts
the simulated trajectories for different speeds due to the impact forces with the same
amplitude. The solid lines are the trajectories of the nonlinear bearing forces and the
dash lines are those of linear bearing forces.
Fig.4.9 (a) Trajectories responding to impact forcesstable system
109
0.2
0.4 0.6
Fig.4.9 (b) Trajectories responding to impact forcesunstable system
02--
0.4 --
0.6 --
Fig.4.9 (c) Trajectories responding to impact forcesat critical condition
110
Unload bearing: .: A -âja-^f
mg=W, e=0.6, S=0.1229
Impact forces for all three cases are: -/ \ T-i2t(o)
L
' i ' i ^ i ' i i i
~ u 180 360 540
Fex =0 and
f
=
f
e
-^-^
=
f
e
-*wa-h? to = 0.003, a^.ixlO
5
r
ey
r
eyo
c r
eyo
c
^
-p _ i which make F
ey
= 0.01 F
eyo
at T=0
eyo
Fig.4.9(d) Simulated parameters and impact force
Referring to Fig.4.9, when the system is stable, the journal can return to its
original equilibrium position after the impact. If the journal rotates around its
equilibrium point with increased orbit radius as shown in Fig.4.9(b), the system is
unstable. At the critical speed the whirling amplitudes in both x and y directions remain
constant as shown in Fig.4.9(c). To save trial time, the critical speed according to the
linear theory is used as an input in the computer, the simulated steady journal trajectory
is an oval as shown in Fig.4.9(c). The journal vibration amplitudes in the x and y
directions are constant for both nonlinear and linear bearing forces, which means the
system is at the critical stability state, although the oval shape with the nonlinear bearing
forces is not the same as that with linear bearing forces. Therefore both nonlinear and
linear systems possess the same critical speed, and the linear theory can accurately
predict the stability contour of journal bearing system.
The trajectories are quite close for both linear and nonlinear bearing forces if the
radius of journal center to the equilibrium point is less than 0.1c, but significant
discrepancy exists when the radius becomes larger than 0.1c. This means the predicted
trajectory by the linear theory will have some error if the whirl amplitudes are larger than
0.1 c.
Ill
4.4.2 Position Perturbation
Assuming the steady journal eccentricity is e (depending on the static load),
moving the journal to the bearing center then releasing it, the trajectory of the journal
motion after this perturbation can also reflect its stability (Kirk, 1976; Akers, 1971).
Since the journal centre is assumed to move to the bearing center to start the dynamic
procedure, it is classified as position perturbation herein. Inputting the same bearing
parameters as mentioned in Fig.4.9 in the program but with the initial journal coordinates
at the origin point and external force as zero, the simulated motion trajectories are
depicted in Fig.4.10. Referring to Fig.4.4, at e=0.6 the critical whirl ratio is 0.45 and
the critical speed is Cl^ = 2.69 . From the convergence of the trajectory the stability
can also be determined. At a speed below the critical speed, the journal center will also
return to its equilibrium position after the position perturbation as shown in Fig.4.10(a),
the average whirl ratio for this stable system is 0.72 (see Fig.4.10(d)), which is higher
than the critical ratio 0.45. W h e n Q > Cl
crit
, the locus moves around the equilibrium
point and moves away from it until the journal touches the bearing wall for both linear
and nonlinear bearing forces as shown in Fig.4.10(c), thus the system is unstable. The
average whirl ratio (=0.42 as shown in Fig.4.10(d)) for the unstable system is lower
than the critical whirl ratio. From Fig.4.10(c), the locus in the case of nonlinear bearing
forces takes much longer time to reach the clearance circle than that of the linear bearing
forces. At the critical speed, both loci of nonlinear and linear bearing forces are
converged to different oval orbits as shown in Fig.4.10(b). With the linear forces, the
oval is symmetrical to the equilibrium point; whereas with the nonlinear forces, the oval
is not symmetrical and is closer to the bearing centre. Under the position perturbation,
the critical speed of the nonlinear bearing forces is also exactly the same as that predicted
by the linear theory. However the nonlinear bearing forces produce more accurate
journal trajectory as confirmed experimentally by Bannister (1976).
112
Fig.4.10(a) Journal trajectories due to position perturbation-stable system
Q =2.69 =Qcrit
0.6 -
Nonlinear bearing forces
Linear bearing forces
Fig.4.10 (b) Journal trajectories due to position perturbation-at critical status
113
Q =3.28 >Qcrit
clearance circle
linear forces
Y 1
Fig.4.10 (c) Journal trajectories due to position perturbation-unstable system
25
a
s
II
Q, =1.23 X.avg=0.72
Q =2.69 X.avg=0.46
0.72
G =3.28 X.avg=0.42
T=Qt
0.46
- 0.42
0 360 720 1080 1440
(L/D=l, c/R=0.15%, e=0.6,W=mg)
Fig.4.10(d) Whirl frequency ratios of different stability status
114
4.4.3 Unbalance Excitation
Unbalance forces are inevitably exerted on the rotor and affect the dynamic
performance of the rotor-bearing system. Substituting different R,, values in (4-2) can
obtain the unbalance responses. To simplify the analysis of the whirl frequencies,
displacement X is transferred to the frequency domain as shown in Fig.4.11(b) and (d)
by performing the following FFT(see Section 6.3.3):
2_ i,t,,v .at J 2
N
Here: A T = 7t/18 rad = sampling interval
N = 512 = sampling number for each displacement
|X(jA)| = ^-|j
0
"X(T)e^^r| = -| Yx(kAT)e-
JAkAr
k=0
(4-30)
For a stable system the vibration amplitude will converge to a definite value as
shown in Fig.4.11(a), the power of signal X is concentrated at the journal rotation
frequency as in Fig.4.11(b). At an unstable speed Q = 3.28, the trajectory is diverged
as shown in Fig.4.11(c); the signal power is concentrated at the frequency of about 0.42
of the rotation speed. This explained why the unstable systems always have a whirl ratio
a little below the half rotation speed. At critical speed, the trajectory is limited to a
definite scope as shown in Fig.4.12(a); the power is concentrated at two frequencies,
one is about 0.49 rotation speed and another is the rotation frequency. Since the
frequency resolution of the F F T is limited to 0.0703 in this Chapter for the limited
sample duration, the whirl ratio from F F T has an error of 0.035. In fact, the whirl
angular speed is a complicated function of time as shown in Fig.4.12(d), the average
whirl ratio is 0.475 for the nonlinear bearing forces and 0.464 for the linear bearing
forces, which are close to the value (=0.45) predicted by the linear theory as shown in
Fig.4.4(a).
115
0.1 0.3 0.5
0.1
0.3 --
0.5"
0.7
X 0.7
a =1.23
Ru = 0.2
equilibrium
position
Fig.4.11 (a) Trajectory due to synchronous unbalance forcestable system
02
0.4
0.6
0.2
0.4-
Y
0.61
T "T" I I
(b) Critical status (nonlinear bearing forces)
Q=Qcrit=2.69
Ru = 0.2
equilibrium
point
Fig.4.11 (b) Trajectory due to synchronous unbalance forceat critical status
(nonlinear bearing forces)
116
02
0.2-
Q =3.28 >Ocrit
Ru=0.2
0.4--
0.6-
1
-
^ - - '
Fig.4.11 (c) Trajectory due to synchronous unbalance force-unstable system
2.5
0.0
05
Q =1.23 Xavg=0.98
X I'' \ N/
\ -7 \/
u -~- Q =2.69\^/Xvg =0.47
Q. =3.28 Xavg=0.43 T = Q t
0 360 . 7 2 0 1080 1440
Fig.4.11 (d) Whirl frequency ratios at different speeds
117
03
X
0.2 -
0.1
0.0
I ' i i i l i i i i I i i i i i i i i i
xa^=^|I;x(r)e-
j
^/r
T I 0
~Q =1.23 stable -
Q =2.69 critical
CI =3.28 unstable
\=<o/n
0.0 05 1.0 15 2.0 2.5
L/D=l, c/R=0.15%, e=0.6, R
u
= 0.2
Fig.4.11 (e) Frequency characteristic of displacement signals-due to unbalance force
4.4.4 Harmonic Excitation
Assuming a vertical harmonic external force:
F
v
= F^ cos( T)
(4-31)
is exerted on the rotor, the motion trajectory can also be simulated. Fig.4.12(a) depicts
the whirl trajectory of the stable system. For the linear bearing force, the trajectory is
converged to an oval; for the nonlinear bearing force the trajectory converged to an
enclosed curve. W h e n the speed is higher than the critical speed, the trajectory will also
diverge. Figs.4.12(b) and (c) depict the whirl trajectories of the critical and unstable
systems. Fig.4.12(d) shows the whirl ratios at different speeds, the average whirl ratios
agree with the linear theory as shown in Fig.4.4(a). Fig.4.12(e) indicates that the power
of vibration signal of stable system under harmonic excitation is concentrated at the
excitation frequency (=0.5). At the critical speed, the power of vibration signal is also
concentrated approximately at the excitation frequency. If the system is unstable, the
power of vibration signal is concentrated at a frequency lower than the critical ratio.
118
02
0.2
0.4--
0.6 -L
0.4
n r -i r
Harmonic excitation:
F^- 02 c o s ( T
>
)
co=0.5
Q =1.23
equilibrium
position
0.6
Fig.4.12(a) Whirl trajectories under harmonic excitation-stable system
0.2
0.4
0.2 -i r
+
-i r
0.4 --
0.6 -L
F
ey
= 0.2 cos("co T ;
co =0.2
fl=Qcrit=2.69
equilibrium
position
0.6
H
Fig.4.12(b) Whirl trajectories under harmonic excitation-at critical status
119
0.6 X 0.8
0.6-
Y
0.8
equilibrium
position
~F = 0.2 cos(T;
ey
x
'
=0.5 Q =3-28
Fig.4.12(c) Whirl trajectories under harmonic excitation-unstable system
-0.5
7 2 0 " 1440 2160
Fig.4.12(d) Whirl ratios of systems at different speeds-due to harmonic excitation
120
03
X
i . , 1
r
F^= 0.2 cos(W T;
=0.5
Q =1.23 stable
Q =2.69 critical
^2 =3.28 unstable
^ M B i g * " ^'^'
v

X=ffl/Q
1 ^
0.0 05 1.0 15 2.0 25
Fig.4.12(e) Frequency characteristics of different systems-due to harmonic excitation
03
0.2
0.1
0.0
I !
I !
I i
I !
I
I J
I !
I !
, i
v..
Q = Sic* =269
F^= 0.2 cos(0) T)
co=0.2
"co =0.47=>.crit
lb =0.5
V
r^^K Q=--.r,
2.5
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Fig.4.13 Effect of excitation frequencies on the vibration amplitude
The critical whirl frequency works as a resonance frequency of rotor-bearing
system. When the excitation frequency is close to the critical whirl frequency, the whirl
amplitude will increase. Fig.4.13 shows the frequency characteristics of vibration
displacements at different excitation frequencies. According to Fig.4.13, when the
excitation frequency is equal to the critical whirl frequency the whirl amplitude reaches
the maximum. In practical bearing application, if the rotor has to withstand the dynamic
121
load, separating the frequency of the dynamic load far from being the critical whirl
frequency of the rotor bearing system may prevent catastrophic vibration.
4.4.5 Discussion
Table 4.1 presents the average whirl ratios under different excitations according
to the nonlinear simulation. Although whirl ratios for stable or unstable systems are
different for different excitations, the critical whirl frequencies are very close (within 5%
error) to the value (=0.45 at E=0.6) predicted according to the linear theory. W h e n the
speed is higher than the critical speed, the average whirl ratio is lower than the critical
whirl ratio. If the speed is lower than the critical speed, the average whirl ratio is higher
than the critical whirl ratio. The higher the average whirl ratio, the more stable the rotor-
bearing system. These conclusions are also confirmed by the nonlinear simulations at
the eccentricities e=0.2 and 0.8.
Table 4.1 Average whirl ratios under different excitations (e=0.6)
Q
1.23
2.69
3.28
linear analysis
>0.45
0.45
<0.45
impact
0.63
0.45
0.33
position
0.72
0.46
0.42
unbalance
0.98
0.47
0.43
harmonic
W
0.47
0.37
According to Figs.4.9(a), 4.9(c) and 4.11(a), the trajectories are quite close for
both linear and nonlinear bearing forces if the radius of journal orbit to the equilibrium
point is less than 0.15c, (the amplitude differences between the linear and nonlinear
bearing forces in the x and y directions are less than 5%) but significant discrepancy
exists when the radius becoming larger than 0.2c (see Fig.4.9(b) in unstable case). To
employ the linear model with reasonable accuracy (5% amplitude variation with the
nonlinear model), the journal vibration amplitude should be smaller than 0.15c at e= 0.6.
122
This can be achieved by mamtaining the amplitude of the periodical excitation force to be
lower than 1 5 % of the static load ( R\ 0.15, or F^
0
< 0.15). Simulations at e= 0.2
and 0.8 also show that if ^ < 0.15, or F^ <, 0.15, the variation between the vibration
amplitudes of linear and nonlinear models is less than 5%. The lower the eccentricity,
the smaller the variation between the trajectories from the linear and nonlinear bearing
forces. This conclusion can be used to guide the design of the experiments to measure
the linear force coefficients as described in Chapters 6 through 9.
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6
1.0
0.0
02 -- Ru=0.2
0.4 --
0.6 --
1.0
Q =1.23
Equilibrium point
o Linear bearing forces
Fig.4.14 Steady motion trajectories under different unbalance forces
To show the effect of the force amplitude on the motion trajectories, Fig.4.14
plots the motion trajectories under different unbalance forces. From Fig.4.14, at
R
u
=0.1 the vibration amplitude in x direction is 0.07c, the trajectory difference
between the nonlinear and linear bearing forces is less than 1%. If R
u
= 0.2 the
vibration amplitude in x direction is about 0.14c, the trajectory variation of the linear
bearing forces is within 5% that of non linear bearing forces. W h e n R
u
= 0.4 the
vibration amplitude in x direction is about 0.28c, the trajectory of the linear bearing
123
forces is considerably different (about 2 0 % ) from that of non linear bearing forces.
These phenomena agree well with the effect of perturbation amplitude on linear force
coefficient (see Section 3.6), where the perturbation amplitude is limited to 0.1c if the
acceptable coefficient accuracy is 1 0 % . Comparing the loci of the unstable system under
different excitations(Figs.4.9(b), 4.10(b) and 4.11(c)), the vibration amplitudes under
the unbalance force are smaller than other excitations for the same time period; the time
for the journal to reach the clearance circle (contacting the bearing wall) is also longer.
This is because the unbalance force at the rotation speed could suppress partly the
whirling whose frequency is lower than a half of the rotation speed. This unbalance
effect has also been reported by Barrett et al (1976)
According to the trajectories under different dynamic excitations, the critical
speed under the nonlinear bearing forces is the same as predicted by the linear theory.
This is true for the bearings at different equilibrium positions with different perturbation
amplitudes. The nonlinear bearing forces can predict more accurately the journal
trajectory in the bearing; but it is time consuming. Although using high order nonlinear
force coefficients can save some computation time and improve the simulation accuracy
at some cases, the sensitivity of these nonlinear force coefficients to the perturbation
values makes them difficult in calculations and restrictive in actual applications. There is
no convenient w a y so far to predict system stability from these nonlinear force
coefficients except the time domain simulation, which is much more time-consuming
than the linear theory. The eight linear bearing forces can be conveniently used to predict
the system stability with acceptable accuracy. However, the infinitesimal perturbation
method should be used in the coefficients calculation because the linear coefficients are
also sensitive to the perturbation values if the finite perturbation technique is used.
Although the traditional linear stability analysis can predict the stability threshold,
it can not predict the whirl trajectories under different dynamic excitations. The works in
this chapter correlate the average whirl ratios with the stability statues and it is helpful in
the stability analysis from the monitored journal vibrations. For example, if the main
124
whirl frequency from the F F T analysis is considerably higher than that predicted from
the linear analysis, the system is well stable. Otherwise, if the whirl frequency is close
to the critical value, the system is dangerous and measures should be adopted to improve
the stability.
4.5 CONCLUSIONS ON STABILITY ANALYSIS
1) The oil whirl is a resonance property of oil film which appears at a frequency
close to 1/2 rotation speed. W h e n the oil whirl frequency coincides with the
rotor's critical speed, serious vibration (whip) normally occurs. For very flexible
rotor, the critical speed of the rotor-bearing system is about double of the rotor's
critical speed. If the rotor is much more stiff than the bearing, such as k >3 k
eq
,
the critical speed of the system will be lower than the critical speed of the rotor.
The flexibility of the rotor decreases the critical speed of the rotor-bearing system.
2) Simulations with nonlinear bearing forces and different dynamic loads verify that
the linear theory can predict the stability contour of a rigid rotor supported in two
symmetric journal bearings as accurately as the nonlinear simulation. The critical
speeds according to the trajectories of nonlinear bearing forces are nearly same as
those predicted by the linear theory although the whirl loci under large dynamic
excitations are significantly different from those of the linear bearing forces. The
different forms of dynamic excitations, such as impact force, position
perturbation, unbalance force and harmonic force, will not change the critical
speed of the rotor-bearing system.
3) Although the oil whirl frequency under nonlinear bearing forces is a complicated
function of time, the average whirl ratios are closely related with the stability
status. For a stable system, the average whirl ratio is higher than a critical whirl
ratio; the average whirl ratio of an unstable system is always lower than the
125
critical ratio. This property can be used to analyse the stability of the rotor-
bearing system from the frequency characteristics of journal vibration signals.
4) The critical whirl frequency works as a resonance frequency of rotor-bearing
system. W h e n the excitation frequency is close to the critical whirl frequency, the
whirl amplitude will increase significantly.
5) At the critical speed, the average whirl frequencies from nonlinear simulation are
very close (within 5 % error) to the value predicted by the linear theory. The
forms of the dynamic excitations, such as position perturbation, unbalance forces
and harmonic excitation, will not significantly change the critical whirl frequency
of the rotor bearing system.
6) The predicted trajectories by the linear theory agree well with that of the nonlinear
bearing forces (amplitude variation < 5%) if the whirl amplitudes are smaller than
1 0 % c for the eccentricity up to 0.8. The lower the eccentricity, the smaller the
variation. T o determine the force coefficients of the linear model, the excitation
force amplitude should be less than 1 5 % of the static load. For an unstable
system, the trajectory of nonlinear bearing force takes longer time to touch the
bearing wall than that of the linear bearing forces.
126
EFFECT OF MISALIGNMENT ON BEARING
CHARACTERISTICS
Abstract
This chapter analyses the effects of bearing misalignment on all
bearing characteristics. The Reynolds equation is solved by the finite
difference method in a fixed coordinate system with the static load acted in
the vertical direction. Under different eccentricity and misalignment
conditions, the static and dynamic characteristics (including load capacity,
attitude angle, side flow, friction force, misaligned moments and eight
linear force coefficients) of a horizontally grooved bearing and an
ungrooved bearing are calculated and compared with available experimental
data. The effects of misalignment on all these bearing characteristics and
on the stability of the rotor-bearing system are analysed.
127
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Due to manufacturing tolerances, deflection of journal and bearing support,
asymmetric bearing load, etc., journal bearings normally operate at the misaligned
condition. The effects of misalignment on some static characteristics, such as torque,
load capacity and attitude angle of the journal bearings with some definite geometry have
already been studied.
Dubois et al(1955, 1957) have experimentally investigated the misaligning
couples and eccentricity at the ends of misaligned plain bearings. Rice(1965) has
calculated the misalignment torque of gas-lubricated bearings. Asanabe et al(1972)
investigated the minimum oil film thickness and friction force of misaligned journal
bearings.
Pinkus and Bupara(1979) published considerable theoretical data of different
grooved bearings, but they used the eccentricity e and the angle between the centre line
and the vertical coordinate as independent variables. The load direction is a variable
dependent on eccentricity and the misalignment ratio. The misalignment in their vertical
coordinate does not mean that the journal axis is tilted in the plane parallel with the load,
and the 'horizontal' grooves are not in the plane perpendicular to the load. This variable
load direction makes their data's application and comparison inconvenient.
Vijayaraghavan and Keith(1989, 1990) modified the method of Pinkus and Bupara by
considering the mass continuity at both start and end edges of oil film and published
considerable data on static characteristics of the grooved and ungrooved bearings.
Dceuchi et al(1985) fixed the load direction and solved the attitude angles at
different eccentricities for a circumferentially grooved bearing. Unfortunately, Dceuchi
only presented the misalignment effects on the load capacity and attitude angle.
Buckholz and Lin(1986) only studied the misalignment effect on load.
128
The effects of the misalignment on all static characteristics, such as load capacity,
attitude angle, side flow, friction force and misaligned moment for the normal vertically
loaded and horizontally grooved bearings have not been reported.
The effects of misalignment on the dynamic characteristics have been studied
recently. Choy et al (1992) have depicted the misalignment effect on one stiffness
coefficient Kxx and critical mass of an ungrooved bearing at one set of misalignment
parameters under some load conditions, the effects on other dynamic coefficients and the
effects of different misalignments and different loads have not been reported. Bannister
(1976) presented the misalignment influence on the unbalance trajectories of a partial
bearing, unfortunately he did not show the effects on the eight linear bearing force
coefficients. However he reported that the misalignment in vertical plane suppressed the
unbalance whirl trajectory significantly. The effects of misalignment on the dynamic
coefficients of hydrostatic or hybrid bearings have been systematically studied by San
Andres(1993) and Bou-Said(1992), but the misalignment effects on the dynamic
characteristic of normal hydrodynamic bearing has not been reported.
This chapter adopts a fixed coordinate system and assumes the static loads all
acting in the vertical direction. All static and dynamic characteristics (including load
capacity, attitude angle, side flow, friction force, misaligned moments and eight linear
force coefficients) under different misalignments and different eccentricities are plotted
against the static load and compared with available experimental data. The effects of
misalignment on all these bearing characteristics and stability are analysed.
5.2 DEFINITION OF MISALIGNMENT
Fig.5.1 shows a journal bearing with the journal axis misaligned at an angle y to
the vertical. The misalignment distance O
o
O
c0
is the deviation of the journal axis from
the parallel line O
c0
O
c
at the bearing end. The oil film thickness at arbitrary angle (j) is
129
071?
h = c + e c o s ( 0 - 0
o
) + ( 1 ) O
o
O
c0
cos({j)-Y)
Its dimensionless expression is:
2ZR
H = l + e cos(#-0
o
) + ( 1) Tcos(0-y) (5-1)
where x = - = is defined as the misalignment or tilt ratio.
C C
If the journal assumes an eccentricity e at the bearing mid plane as shown in
Fig.5.1, the eccentricities at both ends of the bearing can be found.
0
L/R
k\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\^
Midplane
^ ^ ^ ^
y w
Z* =Z-L/2R
tilt ratio: T=-
OOOL
2c
o centre of the bearing
Oo centre of the journal in the left end plane
Oc centre of the journal in the bearing midplane
Oco cross point of the parallel line of the bearing axial in the bearing left end plane
OL centre of the journal in the right end plane
0
0
O L projection of journal axis in the midplane
Fig. 5.1 Misaligned journal bearing
In triangle O O
c
O
0
, (right of Fig.5.1):
130
e
0
=ÔO
c
2
+O
c
0
0
2
-200
c
O
c
0
0
cos(
7
-(j>
0
)
= -y/(ec)
2
+ (xcf - 2 E T C
2
COS(Y-(j)
0
)
The eccentricity ratio at Z=0 is:
e
0
= e
0
/c = ^
2
+ T
2
-2Tcos(y-if>
0
) (5-2)
Similarly, from triangle OO
C
OL there is :
e
L
= ôo
c
2
+ o^
L
2
-2 oo
c
ofi
L
cos[7t-(r-
o
)]
= ^(ec)
2
+ (re)
2
+ 2erc
2
cos(y- 0
O
)
The eccentricity ratio at Z=L/R is:
L =
e
o/
c
= ê
2
+ r
2
+2ercos(y-<l>
0
) (5-3)
All methods and programs in Chapter 3 can consider the misalignment effect.
With different misalignment parameters T and y, the programs can calculate all the
bearing characteristics. The following sections describe the calculated results taking into
account the misalignment effect.
For normal application, the bearing static load is constant. To compare the
bearing characteristics, we can assume that the bearing withstands the same load.
Therefore it is better to plot the bearing characteristics against the load than against the
eccentricity, which is varied under different misalignments. Since the inverse factor of
the Sommerfeld number 1/S is proportional to the load:
ys=
7t(c/Rl
w
it is used as the dimensionless load capacity in this paper. Glienicke (1966) and Zhang
2 1 1 1
(1979) also used the similar factors (Glienike used -^ and Zhang used -^-) to plot
their bearing results. In this chapter, all bearing characteristics are plotted against 1/S
and an eccentricity scale to simplify the analysis. The eccentricity scale is determined
131
from the aligned bearing case; the actual eccentricities under misalignment are slightly
different from the eccentricity scale.
The bearing discussed in this chapter is the circular bearing with L/D=l. The
grooved bearing (9=20) takes two 20-horizontal grooves extending over the full
bearing width as used by Lund (1978). The ungrooved bearing has no horizontal
grooves, and the lubricant is supplied from the top groove. The supply pressure for both
grooved and ungrooved bearings is zero.
Since all misalignments can be separated into vertical and horizontal
misalignments, only effects of the vertical and horizontal misalignments are calculated in
this chapter.
Fig.5.2(a) Pressure distribution for vertical misalignment
132
loo--
4 p (bar)
1 = 0.4, y=iU2, =0.6, (t>o=32.8
1/S = 8.52 Pmax=57.3bar.
Hmin =0.117
60
40
2(T
-
oil film
reformation
upstream groove
downstream groove
20 360
L/D=l,e=20,p
s
=0, 2=50 Hz, |i= 8.45xl0
3
Ns/m
2
Fig.5.2(b) Pressure distribution for horizontal misalignment
133
5.3 EFFECT OF MISALIGNMENT ON THE STATIC
CHARACTERISTICS
Substituting different misalignment parameters x and yin equations (5-1) and
(3-2), the pressure distribution can be determined from the Reynolds equation.
Fig.5.2 shows the steady pressure distributions with the same mid plane eccentricity and
the same misalignment ratio but different misalignment directions. Although the oil film
starts at the m a x i m u m oil film thickness (at
0
), the pressure before the upstream groove
is very low and it can not be clearly noted in the graphs. According to these pressure
distributions all static characteristics can be calculated.
5.3.1 Load Capacity
Under misalignments, the pressure distributions around the bearing will differ
from the parallel bearing as shown in Fig.5.2. Integrating the pressure will yield the
load capacity. Fig.5.3 depicts the relation of the load capacity with the minimum oil film
thickness which is determined by the journal eccentricities in the bearing end planes. For
x=0 (aligned bearing), the calculated load capacity is nearly the same as that by Lund
(1978) according to Fig.5.3(a). Referring to Figs.5.3(a) and (b), the eccentricities at
bearing ends (o and e
L
) are higher than the eccentricity at the midplane. This is because
the journal ends (Oo and O
L
in Fig.5.1) are farther away from the bearing centre (O)
when the journal centre (Oc) is very close to the bearing centre. For example, when e=
0, e
0
= e
L
= x > e. At 1/S~ 0.75 in Fig.5.3(a), y=0, <t>
0
=n/2 (see Fig.5.4(a)), thus
[y- 0
O
| = n 12, so eo = e
L
according to equation (5-2) and (5-3). Therefore both eo and
e
L
curves cross at 1/S 0.75.
For an oil film bearing, the maximum load capacity of a journal bearing is
normally determined by the tolerable minimum oil film thickness (determined by the
surface roughness and the bearing structure) or the m a x i m u m eccentricity which is
necessary to prevent the solid contact. If Hmin = 0.1 (maximum bearing eccentricity
134
equals 0.9), the load capacity for parallel grooved bearing (x =0) is 51.3 according to
Fig.5.3(a). With misalignment, the load capacity is limited by the worse (higher)
eccentricity curve i.e. 8 L as shown in Fig.5.3 because the metal contact will firstly occur
at this end. For x = 0.2 and 0.4 in vertical direction(y=0), their load capacities at
L
=0.9 are 17 and 8.4 respectively (see Fig.5.3(a)), the load capacities decrease to 3 3 %
and 1 6 % respectively. The bearing has the highest load capacity under aligned condition.
The horizontal misalignment also decreases the load capacity but not as much as the
vertical misalignment. From the curves in Fig.5.3(b) the misalignment in the horizontal
direction decreases the load capacities to 4 2 % and 1 9 % for x ~ 0.2 and 0.4 respectively.
The vertical misalignments affect the load capacity more significantly. This is because at
the normal working eccentricity e>0.6 (1/S>7.5), the attitude angle (cp
0
<:45
0
) is closer to
the vertical direction than to the horizontal direction, vertical misalignment reduces the
minimum oil film thickness more than the horizontal misalignment. Fig.5.2 shows that
at T=0.4, Hmin =0.063 for the vertical misalignment and H ^ n =0.117 for the horizontal
misalignment. The misalignment in the vertical direction produces smaller Hmin that
results in higher pressures. Therefore the m a x i m u m pressure (p
m
ax=105 bar) for the
vertical misalignment is higher than that of the horizontal misalignment (p
m
ax=57.3 bar).
Actually the misalignment effect is worst when the journal is tilted along the centre line,
i.e.: yô* which directly reduces the minimum oil film thickness.
The misalignment effect on the load capacity of ungrooved bearing is similar to
that of the grooved bearing as shown in Figs.5.3(c) and 5.3(d).
To verify the program, the eccentricities of the circumferentially grooved bearing
tested by Ikeuchi et al(1985) are calculated as shown in Fig.5.3(e). The results from this
thesis agree well with those of Ikeuchi. The slight discrepancy could be caused by
reading the data from the small graphs in their paper.
135
.1 1 1/S 10 100
Fig.5.3(a) Load capacities of grooved bearing under vertical misalignment
1.0
0.9
0.8
6
0.6 -
0.4 -
0.2
0.0
I T t I I 1 1 I T 1 I J
(b) Horizontal misalignments
10 | 21.5 | 51.3 |
1
100
.1 i 1/S io
Fig.5.3(b) Load capacities of grooved bearing under horizontal misalignment
136
1.0
0.8
e
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
i i i i i 1 1 1 1 i i i i i i 1 1
(c) Ungrooved bearing under
vertical misalignment
usJ&J&w
liCIRL
. . i
Y=0
E, T=0
o eo, T=O.2
L, T=0.2
* eo, x=o.4
* eL, T=0.4
* ' ' *
0.0
Hn
. 0.4
0.6
0.8
1
.1 i 10 1/S ioo
Fig. 5.3(c) Load capacities of ungrooved bearing under vertical misalignment
1.0
0.8
e
0.6 -
0.4 -
0.2
0.0
- i 1 i i i i 1 1 - i i i i i 1 1
(d) Ungrooved bearing under
horizontal misalignments
HQRL
Hn
- 0.4
Y
=90 -I -
6
e, T = 0
o eo, x=o.2
6L, 1=0.2 J
0 8
A eo, x=o.4
* eL, x=0.4
i i i 1 1 1 1 * i
0.0
1
.1 i 1/S 10 ioo
Fig. 5.3(d) Load capacities of ungrooved bearing under horizontal misalignment
137
1.0
e-
+
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
(e) Vertical misalignments
circumferential groove
.1
5 5 5
40
;> o
a a a ,-,
This work
o eo, x=o.2
eL, T=O.2
A
Eo, t=0.4
A
eL, x=o.4
I I ' t I < i r r , t I , , , |
by Dceuchi(1985)
o Co, x=0.2
L, T=0.2
Q
eo, T=O.4
EL, T=0.4
- I J '
1
1/S
10 100
Fig.5.3(e) Load capacities of experimental bearing with a circumferential groove
5.3.2 Attitude Angle
The effect of misalignment on the attitude angle (in the bearing midplane) is
shown in Fig.5.4. Referring to the graphs, for the grooved bearing, the vertical
misalignments increase the attitude angle, but the horizontal misalignments decrease the
attitude angle, especially under lighter loads; for the ungrooved bearing, the effect of
vertical misalignment on the attitude angle is insignificant for normal bearing loads, but
the horizontal misalignments decrease the attitude angle significantly. This conclusion
was also obtained experimentally by Ikeuchi et al (1985) as shown in Fig 5.4(c) although
their experimental bearing has a circumferential oil groove. From Fig.5.4(c), the results
calculated herein are closer to the experimental results of Ikeuchi et al than their
theoretical results.
Comparing the attitude angles of misalignment T=0.4 with y=0 in Fig.5.4(a) and
(b), the misalignment effect varies significantly by the grooves at low eccentricities.
Since at low eccentricities, the minimum oil film occurs at the area very close to the
138
horizontal grooves, misalignment could change the oil film thickness distribution
significantly or even move the minimum oil film point out of or into the grooves. This
will change the pressure distribution considerably, so that the attitude angle will vary
significantly. Without the horizontal grooves, the oil film thickness is not as sensitive to
the misalignment as the grooved bearing does. Therefore at low eccentricities, the
misalignment effect on the attitude angle of ungrooved bearing is not as great as that of
the grooved bearing.
1UU
80
/s
o
e-
40
20
0
(a) (j)o of grooved bearings
0
o \ o
o\

f 2ovv
- \2y
0.1
i
A

i
0
0

+
i '
<|>0 , T=0
T=0.2, Y = 0
x=0.4, Y = 0
T=0.2, Y = rc/2
x=0.4, Y = TC/2
T=0, by Lund(1978)-
0.5
i i i
-
e (i=0) 0.9
i i i
1 ' i i
i ; . i i J - I J 1 1 i i i i i i
.1
i 1/S 10 ioo
Fig. 5.4(a) Attitude angles of grooved bearing under different misalignment
139
100
o
60
40
20
i i i " i i i i i [ ' r -
(b) Ungrooved bearing
.1
0
<|)0, T=0
x=0.2, Y = 0
x=0.4, Y = 0
x=0.2, Y = TC/2
z=0A,y=n/2
0.1
h-
0.5
J I L J L
E(T=0)
1 ' ' !
1 1/S
10
0.9
100
Fig. 5.4(b) Attitude angles of grooved bearing under different misalignment
ioo
o.3 e 0.5
Fig. 5.4(c) Attitude angles of the experimental bearing with circumferential groove
140
0.3
o
0.2
I I I I I |
T " I"
1
I " I I I I I 1 I I I 1
(a) Qs of grooved bearings
o.i
o.o
Qs =
Re QL
T =F
o
/
/
0.1
Qs,t=0
o x=0.2, Y=0
x=0.4, Y = 0
x=0.2, Y=TC/2
x=0.4, Y = 7t/2
+ t=0, by Lund(1978)
0.5
e
(
T
=0) 0.9
J 1 1 I 1 1 1 1
_i i i i I I I '
.i i io 1/S ioo
Fig. 5.5(a) Side flow of grooved bearing under different misalignment
0.8
0.6
en
o
0.4
- I 1 1 I I I I |
1 1 1 I I I I '
a = Re QL
0.2
0.0
Qs,t=0
o x=0.2, Y=0
A x=0.4, Y=0
o t=0.2, Y=rc/2
t=0.4, y=n/2
.1
1 1/S
10
Fig. 5.5(b) Side flow of ungrooved bearing under different misalignment
141
40
30
20
10
0
i " -i 1 ^ ^ ^ m i [ -' r ' i " i i |' 1 i i i T " r r
(a) ft of grooved bearings
F,
/,="
W(c/R)
0.5
J I L
e (x=0) 0.9
4 1 1
T=0
o x=0.2, Y=0
A x=0.4, Y = 0
o t=0.2, Y = TE/2
x=0.4, Y = TC/2
v
^
s
.
- I I I 1 I I I L
.1 i 1/S 10 ioo
Fig.5.6(a) Friction coefficients of grooved bearing under different misalignment
30
20
10
- i i i i 1 1 1 , i i i i 1 1
(b) Ungrooved bearing p
I T - I r i
T=0
o T=0.2, Y=0
A x=0.4, Y=0
T=0.2, y=7t/2
x=0.4, y=n/2
W(c!R)
e (
t
=o) 0.9
.1 1 1/S 10 100
Fig. 5.6(b) Friction coefficients of ungrooved bearing under different misalignment
142
5.3.3 Side Flow
Fig.5.5. shows the side flows of the parallel and misaligned bearings. For the
grooved bearing, at light load and low misalignment, the side flow does not change
significantly. Only under heavy load, large horizontal misalignment (x =0.4) can
decrease the flow up to 1 0 % . For the ungrooved bearing, the misalignments in both
directions do not change the side flow significantly.
5.3.4
Friction Force
The misalignment effect on the friction coefficient f
t
of the circular bearing is
insignificant as shown in Fig.5.6. This was experimentally confirmed by
Asanabe(1972).
5.3.5 Misaligned Moments
Under misalignment, the bearing pressure is not symmetric to its midplane and it
will produce some misaligned moments to act on the journal. The misaligned moments
around both axes can be calculated by the following equation:
rln rL/2
fZff rut
JO J-L/2 *
7 J J
PZ
'
c J
0-L/2R
COSij)
sinij)
,2 2;rL/2R
dtydz'
COSij)
sinij)
d{j)dr
(5-5)
Their dimensionless forms are:
K
l
M
yj
2n(c/R)
2
Cl^tRL
2
6KR
2 2;rL/2R
1 l
pz
'
0-L/2R
COSij)
sinij)
d(j)dZ' (5-6)
143
Fig.5.7 presents the calculated misaligned moments under different misalignments and
comparison with the experimental results by Dubois et al (1957). At high eccentricity or
high load, the misalignment will result in large moment on the journal to reduce the
misalignment. The moment around the horizontal axis (Mx) is larger than the torque
around the vertical axis (My) and is independent of the misalignment direction.
The theoretical results of a top grooved bearing tested by Dubois et al(1955,
1957) are compared in Fig5.7(d) with the experimental results. Since their moment was
an independent variable and acted in the axial direction, but herein the moment is a
dependent variable whose amplitude and direction are changed with load and
misalignment ratio, there is some difference between theory and experiment. Even so,
the experimental moment amplitudes and their relation with the load and misalignment
agree well with the calculations herein.
2.5
S
a
i
0.5
0.0
-0.5
! "'T I ' I II'
(a) Vertical misalignment
of grooved bearing
o

Y=0
Mx T=0.2
My T=0.2
Mx T=0.4
My 1=0.4
i i i i 1 1
' i M I
' I 11 L_1_L
.1 i 1/S io ioo
Fig.5.7(a) Moments of grooved bearing under vertical misalignment
144
2.5
t*
II
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
i i i i I I I i j
1
- ' " I >' i i r i i i y
i I I I
o.i
0.5
J L J 1 u
e (T=0) o.9
. i i i i
'
i i i i
.1 1 10 100
Fig.5.7(d) Moments of grooved bearing under horizontal misalignment
2.5
2
3
W
Oi
0.5
0.0 -
-0.5
l r i i
(c) Vertical misalignment
of ungrooved bearing

Y=0
Mx x=0.2
My x=0.2
Mx x=0.4
My T=0.4
1 l/s io ioo
Fig.5.7(c) Moments of ungrooved bearing under vertical misalignment
145
2.5
01
I
06
:
0.5
0.0
-0.5
- i i i i i i 1 1
.1
(d) Horizontal misalignment
a
m
y=n/2
M x x=0.2
M y 1=0.2
M x 1=0.4
M y T=0.4
0.1
_i ' i ' ' i i
0.5 e (T=0) 0.9
J 1 i 1 1 1 1
i i/s io ioo
Fig.5.7(d) Moments of ungrooved bearing under horizontal misalignment
2.5
2.0
IS
+
N
H
|S
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
i i i 'i i r
(e) Experimental results
L/D=l
C/R=0.00133
o 1=0.2, Y = 0 \
A 1=0.4, Y = 0 ^
1=0.2 exp.\
A. 1=0.4 exp.^
This work
by Dubois(1957)
1
' i i 11
I I u _
1/S 10
100
Fig.5.7(e) Misaligned moments of the experimental bearing
146
5.4 MISALIGNMENT EFFECT ON THE DYNAMIC
CHARACTERISTICS
The effects of misalignments on the dynamic characteristics are also plotted
against 1/S for convenient comparison. Figs.5.8 through 5.14 show 8 dynamic force
coefficients of grooved and ungrooved journal bearings under different misalignments.
For both grooved bearing and ungrooved bearing, the misalignments in vertical
direction (7=0) decrease the stiffness K
x x
, as shown in Fig.5.8. The misalignments in
horizontal direction (y=u/2) increase K
x x
except at very low eccentricity (e<0.2),
whereas the misalignments in both directions reduce K
x x
significantly. These
misalignment effects will be explained later.
According to Fig.5.9, misalignments in both vertical and horizontal directions
increase the stiffness K
x y
of the grooved bearing slightly; the misalignment effect on K
x y
of ungrooved bearing is negligible except at very high eccentricity (e>0.7), where the
misalignment increases K
x y
significantly.
Referring to Fig.5.10, misalignments in both directions increase K
y x
significandy at high eccentricity (e>0.6) but decrease it at low eccentricity (e<0.2).
From Fig.5.11, the stiffness K
yy
is increased by the misalignments in both
horizontal and vertical directions. The increase is more significant at higher eccentricity
(e>0.6) and the vertical misalignment increase K
y y
more than the horizontal
misalignment.
According to Fig.5.12(a), the vertical misalignments decrease damping B
x x
of
the grooved bearing but the horizontal misalignments increase it slightly. For the
ungrooved bearing, the misalignment effect on B
x x
is negligible as shown in
Fig.5.12(b).
147
0
I I I
(a) Kxx of grooved bearings
Kxx, i=0
o 1=0.2, Y = 0
1=0.4, Y = 0
1=0.2, Y = K/2
1=0.4, Y = n/2
.- o . o
0.1
0.5
J I I I I
e (i=0) 0.9
I n . I 1 1 I I I I I
-I I I L_1_L
i i i/s io ioo
Fig.5.8(a) Kxx of grooved bearings with different misalignment
4
o
" i " i i i i i " T ' ' I 1"
Kxx i=0
1=0.2, Y = 0
1=0.4, Y = 0
1=0.2, Y = 7t/2
x=0.4, Y = n/2
o
A
0.1
Kij = -=-faj
W
0.5 e (i=>
J 1 1 l 1 l
(T=0)_
0.9
- I I
.1 i 1/S io ioo
Fig.5.8(b) Kxx of ungrooved bearings with different misalignment
148
-1
-3
1 1 i
(a) Kxy of grooved bearings
Kxy, 1=0
o 1=0.2, Y=0
A 1=0.4, Y = 0
1=0.2, Y = TC/2
1=0.4, Y = n/2
A$P'
0-5
e
(i=0) 0.9
1
' ' I
L
1 1 1
_d_
-J I I I I I L
.1 i l/s io ioo
Fig.5.9(a) Kxy of grooved bearings with different misalignment
>>
a
-2
-4 -
-6 -
l l I I l i i i
o
A
(b) Kxy of ungrooved bearing
Kxy, 1=0
i=0.2, Y = 0
1=0.4, Y=0
1=0.2, Y=7t/2
1=0.4, Y = TC/2
0.1 [
Fig 5.9(b) K
x y
149
12
10
&
" ' I I I I "
1
I I I 1 | ' i I
(a) Kyx of grooved bearings
Kyx, 1=0
o 1=0.2, Y=0
A 1=0.4, Y = 0
1=0.2, Y = rc/2
1=0.4, y = n/2
0.1
0-5
e
(i=0) 0.9
H ' 1 1 1
_ i i i i i i 1 1 1 i i _ i i i i 1 1 1 _ i i i i 1 1
1/S
10 100
Fig. 5.10a Kyx of grooved bearings with different misalignment
12
10
x
i i i i i 'i i - i i i T - i i ' r i )
(b) Kyx of ungrooved bearing
Kyx, 1=0 AV
o 1=0.2, Y = 0 \ .
A 1=0.4, Y = 0 Nft* A
â*-8-
:=0.4,Y=U * X
1=0.2, Y=rc/2
1=0.4, Y=7i/2
0.1 0.5
i l L J 1-
^1 ^
9
- i i i i i i i
- i i i i '
100
.1 i i/s io
Fig. 5.10b Kyx of ungrooved bearings with different misalignment
150
14
12
10
i - i i i i i
" i <-
(a) Kyy of grooved bearings
0
A
O
Kyy, 1=0
1=0.2, Y = 0
x=0.4, Y = 0
1=0.2, Y = TC/2
1=0.4, Y=TC/2
-2
0.1
0.5
J 1 L
e (i=0) 0.9
J 1 1 1
1/S
10 100
Fig.5.11(a) Kyy of grooved bearings with different misalignment
12
10
r -i 1 i r - 1 i -i |
(b) Kyy of ungrooved bearing
o
A
.1
Kyy, 1=0
1=0.2, Y=0
1=0.4,7=0
1=0.2, 7= K/2
1=0.4, Y = TC/2
100
Fig.5.11 (b) Kyy of ungrooved bearings with different misalignment
151
X
X
" I I I I I I
(a) Bxx of grooved bearing
B = ^
b

4 -
0
i i i i i
.1 i l/S io ioo
Fig.5.12(a) Bxx of grooved bearings with different misalignment
Fig.5.12(b) Bxx of ungrooved bearings with different misalignment
152
X

II
X
" I I I 1 1 1 1 1 | I I I ' I ! I 1 1 "| I
(a) Bxy and Byx of grooved bearings
Bxy, 1=0
o 1=0.2, Y = 0
A 1=0.4, Y = 0
1=0.2, Y = TC/2
1=0.4, Y = TC/2
%
A
0.1
0.5
J 1 1 L
e (t=0) o.9
.1 1 1/S 10 100
Fig.5.13(a) Bxy of grooved bearings with different misalignment
x
> 2
X
pa
-2
(b) Bxy (= Byx) of ungrooved bearing
0.1
o
A
Bxy ,1=0
1=0.2, Y=0
T=0.4, Y = 0
1=0.2, Y =7t/2
1=0.4, Y=TC/2
0.5 e (i=0) 0.9
J 1 1 I 1 1 1 1
J I I I I I I I I I L .
.1 i i/s io ioo
Fig.5.13(b) Bxy of ungrooved bearings with different misalignment
153
30
20
10
-i r 1i i i r 1 1 i ! ' ' ' ' V
(a) Byy of grooved bearing
Byy, 1=0
o 1=0.2, Y = 0
A i=0.4, Y = 0
1=0.2,7=71/2
1=0.4, Y=7i/2
0.1 -
5
e(t=0) 0.9
| 1 1 1| 1 1 1 1
J J - J - U j J ' ) 1 ' ' ' ' 1 \ I J 1L -X-JL
1/S
10 100
Fig.5.14(a) Byy of grooved bearings with different misalignment
30
20 -
10 -
(b) Byy of ungrooved bearing
^y---TT-TT
m
Byy , 1=0
1=0.2, Y = 0
1=0.4, Y = 0 -
1=0.2, Y = TI/2
x=0.4, Y = 7C/2
0.1
l~a>'
0.5 e (1=0) 0.9
j i 1 1 1 1
i i i 1 1 i I I I i 1 _
j ' ' i i i i
.1 i i/s io ioo
Fig.5.14(b) B
y y
The damping coefficients B
xy
and B
yx
are significantly reduced by the
misalignment especially at low to moderate eccentricities(<0.5) according to Fig.5.13.
154
W h e n e>0.5, the cross damping coefficients are slightly increased by misalignments.
From (4-19), decreasing B
x y
and B
y x
will increase Xcrit, which will raise the critical
stable speed of the rotor bearing system as expressed by (4-22). Therefore, the decrease
of B
x y
and Byx will benefit the system stability.
At normal eccentricities or loads, the misalignment effect on Byy is insignificant
as shown in Fig.5.14. Only at very low eccentricity (e<0.2), the misalignment decreases
Byy significantly.
Although the bearing forces are complicated functions of bearing steady position
and misalignment, they are determined mainly by the pressure near the rmnimum oil-film
thickness, the variation of the minimum oil-film thickness dominates the change in the
bearing force. This property can be used to qualitatively explain the misalignment effect
on some coefficients which are changed obviously by the misalignment. For example,
the effect of misalignment on stiffness K
x x
can be qualitatively explained according to
the variation of the minimum oil-film thickness with the help of Fig.5.15. In
Figs.5.15(a) and (b), H
+ m
j
n
is the minimum oil-film thickness of the misaligned bearing;
Hcmin the rmnimum oil-film thickness at bearing midplane, which is approximately equal
to the minimum oil-film thickness of the aligned bearing. At low eccentricity, the attitude
angle is large. For a bearing misaligned in the vertical direction as shown in
Fig.5.15(a), if the journal is perturbed with Ax, the oil film thickness variation at H
+ m
i
n
is not as significant as that at H
c m
i
n
, which means the pressure increases will not be as
large as that of the aligned bearing. Thus the bearing force change rate k^- AF
X
/Ax of
the vertically misaligned bearing is not as large as that of the aligned bearing(see
Fig.5.8(a)). If the bearing is misaligned in horizontal direction, especially at high
eccentricity as shown in Fig.5.15(b), perturbing journal A x will decrease the oil film
thickness more significantly at H
+ m
i
n
than at H
c m
i
n
, so the pressure increase for the
horizontally misaligned bearing is larger than that of the aligned bearing. Therefore the
rate of change of the bearing force is more significant and the stiffness k
xx
of the
horizontally misaligned bearing is larger than that of the aligned bearing as shown in
155
Fig.5.8(a). Since pressure increase brings on the increase of F
y
as well, thus the
misalignment effect on stiffness coefficient k
yx
AF
y
/Ax is similar with that on k
xx
as
shown in Fig.5.9(a).
(a) low eccentricity,
vertical misalignment
(b) high eccentricity
horizontal misalignment
Y=7i/2
h+mi
+min
cmin
y t y
Fig.5.15 Misalignment effect on the minimum oil film thickness
156
5.5 MISALIGNMENT EFFECT ON BEARING STABILITY
The misalignment effect on the dynamic coefficients will at last affect the stability
of the rotor bearing system. According to the stability analysis in Chapter 4, the whirl
critical frequency ratio X,
cr
i
t
= m/Q
C
rit
a n
d the critical stable speed Q
cril
^mc/W are
calculated from the dynamic coefficients for different misalignments. Figs.5.16 and
5.17 show the whirling ratios and critical speeds for different bearings with different
misalignments. For the grooved bearing with L/D=l, the whirling ratio and critical
speed of aligned bearing are very close to the results of Lund and Thomsen(1978) as
shown in Figs.5.16(a) and 5.17(a).
For the aligned grooved bearing, the rotor-bearing system is always stable when
the eccentricity is greater than 0.8. For the aligned ungrooved bearing, the rotor-bearing
system is always stable when the eccentricity is greater than 0.75. The critical whirl
ratios of aligned bearing are around 0.5 for eccentricities less than 0.6. This explains
why the unstable rotor-bearing system assumes a whirl ratio about or less than 0.5.
Referring to Figs. 5.16 and 5.17, the misaligned bearing operates at a lower critical whirl
ratio or a higher critical speed than the aligned bearing, which means at the same load the
misaligned bearing can be run at a higher speed or assumes better stability. If a
misaligned bearing becomes unstable, its whirl frequency ratio will be lower than that of
the aligned bearing. This is w h y the rotor became more stable after installing the
bearings with some misalignments.
Fig.5.16 shows that high misalignment at heavy load will decrease whirl
frequency more significantly than that at lighter load. For example, for a grooved
bearing with load 1/S= 10, the whirl ratio of an aligned bearing is about 0.45. For a
vertically misaligned bearing with T=0.4, the whirl frequency ratio is as low as 0.3 ( see
Fig.5.16(a)). The high misalignment at heavy load reduces the whirl frequency by 3 3 %
from that of the aligned bearings. The higher the misalignment ratio, the lower the whirl
frequency. In practical rotor bearing system, the unstable whirl frequency ratio is
157
usually lower than 0.5, one possible reason is that the journal is misaligned with the
bearing to some extent.
0.6
0.4
n
o
9
3
n
c
o
0.0
(a) Xcrit of grooved bearings
-
9

"ft?

Unstable
<

Xcrit, 1=0
o 1=0.2, Y = 0
A i=0.4, Y = 0
1=0.2, Y=7C/2
1=0.4, Y = TI/2
+ 1=0, by Lund(1978)
0.1 0.5
1 ' ' ' i
W
i \
o \
o \
(
....A k
" \
c )

Stable
.
e (1=0) 0.9
i i i
I 1 i
_
1/S
10
ioo
.1 l
Fig.5.16(a) Whirl ratio for misaligned bearings (L/D=l, 9=20)
0.6
0.4
c
u
CJ
3
c
o
0.0
"T" i i i i i ) i ) - i i irr
(b) Xcrit of ungrooved bearings
Xcrit, 1 = 0
- o 1=0.2, Y=0
. A i=0.4, Y=0
1=0.2, y=7t/2
1=0.4, Y=7t/2
0.1
~Q>?
Unstable
f I T I I T I T
\
o
o
Stable
0.5 e (i=0) 0.9
J 1 i i i 1 1 1
_ J i i i _ i _
1
' I _ J ii_
1

i i 1/S
10 10

Fig.5.16(b) Whirl ratio for misaligned ungrooved bearings (L/D=l, 8=0)
158
0
s
(a) Critical speed of grooved bearing f ^ X
A i=0.4, Y = 0
+ 1=0.2, Y=TC/2
1=0.4, Y = TI/2
T i,\j
f
uy
*-
0.1
1
1
_ _ 1 _ i 1 . I l l -
i_,UHU^l .7 1 O)
Unstable

i

1

J*
i

*&**
0.5
I
1
i
/
A /
/+
CD/
/+
!> /
Stable
e (i=0) 0.9
' l l l 1
' 1
1
.1 i i/s io ioo
Fig.5.17(a) Misalignment effect on the rotor-bearing stability (grooved bearing)
3 -
1 1- 1 1- T 1 X I | 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 |
(b) Critical speed of ungrooved bearing
i-O
o 1=0.2, Y = 0
A
T=
o,4
)
y
=
o
- * 1=0.2, Y = TC/2
1=0.4, Y = 7i/2
i

Q
:
Unstable
A
î

4
-

f>
0.1 0.5
i i i i i
|
^
o
o
4
/
O:
Stable
E
(
t
=0) 0.9
i i r i
r 1 i
I , i , I I , 1 1 p 1 _ | 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 L - L J -
.1 i i/s io ioo
Fig.5.17(b) Misalignment effect on the rotor-bearing stability (ungrooved bearing)
159
5.6 CONCLUSION
The effects of the misalignment on the bearing characteristics can be concluded as
following:
1) Misalignments reduce the load capacities considerably. The aligned bearing has
the highest load capacity. The vertical misalignment (in the static load direction)
affects the load capacity more than the horizontal misalignment for both grooved
and ungrooved bearings.
2) The vertical misalignments increase the attitude angle of the grooved bearing, the
horizontal misalignments decrease the attitude angles of both grooved and
ungrooved bearings, especially at low eccentricity.
3) At low eccentricity and small misalignment, the side flow does not change
significantly. Only at high eccentricity, the high horizontal misalignment (T=0.4)
can decrease the flow up to 10%.
4) The misalignment effect on the friction coefficient f
t
of the circular bearing is
negligible.
5) At high eccentricity or heavy load, the misalignment will bring on large moment
on the journal to reduce the misalignment. The moment around the horizontal
axis (Mx) is larger than the torque around the vertical axis (My).
6) The misalignments in the vertical direction decrease the stiffness K
xx
. The
misalignments in horizontal direction increase K
H
except at very low eccentricity
(e<0.2), where the misalignments in both directions reduce K
x x
significantly.
Misalignments in both vertical and horizontal directions increase the stiffness K
x y
of grooved bearing slightly; the misalignment effect on K
x y
is negligible except at very high eccentricity (e>0.7), where the misalignment
increases K
x y
significantly. Misalignments in both directions increase K
y x
160
significantly at high eccentricity (e>0.6) but decrease it at low eccentricity
(e<0.2). The stiffness K
y y
is increased due to misalignments in both horizontal
and vertical directions. The increase is more significant at higher eccentricity
(e>0.6) and the vertical misalignment increase K
y y
more than the horizontal
misalignment.
The vertical misalignments decrease damping B^ of the grooved bearing and the
horizontal misalignments increase it slightly; the misalignment effect on B ^ of the
ungrooved bearing is negligible. The misalignments in both directions reduce the
B
x y
or B ^ significantly especially at low to moderate eccentricities (e<0.5). At
normal eccentricities or loads, the misalignment effect on B
y y
is insignificant;
only at very low eccentricity (e<0.2), the misalignment decreases B
y y
considerably.
Under the same load, the misaligned bearing is more stable than the parallel
(aligned) bearing and thus the misalignment can improve the stability of the rotor-
bearing system. If a misaligned bearing is unstable, its whirl frequency ratio will
be lower than that of the aligned bearing. Higher misalignment and heavier load
will bring on lower whirl frequency. The whirl frequency of highly misaligned
bearing could be 3 0 % lower than that of the aligned bearing. This may be used to
indicate the misalignment condition in situ from the unstable vibration signals.
161
CIHAIPTrilR (5
IDENTIFICATION OF ALL DYNAMIC
COEFFICIENTS OF TWO JOURNAL BEARINGS
BY THE HARMONIC EXCITATION METHOD
This chapter extends the previous harmonic excitation method to
determine all 16 dynamic coefficients of two asymmetric journal bearings. A
general system model of a rigid rotor on two asymmetric bearings is derived
from Lagrangian equations. Two excitation forces and their corresponding
displacement responses are transferred to frequency domain. Based on these
frequency characteristics eight linear (complex) equations are derived. All 16
bearing force coefficients can be obtained by solving these simultaneous linear
equations.
Two different excitation procedures are proposed. One is the
traditional harmonic excitation method in which the rotor-bearing system is
excited twice. In the other procedure the system is excited once with two
different harmonic forces at different frequencies. In this chapter, both
procedures are completely simulated on computer where the effects of
experimental noise, initial unbalance vibration, excitation frequencies and
estimation sensitivity to the experimental errors are analysed. Detailed
methods to obtain accurate frequency characteristics by discrete FFT
technique, experimental procedures and data processing techniques are
presented.
162
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The dynamic coefficients of linearised oil-film forces dominate the dynamic
performance of a rotor-bearing system and are essential in predicting the stability of the
system (Lund, 1978). Since there are still incomplete understandings on the fluid film
bearing theory, such as the boundary conditions, cavitation and whirl phenomena, it is
difficult to calculate the dynamic coefficients accurately. Researchers around the world
have made much effort to measure these dynamic coefficients. A few well-designed
methods, such as the external harmonic excitation, pseudo-random-binary-sequence
perturbation, pulse impact, and non-synchronous inertial force perturbation etc, have
been proposed and/or tried to estimate these coefficients experimentally. In all these
methods the rotor or bearing is excited dynamically and the responses measured. The
dynamic coefficients are then determined from the relationship between the excitation and
its responses. Among these methods, the harmonic excitation method is the most widely
used. The experiments of previous harmonic method are normally performed on a rig
where the tested bearing floats on a rigid rotor. One or two harmonic excitation forces
are exerted on the bearing case. From the relationship between the excitation forces and
the amplitudes and phases of the bearing case displacement, eight dynamic coefficients
are determined. However, the method to measure all the force coefficients of two
different journal bearings, which support a rotor as in normal bearing applications, has
not been reported.
This research extends the previous harmonic excitation method to determine all
the dynamic coefficients of two different bearings. Two excitation forces and their
corresponding displacement responses are transferred to frequency domain. Based on
these frequency characteristics eight complex and linear equations are derived. All 16
bearing force coefficients can be obtained by solving these simultaneous linear equations.
Two different excitation procedures are proposed. One is the traditional harmonic
excitation method which needs to excite the rotor-bearing system twice. Another method
excites the system only once with two different harmonic forces at different frequencies.
163
Both methods are thoroughly simulated on a computer. The effects of experimental
noise, initial unbalance vibration, excitation frequencies and estimation sensitivity to the
experimental errors are analysed. Detailed methods to obtain accurate frequency
characteristics by discrete FFT technique, experimental procedures and data processing
techniques are presented.
6.2 SYSTEM MODEL OF RIGID ROTOR ON TWO
ASYMMETRIC BEARINGS
Bearing 1 Bearing 2
probe
location
Lif
M
S>
xi C
^ ^
Xlp
yi
yip
"nT
_| Gravity
Si
R,
L
2
L
2
f
Fix
&
-X2

-S2-
R
2
~X2
- 4 * y2
Fby
p
b x
Fby = kyx X +kyy y +byx i +byy y
Fbx=kxx x +kxy y +bxx x +bx
y
y
(a) Harmonic excitation (b) impact excitation (c) Unbalance excitation
fi=f,
Fby] 2 W Fby
Fig.6.1 Typical rotor-bearing system with different excitation forces.
A normal rotor-bearing system is shown in Fig.6.1. Assume the rotor is rigid, c
164
is its gravity center and Cf is the acting point of the excitation force. For general
purpose, Cf is supposed to be different from the gravity center. When an excitation force
fi is exerted on the rotor, the kinematic energy of the rotor as shown in Fig.6.2 is:
T = y ( X c 2 + y
c
2
+ Z
c
2)+^(I
x
fi>
x
1
+ I
y
0)
2
+ I
Z
G)
Z
2
) (6-1)
Fig.6.2 Kinematic system of the rotor
Since xc = (L, x
2
+L
2
x
l
)/L = \
x
x
2
+1
2
x,
yc = (Li Y2 + U y i) /L = li Y2 +
l
i yi
zc = constant
cos6 =
^ / L
2
+ ( x
2
- x
1
)
2
+ (y
2
-yi)
2
_iy2-yi
cp = tan
T x
2 "
X
l
(y
2
- yi)(
x
2 -
x
i) -(Y2-yi)(
x
2-
x
i)
9= ~T 2
(x
2
-Xi) +(y
2
-yi)
and Xc = li x
2
+1
2
x,
y'c =ii Y2 +I2 yi
Zc = 0
165
(^ =Q =
(x
2
- x
x
) (x
2
-
X l
) + (y
2
- y!)(y
2
- y{)
L\J (x
2
-x
l
)
2
+
(y
2
-y
l
)
2
(ay=q) sinG ~
(y
2
-yi)(x
2
-x
1
)-(y
2
-y
1
)(x
2
-x
1
)
L^ (x
2
-
Xl
)
2
+ (y
2
-
yi
)
2
cOj = - Q + (p cos6
y (I
X
Q)
X
+ I
y
C0
2
) = |i
p
[ (x
2
-
Xl
)
2
+ (y
2
-
yi
)
2
]
T=2 [ (m if + i
t
) x\+ 2 (m lj 1
2
- i
t
) x, x
2
+ (m 1?+ i
t
) x
2
2
+ (ml
2
+ i
t
) y
]
+ 2 ( m l
1
l
2
- i
t
) y
t
y
2
+ (mlf+i,) y l ] + T
= | q
T
Mq + T
z
Where:
9 = t
x
i Yi >
x
2 y2 ]
T
are displacements at bearing centres
1 2 1
T
z = 2 ^ z
=
2
Iz( Q
"
9 COS0 }
'
(6-2)
= - I
z
( Q
2
- 2 Q ( p cos9 ) (generally 9 Q)
LL
Q
2
-2fl
(y
2
- yi)(
x
2 -
x
i) - (y2 - yi) (
x
2 -
x
i)
[ (x
2
-
X l
)
2
+ (y
2
- y
1
)
2
]VL
2
+(x
2
-x
1
)
2
+ (y
2
-yi)
:
(6-3)
If k* = and by (k=l,2; i, j = x, y ) represent the stiffness and damping coefficients of
s-th bearings, 6x
s
and 8y
s
(s =1,2) represent the virtual displacements, the virtual
work done by the elastic restoring force of the oil film in two bearings is:
Ws = [l4 x, +l4
y
y, ] 5x
t
+ [k
!
yx
x
t
+ ky
y
y, ] 8y,
+ [k^ x
2
+ k^
y
y
2
] 8x
2
+ [k
2
yx
x
2
+ k
2
yy
y
2
] 5y
2
166
= 5q
T
Kq
Where:
8q= [Sx^Sy! , 8x
2
,8y
2
]
T
(6-4)
(6-5)
In the same way , the virtual work done by damping force is
Wb = 8q
T
B q
(6-6)
Assume the virtual work done by the excitation forces to be:
W
f
= 8q
T
F (6-7)
From Lagrangian Equation
dt^-^
= F
-
Bq
-
Kq
as
dT 3T
7
3q 3q
d ,9T. A K ' ' ^ .3T
Z
.
d?3? =
M

+
d?3?
(6-8)
(6-9)
substimting T
z
in (6-9) and (6-8) yields the linearised lateral movement equation of the
rotor:
M q + ( Q G + B ) q + K q = F (6-10)
Where:
M=
ml%+i
t
0 ml^2-i
t
0
0 ml^+if 0 m^-it
mlj^-if 0 mlf+if 0
0 ml^ -i
t
0 m\ +i
t
G=
0 -i
p
0 i
p
'
i
p
0 -i
p
0
0 i
p
0 -i
p
L-ip h
(6-11)
167
K=
k
1
k
1
*-xx ^-xy
k
1
k
1
"yx *-yy
0 0
0 0
0
0
k
2
*-xx
k
2
*-yx
0
0
k
2
*-xy
k
2
Kyy
B =
b
xx
b
yx
0
0
b
xy
byy
0
0
0
0
b
xx
byx
0
0
b
xy
byy
(6-12)
Equation (6-10) can be used as a general mathematical model for the lateral
motion of a rotor supported by two journal bearings. The positions of two bearings can
be interchanged but the x-y coordinates must be related to the rotational direction as
shown in Fig.6.1(a).
To derive the force matrix F for different excitation methods, assume 8x
S
f and
8y
s
f to be the virtual displacements at the acting point of the excitation force f
s
(s =1,2).
The force matrix F then can be found according to the virtual-work-theorem.
6.2.1 Harmonic Excitation
The virtual work done by the harmonic excitation force is:
W f = fi cosaiSxif -fi sinaiSyif + f
2
cosa
2
8x
2f
- f
2
sina
2
8y
2
f (6-13)
Since x
if
=x
2f
= (L
i f
x
2
+ L
2 f
xi)/ L = l
lf
x
2
+ l
2f
xi
yif =V2f = (Lif y2 + L
2
f yi)/ L = l
u
y
2
+ l
2f
yi
Substituting them into (6-13) yields:
W
f
-[Sxi Sy
l
Sx
2
5y
2
]
/i
l2f cos a
x
-l2
f
sin !
\j cos cx
l
-^f sin a
x
+ ft
l2
f
COS CX
2
"^
-l2f sin a
2
\j cos a
2
-lyj sin a
2
V
= Sq
T
[f
l
C
fl
+f
2
C
f2
]
168
thus the force matrix in (6-10) is:
F = F. = /
1
C
/ 1
+ /
2
C
fl^J 2^/2
(6-14)
If only one force is exerted at one run as done in the separated excitation procedure in
Sections 6.3 and 6.4.2, the force matrix is:
* = F
e
= f
k
C
Jk
k=l,2
(6-14)'
Where
f
k
= f
ko
sin(C0
k
t + ^
k
)
l
2f
cosa
x
-L
f
sina,
C =
\
f
COSQL
x
k=l,2
r =
*~/2
l
2f
COSOL
2
-l
2f
sina
2
lyfCOS^
-^
1/
5ina
2
(6-15)
(6-16)
6.2.2 Impact Excitation
For the impact excitation method (see Chapter 8), both impact forces are exerted
individually. The force matrix F can be written as:
= F
n
= C
Jh
F n=x,y (6-17)
If the impact force are exerted in horizontal and vertical directions, i.e. ai = 0 and
a
2
= In 12, thus according to (6-16) the force factor matrices in (6-17) are:
C
f* =
V
o
0
c
fi=
0
hf
0
(6-18)
Expressions (6-17) and (6-18) are used as the excitation force matrices in the impact
excitation method in Chapter 8.
169
6.2.3 Unbalanced Excitation
If two unbalance masses mi and m2 are attached on the rotor as shown in
Fig.6.1(c), their centrifugal forces are:
fi = mj pi Q
2
i=l,2 (6-19)
Their components on x and y directions are:
f
ix
= fi sin(Qt + Oi) f
iy
= f
;
cos (Qt + $i) i=l,2 (6-20)
The virtual work done by the unbalance forces:
W f = -fi
x
8xfi - fi
y
8 y,i - f
2x
8x
Q
- f
2y
8 y
f2
(6-21)
Since Sxn = (1
2
+ r
t
) 8x
t
+ (^ - r
2
) 8x
2
8yfi=(l
2
+ r
1
)8y
1
+ (l
1
-r
2
)8y
2
8 x
0
= (1
2
- f2) 8x
x
+ (li +r
2
) 8x
2
8yt2 = (1
2
- r
2
) 8y
x
+ (li+r
2
) 8y
2
Substimting them into (6-21) yields:
W
f
= -<5q
T
2 s:T
= -& <5q
f ^ + rJsiniGlt + <&
x
) + f
2
( ^ - r
2
)sin(Qf + 3>
2
)'
f i (h + h) cos(Qf + $!) + f
2
(h ~ r
2
) cos(Qf + 0
2
)
f
t
(^ - r
x
) sin(Qr + O
t
) + f
2
(^ + r
2
)
s i n
(
Q f +
^2)
f
x
(^ - r
x
) cos(Qf + *!) + f
2
(/i + r
2
) cos(Qf + 0>
2
)
u^ j sin(Qf + Oj) + % sin(&f + 0
2
)
Mj! COS(Qf + <&!) + i
2
COS(Qf + <
2
)
1*2! sin(Qf + Oj) + 2
2
sin(flf + <S>
2
)
u
21
cos(Qr+O^ + 22 cos(Or+0
2
).
= 5q
T
F
Therefore the force matrix for the unbalance excitation method is:
170
= F
k
=
-&
u
n
sin(Qr + Oi) + w
12
sin(Qf + 0
2
) "
Mn cos(Qr + <3>i) + u
l2
cos(Qr + <t>
2
)
U21 sin(Qf + ^
l
) + u
22
sin(Qr + 0
2
)
U21 cos(Qf + <E>!) + M22 cos(Qf + 0
2
)
(6-22)
The unbalance matrix is:
U =
u
n
u
n
."21 "22 J
m
iPi(^2
+r
i) nhPi(h-
r
i)
m
iPi('i->i) "hPiih+ri)
(6-23)
The displacement measurement points are normally off the bearing mid-center
because of the limited space. Suppose the displacements at the measurement points are
xi
p
, yip, X2p and y2p, then the displacements at the bearing center can be calculated as:
x
i
- x
\p
X
\
P
~
x
2p
m-so
(6-24)
S
l
+S
2
(32 + Ly )x
lp
+ (5i - Lt )x
2p
5^+52
^(s
2
+l
l
)x
lp
+(s
l
-l
l
)x
2p
s
x
+ s
2
Other displacements yi, X2 and y2 can also be calculated in a similar way. Combining
them yields the following relationship:
[
x
i yi 1 _ 1 r S2+I1 si-ii "i r xi
p
y
i p
L x
2
y
2
J ~ S!+s
2
L s
2
-l
2
Si+l
2
J Lx
2 p
y
2p
J
(6-25)
6.3 COEFFICIENTS ESTIMATION M E T H O D F R O M
HARMONIC RESPONSES
6.3.1
Dimensionless Model
As derived in Section 6.2.1 the dimensional model of the rotor-bearing system
under harmonic excitation is:
171
Mq + (&G+B)q + Kq = F
e
(6-26)
where:
F
e
=
C/kfk k-1,2 for separated excitations
C/1/1 + C/2/2 for combined excitations
Since the definition of the dimensionless coefficients K-j and Bfj in the previous
chapters involved the static load W of each bearing, this load is different if the rotor
bearing system is not symmetric, and it changes with the bearing eccentricity. They can
not be directly used in the dimensionless model if two bearings withstand different static
loads. If we define the following dimensionless terms:
_
K
i,j
~ c
(6-28)
K , = K ,/? =
l
'
J
= -
uj .;
w s
Bf' =B*/S
s
=
cQbij
=
u i.
} w s
\iLl C
k
n(c/R)
3
blj _ br
\LL C
b
The dimensionless coefficients are linearly related with the dimensional coefficients
LtL U L D
^ ^ and C
k
= WS/c = -^-
K (c/R)
3 k
n (c/R)
~ I If , \ if f A A
C
b
WS/cQ = -^jf and C
k
= WS/c = j are constant for each bearing
at different eccentricities, thus they can simplify the simulation for the system of two
bearings, each with different bearing coefficients or different eccentricities. Substituting
these dimensionless coefficients into Eq (6-26) yields the dimensionless system model:
Mq + (QG + C
b
B)t + C
k
Kq = F
e
/c (6-29)
where K = KI C
k
and B = B/C
b
. If the geometry parameters Ck and Cb of two
bearings are not equal, C
k
and C
b
could be the average values of two bearings. The
dimensional coefficients equal the estimated dimensionless coefficients multiplied Ck or
C
b
.
172
6.3.2 Estimation Method
Performing Fourier transform at co=CDk on Eq (6-50) yields the system model in
frequency domain:
[C
k
K-co
2
M + jco
k
(QG+C
b
B)] QUco
k
) =
e
(jco
k
)/c (6-30)
or:
[C
k
K + jco
k
C
b
B)] Q(jco
k
) =
e
(jco
k
)/c + (co
2
k
M- jco
k
Q.G)Q(jco
k
)
(6-31)
The frequency characteristics at frequency (Ok are expressed as matrices:
(Cft
k
(]a)
k
) k = l,2 for separated excitations
e
(]m
k
) = \ (6-32)
\Cfi
l
Qm
k
) + Cf
2
F
2
(jQ)
fc
) for combined excitations
QUa
k
) = Q
k
~ + JQi=[xi
k
+jXi
k
, Yl
k+
jYi
k
,Xl
k
+jX'
u
, Y^+jY^f
(6-33)
superscript r is the real part, i the imaginary part.
These frequency characteristics can be approximately calculated by the modified discrete
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) technique:
Fk (J (k) = 4" Ifk (
u
T) e
-j
uT
(6-34)
iN
u=Q
2
rt
Q U % ) = f frq(t)e"^^
t
N
(O^NT
2%
(6-35)
2
N
^
1
, ~ v -1 2TCUI/N
* Zq(uT)e
J
N =o
2 ^r
1
-jco
fc
uT
= I q ( u T ) e
J k
N
M
=o
The additional factor 2/t
N
to the normal FFT expression makes the frequency
characteristics of a harmonic wave assume the same amplitude as that in the time domain
173
if the integration time duration t
N
is the multiple integral period of the periodical signal
(see section 6.3.4).
Substituting Q(jco
k
) to Eq (6-31) and separating real and imaginary parts:
C
k
KQl - (D
k
C
b
B(i = F^ (jco
k
)/c + (0
2
MQ[ + co
k
nGQ
k
= P[ (6-36)
C
k
KQl + co
k
C
b
BQl =
l
e
(jco
k
)/c + co
2
MQ
k
- co
k
Q.GQl = P[
(6
-37)
Substituting K, B, M and G in equations (6-36) and (6-37) and rearranging it yields
the following linear equation:
A
k
Z = D
k
(6-38)
Subscript k= 1 or 2 means the data under fi or f2 respectively. Equation (6-38) includes
4 complex equations, partitioning them into real and imaginary parts yields 8 linear
equations. T w o sets of responses to two independent excitations (at different
frequencies or different directions) are sufficient to solve 16 unknown coefficients.
Combining equation (6-38) at 2 independent excitations yields:
AZ = D
where
A =
A'
A.
D =
IA
(6-39)
(6-40)
and
A
t
=
z=
Q-î,*
Kxx Kxy
yx yy
C
k
Y[,
k
0
v2 v2 nl nl
A-xx &xy &xx
D
xy
v-2 V-2 nl nl
yx ^yy yx "yy
0 -co
k
C
b
Xl
k
-c
^xx Bxy
nl D2
yx yy
'
b
Y[,
k
0 0
C
k
Xl
k
C
k
Yl
k
0 0 0)
k
C
b
Xl
k
(O
k
C
b
Yl
k
0 0
0 0 C
k
Xl
k
C
k
Y^
k
0 0 -co
k
C
b
X
2<k
-Q)
k
C
b
Y
2
,
k
0 0 C
k
Xi
tk
C
k
Y
2
,
k
0 0 {o
k
C
b
H^
k
(O
k
C
b
Y
r
Xk
(6-41)
(6-42)
174
D
k
=
P
r
k
(X)
P[(2)
no) m)
P
r
k
(3) P
r
k
(4)
P
k
(3) P
k
(4)
k=land 2
(6-43)
^*0)> P'kU) 0 = 1.2,3 and 4) are calculated from the second equation of Eq (6-36) and
Eq (6-37)
The unique solution of equation (6-39) requires matrix A to be nonsingular,
which means the rank of matrix A is 8. Since A is combined from Ak, if:
(i) Ak is independent on each other (k=l,2), and
(ii) the rank of Ak is 4
then the rank of A is 8 and A is nonsingular.
Condition (i) can be satisfied by changing the frequency or direction. Condition
(ii) requires (see Eq (6-42)):
(X\\ Y]^ -X^Y^XX-^Y^ -X2JJ Y
2Jc
)?
i
0
This condition is normally satisfied. Extensive numerical experiments with
e = 0.1 to 0.9 have been performed on computer, and matrix A has been found to be
non-singular in all these cases.
If A is nonsingular, the coefficients can be calculated by the following matrix
operation:
Z=A~
l
D
(6-44)
Normally, M , G and CI can be estimated or measured directly. The exciting force
fiand f% and the displacement response q(t) can be measured. Q(jk) and F
k
(j<k) are
obtained through the Fourier transform from which matrices A and D in equation (6-39)
can be constructed. Thus all 16 coefficients in matrix Z can definitely be determined by
Eq (6-44).
175
In the traditional experiments on the harmonic excitation method, two excitations
forces were applied separately with the displacement responses measured respectively.
For each excitation 4 complex equations as expressed by Eq (6-38) can be obtained.
Partitioning them into real and imaginary parts yields 8 linear equations. If the system is
excited twice, 16 linear equations can be obtained and solved for 16 unknown bearing
coefficients. This separated excitation method is convenient in calculating the bearing
coefficients by classical way, where the harmonic responses can be averaged and curve-
fitted to obtain the amplitudes and phases. Since this excitation procedure needs to shake
the rotor twice and it will take some time for rotor to operate steadily under each
excitation force, the bearing conditions may change a little during this period, which will
introduce an error on the estimated coefficients. With the development of F F T
technique, it is possible to acquire all data including the frequency characteristics at two
excitation frequencies (Someya, 1989). This needs to excite the system only once with
two dynamic forces at different frequencies. This one-excitation method is called the
combined excitation procedure (or method) in this thesis. In this chapter both 'separated'
and 'combined' excitation procedures are thoroughly simulated on a computer.
6.3.3 Elimination of the Initial Vibration Effect
There are unavoidably some residual rotor vibrations before the excitation
applying on the rotor because of the unbalanced rotor mass, radius coupling forces and
surface roughness. If these initial vibrations are significant compared with the excited
responses, they should be eliminated from the excited responses.
If the rotor takes initial displacement vector qo(t) because of unknown force
vector uo(t), their frequency characteristics Qo(j<)
md u
o(j<o) should satisfy the system
model in the frequency domain:
[C
k
K-i>
2
M + ja>(QG+C
b
B)]Q
o
U<0) = U
o
U)' c (6-45)
176
W h e n the excitation force F
e
is exerted on the rotor, the vibration vectors Q(j) should
also satisfy:
[C
k
K - co
2
M + jco(lG + C
b
B)]Q(jco)
(6-46)
= U
0
Uco)lc +
e
(ja>)lc
Subtracting (6-45) from (6-46) eliminates the unknown force Uo(j(o):
[C
k
K - co
2
M + jco(GlG + C
b
B)][Q(jco) - Q. (jco)] =
e
(ja>) I c (6-47)
This expression takes the same form as equation (6-30) if the initial unbalance
vibration Qo(JG>) is subtracted from the response QQ(0) measured under the excitation.
Therefor the same coefficient calculation equation (6-44) can be used after the initial
vibration being subtracted from the excited responses.
6.3.4 Selection of the Sample Duration t
N
If the rotor is excited with one harmonic force each time, the displacement
responses should also be the harmonic waves with the same frequency as the excitation
force for a linear system. If the sample interval and the sample duration are carefully
selected, the frequency characteristics of the force and the responses can be accurately
obtained by the discrete Fourier transform (FFT). To make the result of the discrete
Fourier transform of a periodical wave equal the result of the continuous Fourier
transform, the sample duration t
N
must be an integer multiple of the period of the signal.
For example, for the harmonic signal A cos(2KC0k t), if the sample duration is:
t
N
=No/G)k k=l or 2
Then at frequency Q)k the discrete Fourier Transform will be A:
177
F(Acos2KG)
k
t)\ = 2 Xcos(27ta)
fc
u T ) e"J
2lz u i
'
N
k
N
M
=o
.
t
NT
i =
27t
= A (6-48)
= fcco&(2mQ
k
t)eJ
i0
>
t
dt
N
which is the same as the continuous Fourier transform. Thus accurate frequency
characteristic can be found by the FFT.
For the combined excitations, two harmonic forces are exerted on the rotor, each
force with different frequency. Assume the frequencies of two excitation forces are i
and 2 , their periodical times are ti and t
2
respectively; if two integers Ni and N
2
can
be found to satisfy :
Ni ti = N
2
1
2
(6-49)
then the responses will be periodical waves. The periodical time is:
Ni ti =Ni /i
Therefore the frequencies of the combined excitation procedure should be
carefully selected to satisfy (6-49). However in some engineering application, the
excitation frequency can not be exactly controlled, that is equation (6-49) can not be
satisfied. Thus the frequency characteristics at exact excitation frequencies can not be
obtained by the discrete FFT. In this case, two excitation frequencies should be
separated as far as possible. However, both excitation frequencies should be close to the
rotation frequency of the journal to reduce the sensitivity of the estimation coefficients to
the experimental errors ( see Section 6.5). Normally, 5< lco
2
-coil <10 H z is reasonable.
Simulation has shown that if the sample duration is:
t
N
= ,
r
N
Q
is a positive integer (6-50)
|
C0
2""
G>
l|
the estimation results are better than those of other arbitrary sample duration. The
a), - co, I
frequency resolution of F F T under sample duration (6-50) is -
L
, two excitation
frequencies are separated just an integer intervals, which makes the frequency alias
178
smaller than those separated with a non-integer intervals. In fact, N
0
is the output points
of FFT between two excitation frequencies. The larger the N
0
value, the smaller the alias
effect between two frequencies, the more accurate the estimation results. However,
larger N
0
requires more sample data which is also limited by computer memory.
Normally N
0
>5 can produce reasonable results.
The sample interval T for the FFT can be determined from the sample duration.
For the separated excitation, the sample interval T is calculated by:
T = N
0
t
N
/N = ^- k = lor2 (6-51)
GS
k
N
For the combined excitations, all the sample interval T in this thesis is given by:
T = N
0
t
N
/N=
N
(6-32)
]
2
-l|/V
In practical application, the signals are sampled by a digital computer with an A/D
converter. Since the computer and the A/D converter need some time to convert and
store the data, the sample interval T
0
can not be set arbitrarily, so that the sample interval
T
0
can not be exactly set to T as in (6-51) or (6-52). To solve this problem, the quadratic
Lagrangian interpolation (Section 18.3, Kreyszig, 1993) is employed to re-sample the
signals with the exact interval T. Computer simulation shows that the variation between
the frequency characteristics from the re-sampled signal and from the exact signal is less
than 0.1% if the sample frequencies (1/T
0
or 1/T) are higher than 5 times of the signal
frequency.
6.4 SIMULATION TESTS
6.4.1 Procedure of Numerical Experiments
Numerical experiments on computer can determine the efficiency and applicability
of the proposed estimation method. To simulate the real experiment, the numerical test
179
includes:
(i) Input the data of rotor-bearing system and theoretical coefficients calculated at the
assumed bearing eccentricities. The coefficients calculated by Someya (1989) are
used as the theoretical coefficients in the following simulation.
(ii) Construct time domain model Eq (6-26), calculate two excitation forces according
to Eq (6-27)
(hi) For the separated excitations, solve the displacement response qk(t) under fk from
Eq (6-26) by the Runge-Kutta integration method (Jackson, 1985). The responses
are saved as discrete series qk(uT
0
), T
0
is a practical value corresponding to an A/D
converter. For the combined excitation, solve the displacement response q(t)
under two excitation forces.
(iv) Re-sample q(uT
0
) to obtain a new discrete series q(uT). The quadratic Lagrangian
interpolation technique (p938, Kreyszig, 1993) is used.
(v) Impose the white noise on q(uT) to simulate noise effect (see Section 6.4.4).
(vi) Perform FFT on the time-domain signals F
e
(uT) and q(uT) to obtain F
e
(jk) and
Q(jk) in frequency domain.
(vii) Construct matrices A and D in Eq (6-39)
(viii) Calculate coefficients Z by Eq (6-44)
(ix) Calculated the estimated error e
e
according to the following equation (6-53). If e
e
is close to 0, the method is valid or applicable.
To assess the estimated results, the following average relative error is calculated:
Z(i,j)-Z
Q
(i,j)
e
=
' 1 8 2
10 ,=1 ;=1
Z
0
0',y)
(6-53)
J
180
Fig.6.3 shows the computation procedure.
Read in m, it, ip, i, 2, Zo,
Q, Sk, fko, k, Ok, Uo and
other bearing parameters
Calculate Ck and_Cb
Construct M , G, B and K
I
Solve q(uTo) from Eq (6-26)
| q(uTo)
Re-sample q(uTo) with T
| q(uT)
FFT
Fk(jco), Qk(jco)
Construct A and D
I
Z= A
1
D
Fig.6.3 The flow chart of the simulation program
Parameters of the simulated rotor-bearing system:
c=0.15,
L=400mm,
m=171 kg,
Q = 50 Hz
L
b
=200 mm,
D
b
= 200,
h= 1
2
= lif = l
2f
=0.5
i
t
=32 kg i
p
=5.34kg,
C
k
= 5.34 x 10
7
N/m, C
b
=1.70 x 10
5
N/m/s
Excitations:
cci = 30 ,
i = 30 Hz,
* i = 0 ,
fio =f
2o
= 2x104
N
FFT:
N=512,
a
2
= 150
2
=40 Hz
<E>2= 7C/4
T
0
=2E-4 s,
T= 1.95313E-04 s
181
6.4.2 Separated Excitation
Traditionally harmonic excitation method needs to excite the rotor or bearing
twice. The bearing coefficients can be determined based on the amplitudes and phases of
the journal displacement responses. The aforementioned coefficients estimation method
can also be applied for this excitation procedure. At the parameters as described in
Section 6.4.1, and if both bearings are symmetric and operated at the same eccentricity
ratios 1 = 2 = 0.6 (Si=S2 =0.131), the simulated responses are shown in Fig.6.4.
Performing FFT on these time domain signals produces their frequency characteristics as
following:
Q(j30)=
Q(j40)=
0.022841 + j 0.075095
-0.024942 - j 0.022887
0.022841 + j 0.075095
-0.024942 + j -0.022887
0.047975 - j 0.079960 "
0.005830 + j 0.063433
0.047975 - j 0.079960
0.005830 + j 0.063433 _
Fl(j30)=(-4.59617E-03-j 1.00005)
F
2
(j40) = (0.706140 -j 0.708075)
Substituting these data into Eq (6-40) yields:
A =
(6-54)
0.1220 -0.1332 0 0 -0.2406 0.0733 0 0
0.4011 -0.1222 0 0 0.0732 -0.0799 0 0
0 0 0.1220 -0.1332 0 0 -0.2406 0.0733
0 0 0.4011 -0.1222 0 0 0.0732 -0.0799
0.2562 0.0311 0 0 0.3416 -0.2710 0 0
-0.4270 0.3388 0 0 0.2050 0.0249 0 0
0 0 0.2562 0.0311 0 0 0.3416 -0.2710
0 0 -0.4270 0.3388 0 0 0.2050 0.0249
10'
182
1=30 Hz <D1=0
fl, 30 Hz
(fl2 = 40 Hz <D2=7t/4
o
o.;
f2, 40 Hz, /4 delayed
0.00 0.05 t(s)
(a) Harmonic excitation forces
0.10
0.2
0.0'
.r7
-
3ur i
Exciting twice:
(oi=30 Hz <E>1=0
Q=50Hz Uo=0
xl=x2.1
0
yl=y2.1
/ ) ^ \ /
i .. . i i -
0)2 = 40 Hz 02=71/4
1=2=0.6
A
A
yfobf A cr \ j5
iYKM V*
/VTA
I . 1
-
xl=x2.2
yl=y2.2
(\/h
0.00
0.05
t(s)
0.10
Suffix .k means the response under excitation of fk, k= 1,2
(b) Simulated responses under two excitations
Fig.6.4 Simulated harmonic force and their displacement responses
183
Table 6.1 Estimated coefficients by separated or combined excitation procedures
(Two symmetric bearings, 1=
2
= 0.6 Si=S
2
=0.131)
Exci-
tation
methods
Separ-
ated
c
0
m
b
i
n
e
d
Cases
Given
(Someya, 1989)
0% noise
e=3.10E-04
0% noise
e=5.96E-04
10-15% noise
e=4.02E-02
20-30% noise
e=7.71E-02
30-45% noise
e=0.111
U
0
=f
i{
)/2
e=1.07E-03
Bearing No
Zo#l
Zo#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Kxx
1.770
1.770
1.770
1.770
1.770
1.770
1.735
1.740
1.703
1.711
1.672
1.684
1.771
1.771
Kxy
-0.553
-0.553
-0.552
-0.552
-0.552
-0.552
-0.612
-0.601
-0.665
-0.645
-0.713
-0.685
-0.551
-0.551
Kyx
3.060
3.060
3.060
3.060
3.061
3.061
2.938
2.955
2.822
2.854
2.710
2.757
3.061
3.061
Kyy
3.190
3.190
3.190
3.190
3.193
3.193
2.925
2.973
2.681
2.772
2.458
2.587
3.193
3.193
Bxx
1.740
1.740
1.740
1.740
1.740
1.740
1.758
1.753
1.772
1.764
1.782
1.771
1.739
1.739
Bxy
1.820
1.820
1.820
1.820
1.820
1.820
1.796
1.795
1.769
1.768
1.739
1.739
1.819
1.819
Byx
1.820
1.820
1.819
1.819
1.817
1.817
1.963
1.931
2.088
2.030
2.193
2.114
1.818
1.818
Byy
6.690
6.690
6.689
6.689
6.687
6.687
6.713
6.688
6.717
6.674
6.703
6.649
6.688
6.688
* Although the dimensionless coefficients K
{
j = K
tj
I S and B^ = B
t
j IS are used in the simulation,
they are transformed to Kij and Bij here for consistency with the previous chapters.
** The given coefficients, which are input to the simulated bearing model, are theoretical coefficients of
a circular bearing with two 10-axial-grooves calculated by Someya (1989).
184
D =
0.0335
5.7966
0.0335
5.7966
4.1028
-4.1313
4.1028
-4.1313
0.0077
3.3265
0.0077
3.3265
-2.3507
2.3945
-2.3507
2.3945
10'
(6-55)
Putting A and D in Eq (6-44) solved the 16 unknown coefficients as presented in Table
6.1. With an estimation error 8
e
= 3.10 xlO"
4
, the estimated coefficients are almost the
same as the given values. The negligible discrepancies are caused by numerical
integration and F F T errors. If Q(jCQk) is solved directly from Eq (6-31), the estimated
coefficients are exactly the same as the given values.
Since the principle of this separated excitation method has been used and reported
previously (Hisa, 1980; Someya, 1989), it is not necessary to mention more simulation
analysis on this excitation method. More simulations are in the next section on the
combined excitation procedure, which has not been reported in detail before.
6.4.3 Combined Excitation
6.4.3.1 Symmetric Bearings
For the same parameters of the rotor-bearing system, the same two harmonic
forces as shown in Fig.6.4(a) are exerted on the rotor simultaneously. Fig.6.5 presents
the time-domain responses and their frequency characteristics from FFT. Since two
excitation signals satisfy equation (6-49) (3/30 = 4/40), their responses are periodical
signals with a period of 3/30=0.1 s. From the re-sampled signals, the frequency
responses are only two lines at two excitation frequencies as shown in Fig.6.5(b).
Normal frequency analyser can not achieve this because its sample interval can not be
arbitrarily adjusted. The frequency responses are written as:
185
Q(j30)=
Q(j40)=
0.023398 + j 0.075052
-0.025145 - j 0.022754
0.023398 + j 0.075052
-0.025145 + j -0.022754
0.046887 - j 0.080736
0.006748 + j 0.063425
0.046887 - j 0.080736
0.006748 + j 0.063425
Fx(j30) = -0.011807-;0.999969 , F
2
(J30) = -0.000246-;0.022754
F
l
(j40) = 0.000001 -;0.000268 , F
2
(;'40) = 0.695860-;0.718182
Substituting these data into Eq (6-40) yields:
A =
(6-56)
D =
0.1248
0.4003
0
0
0.2501
-0.4306
0
0
"0.0739
5.7972
0.0739
5.7972
4.0429
-4.1885
4.0429
^1.1885
-0.1341
-0.1214
0
0
0.0360
0.3383
0
0
0.0325"
3.3257
0.0325
3.3257
-2.3159
2.4291
-2.3159
2.4291
0 0
0 0
3.1248 -0.1341
14003 -0.1214
0 0
0 0
0.2501 0.0360
-0.4306 0.3383
10
7
-0.2402
0.0749
0
0
0.3445
0.2001
0
0
0.0728
-0.0805
0
0
-0.2706
0.0288
0
0
0 0
0 0
-0.2402 0.0728
0.0749 -0.0805
0 0
0 0
0.3445 -0.2706
0.2001 0.0288
10'
(6-57)
Substituting A and D in Eq (6-44) results in all the coefficients as presented in Table 6.1.
The estimated coefficients are also nearly the same as their true values (input in the
simulation) for the noise free case.
186
0.2
O*
0.0
-0?,

* p
1
> 4
^ )

X
#
,
xl=x2,
yl=y2,
R
T *\
1 1 1 1 , , _
noise free . xl=x2, 2 0 % noise
noise free o yl=y2, 3 0 % noise
/ w
'1 \ J^j \
to ; * *r \ y\.
n i^ A V 3
f\ \
%
\ I J
'*
v
V 7
i
-
i
NSo^V

0.00
0.05 t(s)
o.oio
ts
3
O
0.005
A
.
O
-
+
) - *
1 '
0
0
+
< i r
.
-
.

-
0) (Hz) -
*@-
1
-
J
@-
J
(8
col=30 Hz
oo2 =40 Hz
Q=50 Hz
Uo=0
No=l
O xl=x2
+
k
o
yl=y2
fl/100
2/100
0.10
20 40 60 80
(b) Frequency response without U
0
(8i=
2
= 0.6, Q = 5 0 Hz)
Fig.6.5 Simulated displacement responses under combined excitations
Matrices A and D in Eq (6-57) are slightly different from those in Eq (6-55),
which is mainly caused by the alias of frequency characteristics (power leakage of the
discrete FFT). Theoretically, the amplitudes of a harmonic signal in frequency domain
187
are zero at all frequencies except at the excitation frequency, but they are not zero in
practical cases because of various errors. In the simulation, although the double
precision is used in the dynamic simulation, the amplitudes at the frequencies other than
the excitation frequency is normally less than 2.5% of that at the excitation frequency.
This can be seen from (3-56), where IFi(j40)l <0.03% IFiG30)l ( IFi(j30)l=l at the
excitation frequency 30 Hz) and IF
2
(j30)l<2.3% 1F
2
0"40)I( IF
2
(j40)l=l). Since the
responses are periodical waves (t
N
=3/30=4/40=0.1 s), the F F T outputs the frequency
characteristics at the exact excitation frequencies, this power leakage does not affect the
coefficient estimation significantly according to the estimation results as shown in Table
6.1.
6.4.3.2 Asymmetric Bearings
When both bearings have different force coefficients, the method should also be
able to determine all of their coefficients. Assuming bearing 1 operates at an eccentricity
ratio 8i= 0.6 and bearing 2 at E
2
=0.5 (S2=0.194), the simulated responses are shown in
Fig.6.6, where there is also initial unbalance u
0
=fio/2. From these responses, the
estimated bearing coefficients are also presented in Table 6.2. If the signals are noise-
free, the estimated coefficients are nearly the same as the given values.
188
0.02
3
O
0.01 -
o.ooi.

0

0
+
1 1 1
T "

0
0
+
1
A
0
0
+
1 1 r - 1
-
-
-
"
W(Hz)
4 i - o i f i
ei=o.6
62=0.5
col=30
co2=40
n=50
Uo=fl0/2
xl
+ yl
A x2
o y2
0.10
20 40 60 80
(b) Frequency characteristics
Fig.6.6 Simulated displacement responses of asymmetric bearings
(!= 0.6,
2
=0.5, Q=50 Hz)
189
Table 6.2 Given and estimated coefficients of two asymmetric bearings
(Combined excitation, i= 0.6 ,
2
=0.5, Si=0.131,S
2
=0.194)
cases
Given (input)
(Someya, 1989 )
0 % noise
e=5.62E-04
10-20% noise
e=3.22E-02
20-30% noise
e=6.20E-02
30-40% noise
e=8.92E-02
U
o
=f
i0
/2
Ee=1.24E-03
Bearing No
Zo#l
Zo#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Kxx
1.770
1.890
1.770
1.890
1.735
1.869
1.703
1.848
1.672
1.829
1.891
1.771
Kxy
-0.553
-1.000
-0.552
-1.000
-0.612
-1.024
-0.665
-1.047
-0.713
-1.069
-0.550
-0.996
Kyx
3.060
3.090
3.061
3.091
2.938
3.021
2.821
2.953
2.710
2.887
3.061
3.091
Kyy
3.190
2.670
3.193
2.673
2.925
2.537
2.681
2.409
2.458
2.288
3.193
2.673
Bxx
1.740
2.310
1.740
2.310
1.759
2.311
1.772
2.311
1.782
2.310
1.738
2.308
Bxy
1.820
2.000
1.820
2.000
1.796
1.970
1.769
1.940
1.739
1.909
1.819
1.999
Byx
1.820
2.000
1.817
1.997
1.964
2.071
2.088
2.138
2.193
2.198
1.818
1.997
Byy
6.690
6.990
6.687
6.987
6.713
6.972
6.717
6.951
6.703
6.925
6.688
6.988
* The given coefficients, which are input to the simulated bearing model, are theoretical coefficients of a
circular bearing with two 10-axial-grooves calculated by Someya (1989).
6.4.4 Noise Effects
In real experiment, the measured signals will inevitably be contaminated by noise.
It is important to assess the sensitivity of the coefficients' estimates to the noise. A
sequence of pseudo-random numbers between -1 to 1 with zero mean is used to simulate
the noise. These random numbers are added to the simulated displacement and force
signals after being multiplied by a constant that adjusts the noise level. Fig.6.5(a) shows
the contaminated displacement signals, where the noise level is 0.034 , which is 20% of
the maximum peak of signal xi(or x
2
) and 30% of the peak of y i(or y
2
). To determine
190
the amplitudes and phases from these noise signals in the time domain is quite difficult
and inaccurate. After transformed to frequency-domain, they are easy to distinguish
from the noise. Since the power of the simulated noise is distributed in all frequency
range, its effect at frequencies i and 2 is negligible compared to the responses, i.e. the
signal/noise levels at these frequencies are very high (>100); so the noise effect on the
harmonic excitation method is not so serious after transforming the responses into the
frequency domain.
6.4.5 Initial Unbalance Effect
It is impossible to balance a rotor absolutely. How this unbalance affecting the
coefficients estimates determines the applicability of an identification method. To
simulate this effect, an unbalance force u
0
( f
ux
= -u
0
sin Q t , f
uy
= -u
0
cos Q t ) is
imposed on the centre of the rotor in addition to the excitation forces fi and i
2
. Fig.6.7
shows the responses with the unbalance force u
0
=fio/2 . Comparing with Fig.6.5, the
displacements in Fig.6.7 are dramatically changed because of the unbalance force. It is
difficult to analyse the responses in time domain. From the power spectrum as shown in
Fig.6.7(b), the power of the responses is concentrated at frequencies 1, CO2 and the
rotation speed Q (the frequency of the unbalance force is Q ) . After eliminating initial
vibration, the estimated bearing coefficients are as accurately as those without the initial
unbalance (see Table 6.1).
191
0.2
0.0
m
1 1 1 . 1 1 1 , ,
001=30 Hz co2=40Hz Q=50Hz Uo=fl0/2
xi=x2 A y
1=
y
2

V A A: \ A
A
t
/ Y / k : * ! \ A
-
0
/ \ o o r - s 2 %-
V A ! : 7 :\ V / \
\S\ j \J\ : \ r- : W
?
\J \ ': V\;
;
\J
V
1
0.00 0.05
t(s)
(a) Simulated harmonic responses in time domain
o.io
0.010
3
3
O
0.005
col=30 Hz
co2 =40 Hz
Q=50 Hz
Uo=fl0/2
O xl=x2.ul0
+ yl=y2.ul0
0.000
20 40 60 80
(b) Frequency response with U
0
=fio/2
Fig.6.7 Simulated harmonic responses of symmetric bearings
(Ei=
2
= 0.6, Uo =f
i0
/2, 2=50 Hz)
192
6.4.6 Effect of Non-periodical Responses
For the separated excitations, the responses are periodical and the frequency
characteristics at the excitation frequency can be obtained by resampling the responses no
matter what value the excitation frequency is. For the combined excitation method, the
displacement responses m a y not be the periodical waves due to the difficulty in setting
the excitation exactly. At this case, the discrete F F T will not output the frequency
characteristics at two exact excitation frequencies. For example, when ffli =26 and
0)2=35 Hz, the simulated dynamic responses are no longer periodical waves. The F F T
can not output the frequency characteristics at the exact excitation frequencies 26 and 35
Hz. For example, when N
0
=2, two peak frequencies of the frequency responses are 27
and 36 H z , they are 1 H z apart from the true values. From these inaccurate frequency
characteristics, the estimated error is as high as 8.9% as presented in Table 6.3. W h e n
N
0
is increased to 10, the peak frequencies become 26.1 and 35.1 Hz, they are only 0.1
H z different from the true values, the estimated accuracy increases to 0.9%, which is
satisfactory. Generally, if the frequency resolution is smaller than 0.2 Hz, the estimated
results are acceptable (e
e
<l%). Table 6.3 also shows the estimated results are not very
sensitive to the noise if the frequency resolution is small (N
0
>10).
6.4.7 Coefficient Estimation at Different Running Conditions
To check the method more extensively, coefficients of a full bearing(L/D=l) at
different eccentricities as presented in table 3.11 are substituted into the system model
(both bearings take the same coefficients). The simulated displacement responses at each
eccentricity are then contaminated with white noise of different levels. From these
contaminated responses, the coefficients are estimated and shown in Fig.6.8. Without
the noise contamination, the estimated coefficients are almost the same as the given
(input) values at all bearing eccentricities. For the moderate eccentricities ( 0.2 to 0.6)
the noise effect on the estimated coefficients are not severe, the estimation error is lower
193
than 5 % at the 2 0 % noise level. At higher eccentricities (>0.7) or at very lower
eccentricities(<0.2), the estimated coefficients are sensitive to the noise. This is because
the condition number of matrix A in Eq.(6-18) is high at these eccentricities, and the
condition number amplify the error in the measured or simulated time domain responses.
(This problem will be further discussed in section 6.5.). In the simulation the same
parameters of bearing and rotor are adopted; the exciting frequencies, sampling interval T
and the sampling number N are also the same. Changing these values can change the
estimated results. For example, increasing the rotor mass with the eccentricity or
increasing the sampling number N (enlarging the sampling duration tN) can reduce the
noise effect and improve the estimation accuracy.
Table 6.3 Estimated coefficients at different sample duration
(symmetric bearings, i= E
2
= 0.6 , Si=S2 =0.131, C0i=26 Hz, C02=35 Hz)
cases
Given (input)
J^ Someya, 19891
Noise free, No=2
e=8.95E-02
Noise free, No=10
e=9.21E-03
20% noise, No=10
e=4.36E-02
Bearing No
Zo#l
Zo#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Kxx
1.770
1.770
1.622
1.622
1.766
1.766
1.795
1.763
Kxy
-0.553
-0.553
-0.774
-0.774
-0.561
-0.561
-0.533
-0.572
Kyx
3.060
3.060
3.199
3.199
3.097
3.097
3.209
3.103
Kyy
3.190
3.190
3.399
3.399
3.263
3.263
3.335
3.209
Bxx
1.740
1.740
1.774
1.774
1.745
1.745
1.794
1.838
Bxy
1.820
1.820
1.696
1.696
1.822
1.822
1.851
1.913
Byx
1.820
1.820
1.787
1.787
1.776
1.776
1.967
2.163
Byy
6.690
6.690
6.805
6.805
6.676
6.676
6.894
7.046
* The given coefficients, which are input to the simulated bearing model, are theoretical coefficients of a
circular bearing with two 10-axial-grooves calculated by Someya (1989).
194
10

-10
0.0
001=30 Hz 002 =40 Hz 2=50 Hz Uo=0
given and estimated values
from the simulated
noise-free responses
Kyy
Kxx.10%
Kxy. 10%
A Kyx. 10%
* Kyy. 10%
a Kxx.20%
+ Kxy.20%
Kyx.20%
x Kyy.20%
0.5
(a) Stiffness coefficients
1.0
20

10
(01=30 Hz C02=40Hz Q=50Hz Uo=0
given and estimated values
from the simulated
noise-free responses
Bxx
0
Bxx. 10%
Bxy. 10%
A Byx. 10%
Byy.10%
a Bxx.20%
+ Bxy.20%
o Byx.20%
x Byy.20%
x
A
$S^T-3^4^:
o
A
0.0 0.5 1.0
(b) Damping coefficients
Suffix : 10% or 20% means the simulated responses are contaminated by the white noise
with a level of 10% or 20% of the maximum displacement amplitude
Fig.6.8 Estimated results of full bearing from simulated noisy displacement responses
195
6.5 SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
It is widely recognised that the estimated oil-film bearing coefficients are sensitive
to various experimental errors. For the aforementioned estimation method, it is also
necessary to analyse its sensitivity to the experimental error. For the linear system:
AZ = D (6-39)
if matrices A and D incur errors 3Ae and 3D
e
respectively, the estimated coefficients will
be a function of the error scale Z(3), which satisfy:
(A+?>A
e
)Z(l) = D+i>D
e
Where A and Ae R
8x8
, D, D
e
and Z e R
8x2
.
Differentiating Eq (6-58) with respect to 3 obtains:
A,Z(D) + (A+3A
e
)Z(i) = D
e
at 3=0: Z(0) = A~\D
e
-A
e
Z(3))
Thus, the Taylor series expansion for Z(3) at its true value Z(0) has the form:
Z(3)Z(0)+3 Z'(0)
(6-58)
(6-59)
-l,
or: Z(3) - Z(0) =3 Z' (0) =3 A
- 1
(D
e
-A
e
Z(0))
According to the norm property (Section 19.4, Kreyszig, 1993) the following relation
for triangle inequality holds:
|z(3)-z(0)||=3 A~\D
e
-A
e
ZCOHIÎA-
1
! (IAJI+IK I ||Z(0))||)
Thus
|Z(3) - Z(0
|Z(0))||
<3
1-1
< \D.\ .
|Z(0))|
196
or
\\dZ\\<K(A)[\\SD\\
+
\\SA\\]
(6-60)
where the relative errors are:
sn
_ |ZO) - Z(0)I 1
11
|Z(0))||
5A|I = 3 1^,
' \\M
5D\\ = 3 J
i
i
>
(6-61)
The condition number is calculated by:
K(A) = A
i-i
(6-62)
and the norm is defined as:
s 8
M-J114
;=1i=\
(6-63)
From Eq (6-60), the estimated error in Z is proportional to the condition number
and the experimental errors although Eq (6-60) can not be used to calculate the estimation
error directly. Since the error in the displacement measurement is normally as high as
4 % , if K ( A ) is very large (say 1000), the estimation error (uncertainty) could be very
high because it is proportional to K ( A ) according to Eq (6-60). To reduce the estimation
error, the condition number should be minimised in addition to increasing the
experimental accuracy as high as possible. Simulation shows the matrix condition
number is dependent on the rotor mass, excitation procedure, excitation force angles and
the excitation frequencies. Carefully selecting these parameters, except the rotor mass,
can effectively decrease the condition number and therefor improve the coefficients
estimation accuracy.
197
6.5.1 Condition Number of One-Direction Excitation
Theoretically, exciting the rotor twice in one direction with two different
frequencies forces can also obtain enough equations to solve the coefficients. This can
be confirmed by simulation. For the same parameters as mentioned in Figs.6.3 and 6.5
but oci=a2 =30 , the estimated coefficients from the simulated responses excited at one
direction with two harmonic forces are presented in Table 6.4. For the noise-free case,
the estimation error is e
e
= 3.06E-2, this accuracy is as high as those excited in two
directions. However, with the noise level increasing to 1 0 % of the maximum vibration
amplitude, although the error in A and D are very small:
INI = 3 ^ =4.12,10-3
= 6.97 x 10-3
m-ft
the estimated coefficients as presented in Table 6.4 are dramatically different from the
given values (input into the system model). The estimation error increase to
e
= 0.89,
which is unacceptable. This is because the condition number is very large:
K(A) = 3129 (coi=30Hz, co
2
=40Hz)
which greatly amplify the error caused by the simulated noise.
For the one direction excitation method, although increasing the excitation
frequencies ( coi and co
2
300 Hz) can decrease the K ( A ) significantly, K ( A ) is still
larger than 1000. Fig.6.9(a) shows the condition number of the single direction
excitation method for the full bearing(D/L=l) at different eccentricities. K ( A ) is larger
than 10000 as shown in Fig.6.9(a). This means the linear system Eq (6-39) is very ill-
conditioned (Section 19.4, Kreyszig, 1993), a small error in measurement will result in
large error in the estimated Z. Normally, the measurement error of available
displacement transducer is about 4 % , and the noise level in the displacement signals
198
could be as high as 1 0 % of the vibration amplitude. With these experimental errors, the
condition number of matrix A in Eq (6-39) should be less than 100 to produce acceptable
estimation (with error or uncertainty less than 25%) of the bearing coefficients according
to computer simulation. To reduce the uncertainty to 10%, the condition number should
be smaller than 45. The single direction excitation method will not yield the satisfactory
estimation of the bearing coefficients because its condition number is much higher than
100.
Table 6.4 Given and estimated coefficients estimated from the simulated
responses excited in one direction
(i= 0.6 ,
2
=0.6, Si=S
2
=0.131)
cases
Given (input)
(Someya, 1989 )
0% noise
8e=3.06E-02
10-15% noise
e=o.89
Bearing No
Zo#l
Zo#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Kxx
1.770
1.770
1.811
1.811
1.211
1.275
Kxy
-0.553
-0.553
-0.483
-0.483
-1.499
-1.384
Kyx
3.060
3.060
3.044
3.044
0.180
0.206
Kyy
3.190
3.190
3.163
3.163
-1.790
-1.743
Bxx
1.740
1.740
1.756
1.756
1.510
1.530
Bxy
1.820
1.820
1.933
1.933
0.276
0.438
Byx
1.820
1.820
1.814
1.814
0.713
0.724
Byy
6.690
6.690
6.646
6.646
-1.158
-1.090
6.5.2 Condition Number of Two-Direction Excitation
For the same error in the simulated responses, if two forces are excited in two
directions, the condition number is much smaller than that in one-direction. Fig.6.9 (a)
also shows the condition numbers in the conditions as described in Fig.6.6. Since the
condition number is not very high ( less than 100 for normal eccentricities), the
coefficients for the noisy cases are estimated with reasonable accuracy as presented in
Fig.6.6. Changing the excitation angles can improve the condition number further, but
this is normally limited by the structure of the bearing application. In the bearing test rig
199
described in Chapter 7, two exciters are installed at ai=30 and 0:2 = 150 . Simulation
shows that the condition number is dependent on the rotor mass and the excitation
frequencies. If the gravity of the rotor is less than the static load of the bearing,
increasing the rotor mass or the excitation frequencies can reduce the condition number.
The condition number is also dependent on the bearing eccentricity and the excitation
frequency. Fig.6.9(b) describes the relation between the condition number and the
excitation frequency utilising the rotor-bearing parameters as given in Section 6.4.1. For
the eccentricities up to 0.6, selecting the excitation frequency ratio co/Q to be 1 to 1.4 is
acceptable as it produces minimum condition number. For higher eccentricities, such as
e=0.8, the excitation frequency ratio co/Q should be 0.5 to 1 to minimise the condition
number.
120
<
o
I
a
I
5
40
20
o
-| 1 1 r
1=35 Hz
2 =40 Hz
Q=50Hz
k(A).d
k(A).s
le+5
6e+4
0 0
3
a
2e+4
0e+0
1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
(a) K ( A ) versus eccentricity
(double and single direction excitation)
120
<
80
1 | 1 1 1 1 1 |
e=o.2 e=o.4
E=0.6 e=o.8
o 1
o o o
o o
C02=001+5Hz
40 -
o o o o o o o o
ai=30, a2= 150 "=50 Hz
0.4 10 (0/Q 1.6
(b) K ( A ) versus excitation frequency
(double direction excitation)
Fig.6.9 Condition number of two-direction excitation
200
6.6 CONCLUSION ON THE HARMONIC EXCITATION
METHOD
(1) This chapter proposes a harmonic excitation method to determine all 16 dynamic
coefficients of two asymmetric journal bearings. T w o excitation forces and their
corresponding displacement responses are transferred to frequency domain.
Based on these frequency characteristics eight complex and linear equations are
derived. All 16 bearing force coefficients can be obtained by solving these
simultaneous linear equations.
(2) Two different excitation procedures are proposed. One is the traditional harmonic
excitation method which needs to excite the rotor-bearing system twice. Another
procedure needs only to excite the system once but with two harmonic forces of
different frequencies. If the excitation frequencies can be controlled exactiy, both
excitation methods produce the same level of coefficient estimation. Otherwise,
the responses of the combined excitations could be non periodical waves, normal
F F T can not obtain the frequency characteristics at exact two excitation
frequencies. This will affect the estimation accuracy of the combined excitation
procedure. It this case, larger sample duration (increase the frequency resolution)
can increase the estimation accuracy. Normally the frequency resolution should
be smaller than 0.2 Hz. In practical application if the running conditions do not
change significantly, the separated excitation method is preferred because less data
is required to get accurate frequency characteristics. If the bearing running
conditions can not be controlled accurately, the combined excitation method is
better because all data are acquired in one run.
(3) The re-sampling technique can effectively increase the accuracy of frequency
characteristics by the F F T without increasing too much sample data.
(4) If the initial unbalance vibration is significant, they can be subtracted from the
201
responses without affecting the coefficient estimation significantly.
(5) The experimental noise level should be controlled to less than 20 % of the
response amplitudes.
(6) To keep the coefficient estimation error or uncertainty within 25% or 10%, the
condition number of matrix A in Eq (6-39) should be less than 100 or 45
respectively. Exciting the rotor in only one direction will not yield satisfactory
estimation of the bearing coefficients because of the ill-condition of the estimation
equation. Exciting the rotor in two directions should yield better estimation
because the condition number of the estimation equation is smaller than 100 for
bearing eccentricity up to 0.8.
(7) To reduce the sensitivity of the estimated results to the experimental errors, the
excitation frequencies should be 1 to 1.4 times of rotation speed for bearing
eccentricities up to 0.6; for the eccentricities higher than 0.7, the excitation
frequencies should be 0.5 to 0.9 times of rotation speed.
202
CIHAIPTTIEIR 1
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON DYNAMIC
CHARACTERISTICS OF JOURNAL BEARINGS
Abstract
An existing journal bearing test rig with free journal configuration is modified
to investigate the static and dynamic characteristics of two journal bearings. The
eccentric-mass vibrators are firstly used to excite the rotor-bearing system in the
bearing coefficient identification. The configurations of the test rig, bearings,
journal, and the instrumental system in the test rig are mentioned in this chapter.
The experimental method proposed in Chapter 6 to estimate 16 dynamic
coefficients of two journal bearings from harmonic excitations is performed on
the test rig. Two different excitation procedures, the separated excitation and
combined excitation, are performed on the test rig. Applicable experimental
procedures and data processing methods for both excitation procedures are
proposed The force coefficients of two circular journal bearings with two axial
grooves each are estimated and correlated well with the theory.
203
7.1 INTRODUCTION
To investigate the characteristics of journal bearings experimentally, two basic
configurations are used in the bearing test rigs. One is the free-bush configuration as
shown in Fig.7.1(a). The tested bearing is suspended on a rigid journal, the bearing load
is directly applied to the bearing case. The main advantages of this configuration are:
i) Simple in assembling, alignment setting and eccentricity measurement
ii) Small static load and excitation forces (half of those in the free journal
configuration).
The free bush configuration has been widely used in studying the static and dynamic
characteristics of various journal bearings (Mitchell et al, 1965-66; Glienicke, 1966-67;
Morton, 1971; Parkins, 1979; Someya, 1989 and Kostrzewsky, 1990). However, this
free-bush configuration has also the following disadvantages:
i) The journal movement affects the dynamic measurement In the slave (supporting)
bearings there are clearances comparable to the gap of the tested bearing no matter
how accurate the support bearings are. The journal will vibrate to some extent
when the bearing case is applied with dynamic load.
ii) The configuration is different from the bearing application, some dynamic
characteristics, such as the whirl and stability of rotor, can not be studied on the
rig-
Another normally used bearing test rig configuration is the free journal
configuration as shown Fig.7.1(b). The design of the free journal configuration is more
simple than that of the free bush configuration. The free journal configuration is more
similar to the practical bearing application. Most of the dynamic properties, such as the
oil film force coefficients, oil whirl and rotor instability, can be studied on the test rig.
M a n y researchers (such as Hagg and Sankey, 1956 & 1958; Newkirk & Lewis, 1956;
Mitchell et al, 1965; Makdissy, 1980 and Nordman & Schollhorn, 1980) have
204
successfully used this free journal configuration in their bearing test rigs to investigate the
dynamic properties of journal bearings.
To simulate the practical bearing application in the industrial turbine machines,
two bearing test rigs in this thesis all adopt the free-journal configuration. The purpose
of the experiments in this thesis is mainly to confirm the estimation methods of the force
coefficients of the oil-film bearings proposed in Chapter 6, Chapter 8 and Chapter 9.
support (slave) bearings
V
tested bearings
H
/
EZ2
^ 3
T\
sza ra
Z77Z\
tested bearing
static load
(a) Free bush configuration
Load applying
bearing
static load
(b) Free journal configuration
Fig.7.1 C o m m o n configurations of journal bearing test rigs
7.2 JOURNAL BEARING TEST RIG
7.2.1 Design of the bearing test rig
A journal bearing test rig (from the work of N. Freund and other students) had
been manufactured for their various studies on the journal bearings. To investigate the
dynamic characteristics of journal bearings, two electric vibrators are added to the
existing rig to apply the dynamic forces to the journal. Fig.7.2 shows the main
configuration of the present test rig. The journal is driven by a 16 k W D C motor
( M A W D S L E Y S ) through a universal coupling. A n air bellows is employed to apply
205
Suyfdnoo
fBSJ9AIUn B 7~
O) pgjodiraoo
Fig. 7.2 Configuration of journal bearing test rig
206
Fig. 7.3 General view of the journal bearing test rig
static load to the journal via a lever and a roller bearing. T w o plain journal bearings each
with two axial grooves are tested simultaneously. The test rig is supported on 6 rubber
springs, the natural frequency of the test rig is 5.5 Hz. Since normal dynamic signal in
the dynamic experiments is considerably higher than this frequency, the effect of this
natural frequency can be neglected.
Fig.7.3 shows the general view of the test rig with part of its lubrication and
instrument systems. At the left-up corner is the oil tank, and in the trolley at right hand
side are part of instruments used in the experiments.
207
7.2.2 Tested bearings
The geometry of the experimental journal bearings is shown in Fig.7.4. The
internal surface was lined with 3 m m thick white bearing metal. Twenty-four
thermocouples were inserted in the holes and fixed in locations by an epoxy-based
adhesive before the final machining. Besides 2 axial grooves to supply the oil, there is a
bottom hole for pressurised oil to float the journal at start up. The check valve in the
bottom hole prevents the oil leaking at operating conditions.
7.2.3 Tested journal
Fig. 7.5 shows the dimension of the tested journal. With a natural frequency of
1344 Hz, the journal is rigid enough to apply the experimental method described in
Chapter 6. The transducers are installed as shown in the figure before the surface
grinding. A very hard adhesive called "plastic metal" is cast on the surfaces of
transducers and threads. The surface roughness of the bearing area is about 3 Jim after
the final grinding. The journal was balanced before the installation.
208
7.2.4 Loading and excitation system
Fig. 7.6 shows the loading and excitation system of the test rig. Two 0.125 HP
eccentric mass vibrators ( E N G L I S H ELECTRIC) are used to generate the dynamic
forces. The force amplitude can be varied by adjusting the angle between two eccentric
mass. The frequencies of the dynamic forces are controlled by two M S C - M 3 frequency
controllers (ZENER). Straingauge load cells (APPLIED I N S T R U M E N T ) were inserted
in the connect rods to measure the dynamic forces. Static load is applied by an air
bellows through a lever which amplifies the force by 10 times. The static load is set by
controlling the pneumatic pressure supplied into the air bellows through a pressure-
reducing valve. The stiffness of the air bellow is very low (< lxlO
5
N/m) compared with
209
the stiffness of the oil film bearings (>2.5xl0
7
N / m ) , thus the variation of static load due
to the journal vibration is small (<0.2% in the experiments to determine the bearing
dynamic coefficients). Static load is measured by a set of straingauges on the lever beam.
eccentric-mass
vibrator
roller bearing
eccentric-mass
vibrator
Frequency controllers
Compressed
air source
Fig.7.6 Loading and excitation system
7.2.5 Lubrication system
The lubrication system is shown in Fig.7.7. The big oil tank was designed to
maintain oil temperature constant during the experiments. The oil temperature can be
controlled within 0.2C by a 6 kW electric heater. One gear pump, with a maximum
210
flow of 400 L/min and maximum pressure of 10 bar, is used to supply the lubrication oil
to the tested bearings. A W E B S T E R turbine flow transducer with flow and temperature
digital read-out is used to measure the total flow of two tested bearings. Another piston
pump with pressure compensation is employed to lubricate the roller bearing and supply
static pressure to lift the shaft at the start-up. Once the rotor being started, the oil
supplied to the bottom holes of the bearings is cut off by the ball valve. The return oil
goes to a reservoir and is pumped to the higher tank after filtration. T w o pressure gauges
are connected to pumps' outlets to monitor the supply pressures. T w o vacuum pressure
gauges are connected to the top of bearing #1 at an angle of 45 to the vertical line to
monitor the pressure in the diverging area.
1300 L oil tank
6 kw heater with a
temperature controller
supply (gear) pump ( V O
vacuum gauges
Fig.7.7
Lubrication system
211
7.2.6
Coordinate system and parameters of the bearing
test rig
The coordinate system in the test rig is shown in Fig.7.8. The parameters of the
experimental system are listed as following:
Bearing normal diameter D=200 m m
Bearing width
Bearing clearances
Journal speed
Equivalent rotor mass
Rotor natural frequency
Test rig natural frequency
Bearing span
Probe distances
Force acting distances
Lubricant
Lubricant viscosity
D=200 m m
ci=0.147 m m , c
2
=0.144 mm,c
o
=0.1455 m m
Q= 100 4000 rpm
m=192.5 kg, i
p
=4.436kg, i,=33.84 kg
1344 Hz
5.5 Hz
L
o
=400 m m , Li= 178.3 m m , L
2
= 221.7 m m
Si=289.8 m m , S
2
= 89.2 m m
Lif=L2f=200 m m
CALTEXIS015
dynamic viscosity =14 Cst at 40 C and 5 Cst at 80 C
ii = 0.ouMe-*
02574
^-
40
) Ns/m
2
, T in C
Driving end
Bearing 1
Li
Lif
xl Xip
6>
yip
Si
Non-driving end
T
Bearing 2
i-2
L2f
X2
P
rpr-l^y
~L
S 2 V2P
2W
3-
vf
Fby
\. Fbx Fby=kyx X +kyy y +byx X +byy y
\X? Fbx = kxxX+kxyy +bx +bxy $
See from the
non-driving end
Fig. 7.8 Coordinate system of the journal bearing test rig
212
7.2.7 Instrument system
The test rig has a sophisticated instrument system. Eight BENTLY NEVADA
3300 and 7200 series proximity probes are used to measure the journal vibration and
bearing oil film thickness. Four capacitance elements were installed in the journal to
monitor the bearing clearance. Six K U L I T E pressure transducers in the journal are used
to measure the pressure around the bearings. Three straingauge force cells are employed
to measure static and dynamic forces. The pulse signals from two optical cells provide
the phase reference and are employed to calculate the rotation speed. There are 51 T-type
thermocouples around bearings and shaft Fig.7.9 shows the locations of most of these
sensors. Table 7.1 lists some sensors and their purposes. The details (brands and
models) of these transducers and their calibrations are described in Appendix C.
Fig.7.9 Distribution of transducers in the journal bearing test rig.
213
Table 7.1 Sensors in the journal bearing test rig (see Appendix C for details)
Sensors Quantity Where
Purpose
proximity probe 8 4 in journal,
4 on bearing sleeve
oil film thickness, journal
vibration
capacitance element in journal oil film thickness
pressure transducer in journal oil pressure in bearings
optical cell slip ring end phase reference and speed
load cell lever and connect rods static and dynamic forces
T-type thermocouple 51 2 in journal, 48 in twojjournal and bearing temperature
bearings. 1 mobile
pressure gauge
2 at oil inlets set the supply pressure
vacuum gauge
2 in #1 bearing check negative pressure
turbine flowmeter at oil inlets measure bearing supply flow
Proximity probes
iiiiiiin-
IIIIIIIIH-
nnnni
Optical cells
[ZZI
Pressure transduces
force cells
Thermocouples
Mac ADIOs
A/D
converter
MacADIOs 488s
Bus controller
3ZZ
H P 3497A
Data acquisition/
control unit
Macitosh
II
fflr=n
Fig.7.10 Data acquisition system of the journal bearing test rig
214
Signals from displacement, pressure, force and speed sensors are connected to a
Mac II computer through a Mac ADIOs with an 833 kHz A/D converter as shown in
Fig.7.10. All thermocouple signals are also sampled by the computer via a H P 3497A
data acquisition/control unit and a Mac ADIOs 488s bus controller.
7.3 T H E STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
EXPERIMENTAL JOURNAL BEARINGS
7.3.1 Determination of hot bearing centres
To measure the eccentricities of a journal in the bearings at hot running condition,
the first step is to determine the centre of the hot bearing. Due to the thermal-expansion
of the bearing, journal and the probe cases, it is difficult to predict the bearing centre in
advance. To investigate the thermal effect on the proximity probes, the probes were
calibrated at different temperatures from 20 to 65 C (see Appendix C). Since the relative
displacements are employed to calculate the eccentricities, the zero shift of the probe and
expansion of the probe case will not affect the results. Only the gains (scalers) of the
transducers are important in the experiments. According to Appendix C, for a gap from
0.15 to 1 m m , the gain of four proximity probes at the temperatures from 20 to 65 C do
not change significantly(<0.2%). In the data processing, the gains calibrated at the
temperature close to the experiment operating temperature were used.
The bearing centre is determined by a similar way as used by Kostrzewsky
(1990). After warming up the oil and running journal to the normal operating
temperature, stop the journal and shut off the oil supply. Then push the journal against
the bearing surface by a screw jack at four extreme points in two crossing lines as shown
in Fig.7.11. Assuming the bearing surface is a circle and the journal are solid contact
with the bearing, then both lines will cross at the bearing centre. The average of the
215
probe output voltages at the four extreme contact points is the voltage related to the centre
of clearance circle and is used as the reference voltage U
0
in the calculation of the
eccentricity.
clearance circle.
Fig.7.11 Determination of the bearing centre
60 |im
SO um
40 nm -
T "-
x2p original
x2p after pre-processing
30 Mm
outliers replaced with
the interplated values
the 10 ftm high lump was also
smoothed by the interpolated values
_i L
60 120 180 240
300 <f> (o) 360
Fig.7.12 Signal x
2p
before and after the pre-processing
216
7.3.2 Data pre-processing
Since there are five frequency transformers (for the speed control of 2 exciters
and 3 pumps) in the electric system of the bearing test rig, the magnetic interference to the
displacement signals was serious. The experimental signals were found to be
contaminated by some outliers (points which are widely separated from normal
distribution) as shown in Fig.7.12. These outliers could significantly affect the
frequency characteristics and should be removed.
To remove the high level noise from the experimental signals, a 6-order
Butterworth digital filter (Stanley, 1976; Hamming, 1989) with an adjustable cutting
frequency has been designed. Both the digital filter and a commercial analogue filter
were attempted but are not used in the data processing because the filters changed the
phases of the processed signals significantly. Accurate frequency characteristics,
including both the amplitude and phase characteristics, are important to the estimation
methods in this thesis.
A n outlier-removing program (see Appendix D ) is developed to detect the outliers
and replace them with the interpolated values. This outlier-removing method can
effectively remove the outliers and does not change the signal's phase (see Fig.7.12).
The journal surface at the plane of probe x
2p
and y2
P
(see Fig.7.8) is also
contaminated by a 10 Jim high lump (see Fig.7.12). The data at the lump are also be
replaced by the interpolated values.
Referring to Fig.7.12, the signal becomes much smoother after the pre-
processing, without any phase-delay which is inevitable for a digital filter.
217
-. Q=402 rpm
S= 0.045
=0.751
1.4E-41
-i 1 r
X2p 1.4E-4 (m)
' 1 1 1
5.2E-5
9.E-5
9.5E-5 -
(5.716E-5, 9.417E-5)
1.0E-
5.7E-5
62E-5
' '
-
1 1 1 1 1 1
N > ^
6.3 nm
magnified S
i K
i
Fig.7.13 Method to determine the bearing's eccentricity in the probe plane
7.3.3 Eccentricity and the attitude angle
Once the probes' output voltages correlated to the bearing centres are known, the
displacements and eccentricity of the journal in the bearing can be determined according
to the output voltages of the probes installed on the bearing sleeves (xip, yi
p
, x
2p
and y2
P
in Fig.7.8 or in Fig.7.9). Due to surface roughness, roundness and the initial unbalance
of the shaft, the journal centre does not stay at one point. Fig.7.13 shows the locus
measured by probes X2
P
and y2
P
. At the running conditions as shown in Fig.7.13, the
initial vibration amplitudes is about 6.3 |i.m (0.04 c) in the x-direction , and about 4.2
H m in the y-direction. The eccentricity at the probe plane is calculated by subtracting the
voltage at the bearing centre from the average of the voltages correlated to the journal
trajectory as shown in Fig.7.13. The eccentricities measured at two probe planes
(determined by xi
p
, yi
p
and by X2
P
and y2
P
respectively) are then transferred to the
218
bearing centres by equation (6 - 25). The eccentricities mentioned in this thesis are the
eccentricities at the bearing centres calculated in this way. Fig.7.14 shows the measured
relations between the Sommerfeld number and eccentricity, and Fig.7.15 shows the
experimental attitude angle at different loads. The solid lines are calculated results of a
parallel bearing and the dash lines are results of a misaligned bearing. The measured
bearing clearance, grooves, speed, supply pressure and viscosity (according to the
average temperature around the bearing) are used in the calculation. The misalignment
parameters are assumed according to the static pressure as shown in Fig.7.17(b). The
FDM-IFP method (see Section 3.3) are employed to calculate the theoretical Sommerfeld
number and attitude angles.
Since the journal centre does not stay at one point as shown in Fig.7.13, strictly
the steady bearing eccentricity can not be measured directly. The eccentricity measured in
the above way is only an average eccentricity of the journal steady locus. Referring to
Fig.7.14, the theoretical Sommerfeld numbers of both bearings agree well with the
experimental results especially when some misalignment is considered in the theoretical
calculation. The theoretical attitude angle of the parallel bearing is 5 to 10 higher than
the experimental value. If a misalignment of x=0.l8 with Y = - 3 5 (see Fig.5.1 for
definition) is considered, the experimental values are only 5 apart the theoretical attitude
angles. In the calculation of static bearing characteristics, such as Sommerfeld number
and attitude angle, the journal is assumed to stay at its equilibrium position. This is not
true in the tested rotor-bearing system whose rotor vibrates to some extent at the steady
condition. The variation in theoretical assumption will produce some difference between
the theoretical results and the experimental measurements.
219
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1
I I I I I
Ps=4bar, Q=1404 rpm, Tave=60 C
Two 32? -axial grooves, 50 m m wide
W c
Si bearing 1
A
S2 bearing 2
Theoretical-T=0
-- Theoretical-x=0.18,Y=-35
e
0.0 0.2 0.4
0.6 0.8 1.0
Fig.7.14 Measured Sommerfeld number vs eccentricity
3
o
80
60
40
20
0

o
A

Ps=4bar, fl=1404 rpm, Tave=60 C
Two 32-axial grooves, 50 m m wide
s
N.
<]>01 bearing 1 * V \
(|)02 bearing 2 i ^ ^ ^
Theoretical~x=0
Tbeoretical--T=0.18, y=-35
.1 10
1/S
Fig.7.15 Measured attitude angle vs load
ioo
The eccentricity measured by the above way can be confirmed by another
normally used eccentricity measurement method, which determines the eccentricity by
220
fitting the clearance curves. Fig.7.16 shows the experimental clearance curve in bearing
2 and its fitting curve. For a misaligned circular bearing, its theoretical oil film thickness
in the mid plane can also be expressed by (set Z=L/2R in Eq(5-1)):
H = 1 + COS(<|>-(|>
0
)
(3-3)
To find e and <J
0
accurately from the noisy signal as shown in Fig.7.16, a nonlinear
curve-fitting technique should be used. In this thesis, the simplex optimal method (Liu et
al, 1980) is employed to fit the eccentricity e and the attitude angle <|>
0
by minimising the
residual:
F(e, 4>
0
) = I [H
t
- (1 + e cos^,- - $
0
))]
(7-1)
Hi is the measured oil film thickness
H2
Two 32 -axial grooves, 50 m m wide
S=0.045 2=402 rpm
- 6=0.75, <t>o=29.7
upstream groove bottom hole downstream groove
thermocouples
Fitted
Measured
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Fig.7.16 Experimental clearance curve and its fitting curve
Since the magnetic property of the thermocouples and the solder are different
from that of the white bearing metal, the proximity probe generates a discontinuity at the
221
head of each thermocouple as shown in Fig.7.16. Before the curve fitting, the data at the
grooves and thermocouples are deleted from the experimental data. This curve fitting
method is effective only when the eccentricity is much larger than the initial vibration
amplitude. Otherwise, e and ty
Q
in (7-1) can not be considered as constant for different
4>i.
7.3.4 Pressure distribution
The pressure distributions in two bearings can be monitored by 6 pressure
transducers in the shaft, but limited by channel number of the slip ring, only 4 pressure
transducers were connected to the computer at the experiment described in this section.
Shown in Fig.7.17 (a) are pressures measured by three transducers in bearing 2 at the
same time. The fitted clearance curve in Fig.7.16 is also overplotted in Fig.7.17(a).
From Fig. 7.17 (a) the maximum pressure in midplane lie in about 10 degree ahead of the
minimum oil film thickness. This agrees well with the theory (Someya, 1989).
From the asymmetric axial pressure distribution, a misalignment existed in the
bearing. Since the cross-coupling-effect of the capacity element and the proximity probes
in the shaft (see Appendix C), the exact misalignment ratio and angles could not be
determined experimentally. B y the nonlinear curve fitting method (simplex optimal
method, Liu et al, 1980), when x=0.18, y = -34.6, A*=-0.039 O c and Ay=0.12 ftc at
the moment of the pressure was sampled, the theoretical pressure distribution correlates
well with the measured pressure distribution as shown in Fig.7.17(b). Since the journal
whirls in an oval orbit at the steady condition as shown in Fig.7.13, it is reasonable for
the journal to assume some velocities when the pressure is sampled. Fig.7.17(c) shows
the fitted pressure distribution in all bearing area.
222
p
(kpa)
2000 -
1000 -
-1000
2
H
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Fig.7.17 (a) Measured pressures and oil film thickness
3000
p(kpa)
2000
1000
-1000
-
1
r
' i ' ' r
Fitted parameters:
. T=0.18, 7=-34.6 *
A*=-0.039Qc, AJr=0.12Qc $y
" S=0.041, ^=27.1' ^
n
p4.ex
P
p4.exp
p4.ex
P
p4.fit
p5.fit
p6.fit
J 1 I I u
- 1 I I I -
bearing #2
p4 ps p6
*
0 60 120 180 240 300 (j)(o) 360
Fig.7.17(b) Theoretical pressures at the fitted misalignment parameters
223
Fig.7.17 (c) Theoretical pressure distribution at the fitted misalignment parameters
At different loads, the pressure distribution is different. Fig.7.18(a) shows the
pressure distribution measured at heavier load (S=0.025, =0.84). The pressures
measured at two sides (p4 and p6) are lower than the pressure at the midplane (ps)
although they are not symmetric to the midplane. p6 is still higher than p4, but the
difference is not so big as that shown in Fig.7.17(a). This means the misalignment ratio
at heavier load (S=0.025) is lower than that at low load (S=0.048). The misalignment
ratio is decreased to 0.034 (see Fig.7.18(b)) from 0.18 (see Fig.7.17(b)) when the load
was nearly doubled (load capacity 1/S increased to 40 from 20.8).
Misalignment in the test rig as shown in Fig.7.2 is mainly caused by
manufacturing and assembly tolerances. In addition to the cylindricality (difference of
diameters in all cylindrical surface) of the bearing surface, which will be analysed in
Section 7.5, it was found that there are some fitting clearances (10 to 30 \i) between the
bearing external surfaces and their cases. During the assembly, a silastic adhesive was
filled in the fitting clearance, which means the bearings are partly supported by the elastic
adhesive. It is possible that with change of the bearing load, the bearing location varied
224
slightly which changed its misalignment ratio with the shaft. At the light load, the
bearings' positions in their cases could be significantly changed because of different
deformations of the elastic adhesive at different axial positions. At heavier load, both
bearings were pressed to the bottoms of their cases. Since the bearing cases are more
carefully aligned with each other, the misalignment ratio is low at heavier load when two
bearings are pressed to the bottoms of their cases. This is why the misalignment ratio at
heavy load is lower than that at light load. Another reason is that misalignment at heavier
load produces much bigger moment to force the journal or bearing to deflect (especially at
elastic adhesive in the bearing case clearance) to reduce the misalignment ratio (see
Fig.5.7 in Chapter 5).
P
(kpa)
4000
3000
2000
1000
1 =0.84, <Jto=22.1
-1000
-i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r
S=0.025, Q = 4 0 2 r p m .
p4
ps
P
6
H
upstream groove
ps=400kpa
downstream groove
ps=400 kpa
m*
'Hmin
J d. J u
$(o)
H
2
1
0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Fig.7.18(a) Pressures and oil film thickness at heavy load
225
p(kpa)
4000
3000
2000
1000
-1000
-ii 1 r-
1 "-
Fitted parameters:
1=0.034, 7=-l0.8*
Ax=-0.015Qc, Ay=0.083Qc
S=0.023, <|>=21.3*
bearing #2
p4 ps p6
-i 1 i i L
0 60 120 180 240 300 (|> (o) 360
Fig.7.18(b) Experimental and theoretical pressures at heavy load
7.3.5 Supply flow
Fig.7.19 shows the measured dimensionless supply flow. It is the average flow
to two bearings. Referring to Fig.7.19, the experimental flow is not as sensitive to the
load as the theoretical flow to the load. At light loads, the predicted flow is smaller than
the experimental flow. At higher loads, the theoretical flow of aligned bearing is larger
than the experimental values. If the misalignment is considered, the difference between
the theory and experiment is smaller than that of the parallel bearing especially at
moderate loads.
226
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
i i i i i i i 1 1
' 'l
Q =
R c i i L
Qs. experimental
Theoretical-T=0
Theoretical-x=0.18, y=-35
10
1/S
100
Fig.7.19 Experimental and theoretical supply flow
7.3.6 Temperature Distribution
The temperature distribution is measured by 48 T-type thermocouples around the
two bearings. Fig.7.20 shows typical temperature distribution around two bearings.
From Fig.7.20 (a) and (b), at high operating load(S=0.091), the temperature reaches the
highest points at down stream of the minimum oil-film thickness. The temperature at the
upstream supply groove is the lowest point in all the bearing surface.
The average temperature around two bearings in Fig.7.20 (a) and (b) is 60.5 C,
which is 2.8 C higher than that of the supply oil (57.7 C). The maximum temperature
difference among all measurement points is 9 C.
When the load is light (the eccentricity is small), the temperature rise (from the
inlet temperature) and the temperature difference among all measurement points are
smaller than those at heavy load. For S=3.8 (no load except the gravity of the shaft) as
shown in Fig.7.20(c) and (d), the average temperature is 60.4 C and the inlet
227
temperature is 58.5 C. The temperature rise is 1.9 C. The maximum temperature
difference among all measurement points is only 4.5 C.
Axially, the temperature at the mid plane is lower than those near two sides. This
is because the colder supply oil reaches the mid plane first and cools the bearing surface.
t
C
(a) Temperature in bearing 1, S=0.091
ti t2 U
t
C
T ' ' I > -
(b) Temperature in bearing 2, S=0.094
t4 t5 t6
I I
50
_4
downstream groove
55
i I i i i
90
50
upstream groove
180 270 <|>(o) 360 0
-i I i i i _ _ l _ i i i i i _
90 180 270 <|> (o) 360
t
c
65
- I 1 1 J 1 1 1 1 P 1 i | 1 r-
(c) Temperature in bearing 1, S=3.80
- - A tl
---*-- t3
55
50
"A
-a*
t
c
- 65
l: ,.
!
downstream groove
upstream groove
<l>(o)
J i i i .i -i L
60
55
i i i i i i i i i i i i i
(d) Temperature in bearing 2, S=3.96
; L ^ r r * * ^ - - * ^
downstream groove .
upstream groove
i__i_ i i i i
50
0 90 180 270 360 0 90 180 270
Fig.7.20 Temperature distribution around t w o bearings at different loads
<|>(o) -
360
228
7.4 THE ESTIMATION OF THE BEARING FORCE
COEFFICIENTS
7.4.1 Experimental procedures
The experiments were performed on the bearing test rig according to the
following procedures:
(i) Running the rotor until the speed, flow and temperature became steady. The
variations of speed, flow and temperature were maintained within 0.5 rpm,
0.1 L / min and 0.2 C respectively.
(ii) Record the initial vibration q
0
(t)
(iii) Turn the vibrator 1 on and sample the force fi(t) and response qi(t)
(iv) Turn the vibrator 2 on and sample the force f2(t) and response q2(t)
(v) Turn the vibrators 1 and 2 on and sample the forces fi(t) and f2(t) and response
q(t)
From fi(t), f2(t), qi(t), q2(t) and q(t), all bearing coefficients can be determined
by both separated and combined excitation methods. Changing the static load and
repeating step (i) to (v) can obtain the coefficients at different loads or eccentricities.
7.4.2 Data processing
The sampled data are processed according to the following steps:
(i) Remove outliers and other unreasonable data from the sampled data (see Section
7.3.2 and Appendix D ) .
(ii) Calculate static characteristics, such as Sommerfeld number S, eccentricities e,
speed 2, Ck and Cb according to qo(t).
(iii) Find the accurate excitation frequencies according to fi(t) and f2(t)
(iv) Calculate the re-sample interval T according to (6-51) or (6-52) dependent on the
excitation methods.
229
(v) Re-sample q(uT
Q
) to obtain q(uT). The quadratic Lagrangian interpolation
technique (p938, Kreyszig, 1993) is used.
(vi) Perform F F T on the time-domain signals FûT) and qk(uT) to obtain F
e
(jCDk) and
Q(j&\) in frequency domain.
(vii) Subtract the initial vibration Q
o
0<k) from Q(jfflk)
(viii) Carry out coordinate transformation according to (6-25)
(ix) Construct matrices A and D in Eq (6-39)
(x) Calculate coefficients Z by Eq (6-44)
7.4.2.1 Separated excitations
Fig.7.21 shows the experimental forces and the displacement responses in time
domain at the separated excitations. Due to the clearance of the roller bearing, the
clearances between the connecting rod and its two clevis pins (see Fig.7.6) and
experimental noise, the excitation forces are not standard harmonic. However, only the
signals at the excitation frequency are used in the calculation of the bearing coefficients.
The dots lines in Figs.7.21(c) to 7.21(f) are experimental signals with initial vibration
eliminated in order to compare with the recovered signals from the frequency
characteristics, which are employed to calculate the bearing coefficients. The recovered
signals come from the frequency characteristics and are plotted together with the noisy
experimental data. For signal xi, this is done by the following formula:
x,(t) = |X
1
(jo>
1
)|cos[2jca)
1
t + ZX
1
(jco
1
)] (7-2)
where:
Z X
1
( M ) = t a n -
1
^ k=l,2
A
i,*
From Fig.7.21, these recovered signals (in solid lines) are very close to the
experimental data, which means:
(i) the responses are principally harmonic,
230
(ii) the frequency characteristics best represent the experimental data.
Item (i) can also be confirmed from the power spectrums as shown in Fig.7.22, where
the main power of the excitation forces and their responses is concentrated on the
excitation frequency. In fact, the F F T works like a special filter, only the signal with the
excitation frequency can pass the filter. This is achieved by the re-sampling technique
which makes the F F T output the frequency characteristics at the exact excitation
frequency.
20000
10000
g
s
-10000
0.2
fl
231
0.0 0.1 t(s)
Fig.7.21 (a) Experimental signals in time domain-
30000
15000
-15000
-30000
0.0
(b) Excitation force f2 in time domain
0)1=29.58 H z
f2 29.58 Hz
f2 recovered from F2(ja)2)
o.i t(s)
Fig.7.21 (b) Experimental signals in time domainf*2
0.2
0.2
o.i
-o.i
-0.2
(c) Diplacement responses xi in time domain
under dynamic force fi (coi= 24.13 H z )
xi
xi recovered from Xl(ji)
o.o o.i t (s)
Fig.7.21 (c) Experimental signals in time domainxi
0.2
232
0.2
0.1
-0.1
(d) Diplacement responses yi in time domain
under dynamic force fi (coi= 24.13 H z )
o.o
o yi
yi recovered from Yl(jan)
-0.2 i L.
o.i
t(s)
0.2
Fig.7.21 (d) Experimental signals in time d o m a i n y i
0.2
I T
(e) Diplacement responses x2 in time domain
under dynamic force fi (0)1= 24.13 H z )
o.i
-o.i
-0.2
X2
x2 recovered from X2(jo)i)
o.o o.i
t(s)
0.2
Fig.7.21 (e) Experimental signals in time domainX2
233
0.2
0.1
0.0^
-0.1
-0.2
0.0
(f) Diplacement responses y2 in time domain
under dynamic force fi ( CDI= 24.13 H z )
y2
y2
recovered from Y 2 (jcoi)
o.i
t(s)
0.2
S!=0.1764, S
2
=0.1838, Q=1404 rpm
Note i) The displacement signals are displacements at the measurement points, the
subscript p of xi
p
, yi
p
, x
2p
and y
2p
is omitted.
ii) The initial vibration was subtracted from the measurement
iii) The solid lines are drawn from the frequency characteristics at Q)i, which are
standard harmonic signals.
Fig.7.21 (f) Experimental signals in time domainy
2
The frequency characteristics are written as vectors including both real and
imaginary parts. For example, the frequency characteristics of the displacement signals
as shown in Fig.7.21 are:
Qi,
P
(M) =
0.03883-j 0.04634
-0.001663+ J0.04467
0.04964-j 0.04834
-0.01443+ j0.03924
These are responses at the measuring points. They should be transferred to the bearing
centres by Eq (6-25). Therefore, the frequency characteristics used to calculated the
bearing coefficients are:
234
&(M) =
0.04201-7 0.04693
-0.005420+ ; 0.04307
0.05341-j 0.04904
_ -0.01890 + j0.03735
Substituting these frequency characteristics at the bearing centres and the frequency
characteristics of excitation force into Eq (6-42) and Eq (6-43) yields one set of complex
equations Eq (6-38). From the frequency characteristics at CO2 obtain another set of the
equations. Combining them produces Eq (6-39), from which all 16 bearing coefficients
are obtained. Table 7.2 presents the estimated coefficients according to the signals in
Fig.7.21. The coefficient factors here are:
k = f ? L =2.569x10?
* n(clRy
C
b
=
/
/
*f * =1.746x103
niclRy
N/m, and
N.S/m
Multiplying these factors with the estimated coefficients in Table 7.2 yields the
dimensional coefficients. More experimental results at different loads are presented in
Tables 7.3 and 7.4.
Table 7.2 Estimated coefficients estimated from the experimental
responses by two different harmonic excitation methods
(Si=0.1764, S
2
=0.1838, Q=1404 rpm, C
k
=2.569xl0
7
N/m, C
b
=1.746xl0
5
N.S/m)
cases
separated
excitation
combined
excitation
Bearing N o
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Kxx
9.76
10.3
9.47
10.4
Kxy
-4.21
-4.59
-4.24
-4.88
Kyx
1.73
17.7
17.3
17.5
Kyy
11.7
15.1
11.4
14.8
Bxx
19.5
15.5
19.4
15.5
Bxy
10.5
10.4
10.5
10.3
Byx
11.4
6.06
11.1
6.56
Byy
35.0
34.0
34.7
33.7
235
15000
3
fa
10000
5000
0
T >-
i i i
(a) Excitation forces in frequency domain
24.13 Hz
29.58 Hz
+ f 1 24.13 Hz
* f2 2938 Hz
ocooofeiooe<cio4ttticl$6&
0) (Hz)
0 20 40 60 80
Fig.7.22(a) Frequency characteristics of two excitation forces
o.io
3
&
0.05
1 "- -i r
(b) Frequency responses to dynamic force f l
(coi=24.13 H z )
&
0.00
o
A
Xl(j<0)
o Y1(JG))
X2(jffi)
A Y2(jC0)
0) (Hz)
9 20 40 60 80
Fig.7.22(b) Frequency responses to excitation force fi
236
0.10
8
O
0.05
)
A Y2(JC0)
CO (Hz)
A A
A
0 20 40 60 80
Fig.7.22(c) Frequency responses to excitation force f2
7.4.2.2 C o m b i n e d excitation
Exciting the rotor simultaneously with two forces as shown in Figs.7.21(a) and
(b), the measured responses are plotted in Fig.7.23. The amplitudes and frequencies of
the excitation forces are the same as those shown in Fig.7.21 (a) and (b), but the initial
phases are different Since the sampling program is triggered off by the optical signal at a
definite shaft rotation angle, the initial phases of the excitation forces are different for
different runs because the exciters and shaft are driven by different electric motors. In
Fig.7.23 the solid lines are drawn according to the frequency characteristics at two
excitation frequencies. For example, the solid line for xi is drawn according to the
following function:
*i(0 HW^cosPrccv-^(yc^H^^
where:
k=l,2
237
0.2
-0.1
-0.2
i '
(a) Diplacement responses xi in time domain
under dynamic forces fi and f2
xi
recovered from Xi (jcoi)+Xi (jo)2)
o.o o.i 0.2 t (s) 03
Fig.7.23(a) Displacement xi under combined excitation of fi and f
2
0.2
0.1 -
o.o
-o.i
-0.2
(b) Diplacement responses yi in time domain
under dynamic forces fl and f2

8 5
I 3 %
#
o
6
o
6
6
o
P
s
6
V
0
s
s
6
b
b
o
\8
e
o
6
8
6
6
p
o yi
yi recovered from Yi (jcoi)+Yi (jo)2)
o.o o.i 0.2 t (s) 0.3
Fig.7.23(b) Displacement yi under combined excitation of fi and f2
238
0.2
-0.1
-0.2
i i
(c) Diplacement responses x2 in time domain
recovered from X 2 (jcoi)+X2 (jo>2)
o.o o.i 0.2 i (
s
) 0.3
Fig.7.23(c) Displacement X2 under combined excitation of fi and f^
0.2
-o.i
-0.2
o.o
(d) Diplacement responses y 2 in time domain
A y2
recovered from Y2 (jcoi)+Y2 (jco2)
0.3 0.1 0.2 t (S)
Fig.7.23(d) Displacement y
2
under combined excitation of fi and f
2
239
15000
3
fa
10000
5000
(a) Excitation forces in frequency domain
24.17 Hz
29.69 Hz
+ fl 24.17 Hz
o f2 29.69 Hz
+ o
1> ! * -t*nt ft ft * rhfrto ft ft* +Ofc ft * *<>* l)(Hft|D|%c
0 40 80 120 ^
QJz)
160
Fig.7.24 (a) Frequency characteristics of excitation forces fi and f^
o.io
3
O
0.05
(b) Frequency responses to dynamic forces fi and f2
(force frequencies= 24.17 and 29.69 H z respectively)
xi(j)
o Yi(jco)
X2(jco)
A Y2(JGD)
coi= 24.30 H z
0.00
0)2=29.82 Hz
6
I I
I. J -
20
40
CO CHz)
60
Fig.7.24 (b) Frequency responses under the combined excitation of fi and f2
Performing FFT on the time domain signals as shown in Fig.7.23 yields the
frequency characteristics as shown in Fig.7.24. After the FFT, all noises except at the
240
excitation frequencies are filtered. Transforming these frequency responses into the
bearing centres and substituting them into Eq (6-39) solve all 16 bearing coefficients.
Table 7.2 also presents the estimated coefficients according to this combined excitation
method. The results are very close to those from the separated excitation method. Both
methods can be used to estimate the bearing coefficients.
7.4.4 Estimated bearing coefficients
Repeating the above experimental procedures at different static loads obtains the
bearing force coefficients at different loads or eccentricities. Table 7.3 and 4 present the
estimated characteristics of bearing 1 and 2. To simplify the application of the
experimental data, the coefficients presented here are defined by Eq (6-28). The
dimensional coefficients can be obtained by multiplying these coefficients with factors Ck
and Cb which are determined only by the bearing's geometry parameters.
Fig.7.25 and 7.26 graphically compared the experimental stiffness and damping
coefficients with the theoretical values. The solid lines are calculated results of a parallel
bearing and the dash lines are results of a misaligned bearing. The measured bearing
clearance, speed, grooves, supply pressure and viscosity are used in the calculation.
T
a v e
=60 C is nominal value of the average temperature around two bearings. At one
load, the temperature variation during the experiment is less 0.2 C. The variation of
average temperature is less than 2 C for different loads as presented in Figs.7.25 and
7.26. T
a v e
=60 C is used to calculate the viscosity of the oil in the theoretical calculation.
The misalignment parameters are assumed according to the static pressure as shown in
Fig.7.17(b), but the journal velocity and the misalignment variation with the bearing load
is neglected in the theoretical calculation. These simplifications could result in 1 2 %
variation in the calculated coefficients. It is difficult to determine the misalignment
parameters accurately in the present test rig. The theoretical results of the misaligned
bearing can be used as reference in analysis the experimental results. The theoretical
values are calculated by the F D - IFP method as described in Section 3.3.
241
Although affected by many manufacturing and experimental error, which will be
analysed in Section 7.5, the estimated coefficients show good agreement with the
theoretical calculation especially when the misalignment is considered in the theoretical
calculation.
Table 7.3 Estimated coefficients of bearing 1
(Q=1404 rpm, Ck=2.569xlQ7 N/m, C
b
=1.746xlQ5 N.s/m)
s
0.916
0.286
0.176
0.176*
0.135
0.113
0.091
e
0.172
0.363
0.499
0.499
0.578
0.600
0.635
Kxx
-0.724
5.00
9.76
9.47
12.3
16.8
22.1
Kxy
-2.81
-2.86
-4.21
-424
-4.11
-3.54
-4.61
Kyx
9.40
11.2
1.73
17.3
19.0
24.5
34.4
Kyy
2.25
5.50
11.7
11.4
15.5
22.1
25.5
Bxx
12.2
14.7
19.5
19.4
20.6
24.5
27.9
Bxy
0.423
6.85
10.5
10.5
13.9
20.0
23.7
Byx
1.51
6.19
11.4
11.1
12.8
17.7
23.7
Byy
19.2
21.8
35.0
34.7
40.8
53.2
69.4
Superscript * indicates the case that the combined excitation procedure is used;
otherwise, the separated excitation procedure is used.
Table 7.4 Estimated coefficients of bearing 2
(Q=1404 rpm, C
k
=2.569xlO?N/m, C
b
=1.746xl0
5
N.s/m)
s
0.954
0.298
0.184
0.184*
0.141
0.118
0.095
e
0.108
0.290
0.432
0.432
0.550
0.585
0.621
Kxx
2.04
4.67
10.3
10.4
13.1
12.9
19.6
Kxy
-2.28
-1.77
-4.59
-4.88
-3.79
-5.45
-1.82
Kyx
7.69
11.4
17.7
17.5
19.3
16.7
38.3
Kyy
2.67
3.34
15.1
14.8
16.8
19.2
30.3
Bxx
13.2
14.3
15.5
15.5
16.8
17.4
20.2
Bxy
-0.311
3.39
10.4
10.3
13.7
16.2
17.6
Byx
-2.67
4.57
6.06
6.56
11.8
18.1
25.2
Byy
19.5
16.1
34.0
33.7
42.4
52.1
64.1
* Superscript * indicates the case that the combined excitation procedure is used;
otherwise, the separated excitation procedure is used.
242
80
i
Kxx
60
40
20
-20
71 (c/R)
3
i i 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1
Kij =-
[lQL
kij
o
A
Kxx
Kxx
Theoretical~T=0
-- Theoretical-T=0.18,y=-35
e
A
O
~*L
I I I I I I I I L .
.1 i io i/s
K
ij
=k
ij
/C
k
, Q=2.569xl 0
7
N/m
Fig.7.25(a) Estimated bearing stiffness coefficient K^
ioo
80
i
Kxy
60
40
20 I-
I I I l-T T" 1 III I T T I
Ps=4bar, i2=1404 rpm, Tave=60 C
Two 32;-axial grooves, 50 m m wide
-20
o
A
Kxy
Kxy
Theoretical-x=0
Theoretical~T=0.18, y =-35
- : 4^
TT^TP
* * * i i
.1 l io y
S
Fig.7.25(b) Estimated bearing stiffness coefficient K
x y
ioo
243
80

Kyx
60
40
20
i I I I
o
A
Kyx
Kyx
Theoretical-T=0
Theoretical-x=0.18, y=-35
- 2 0 I ' 1 -
_ i i i ' ' ' - i i
.1 i io i/s ioo
Fig.7.25(c) Estimated bearing stiffness coefficient K ^
80

Kyy
60 -
40 -
20 -
0 -
-20
I I I l I l l 1"f
Ps= 4 bar, 2=1404 rpm, Tave= 60 C
o Kyy
4
Kyy
Theoretical-x=0
Theoretical~T=0.18, y =-35
I I F V 1 f T I
_i_L
.1 i io 1/S
4 = k
tj
IQ, C*=2.569xl0
7
N/m
Fig.7.25(d) Estimated bearing stiffness coefficient Kyy
ioo
244
100 r-
Bxx
80 |-
? i i i i i 1 1 | i i i i i i 1 1
60
40
20
, JC(c/R)?
B H = -
bij
'
o
A
ilL
Bxx
Bxx
Theoretical--x=0
Theoretical--x=0.18,y=-35
i
.1
l io 1/S
4 = V
C
* > C
b
=1.746xl05 N.S/m
Fig.7.26(a) Estimated bearing damping coefficient B
80
B
i 60
Byx
40
20
I
i i i i i 1 1
Ps=4bar, 2=1404 rpm, Tave=60 C
o Bxy
o Byx
Bxy
A Byx
Theoretical-x=0
Theoretical--x=0.18,y=-35
0 -
-20
-t
10
1/S
100
Fig.7.26(b) Estimated bearing damping coefficients B
x y
and B
x y
245
80
Byy
60
40
20
-20
i I I I
II
Ps=4bar, 2*1404 rpm, Tave=60 C //
. njdRf
Dij = DIJ
i
Byy
Byy
Theoretical-x=0
- - Theoretical-x=0.18, y =-35'
10
1/S
10

Be=b
9
/C
b
, C
b
=1.746xl05 N.S/m
Fig.7.26(c) Estimated bearing damping coefficient Byy
7.4.5 Critical speeds
Employing the estimated bearing coefficients, the critical stable speeds at different
loads can be predicted according to equations (4-22). Fig.7.27 shows the
dimensionless stability contour compared with the theoretical predictions. With
increasing the eccentricity, the critical speed increases which agrees well with the
theoretical results. Referring to Fig.7.27, the experimental stable speed is higher than the
theoretical prediction of the aligned bearing. W h e n the misalignment is considered, the
experimental results agree very well with the theoretical predictions. The experimental
results also confirm the conclusion that misalignment increases the stability of the journal
bearing (see Section 5.6).
246
20
o
6
15
^" '^
*M
s
a

_
o
A
10
Ps=4bar, 2=1404 rpm, Tave=60 C
1
iZcrit
-=. 2
Qcrit
Theoretieal-x=0
-" Theoretical-x=0.18,y=-35
J u I I I I I I
.1 1 10 jy 100
Fig.7.27 Dimensionless critical speeds predicted from the estimated bearing coefficients
7.5 ERROR ANALYSIS
D u e to the transducers' error and manufacturing tolerance, there are inevitably
some errors in the experiments. The experimental errors normally include the transducer
measurement error, manufacturing error, experimental method error and data processing
error. They are discussed respectively in this section.
7.5.1 Precision of transducers
Table 7.5 lists the precision of main transducers used in the experiments rated by
their manufacturers. In practical application the error could be lower than the listed values
because the transducers are re-calibrated at a very narrow measurement range at the
temperature close to that of the experiments. These transducer errors will definitely affect
the estimation accuracy of the bearing characteristics.
247
Table 7.5 Precision of the transducers rated by manufacturers
Proximity probes
Force cells
Pressure transducers
Thermocouples
4%
1%
0.5%
0.2 C
7.5.2 Manufacturing tolerance
Misalignment in the test rig is mainly determined by the coaxality between two
bearing surfaces and the cylindricality of the surfaces of the journal and two bearings.
Limited to the available equipment, the manufacturing tolerances of two big bearings and
their cases can only be maintain within class 7 precision (ISO/R286). The coaxality
between bearing internal and external surfaces is about 0.02 m m . The coaxality between
the internal surfaces of two bearing cases is about 0.03 m m . Thus the coaxality of two
bearing surfaces is about 0.05 m m . This could be one main reason which caused the
misalignments in the experiments.
In addition to the inevitable non-coaxality between two bearing surfaces, the
fitting clearances (10 to 30 iim) between the bearing external surface and its case was
found to be different for two bearings. During the assembly, a silastic adhesive was
filled in the fitting clearance, which means the bearings are partly supported by the elastic
adhesive. It is possible that with the change of the bearing load, the bearing location
varied slightly because of the different elastic deformations of the adhesive in the fitting
clearances. This could be the reason w h y the misalignment ratio changes with the
bearing load (see Section 7.3.3).
Another important manufacturing tolerance is the cylindricality of the surfaces of
the journal and two bearings. The cylindricality can be approximately determined by the
total runout in all cylindrical surface. According to the measurement after some
experiments, the total runout is 0.04 m m for bearing 1 , 0.01 m m for bearing 2, and
248
0.005 m m for the journal. Since the bearing's radial clearance is only 0.144 m m , these
manufacturing tolerances are not negligible. They could produce a misalignment ratio of
, max. diameter variation.
n
>**> ^_ _* **u u ^
2x radial clearance
parts
^ faring surfaces even though the
rotor and its load were absolutely symmetric to the midplane between two bearings. This
misalignment could considerably affect the bearing coefficients as analysed in Chapter 5.
The surface roughness is about 3 a m for the bearings and 2 u.m for the journal
after some experiments. The roughness affects the oil film thickness and contributes to
the discrepancy between the theoretical prediction and the experimental results.
7.5.3 Errors caused by experimental methods
The measurement method can also introduce error on the estimated bearing
characteristics. In the eccentricity measurement, the bearing centre is determined by
averaging the output voltages of probes at four extreme positions. In the practical
experiments, it is difficult to m o v e the journal to contact two bearings at the same
position, especially when two bearings are misaligned. According to the repeatability of
the output voltages correlated to the bearing centre, it is estimated that the bearing centre
was located to within 0.03c error in the aforementioned experiments. Therefore, the
eccentricity measured in this chapter assumes about 0.03 c error. This will considerably
affect the attitude angle when the eccentricity is low.
For the force coefficient estimation, the clearance of the slave bearing (roller
bearing in Fig.7.6), which is used to apply the load on the journal, affects the force
transmitted to the journal. Since the mass of the external ring and its case is small (23.5
kg), the force to accelerate this ring is much smaller (<0.1%) than the force transferred to
the oil film. According to the calculation, neglecting the mass of the external ring of the
slave bearing, the difference in the estimated bearing coefficients is less than 0.2%. In
249
the data processing, the mass of the external ring of the slave bearing is added to the
mass of the rotor.
Since the stiffness of the air bellow is very low (< lxlO
5
N/m) compared with the
stiffness of the oil film bearings (>2.5xl0
7
N/m), the static load variation due to dynamic
excitations is less than 0.2% according to the recorded force signals. The effect of this
load variation on the bearing coefficients is negligible.
Since the bearing clearances are very small and noise level is high as shown in
Fig.7.12, currently available displacement sensors can not measure the small
displacement with enough accuracy. T o increase the signal/noise ratio, the vibration
amplitudes in the dynamic experiments (described in Section 7.4) are maintained to be
smaller than 0.08c except for the combined excitation. According to the relation between
coefficient variation and the perturbation amplitudes (see Table 3.14), the vibration
amplitude of 0.08c could produce 2.5% to 1 0 % difference in the estimated coefficients
with the theoretical calculation, where the infinitesimal perturbation method is used.
7.5.4 Data processing error
Utilising the up-to-date computation technique, the data processing error is
relatively smaller than those caused by transducers and the manufacturing technique. For
the separated excitation method, the data re-sampling technique before the F F T greatly
reduces the noise effect on the frequency characteristics. For the combined excitation
method, if the responses are not periodical waves, there is some frequency error
depending on the frequency resolution of FFT. In the experiments of combined
excitation, the m a x i m u m error in the estimated excitation frequencies is 0.05 Hz. This
will bring on less than 1 % uncertainty on the estimated bearing coefficients according to
the analysis in Section 6.4.6 (Effect of non-periodical responses).
250
7.5.5 Uncertainty in the estimated bearing coefficients
Due to the aforementioned experimental errors, the estimated coefficients will take
an uncertainty to some extend. Since the complexity in the coefficient calculation from
the experimental responses, it is difficult to determine the uncertainty of the estimated
coefficients analytically. To investigate the effect of the experimental error on the
estimated coefficients, a perturbed method is used. For example, perturbing the
measured displacement xi to + 4 % and yi to - 4 % , the coefficients can be estimated from
these erroneous (perturbed) displacements. The coefficient variation (or error) are
calculated by averaging the differences of 16 coefficients estimated from the measured
displacements and those estimated from the erroneous (perturbed) displacements
(according to (6-53)). The maximum coefficient error under different displacement
perturbations (xi 4 % , yi 4 % , x
2
4% or y 2 4 % ) is approximated as the uncertainty
caused by the displacement error. In this way, the uncertainties for the estimated
coefficients presented in Tables 7.3 and 7.4 are between 1 6 % and 3 1 % due to 4 %
amplitude error of 4 proximity probes. The uncertainties at light loads (S>0.2 or e<0.3)
are higher than those at moderate loads (0.2<S<0.09 or 0.3<e<0.65).
Similarly, 1% force measurement error (uncertainty) will bring on 3%
uncertainty in the estimated coefficients. With 4 % displacement uncertainty and 1 %
force uncertainty, the typical uncertainty in the estimated coefficients is 3 2 % .
Since the bearing coefficients are complicated functions of many variables, such
as the oil film thickness which can not be perfectly expressed because of the
manufacturing tolerance, fluid temperature, and vibration amplitudes (see Section 3.7), it
is difficult to determine them accurately. Due to inevitable experimental errors, the
uncertainties of the estimated coefficients are normally high. Kostrzewsky & Flack
(1990b) have systematically investigated the uncertainties of the bearing coefficients
estimated from the experimental harmonic responses. They found that the minimum
uncertainties in 8 estimated bearing coefficients were typically from 1 0 % to 4 0 %
251
depending on different coefficients. In some cases, the uncertainties in cross damping
coefficients (B
xy
& ByJ were higher than 9 0 % . Although the method proposed herein
can estimate 16 coefficients of two bearings, the transducer precision, manufacturing
tolerance and experimental error, and hence the uncertainty of the estimated bearing
coefficients herein, are of the same level as that of Kostrzewsky & Flack.
7.6 CONCLUSION ON THE HARMONIC EXCITATION
METHOD
(1) An existing journal bearing test rig is successfully modified to experimentally
investigate the dynamic characteristics of two journal bearings. The eccentric-
mass vibrators are firstly used to excite the rotor-bearing system in the bearing
coefficient identification.
(2) When misalignment is considered, the experimental results on Sommerfeld
number agree well with the theoretical prediction. The attitude angle is 5 to 10
lower than the theoretical prediction. The supply flow agree fairly with the
theoretical calculation.
(3) The temperature reaches the highest points at down stream of the minimum oil-
film thickness. The temperature near the upstream supply groove is the lowest
point in all the bearing surface. The average temperature around bearing is 1.9 to
2.8 C higher than that of the inlet oil for loads from S= 3.8 to 0.09. The higher
the load, the higher the temperature rise.
(4) A n experimental method to estimate the 16 dynamic coefficients of two journal
bearings is firstly performed on the test rig. Both separated excitation and
combined excitation procedures are performed on the test rig and the coefficients
252
estimated by two procedures are close. For the separated excitation procedure,
the data processing is easier, but it requires longer experimental time to maintain
the vibration steady twice. In the combined excitation, all data can be acquired
during one run notwithstanding its dada processing is slightly more complicated.
For laboratory application, both excitation procedures can yield reasonable
results. However for the application where the test time is limited and bearing
conditions can not be accurately controlled, the combined excitation procedure
should be applied.
Applicable experimental procedures and data processing methods are proposed.
Although the excitation forces are not standard harmonic, the proposed data
processing method can still work out the bearing coefficients with reasonable
accuracy. The pre-processing program developed herein can effectively remove
the outlier and other unreasonable data from the experimental signals without
changing signal's phase. Re-sampling the discrete data before F F T can
effectively filter out the noise and avoid the alias of the frequency characteristics.
The estimated bearing dynamic coefficients of two tested journal bearings
correlated well with the theory especially when the misalignment is considered in
the theoretical calculation. The typical uncertainty of the estimated coefficients is
3 2 % due to the measurement errors. The critical stable speeds predicted from the
estimated bearing coefficients show the same tendency as the theory analysis but
is higher than the theoretical prediction of aligned bearing. If the misalignment is
considered in the theoretical calculation, the critical stable speeds of the
experimental rotor-bearing system agree well with the theoretical prediction. The
experimental results verify that the misalignment can improve the stability of the
rotor-bearing system.
D u e to the manufacturing tolerance, there are significant misalignments in both
tested bearings. The misalignment ratio decreased with an increase of the bearing
load. O n e important reason is that misalignment at heavier load produces much
253
bigger moment which forces the journal or bearing to deflect to reduce the
misalignment ratio. There are difficulties to consider these factors in the
theoretical calculation. T o predict the bearing dynamic performance, the
experimental results should be more accurate than the analytical prediction.
254
CIEIAIPMIR 8
IDENTIFICATION OF ALL DYNAMIC
FROM THE IMPULSE RESPONSES
This chapter extends the impact excitation method to determine all 16 dynamic
coefficients of two journal bearings. The impact excitation forces and their
corresponding displacement responses are transformed to frequency domain, from
which the transfer functions at different frequencies are calculated Based on these
transfer functions a linear estimator for all coefficients is developed according to the
least-square estimation. All dynamic coefficients can be obtained from the estimator
through one operation.
The method was performed by experiments on another journal bearing test rig
with a rigid rotor supported by two circular bearings. Time-domain simulation shows
that the estimated dynamic coefficients can best represent the experimental system
Detailed formulae, experimental procedures, measured and simulated signals at
each data processing step are presented
255
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The impact excitation is the most economic and convenient method among all
excitation methods in parameter identification. A n impulse force consists of the signals
with a wide range of frequencies, thus its impulse response includes the characteristics of
the identified system in a wide frequency range. Employing this impulse response to
estimate the bearing coefficients can increase the reliability of the coefficients. Nordman
& Schollhorn(1980) successfully developed the impact excitation method to identify 8
bearing coefficients of two symmetric journal bearings. T w o impulse forces were
exerted in the middle of a rigid and symmetric rotor, the displacements were measured at
two locations near the bearings and were averaged. The pulse forces and their impulse
responses were transformed to frequency domain and the transfer functions at different
frequencies were found. All eight coefficients were estimated by fitting the amplitudes of
the transfer functions. Zhang et al(1990), Chan & White(1991) have also successfully
used this excitation method to identify 8 bearing coefficients of two symmetric bearings.
Since m a n y rotor-bearing systems are not symmetric and its movement is more
complicated than those of one bearing, the symmetric simplification limits the method's
application and the curve-fitting method also takes long computation time because the
residual is a complicated function of the estimated coefficients. This research extends the
impact method to two different bearings and develops an explicit coefficients' estimator to
calculate all the coefficients.
8.2 SYSTEM MODEL
Fig.8.1 shows a normal rotor-bearing system. The impact forces f
x
and f
y
are
applied to the rotor respectively as indicated in Fig 8.1. According to Section 6.2.2 the
linearised lateral movement equation of the rotor is:
Mq + (ClG + B)q + Kq = F
n
n=x, y (8-1)
256
Its dimensionless form is:
Mq+(ClG+C
b
B)% + C
k
Kq = F
n
/c = C
n
F/c
(8-2)
Where
C =
Cfic-[kf> Of 4/ 0] for horizontal impact excitation
C^ = |0, l2
fJ
0, Z^,] for vertical impact excitation
Driving end
Bearing 1
Li
L
W

XI
Xip
yi
-m
c
i>
yip
Si
Non-driving end
Bearing 2
L2
L2f
fy L
See from the
non-driving end
cf^ZI
X2p
S2 Y2P y
2
v?1
fc
fi=
2 W Fby
Fig . 8.1 Rotor bearing system
(8-3)
8.3 DERIVATION OF THE COEFFICIENTS
ESTIMATOR
Performing Fourier transform on Eq(8-2) yields the system model in frequency
domain:
[C
k
K-(*
2
M+ja(ClG+C
b
B)] Q(ju>) =F(jto)
c
(8-4)
and dividing two sides with F(joo) obtains:
v .Ji
[C
k
K-to
z
M + jcii(aG+C
b
B)}ZL
77v,eo'<)-<;
F( c
(8-5)
257
Where
Q 0 >
=
^(jfi)) riQ'Q)) X
2
Q-g Y
2
(jaJ)
F(jco) [ F(jco)' Fijco)' F(/G>)' FOffl)
=\H
H
, H
n
, H
n
, H
n
\
(8-6)
At frequency (Ok, the above transfer function is expressed as a complex vector:
QU<*k)_ u _
M
r ,.i
F(m)
= [Hluc + jHrf, Hj[ + jHJt;, Hrf + jH^, Hj: + JHJ^ j
(8-7)
and:
" * =
\(M
F(/G))
r
^0)
' F(/co)
r
X
2
(/a>)
' FO)
r
7
2
tfa>)
r
' F(/a>)
1
T
-rrr
lr
w
2 r
w
3 r
77
4r
l
2
-["nJfc ***> " n * ' "nifcj
H-l. l
nk
X^jCO)
F(jCO)
Y^jco)
' F(Ja>)
X
2
(jco)
' F(jco)
Y
2
(jco)
' *W
- T w
1
' If
2
' Tf
3i
W
4
'l
3
-[^nifc' -"nfe'
n
rk->
n
nk\
Superscript r indicates the real part, i the imaginary part.
The frequency characteristics F(jo>k) and QQiOk) are also calculated according to
Eq (6-34) and Eq(6-35).
Substituting ^^ to Eq(8-5) and separating real and imaginary parts:
F(ja)
k
)
QKH^ - (0*0,5/4 = C
n
/c+frffli + a)*QG/4 = P^ (8-8)
QKHU + (a
k
C
b
BH^ = tolMHit - c o ^ G ^ = P*
(8-9)
Substimting K , B , M and G in Eq(8-8) and Eq(8-9) yields the following equation:
258
Ank Z = Dnk
(8-10)
Subscript n = x or y means the data under fx or f
y
respectively. Subscript k indicates at
frequency co = m* (k= l,2,...m ).
Combining equation (8-12) at (2 x m ) frequencies:
AZ = D
(8-11)
The coefficients can be calculated by the following estimator based on the least-,
estimation method:
square
Z = (A
T
A)"
1
A
T
D
where
4-!Al> A
x2
,..., A ^ , A
yl
,A
y2
,..., Aynf
D = [D
xl
, Z^,...,^, D
yl
, D
y2
,..., D^f
Z =
Kl K\, Ki K% Bl B% Bl B%
KyX ^yy K^ Kyy B^ Byy By\ B^y
-\T
(8-12)
(8-13)
and
4* =
C
k
H%C
k
H% 0 0 -(O
k
C
b
H%-a>
k
C
b
H% 0 0
C
k
H%C
k
HZ 0 0 i&
k
C
b
H% i
k
C
b
H% 0 0
0 0 C
k
H%C
k
H% 0 0 -
k
C
b
H%-G)
k
C
b
H%
0 0 C
k
H%C
k
H 0 0 G)
k
C
b
H% i*
k
C
b
H%
(8-14)
L=
>(1) F(2)
^ ( D Pi*V)
P(3) F(4)
|Pj*(3) F^(4)
n=x,y (8-15)
p
nkU\ PÛ) U = 1,2,3 and 4) are calculated from the second equation of Eqs. (8-8)
and Eq(8-9).
259
Normally, M , G and Q can be estimated or measured directly. The exciting force
f
x
and f
y
, and the displacement response q(t) can be measured. Q(ja)) and F(j(B) are
obtained through the Fourier transform from which matrices A and D in equation
Eq (8 -11) can be constructed. Thus all 16 coefficients in matrix Z can be determined.
If the rotor takes significant initial vibration vector with frequency characteristics
Q o G ) * this initial vibration influences should also be subtracted from the response
Qn(jo)) measured at the n-th impact excitation before proceeding with the calculation of
the transfer function to eliminate its effect on coefficient estimation.
To check the efficiency and applicability of the impact excitation method and
simulate the real experiment, the numerical test includes the following procedures:
(i) Input the rotor and bearing data and assume the eccentricity ratios of two
bearings, input the theoretical coefficients corresponding to the assumed
eccentricity.
(ii) Assume two excitation forces f
x
and f
y
. A bell-shaped function is used to
simulate the practical impact force (see Fig.4.9(d)):
where fo is the peak force, to is the half pulse width.
(iii) Construct time domain model Eq(8-2).
(iv) Solve the displacement response q(t) from Eq(8-2) by the Runge-Kutta method.
Impose the white noise on q(t) (see Sections 6.4.4 and 8.4.3).
(v) Perform F F T on the time-domain signals f and q
n
(t) to obtain Q(JCD) and
F
B
(ju))in frequency domain. Compute the transfer functions.
(vi) Construct matrices A and D in the coefficients' estimator Eq(8-12).
(vii) Calculate coefficients Z by Eq(8-12).
(viii) Calculated the estimated error ^ according to Eq(6-53). If e. is close to 0, the
260
method is valid or applicable.
Fig.8. 2 shows the computation procedure.
Read in m , it, ip, ei, 2, Zo,
CI, fno, to, Ck, Cb and other
bearing parameters
I
eq.(8-2)
Solve equation (8-2)
under fx and fy
| q
(t)
FFT
Qn(j(D)/Fn (j)
Construct A and D
I
= (AFA)
A
A
T
D
Fig.8.2 Flow chart of the simulation program
Parameters of the simulated rotor-bearing system are:
c =0.125 m m
D = 25 mm
i
t
=0.47kg
Ii=l2=lif = l2f =0.5
ô = ô = 100 N
L=25 mm
m=7.5 kg
i
p
= 0.0712 kg
Q= 3000 rpm
to = 1.5 ms
261
8.4.1 Symmetric Bearings
Assume that the rotor-bearing system is symmetrical, both bearings operate at the
same eccentricity ratio Ei = e
2
= 0.6 (Si=S
2
=0.131). The excitation pulse force peaks
are f
rt
= f,o = 100 N. With the given (input theoretical) coefficients Zo and the exciting
forces, the displacement response q(t) can be solved on the system model Eq(8-2) using
the 6th-order Runge-Kutta numerical integration algorithm(Jackson, 1985). Transfer
functions Qn(jo))/FnGo>) are obtained by performing F F T on these responses. These
transfer functions are substituted in Eqs (8-14) and (8-15) to construct A and D in
Eq (8-11) and the coefficients are calculated by Eq(8-12).
Fig. 8.3 presents the simulated impact force and impulse responses in both time
and frequency domains. The responses are contaminated by the noise with a level of 2 %
of the radial clearance, which is 1 0 % of the maximal peak of impulse response xi(or X2)
under fx and 4 0 % of the maximal peak of impulse response xl(or x2) under fy (see
Fig. 8.3a and c). Table 8.1 presents the given (input) coefficients Z Q and the estimated
values Z under different noise level. If the simulated signals are noise-free, the estimated
coefficients are almost the same as the given (input) values. The negligible discrepancies
are caused by numerical integration and F F T errors. If Q(jco) is solved directly from
Eq(8-5) in the frequency domain, the estimated coefficients will be the same as the given
values.
262
0.000 0.003 t(s) 0.006
Fig.8.3(a) Simulated impact force f
x
or f
y
-0.2
0.00 0.02 0.04 t(s) 0.06
Fig.8.3(b) Simulated impulse responses to f
x
-o.i -
-0.2
0.00 0.02 0.04 t(s) 0.06
Fig.8.3(c) Simulated impulse responses to f
y
263
0.016
3
O
fa
0.008
0.004 -
0.000
*******
'"**<
fl = 50Hz
(d) Power spectrum of the
impact forces fx and fy
0 2 4 (fl/Q 6
Fig.8.3(d) Power spectrum of the impact forces f
x
and f
v
6e-4
3
Is
o
2e-4
1
i i i i i | i i i i | i i i . i j
(e) Transfer function amplitudes of
each response to excitation forces
Xl,X2/Fx -
Yl,Y2/Fx
o Xl,X2/Fy
A Yl,Y2/Fy
Oe+0 L_L_6-A.A_6J&
0.0 03 1.0 (o/Q,
(e
1=
e
2
= 0.6, Uo =0, 0=50 Hz)
Fig.8.3(e) Transfer functions symmetric bearings with 10-40% noise
8.4.2 Asymmetric Bearings
Normal rotor-bearings are not symmetric and the rotors can not be absolutely
balanced. Assuming that bearing 1 operates at an eccentricity ratio i= 0.6 (Si=0.131),
bearing 2 at 8
2
=0.5 (S2=0.194) and the rotor's initial unbalance force is 10% of the
bearing's static the load (Uo=0.1W); the simulated responses are shown in Fig. 8.4.
264
03
-0.2
03
M 0.2
(a) Impulse responses at bearing 1
due to fx
Ur=0.1W
Q = 50Hz
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 t (s) 0.10
(b) Impulse responses at bearing 2
due to fx
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 t(s) 0.10
Fig.8.4 Simulated impulse responses and their transfer functions
asymmetric bearings with unbalanced rotor (to be continued)
265
03
0.2
(d) Impulse responses at bearing 2
due to f y
" *2-y
6.
y2
.y
-0.2 I 1
2e-4
CM
3"
O
le-4 -
0e+0
(e) Power spectrum of the impulse
responses due to fx
Ur = 0.1 W
Q = 50Hz
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 t(s)
0
10
(D/Q 2.0
6e-4
3
O
2e-4 -
(f) Transfer functions of the
impulse responses to fx
Xl/Fx
+ Yl/Fx
X2/Fx
A Y2/Fx
0e+0
0.0 0.5 1.0 0 V Q 2.0
(l= 0.6, 6
2
=0.5, Uo =0.1 W, Q=50 Hz)
Fi|.8.4 Simulated impulse responses and their transfer functions
asymmetric bearings with unbalanced rotor
266
Since the initial vibrations are high, their amplitudes are increased (Fig.8.4a & b) or
decreased (Fig.8.4c & d) only for a short period. The amplitude variation depends on
the time when the impact force starts. The transfer functions shown in Fig.8.3(f) are
calculated after subtracting the initial vibration from the impulse responses. From these
transfer functions, the bearing coefficients are estimated as presented in Table 8.2.
W h e n the signals are noise-free, the estimated coefficients are the same as the given
values. Table 8.2 presents the estimated results for different cases.
267
Table 8.1 Given and estimated coefficients with different noise levels
(Symmetric bearings, 1= 2 = 0.6 St=S
2
=0.131, impact method, ttVfl=0.2 to 2)
cases
given (input)
(Someya, 1989)
0 % noise
e=2.07E-04
5-20% noise
e=2.35E-02
10-40% noise
Ee=6.16E-02
20-80% noise
Ee=0.141
U
r
=10%W
Ee=2.77E-04
BearineNo
Zo#l
Zo#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Kxx
1.77
1.77
1.77
1.77
1.75
1.74
1.78
1.79
1.63
1.62
1.77
1.77
Kxv
-0.553
-0.553
-0.553
-0.553
-0.563
-0.559
-0.460
-0.451
-0.558
-0.545
-0.553
-0.553
Kyx
3.06
3.06
3.06
3.06
2.99
2.97
2.98
2.97
2.58
2.55
3.06
3.06
Kvv
3.19
3.19
3.18
3.19
3.14
3.14
3.26
3.29
2.94
2.95
3.19
3.19
Bxx
1.74
1.74
1.74
1.74
1.72
1.71
1.68
1.67
1.55
1.53
1.74
1.74
Bxv
1.82
1.82
1.82
1.82
1.75
1.74
1.73
1.72
1.36
1.33
1.82
1.82
Byx
1.82
1.82
1.82
1.82
1.77
1.75
1.65
1.62
1.41
1.36
1.82
1.82
Bw
6.69
6.69
6.69
6.69
6.53
6.49
6.31
6.27
5.51
5.42
6.69
6.69
8.4.3 Noise Effects
To assess the sensitivity of the estimated coefficients to the noise, the simulated
displacement and force signals are also contaminated by noise at different levels.
Fig. 8.3 shows the contaminated displacement signals, where the noise level is about
1 0 % of the maximum peak of the impulse responses (xi and x
2
under f
x
in Fig.8.3(b))
and 4 0 % of minimum peak of the impulse responses(xi and x
2
under f
y
in Fig.8.3(c)).
Obtaining the amplitudes and phases from these noise signals in time domain is quite
difficult and inaccurate. However in frequency-domain, the noise effect is not as serious
as in the time domain.
268
(1= 0.6 ,
2
=0.5, Si=0.131, S
2
=0.194, O)/fl=0.2 to 2)
cases
given (input)
(Someya, 1989)
0% noise
Ee=2.09E-04
5-20% noise
Ee=1.88E-02
10-20% noise
Ee=4.63E-02
20-40% noise
e=o.ii6
U
r
=10%W
Ee=2.13E-04
BearineNo
Zo#l
Zo#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Kxx
1.77
1.89
1.77
1.89
1.75 .
1.87
1.71
1.85
1.64
1.79
1.77
1.89
Kxy
-0.553
-1.00
-0.553
-1.00
-0.562
-0.995
-0.565
-0.985
-0.553
-0.947
-0.553
-1.00
Kyx
3.06
3.09
3.06
3.09
2.99
3.04
2.88
2.96
2.59
2.78
3.06
3.09
Kyy
3.19
2.67
3.19
2.67
3.14
2.66
3.08
2.64
2.95
2.62
3.19
2.67
Bxx
1.74
2.31
1.74
2.31
1.72
2.28
1.67
2.24
1.55
2.13
1.74
2.31
Bxy
1.82
2.00
1.82
2.00
1.75
1.94
1.64
1.85
1.36
1.63
1.82
2.00
Byx
1.82
2.00
1.82
2.00
1.77
1.95
1.67
1.87
1.40
1.66
1.82
2.00
Byy
6.69
6.99
6.69
6.99
6.52
6.85
6.24
6.66
5.49
6.16
6.69
6.99
In the noisy cases, the estimated results are found to be sensitive to the frequency
range in which the transfer functions are used to estimate the bearing coefficients. The
frequency range for the estimation of the coefficients in Tables 8.2 and 8.3 are from 0.2
to 2 times of the rotation speed. At the same noise level, if the frequency range is
co/Q=0.4 to 4, the estimated error will be increased considerably. For example, at the
10-40% noise level, the estimated error will be 3 2 % if the frequency range is co/Q=0.4 to
4. The estimated error is 5 times of that in Table 8.1. From the transfer functions in
Figs.8.3 and 8.4, the impulse power is mainly distributed over a frequency range from
0.2 to 2 Q. This significant range is determined by the bearing coefficients and the
excitation force. Since the power of the simulated noise is distributed in all frequencies
from 0 to <, its effect at the significant frequencies from 0.2 to 2 ft is negligible
comparing with the impulse responses, i.e. the signal/noise levels in this frequency
269
range are higher than those at other frequencies. Selecting the frequency range (0.2 to 2
CI for the simulated rotor-bearing system) where the transfer function amplitudes are
high can increase the noise immunity of the impact method
8.4.4 Initial Unbalance Effect
To assess the unbalance effect on the impact method, an unbalance force Uo (f
ox
= -UQ sin Qt, f
oy
= -Uo cos Q t ) is imposed on the rotor in addition to the excitation
forces f
x
and f
y
. Fig.8.4 shows the responses with the unbalance force UQ = 1 0 % W .
From Fig.8.4 the displacements are dramatically changed with the unbalance force. It is
hard to analyse the responses in time domain. From the power spectrum in Fig.8.4(e),
the main power of the responses is concentrated at the rotational frequency CI. After
eliminating the initial vibration, the transfer functions as shown in Fig.8.4(f) clearly
show the relations between the responses and the impact excitations. From the transfer
functions, the bearing coefficients are estimated as accurately as those without the initial
unbalance.
8.5 EXPERIMENT
8.5.1 Bearing Test Rig
The afore mentioned method is tested on a smaller journal bearing test rig as
shown in Fig.8.5. The rotor is driven through a special flexicross coupling by a 1.1 k W
electric motor, whose speed is adjusted by the M S C - M 3 frequency controller as used in
the big bearing test rig (see Section 7.2.4). To reduce the lateral constraint force of the
coupling, a ball bearing was inserted in the commercial flexicross coupling as shown in
Fig.8.5(b). The bearings' static load is the gravity of the rotor, whose mass can be
changed by attaching more discs. Four Bentley Nevade 7200 series proximity probes
270
(see Appendix C ) are installed near the bearings at a 45 angle to the vertical to measure
the rotor vibration. A n optical sensor gives a pulse signal per turn which can be used to
calculate the rotation speed. All data are sampled and saved on discs by the same
computer and A / D converter as used in the big bearing test rig (see Section 7.2.7).
Tested bearings are full cylindrical bearings with a top axial groove as shown in
Fig.8.5(c). The parameters of the test rig are:
Bearing diameter D=25.4 m m Width: L=25 m m
Clearances: c
1 =
0.128, c
2
= 0.122, c = 0.125 m m
Rotor mass: 4 to 7.6 kg
Lowest natural frequency of the rotor: 235 H z (at maximum rotor mass 7.6 kg)
Rotor speed: CI = 500 to 3500 rpm
Probe distances: Si = 150 m m , S
2
= 190 m m , L Q = 340 m m
Lubricant IS015 , v =14 Cst at 40 C and 5 Cst at 80 C
The lubricating oil is supplied to the top groove of the bearings from the top
tanks, where the oil level is constant by passing the oil through a side hole in each tank
to the big oil receiver below the bearing (see Fig.8.5(a)). The return oil from both
bearings and the overflow from the two top tanks flow to the reservoir and then
continuously pumped to the top tanks. Since the friction power loss in each bearing is
less than 0.01 k W , the maximum oil temperature increase is less than 1 C even if all the
frictional power is transferred to the oil. The total volume of the oil tanks and reservoir
is 50 L, the operating oil temperature measured at the side flow of bearings was only
about 1C higher than the ambient temperature. The oil temperature is mainly dependent
on the ambient temperature and has been easy to keep constant throughout the
experiment This is important especially to the unbalance excitation method which will
be described in Chapter 9.
Since the frequencies of experimental signals are much lower than the natural
frequency of the rotor, the rotor can be thought as rigid and the afore-mentioned impact
271
method can be performed on the test rig.
Fig 8.5(a) Photo of the small journal bearing test rig
probes
x2p, y2p
Fig 8.5(b) The configuration of small journal bearing test rig
272
Fig 8.5(c) Tested bearingtop-grooved
A n impact hammer as shown in Fig.8.6 is designed to apply the impact forces.
To measure the impact forces, a Kistler 902A force washer is inserted between the nylon
cap and the hammer body.
Fig 8.6 Impact hammer
273
8.5.2 Experimental Procedure
The experimental procedure includes:
(i) R u n the rotor at speed CI, sample and save the initial vibration displacements q
0
(t)
and the optical sensor signal.
(ii) While the rotor is running at the same speed, the rotor is impacted horizontally with
the impact hammer and the response q,(t) and impact force f
x
(t) are recorded.
(iii) At the same running speed, the rotor is impacted vertically and the response q
y
(t)
and fy(t) recorded again.
All these three sets of data are saved on computer disc and then processed to
obtain the 16 bearing coefficients.
8.5.3 Data Processing Procedure
A data processing program is developed as shown in Fig.8.7. The main steps
are:
(i) Change the voltages to dimensionless displacements.
(ii) Change the displacements to the vertical-horizontal coordinate system and then
transformed to the bearing centres by Eq(6-25). (Since the proximity probes are
installed off the bearing centres and at 45 angle to the vertical line).
(iii) Calculate the eccentricities and the attitude angles for both bearings according to
initial displacement and q
0
(t).
(iv) Perform F F T on fx(uT), f
y
(uT) and qn( u T ) to obtain F
n
(jco) and Q
n
Qia)
(n = 0,x, y)
(v) Calculate transfer function in Eq(8-5):
Qjo))/ F(j) = (Q
n
(ja>) - Q
0
(jfi>) V F
n
(ja>) (n=x,y)
(vi) Construct the coefficient estimator matrices A and D in Eq(8-11).
(vii) Compute all coefficients in Z by Eq(8-12).
274
read in data D, Lb, c, m , it,
ip, qn ( uT), fx and fy etc.
I
change the coordinate system
move displacements to bearing
centers, calculate e and fo
qn(uT)
fx,fy
FFT
Q* (j) j Fn(jCO)
Q n (JC0)-QO (jffi)
1
AZ = D
*
Z = (A
T
A)'
1
A
T
D
Fig. 8.7 Data processing schedule
8.5.4 Example
A n example to determine all the coefficients from experimental data is described
here. Figs.8.8(a) and (b) show experimental impact forces, and Figs.8.8(c) to (f) show
all displacement responses under two impact excitations. The displacements at two
bearings are very close because the rotor-bearing system are nearly symmetric. From
Figs.8.8(c) through (f), a periodic component with period from 0.08 to 0.12 second can
be found for every displacement These periodic components are confirmed by the
frequency characteristics as shown Fig.8.9. Figs.8.9(a) and (b) show the transfer
functions of all impulse responses to the impact forces, comparing against those of the
simulated system with the estimated coefficients. From Fig.8.9, there are oil whirling
phenomena at frequency ratio ca/Cl- 0.5 to 0.7 ( =8.5 to 12 Hz). These whirl
frequencies correlated well with the periods of 0.12 to 0.08 s which have been found in
the time domain signals as shown in Fig.8.8.
275
& :
150
100
50
i ' l i
o fx-experimental
fx.-simulated
0 6-oo O (jO UUOOO 8u O U(J
ooeoooooo
-50
0.000 0.005 t(s)
0 0 1

Fig.8.8(a) Measured and simulated impact f
x
150
100
50
0
.sn

*-"
.

.

fy-experimental
fy-simulated *\
/ \
' \
* \
/
/ \
/ \ ;
/ . \

-

_ J 1 1 1 1
O000 0.005 t(s) 0.010
Fig.8.8(b) Measured and simulated impact f
y
276
0.2
AS

'
f
i
I
1 1 1 , 1 I 1
S=0.1004, Q = 1 7 . 3 H z , 1=0.69, 2=0.62
$10=47.8', $2o= 55.7'
* x l.x -experimental
yl.x-experimental
xl.x-simulated from estimated coefficients
y 1.x-simulated from estimated coefficients
0.0
1
-0.2
** **s#^****. ^%r
0.00 0.06 0.12 t (s) 0-18
Fig.8.8(c) Measured and simulated displacements at bearing 1 due to impact f
x
0.2
T T
-0.2
X2.x-experimental
A y2.x-experimental
X2.x-simulated from estimated coefficients
y2.x-simulated from estimated coefficients
0.00 0.06 0.12 t(s)
1 8
Fig.8.8(d) Measured and simulated displacements at bearing 2 due to impact f
x
277
-0.2
0.00
xl.y-experimental
yl.y-experimental
xl.y-simulated
~ yiysimulated
0.06 0.12
t(s)
1 8
Fig.8.8(e) Measured and simulated displacements at bearing 1 due to impact f
y

>>
-0.2
X2.y-experimental
A y2.y-experimental
X2.y-simulated from estimated coefficients
y2.y-simulated from estimated coefficients
0.00 0.06 0.12
t(s)
0.18
Fig.8.8(f) M e a s u r e d and simulated displacements at bearing 2 due to impact f
y
278
0.02
3
K
fa
1
o.oi
0.00 Ii
6
oVQ
8
Fig.8.9(a) Measured and simulated transfer functions to f
x
0.012
-3
to
f
0.008 -
i i i i
0.004
0.000
xi/fy-experimental
+ yi/fy-experimental
x2/fy-experimental
y2/fy-experimental
-o xl/fy-simulated
-x yi/fy-simulated
-o x2/fy-simulated
- A y2/fy-simulated
Fig.8.9(b) Measured and simulated transfer functions to f
y
279
Substitute the transfer functions into Eqs.(8-14) and (8-15) to construct
matrices A and D in Eq(8-11) and calculate the coefficients through Eq(8-12). Table 8.3
presents the estimated coefficients Z. The average parameters of two bearings are used
to calculate coefficient factors C
k
, C
b
and Sommerfeld number S. Since the two
bearings' clearances and their eccentricities are different and their misalignments with
the rotor m a y also be different their coefficients differ slightly as presented in Table 8.3.
From the estimated coefficients in Table 8.3, the predicted critical whirling ratios
(iO/Cl) for bearing 1 and 2 are respectively 0.467 and 0.450 according to linear stability
analysis in Chapter 4 (see Eq(4-19)). A s shown in Fig.8.9, the whirling ratios of all four
displacements are 0.5 to 0.7, which are higher than the predicted critical ratios (0.467 and
0.450 ). According to the stability analysis in Section 4.3.2, the system is stable
although the whirl phenomena existed. In fact the stability margin is quite large because
the system was still stable when the rotor speed was risen to the maximum rotor speed
(58 Hz) in the experiment
Table 8.3 Estimated coefficients fron
( S=0.1004,12=17.3 Hz, C
k
=1.509xl0
5
N
Estimated Z ( # 1)
EstimatedZ(# 2)
Kxx
24.1
25.8
Kxy
-3.19
-3.78
Kyx
72.2
81.2
Kyy
45.4
52.6
i impulse responses
/m, C
b
=1387 N.S/m)
Bxx
71.3
72.9
Bxy
34.2
38.0
Byx
48.3
52.0
Byy
55.4
63.6
8.5.5 Verification of Simulation
Only if the displacement response in both time domain and frequency domain
agree with the measurement it can be said that the estimated coefficients can represent
the experimental rotor-bearing system. T o verify the accuracy, the estimated coefficients
are substituted into the system model and the impulse response are simulated on
280
computer. Fig.8.8 shows the simulated impact forces and their impulse responses. The
impact force is simulated by the bell-shape function:
21nl0(r-r)
/(') = /.
tl
In which
to=0.0023 s, f
0
= 125 N for f
x
and f
0
= 160 N for f
y
.
The simulated impulse responses are shown as the continuous lines in Fig.8.8. The
simulated transfer functions from the estimated coefficients are also plotted as solid lines
in Fig.8.9. From Fig.8.8 and 8.9, the simulated impulse responses and the transfer
functions from the estimated coefficients correlate well with the experimental data.
Therefore, the estimated coefficients can correctly represent the dynamic behaviour of the
tested bearings and they can be used to predict the dynamic performance of the rotor-
baring system.
8.5.6 Discussion
Referring to Fig.8.8 the experimental signals are noisy. They were most
possibly contaminated by the magnetic interference. The experimental displacements did
not return to zero as soon as the simulated signals. This was possibly caused by the
residual contacting force of the impact hammer. Another factor which will bring on
difference between the experimental and simulated signals is nonlinear property of the
bearing forces (see Section 4.4.1). Since the peak values of the impulse responses are
close to 2 0 % clearance, approaching these nonlinear responses with linear model will
produce some error. Although these factors were not considered in the simulation, and
the simulated impact forces were also slightly different from the experimental impact
forces (see Figs.8.8(a) and (b)), the simulated responses are still agree well with the
experimental responses. The peak values and rising times for both measured and
281
simulated impact responses are very close. This means the estimated coefficients
approximate the measured system in both frequency and time domain, and they can be
used to predict the system dynamic performance.
In the experiment the displacement responses were found to be sensitive to the
coupling structure. Painstaking work was done to reduce the lateral constraint force of
the coupling. A ball bearing was inserted in a commercial flexicross coupling as shown
in Fig.8.5(b). If the coupling lateral contact forces are not balanced or the lateral
constraining force is not negligible when compared with the bearing forces, the rotor
movement will be affected by the coupling force significantly. In the bearing
application, the rotor vibrations will also inevitably be contaminated by the coupling
force, unbalanced centrifugal and gravity forces, foundation effect and noise; so that the
measured transfer functions will not be as smooth as the theoretical calculation.
Theoretically the transfer function at one frequency for each impact can determine all
coefficients as the harmonic excitation method, but it was found that if only one
frequency characteristic was used to determine the bearing dynamic coefficients, the
repeatability of the estimated coefficients was poor. This investigation used transfer
functions at more than 20 frequencies as shown in Fig.8.9 to estimate the coefficients.
Although the transfer functions of the estimated system with the coefficients differ
slightly with the measurement at some frequencies, the combined square-error (or
residual-mean-square) is minimal
282
8.6 CONCLUSIONS
This chapter extends the impact excitation method to estimate all dynamic
coefficients of two asymmetric bearings from the impulse responses. More accurate
system model capable of evaluating two different bearings at the same time is used. A
linear estimator based on the least-square estimation is derived through which all
dynamic coefficients can be calculated through one operation.
The proposed method has been performed on the laboratory bearing test rig.
Computer simulation verifies that the estimated coefficients can approximate very well
the measured rotor-bearing dynamic characteristics in both time and frequency domains.
The oil whirl phenomena were found in the experiments. The whirling
frequencies correlate well with the values predicted from the estimated bearing
coefficients and agree very well with the linear stability theory.
To increase the estimation accuracy, transfer functions at many frequencies in a
frequency range near the shaft speed should be used.
283
CIEIAIPraiR 2)
DETERMINATION OF ALL DYNAMIC
FROM SYNCHRONOUS UNBALANCE
RESPONSES
A new method to determine all 16 dynamic coefficients of two journal bearings
from two or more sets of unbalance responses is developed in this chapter. The
displacement responses under trial unbalance are transferred to frequency domain,
from which a linear estimator for all coefficients is developed based on the least-
square estimation. Compared with previous measurement methods, the unbalance
method can be conveniently applied to estimate the coefficients of large scale
journal bearings, without relying on expensive excitation equipment to apply large
dynamic force to the rotor as required by other methods.
The method's abilities to determine the coefficients of two symmetric or
asymmetric bearings, to eliminate the initial unbalance and to resist noises are
tested by extensive computer simulation. The method is performed on the small
journal bearing test rig of chapter 8. Practical experimental procedure, data
processing techniques and estimated coefficients of two full journal bearings are
all presented
284
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Although the harmonic excitation method described in Chapter 6 can determine all
coefficients of two bearings, it can not be applied to estimate the coefficients of large
journal bearings in situ because of the difficulty in generating the large harmonic forces.
The impact excitation method described in chapter 8 can also determine all dynamic
coefficients of two bearings at low cost, it is still difficult to find suitable space or
equipment to apply large impact force to excite the rotor to a measurable vibrating
displacement for some bearing application as in a big turbine machine in situ. The
synchronous unbalance excitations are simple and widely used in parameters estimation
(Hagg & Sankey, 1956; Woodcock & Homes, 1969; W o o m e r & Pilkey, 1978;
Stanway, 1983). Since "tests with pure unbalance disturbance can yield only four
unknown coefficients", the previous "unbalance excitation methods are valid for the
tilting-pad bearings in which the cross-coupling terms can be virtually disregarded"
(Someya, 1989, p242). To determine all linear coefficients from the unbalance
responses, Zhang et al(1987), Zheng & X u (1992) decoupled the mathematical model of
the flexible-rotor-bearing system by a finite element method and solved the coefficients
bearing by bearing. Since no example detail was given, how they achieved the
uncoupled model was not made clear. Lee and Hong(1989) used the forward and
backward "whirling" vectors to determine the coefficients and concluded that the
coefficients can not be uniquely determined if two bearings are symmetric for lack of
information regarding the backward whirl. Since the displacements or whirling vectors
of the numerical examples in three papers( Zhang et al, 1983; Zheng & Xu, 1992; Lee
and Hong, 1989) were solved from the system model in the frequency domain, the
method to determine these displacements vectors from the noisy experimental signals
was not mentioned.
The work in this chapter attempts to simplify the coefficient calculation by
developing some explicit formula and using the synchronous unbalance responses
285
directly measured from experimental sensors. Displacement signals are transferred to
frequency domain to simplify the system model, eliminate the initial unbalance influence
and minimise the effect of noise. A n explicit linear coefficient estimator for all 16
dynamic coefficients of the two bearings is derived. The computer simulation shows that
the method can identify all coefficients with good accuracy even though the displacement
signals are contaminated by noise to some extent or there is an initial unbalance, and it is
not dependent on the condition whether the bearings are symmetric or asymmetric.
Experimental results have correlated well with the theory. The simulation verifies that
the estimated coefficients can represent accurately the measured system. Experimental
procedures, data processing techniques, signals at each step, measured dynamic
coefficients of two cylindrical bearings at different eccentricities are also presented.
9.2 SYSTEM MODEL
BearinglLi
L2 Bearing 2
1 Fbx
Fb
y -
kyx x +kyy
y
+byx
*
+byy
y
n Fbx=kx+kxyy+bKX+bxyy
Fig.9.1 Rotor-bearing system
For a normal rotor-bearing system as shown in Fig.9.1, when two unbalanced
centrifugal forces fi = mi pi fl
2
; i=l, 2 are exerted on the rotor, the linearised lateral
movement equation of the rotor is (see Section 6.2.3):
M q
k
+(Q G+B) q
k
+K q
k
=
k
(9-1)
The dimensionless dynamic equation is:
286
Mq*+(Q G+C
b
B) q^+QA" q
k
=
k
lc
(9-2)
where:
F
k
= -&
u
n
sin(i2f + fy) + u
l2
sin(Qf + <S>
2
)'
u
u
cos(Clt + &i) + u
l2
cos(Ch + 4>
2
)
M21 sin(2f + fy) + H22 sin(iir + fy)
M21 cos(Qf + fy) +1*22 cos(Qf + fy)
(9-3)
the force matrix under k-th trial unbalance is:
U =
"11 "12
."21 "22 J
"hPiih. +
r
l) " ^ 2 ^ 2 ~
r
2>
mjp^/i - r
x
) /n2P
2
(/i + r
2
)
(9-4)
If the displacements are measured off the bearing centres, equation (6-25) can also be
used to move the measured displacements to the bearing centres.
93 DERIVATION OF THE COEFFICIENTS ESTIMATOR
Performing Fourier transform on (9-2) and setting the frequency co = Ci. the
system model in frequency domain is obtained:
[C
k
K -Cl
2
M+jCKClG+C
b
B)] Qfc(jn) = F
ft
(jQ) (9-5)
Or
[C
k
K+jClC
b
B)] Q
k
(JCl)=F
k
(JCl)+Cl
2
[M-jG] & ( / Q ) = W *
(9-6)
The frequency characteristics in this chapter are also calculated by equations (6-34) and
(6-35).
Similar to (6-33), the unbalance response is also expressed as the complex vector:
QUCl)=Q
r
+j0=[X[+jXi, n+jYi,X^+jX
2
, Y^+jY
l
2
]
T
where the superscript r is the real part, and i the imaginary part
287
Substituting Q(jQ) to (9-6) and separating real and imaginary parts:
C
k
K{T-Cl C
b
B&=F
r
(jCl)+Cl\MQ
r
+G0)=P
r
QK&+CI C
b
BQ
r
=F
i
(jO)
+
r
1
2^
M
^_
GQ
r
)z=pi
Substituting K, B, Mand G in (9-7) and (9-8) yields:
(9-7)
(9-8)
A
k
Z = Dk
subscript k indicates k-th trial and:
*t =
0 -ClC
h
XU -ClC
b
Y\i
Q % % 0 0 ClC
b
X^ QC
b
Y^
0 0 C
k
X^ C
k
Y
r
y, 0
0 0 C
k
X^ C
k
Y'
u
0
(9-9)
0 0
0 0
o - a c ^ -cic
b
r
u
0 ClC
b
H
r
u
ClC
b
Y
r
u
A*=
p
k
a) pim
P
k
0) P[(4)
ino) n(4)
(9-10)
(9-11)
z=
K"* K"
1
\c^ K ^ -D
1
ijl ij2 TJ2
*-xx ^xy ^xx "-xy ^xx ^xy ^xx ^xy
-iT
V^ V^ V^ \fi P* n* P^ -ry
R.
yX
IV
yy
JVyjj R.
yy
Byj B
y y
JJ
yJ[
U
2
yy
Since the mass m, inertia It and Ip and speed CI can be estimated or measured
directly, F^ can be calculated according to the trial unbalances, and q(t) is the measured
unbalance response; QQC1) and (]C1) are obtained through the Fourier transform; so
that equation (9-9) is a set of 8 linear equations of all 16 coefficients in Z. Running the
rotor twice with independent trial unbalance pairs (fi and f2) results in 16 linear
equations which are sufficient to solve for 16 coefficients. In order to improve the
confidence level, the rotor can be run m (m>2) times and yields m sets of equation
(9-9). Combining them yields:
AZ = D (9-12)
288
from which the coefficients estimator based on the least-square estimation technique is
derived:
Z=(A
T
AT
l
A
T
D
(9-13)
where
A[A^, A
2y
A$, _, A^J
D={D
l
,D
2
,D
3
D
m
]
T
mZ.2
(9-14)
All the coefficients of two bearings can be determined with the estimator (9-13)
through one operation.
This method also requires matrix A
T
A to be non-singular which means the rank
of matrix A is 8 (only consider m = 2 for simplification). Since A is combined from Ak,
if:
(i) Ak is independent on each other (k=l,2) , and
(ii) the rank of Akis 4
then the rank of A is 8 and A is nonsingular.
Condition (i) can be satisfied by changing the trial masses and their distributing
locations. Condition (ii) requires (see (9-10)):
(Xy
t
Yik~Xi
i
|
t
Yy
[
)(X2j
c
Y2j
c
-X2
>
kY2j
c
)^0
(9-15)
This condition is normally satisfied. Using two trial masses for each run,
locating them at different angles and away from the centre of gravity can make it more
definitively satisfied. Moreover, extensive numerical experiments with e =0.1 to 0.9 on
computer, and practical experiments with =0.4 to 0.8 on the test rig have shown that
there is no case whose matrix A
T
A is singular.
289
9.3.1 Selection of the Unbalances
Different pairs of unbalances should be independent so that two unbalance
masses (mi and m
2
) and their angles (fy and fy) should be different from each other.
Based on the linearised theory, the displacement amplitude should be as small as
possible, but must be measurable with available proximity probes. To increase the
displacement measurement accuracy, the unbalance masses and angles are chosen to keep
all displacement amplitudes at the same level, which means unbalance forces fi and f
2
should not differ significantly from each other. For convenience fy is set to 0 (put one
unbalance mass in the reference line x' on the rotor as shown in Fig. 9.1); fy is selected
to be TT72 or n. If fy = n/2 , equation (9-3) becomes:
F
k
=-Cl
2
it\
x
sin Ck +^2 cos Qt
UnCOsClt -u
l2
sinClt
U21 sin Clt+ii2
2
cos
Clt
Un cos Ck -Un sin Ck
(9-16)
Similarly, if fy = n
F
k
= -Cf
(w
11
-w
12
)sinQf
(UM-1^2) cos Of
(u
2l
-u
22
)smCk
("21-1*22) cos Ck
(9-17)
These treatments considerably simplify the data processing.
9.3.2 Elimination of Initial Unbalance
It is quite difficult if not impossible, to make a rotor absolutely balanced,
especially for a large turbine machine. To ensure the accuracy of the method this initial
unbalance should be accounted for . According to the principle described in Section
290
6.3.3, the rotor initial vibration Q
0
(jQ) can be simply subtracted from the response
Qk(jO) measured at k-th trial running. Therefore the same coefficient estimator (9-13)
can be used as long as Qk(jQ) (k=l,2,3,4) is replaced by Q^ft) - Q
0
(jft).
9.33 Selection of Sample Duration t
N
To save computation time and to increase the FFT accuracy, the sample duration
tti should be selected as an integer multiple of the period of the rotor rotation, that is ts
2ufl
=-^-, u=l,2 ..., according to Section 6.3.4. Thus the Fourier transform of the
harmonic waves with amplitude A can be calculated directly:
F( A sin Qt) = J*A sin nt e-J
Qt
dt = - j A (9-17)
IN
0
0 t
F(AcosQt)= rAcosnt e-i
Qt
dt = A (9-18)
where F is the Fourier transform operator.
These calculations are simpler and can save the time in the calculation of F(j CI) by the
discrete Fourier transform.
During the real experiments, signals are sampled by a computer with an A/D
converter, the sample interval T
0
can not be set arbitrarily because the computer needs
some time to convert and store a datum, thus tN can not be set to -^ exactly. To solve
CI
this problem, the interpolation technique as mentioned in Section 6.3.4 has been
employed to re-sample the signals with an exact interval.
Extensive numerical experiments (simulation) are also performed on the computer
291
to check the utility of the unbalance excitation method. Fig.9.2 is the brief flow chart of
the computer program which mainly includes the following procedures:
(i) Read in the calculated bearing coefficients Z Q and other system parameters.
(ii) Assume rotor's initial unbalance U
0
, select four independent sets of unbalances
Ui, U
2
, U
3
and U
4
and calculate the corresponding unbalance force matrix
F
k
(k=0,1,2,3,4). Construct (9-2).
Cm) Solve (9-2) for the displacement response q^t) by the Runge-Kutta integration
method (Jackson, 1985). Impose the white noise on q^t) (see Section 6.4.4).
(iv) Perform FFT on the time-domain signals qk(t) to obtain Q^QCl) and F
k
(jQ) in the
frequency domain.
(v) Construct matrices A and D in (9-12)
(vi) Calculate coefficients Z by (9-13). If Z is the same as or close to the given value
ZQ, the method is valid and applicable.
Read in m, it, ip, D, L, c, CI, Zo,
S , Uo, Ui, U 2 , U3 and U4 etc.
I _ _,
|Eq.(9-2)
Solve equation (9-2)
^
q ( t )
,
F F T
Q(jfl)|F(jfl)
AZ = D
A T -1 T
Z=(A
T
A) A D
Fig.9.2 The flow chart of the simulation
292
The simulated rotor-bearing system takes following parameters:
L = 2 5 m m D = 2 5 m m c=0.125 m m
m=7.58 kg i
t
= 0.473 kg i
p
= 0.0712 kg
Lo = 340 m m Li=L
2
= 172 Rt=R
2
= L/4
h = 1
2
= 0.5 n = r
2
= 0.25 Cl= 2000 rpm
9.4.1 Symmetric Bearings
Although all 8 coefficients of two symmetric bearings can by found from one set
of vibration data, the simulation test here still assume the system is asymmetric because
one may not know the system in advance.
Assume that the rotor-bearing system is symmetrical, both bearings are operated
at the same eccentricity ratio Ei = 2 = 0.6 (Si=S2 =0.131), and the coefficients of two
simulated bearings are the same as those presented in Table 9.1 as the given coefficients
ZQ. The given coefficients, which will be input to the simulated bearing model, are
theoretical coefficients of a circular bearing with two 10-axial-grooves calculated by
Someya (1989).
For the first trial, put an unbalance mass mi= 4 g on plate 1 (Fig.9.1) in x*
direction (fy = 0), and m2 = 2 g at fy= n/2 and distributing radius pi =p2 =0.045 m .
From (9-4) calculate the unbalance matrix:
IT - n n/ic T 0.003 0.0005 "1
U l = 0.045 [
00Q1 QQ015
J
For the second trial, interchanging two unbalance masses' positions yields:
IT _ n rt>ic T 0.0015 0.001 "I
U 2 =
-
45
L 0.0005 0.003 J
Similarly, put m2 at fy= n , then: U3 = Ui, U4 = U2
293
With the given coefficients Zo and the unbalance forces U
k
, the unbalance response q^t)
can be solved from (9-2) using the Runge-Kutta numerical integration algorithm.
Performing the FFT on q^t) produces the frequency response due to the trial unbalance.
At the noise-free condition, the frequency responses due to the above four unbalances
Ui, U2, U 3 and U 4 are:
Q i G G ) =
<hQCl) =
<hQCi) =
Q4QCI) =
0.0943 +j 0.1169
-0.0842 +j 0.0006
0.0131 +j 0.0849
-0.0435 -j 0.0250
0.0245 +j 0.1014
-0.0524 -j 0.0256
-0.0596 +j 0.1244
-0.0352 -jO.0705
0.0807 +j 0.0732
-0.0601 +j 0.0110
0.0026 -j 0.0140
0.0041 +J0.0048
-0.0026 +j 0.0140
-0.0041 -j 0.0048
-0.0807 -j 0.0732
0.0601 -jO.0110
(9-19)
(9-20)
Selecting sample duration ^ = 2 n/Cl, the force matrices can be calculated according to
equations (9-3), (9-17) and (9-18):
i(jCl) =
0.045 Ci
2
F
2
(jQ) =
0.045 ii
2
-0.0005 +j 0.003
-0.003 -j 0.0005
-0.0015 +j 0.001
-0.001 -j 0.0015
-0.001 +j 0.0015
-0.0015 -j 0.001
-0.003 +j 0.0005
-0.0005 -j 0.003
Substitute them in (9-6) to construct A and D in (9-12) and calculate the coefficients by
(9-13). Table 9.1 presents the estimated coefficients Z against the given (input) values.
From the tabulated values, the estimated coefficients are very close to the given values if
the simulated signals are noise-free. The negligible discrepancies are caused by
numerical integration and FFT errors. If Q(jft) is solved directly from (9-5), the
estimated coefficients are exactly same as the given values.
294
Table 9.1 Given and estimated coefficients with different noise level
noise
CTv
m
given* (input)
(Someya, 1989)
0%
5-30%
10-60%
atUo
0%
4
2.2E-3
2
9.2E-2
4
7.1E-2
8
5.5E-2
2
0.171
4
0.133
8
0.107
2
7.1E-3
vo symmetric bea
Bearing No
Zo#l
Zo#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Kxx
1.770
1.770
1.768
1.772
1.680
1.675
1.761
1.78
1.752
1.778
1.477
1.582
1.743
1.600
1.729
1.773
1.764
1.774
rings,
Kxy
-0.553
-0.553
-0.556
-0.553
-0.759
-0.628
-0.634
-0.492
-0.654
-0.406
-0.910
-0.678
-0.712
-0.443
-0.758
-0.283
-0.551
-0.569
i=e
2
Kyx
3.060
3.060
3.049
3.056
2.720
3.002
3.099
2.745
3.074
2.958
2.383
2.929
3.101
2.476
3.082
2.841
3.033
3.078
= 0.6 S
Kyy
3.190
3.190
3.181
3.197
2.381
3.119
2.963
3.095
2.978
3.460
1.701
3.045
2.692
2.999
2.746
3.656
3.167
3.202
1 =
S
2
=
Bxx
1.740
1.740
1.741
1.742
1.766
1.723
1.794
1.626
1.801
1.641
1.766
1.687
1.839
1.529
1.860
1.549
1.734
1.755
0.131)
Bxy
1.820
1.820
1.818
1.826
1.631
1.667
1.865
1.570
1.862
1.723
1.439
1.497
1.888
1.354
1.898
1.614
1.804
1.842
Byx
1.820
1.820
1.817
1.812
2.134
1.826
2.019
1.641
1.990
1.545
2.359
1.822
2.222
1.500
2.170
1.312
1.815
1.825
Byy
6.690
6.690
6.672
6.677
6.559
6.602
6.954
6.054
6.897
6.247
6.335
6.484
7.171
5.525
7.105
5.829
6.647
6.720
* The given coefficients, which are input to the simulated bearing model, are theoretical coefficients of
a circular bearing with two 10-axial-grooves calculated by Someya (1989).
295
03
0.2
a*
0.1
1 " r-
(a) Unbalance responses due to Ui
Oi=0, &2=K/2
. xl.Ul
* yl.Ul
x2.Ul
y2.Ul
4*
.^*v.
-o.i
-0.2
*S*\
-V
0.00 0.01 t (S) 002 0.03
03
0.2
-0.1
-0.2
> 1 r
(b) Unbalance responses due to U2
$1=0, <*>2=7C/2
o xl.U2
yl.U2
0.00
0.01 t (S) 0.02 0.03
Fig.9.3 Simulated unbalance responses(to be continued)
296
03
0.2
0.1
-0.1
0.2
(c) Unbalance responses due to U3
<E>i=0,4>2=re
X2
xl.U3
* yl.U3
x2.U3
y2.U3
^*^ *** >\. ^#jr*
0.00 0.01
t(s)
0.02
0.03
03
0.2
-0.2
(d) Unbalance responses due to U4
$1=0, $2=7C
o xl.U4
yl.U4
- x2.U4
0.00 0.01
t(s)
0.02 0.03
Q=2000 rpm, i=
2
= 0.6, Si=S
2
=0.131, N=512
Fig.9.3 Simulated unbalance responses contaminated with 10-60% noise(continued)
297
9.4.2 Noise Effects
To assess the noise effect, the simulated displacement signals are also imposed on
the white noises at different levels (Section 6.4.4). Fig.9.3 shows the simulated
displacement responses at U
l f
U
2
, U
3
and U
4
in time-domain after being contaminated
with 10-60% noise. In Fig.9.3 the noise amplitude is 0.015 (or 1.5% clearance), which
is 1 0 % of the amplitude of the strongest displacement signal xi at Ui and about 6 0 % of
the weakest signal x
2
under U
3
. Using these contaminated displacement responses, the
method can still estimate the coefficients with a fair accuracy as presented in Table 9.1.
Since the power of the unbalance responses is concentrated at the rotational frequency,
the signal/noise ratio in frequency domain is very high at the rotational frequency
(amplitude ratio >100), so the noise effect on the unbalance method is not as serious as
other methods. However, to achieve reasonable accuracy, the noise level should be kept
as low as possible.
9.43 Effect of Running Times
For the noise-free condition, running the rotor twice under different unbalances
can determine all 16 coefficients as accurate as running more times according to
simulation. In the noisy cases, running more times (m=4 or 8) can get more accurate
results than just runs twice as shown in Table 9.1. For example at 10-60% noise level,
running twice (m=2) produces an estimation error of 17.1%. Running 4 times reduces
the estimation error to 13.3%. Running 8 times, the estimation accuracy is improved
further to 10.3%. (In the cases of m = 8 in Table 9.1, the unbalances Ui, U2, U3 and
U 4 as mentioned in Section 9.4.1 are used twice to simulate 8 sets of unbalance
responses). In real applications, running more times may change the bearing conditions
which will result in other type of error. If limited to run only twice, a selected angle $2=
TC/2 can achieve better results than $2= n. This is because the amplitude differences
298
among the four displacement signals are smaller at <t>
2
- n/2 than those at $2= * If one
displacement is too small, its measurement accuracy would be poor, which will affect all
coefficients' estimation. Keeping all displacement amplitudes at comparable levels can
also improve the measurement accuracy.
9.4.4 Asymmetric Bearings
If two bearings possess different coefficients because of different structures or
loads, the method should also be able to identify correctly the coefficients. Assume
bearing 1 operates at an eccentricity ratio Ei= 0.6 and bearing 2 at 2 =0.5 (S2=0.194),
and their coefficients are presented in Table 9.2 as the given coefficients.
Simulation shows that running the rotor twice under different unbalances can also
determine all 16 coefficients as accurately as of the symmetric bearings. Table 9.2
presents some results estimated from two test runs. To investigate the effect of the
location of the trial unbalance masses, two different locations of the trial masses are
simulated at the noisy condition. For noise-free condition, the trial mass' location does
not affect the estimation result significantly.
In all simulations, the first trial mass is located at a reference line (&. = 0 as
shown in Fig.9.1). In Table 9.2, the noise amplitudes for two noisy cases are the same
(0.015 or 1.5% clearance). However, a selected angle <&
2
= *I2 can achieve better results
than $ 2 = TC as presented in Table 9.2. This is because the amplitude differences among
the four displacement signals are smaller at <*>
2
= Jt/2 than those at $2= * (compare (a)
and (c) in Fig.9.3). If one displacement is too small, its measurement accuracy would be
poor, which will affect all coefficients' estimation.
299
(1= 0.6 ,
2
= 0.5, Si=0.131,S
2
=0.194, m=2, <S>
2
=K/2*)
cases
given** (input)
(Someya, 1989)
0% noise
Ee=5.5E-3
1.5% C noise
Ee=0.11( *2=w/2)
1.5% C noise
E
e
=0.14( *2=K)
atUo
E
e
=1.2E-02
BearineNo
Zo#l
Zo#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Kxx
1.77
1.89
1.767
1.894
1.741
1.773
1.710
1.965
1.765
1.885
Kxy
-0.553
-1.00
-0.567
-1.017
-0.696
-0.815
-0.732
-0.813
-0.549
-1.053
Kyx
3.06
3.09
3.046
3.094
3.052
2.658
3.076
2.757
3.024
3.109
Kyy
3.19
2.67
3.170
2.670
2.731
2.669
2.576
3.200
3.175
2.632
Bxx
1.74
2.31
1.748
2.325
1.826
2.091
1.899
2.101
1.733
2.346
Bxy
1.82
2.00
1.825
2.020
1.869
1.639
1.915
1.735
1.805
2.027
Byx
1.82
2.00
1.824
2.002
2.157
1.702
2.293
1.410
1.802
2.041
Byy
6.69
6.99
6.676
6.998
7.031
6.127
7.232
6.070
6.622
7.053
Except for one case at 1.5% c noise where 4>2=7t is indicated
The given coefficients, which are input to the simulated bearing model, are theoretical
coefficients of a circular bearing with two 10-axial-grooves calculated by Someya (1989).
300
9.4.5 Initial Unbalance
Assume the initial unbalance of the rotor is:
U
0
= 0.045 T -
0 1
-
0 0
1
0
L 0.000 0.002 J
Fig.9.4 shows one displacement response under the initial unbalance Ufor a rotor-
bearing system running at ei = e
2
= 0.6. The frequency response at U
0
are:
Qo(jQ) =
0.0333 +j 0.0449
-0.0305 -j 0.0016
-0.0509 +j 0.0680
-0.0133 -j 0.0465
03
Signal xi at different data processing steps
xi at Ul: xi.i
-03
(9-21)
0.00 0.01 t(
s
) 0.02 0.03
Q=2000 rpm, i=
2
= 0.6, Si=S
2
=0.131, N=512
Fig.9.4 Unbalance responses contaminated with initial unbalance force
Then put Ui+Uo and U
2
+ U
0
in place of U in Eq (9-2) to solve their
corresponding displacement responses, and perform FFT to obtain their frequency
responses:
QiCJO) =
f 0.1275 +j 0.1618
-0.1148 -j 0.0009
-0.0378 +j 0.1528
-0.0568 -j 0.0714
(9-22)
301
QiQCl) =
0.0578 +j 0.1463
-0.0829 -j 0.0272
-0.1105 +j 0.1924
. -0.0485 -j 0.1170
(9-23)
and:
Qi(jO)" QoCJQ) =
Q
2
(jG) - QoGQ) =
0.0943 +j 0.1169
-0.0842 +j 0.0006
0.0131 +j 0.0849
-0.0435 -j 0.0250
0.0245 +j 0.1014
-0.0524 -j 0.0256
-0.0596 +j 0.1244
-0.0352 -jO.0705
(9-24)
(9-25)
They are the same as equations (9-19) and (9-20) where no initial unbalance
exists. Substituting QkQCl) - Qo(j&) m place of QQCl) in (9-6) results in the estimated
coefficients shown in Table 9.1. The estimated coefficients are as accurate as those
without the initial unbalance, which means the proposed method can easily eliminate the
initial unbalance.
9.4.6 Effect of T i m e Shift
In the numerical experiments, four displacement signals x\,y
h
x
2
and y2 are
sampled at the same time. In practical application, any analog/digital converter needs
some time to digitise the continuous signals and computer also needs some time to
control the converter and store the data. Therefore the signals are not sampled at the
same time point Assume A/D converter and computer take 8t to sample one datum. The
sample order is xi, yi, x
2
and y2- If xx is sampled at t=u To (u is the order number of
the sample points, sample interval T o ^ j St, j is the number of signals to be sampled by
the converter), yi is sampled at u To+8t, x2 at uTo+28t, and y2 at uTo+38t; therefore
yi was delayed by St, x2 delayed by 28t and y2 delayed by 35t According to the FFT
theory, these time shifts will bring on the phase delay in frequency domain. To simulate
the effect of these time shifts, the simulated unbalance responses are artificially shifted
302
j8t forward before performing F F T on them. Table 9.3 shows the estimated
coefficients from these shifted responses. Simulation shows that if St < 20 us (as in the
case of normal A / D converter), the effect of the time shift is negligible. This time shift
effect can be eliminated by moving the delayed signal back employing the interpolation
technique. Table 9.3 also presented the estimated coefficients employing these
interpolated signals which are as accurate as those of without the time shift
Table 9.3 Given and estimated coefficients with different data conversion times
(Two asymmetric bearings i=
2
= 0.6 Si=S2 =0.131, noise-free, m=4)
cases
given
(input)
5t=0
Ee=2.2E-3
5t= 10 us
Ee=10E-2
5t=20us
E
e
=2.E-2
5t=100os
e=1.0E-l
5t=100us*
ee=2.2E-2
Bearing No
Zo#l
Zo#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Z#l
Z#2
Kxx
1.770
1.770
1.768
1.772
1.741
1.780
1.715
1.787
1.507
1.842
1.768
1.772
Kxv
-0.553
-0.553
-0.556
-0.553
-0.552
-0.541
-0.548
-0.529
-0.515
-0.433
-0.556
-0.553
Kyx
3.060
3.060
3.049
3.056
3.076
3.073
3.103
3.089
3.323
3.216
3.049
3.056
Kyy
3.190
3.190
3.181
3.197
3.237
3.252
3.293
3.307
3.738
3.745
3.181
3.197
Bxx
1.740
1.740
1.741
1.742
1.720
1.736
1.700
1.729
1.529
1.676
1.741
1.742
Bxy
1.820
1.820
1.818
1.826
1.759
1.829
1.700
1.831
1.230
1.849
1.818
1.826
Byx
1.820
1.820
1.817
1.812
1.809
1.797
1.800
1.782
1.738
1.655
1.817
1.812
Byy
6.690
6.690
6.672
6.677
6.695
6.669
6.719
6.660
6.905
6.573
6.672
6.677
* The delayed signals are artificially moved forward employing interpolation technique
303
9.5 EXPERIMENT
Although the thorough simulation has confirmed the unbalance method
theoretically, experiments to measure the dynamic coefficients of real bearings are also
performed on the small bearing test rig as shown in Fig.8.5(a) to verify further the
usefulness of the unbalance method.
9.5.1 Bearing Test Rig
The bearing test rig is described in Section 8.5.1. To test the unbalance method,
it is slightly modified. T w o discs are fixed on the rotor. Trial unbalance masses can be
attached to the discs by the 4 screws in orthogonal positions as shown in Fig.9.5.
probes
xip, ylp\^^
coupling "
probes
x2p, y2p
optical
sensor
Fig.9.5 Journal bearing test rig
304
9.5.2 Experiment Procedure
The experiment procedure includes:
(i) Run the rotor at speed CI, sample and save the initial vibration displacements q
0
(t)
and the optical sensor signal.
(ii) Attach on the rotor an unbalance Ui, i.e. fix the unbalance mass mi on disc 1 at
<&i = 0, m 2 on disc 2 at <&2 = n/2 (see Fig.9.1). Run the rotor at the same speed
and record the response qi(t).
(iii) Interchange the trial masses at the same positions to produce the unbalance U
2
.
Run the rotor at the same speed and record the response q2(t).
(iv) Put m i on disc 1 at O i = 0, m 2 on disc 2 at dj>2 = n to yield the unbalance U
3
.
(v) Interchange the trial masses at the same positions to obtain the unbalance U-t.
The resulting five sets of data collected are sufficient to determine the 16 bearing
coefficients at the running eccentricity. Changing the rotation speed or changing the rotor
mass can change the bearing eccentricities which will result in different bearing
coefficients. Repeating the above procedure can obtain another 5 sets of data which yield
the coefficients at different eccentricities.
9.53 Data Processing Procedure
The data from the experiment are digitised voltages and need to be processed on a
computer to determine the bearing coefficients. A program package in F O R T R A N
language is developed as shown in Fig.9.6. The main steps are:
(i) Convert the voltages to dimensionless displacements.
(ii) Transform the displacements to the vertical-horizontal coordinate system and then
moved to the bearing centers.
305
(iii) Calculate the eccentricities, attitude angles and rotation speed CI according to the
averaged displacements and the optical sensor signal
(iv) Re-sample the displacement signals q( uTJ with the sample interval T=1/QN to
getq(uT).
(v) Average more than 8 continuous periods of signal to get one average period
q(uT) ( u=l, 2, ...,N. N=512 in the experiments).
(vi) Perform FFT on (q(uT) to get Qk(jQ) (k= 0,1,2,3,4)
(vii) Calculate &&) according to formulae (9-3), (9-17) and (9-18)
(viii) FJiminate the initial vibration: QkQCl) = Q&Cl) - Q
0
(jQ) (k=l,2,3,4)
(ix) Construct the coefficient estimator matrices A and D in Eq (9-12).
(x) Compute all the coefficients Z from Eq (9-13).
Start
Stop
read in data qk( n To)
and Uk, m, it, i
P
etc.
I
Z = (AFA) AFD
HZ
k=0
AZ = D
k = k+l
change the coordinate
system, move displace-
ments to bearing centers
I q^nTo)
Q
k
(jQ)- (yjfl)
c^QQ) t
F
kQ
Q
>
Calculate U T=1/NQ
I
FFT
re-sample the displace-
ment signals with T
and move forward the
delayed signals
^(nT)
I
Average more than 8
consecutive periods
T
Fig. 9.6 Data processing schedule
306
9.5.4 Example
An example to determine all coefficients from experimental data is described here
to explain the application of the unbalance method. In the experiments, three standard <|>8
washers (each weighs 2.19 g) are used as the trial unbalance masses. The trial masses
distribution parameters are:
Pi = P2= 45 m m
h = 0.4976 1
2
= 0.5024
ri = 0.2789 r
2
= 0.2769
The rotor is run five times at each load condition. To avoid the speed variation caused by
the turning mechanism of the frequency controller, the driving motor was turned on and
off at each run, without touching the frequency controller after its frequency being set
From the data processing, the rotation speed variation among 5 runs is lower than
0.2%. The variation of bearing load (= gravity of the rotor) is only 0.11% at this
example case, and the oil temperature variation is maintain within 0.2C; thus the
bearing running conditions can be considered as constant. The initial vibration is
recorded at the first run. For the following four runs, the trial masses are distributed as
shown in Table 9.4.
Tal
Unb. set
Ui
u
2
u
3
u
4
3le9.4 Trial masses distribul
<*>i
0
0
0
0
3>2
7C/2
JC/2
7C
7C
mi
2x2.19
2.19
2x2.19
2.19
ion
m
2
(g)
2.19
2x2.19
2.19
2x2.19
Unbalance matrices based on equation (9-4) are:
TT TT
nn
*c r 3.42209E-03 4.93845E-04 "J
Ui = U3 =0.045 L 9.57906E-04 1.69616E-03 J
TT _..* r 170667E-03 9.78930E-04 "j
U 2 = U 4 =0.045 ^ 4.83333E-04 3.40107E-03 J
307
Fig.9.7 shows displacement xi before and after the trial unbalance Ui. The initial
vibration of the experimental rotor is significant and must be subtracted from the vibration
under the trial unbalance. After eliminating the initial vibration, the unbalance response is
very close to a harmonic wave. The solid line in Fig.9.7 is a standard cosine wave:
x
U r
( t ) = A c o s ( Q t + <l>) (9-26)
with the amplitude:
A = ^(X[
A
- X[
0
) + (X[
A
- X[
t0
)
and the phase angle
Y' Y'
ft-tan"
1 u h0
y
r
- Y
r
A
i,i
A
i,o
Where XJ,, X (
0
are frequency responses of signal xi, subscript 1 or 0 after dot indicate
under U i or at initial condition respectively; superscript r or i indicate the real or
imaginary parts respectively.
0.2
-i 1 1 r
Vibration due to
unbalance U i
-0.1
Vibration after
eliminating the
initial vibration
X1.0 initial
Xl.l at UI
-0.2
TXT
3
*
+ *
o XI. 1-0 after eliminating the initial
XI.lr recovered by IFFT
1
i i
_L
0.000
0.010
0.020
t(s)
Fig. 9.7 Displacement xi before and after trial unbalance Ui
308
After eliminating the initial vibration, the measured displacement due to the trial
unbalance Ui, i.e. Xi i(f) - x,
>0
(f), is very close to the standard harmonic wave which is
recovered from its frequency response X14 (jft)-xi,o(jQX The relative error is:
Jki-o(')-*
Ur
(t)|<fc
ITT
5%
jki-o(')|*
This error is in the same level as that of the displacement measurement Therefore, the
unbalance responses can be considered as harmonic signals. The close relationship
between the measured data and those recovered from the frequency response also means
that the frequency responses represent the time domain signals correctly. Without the
FFT, it would be difficult to find the vibrating amplitude and phase delay. The frequency
characteristics at exact rotation frequency fl could not be accurately obtained by the FFT
without the re-sampling technique.
Fig.9.8 shows all displacement signals at each unbalance excitation. The dot data
are average of 13 continuous periods signal. The initial vibration q
0
( uT) has been
subtracted from the experimental data. The frequency responses for different unbalances
are:
QiGQ) - Q.(JQ) =
Q2QCI) - Q.QC1) =
WQCl) - Q(jG) =
WQCl) - CftjQ) =
0.98606E-01 +j 0.20351E-01
-0.83912E-01 +j 0.54715E-01
0.32882E-01 +j 0.31378E-01
-0.45359E-01 -j 0.22698E-02
0.57000E-01 +j 0.32845E-01
-0.60515E-01 +j 0.20082E-01
0.31598E-01 +j 0.93783E-01
-0.89303E-01 -j 0.46921 E-01
0.72308E-01 +j 0.18025E-01
-0.53788E-01 +j 0.41040E-01
-0.16269E-01 -j 0.98083E-02
0.18335E-01 -j 0.876O4E-02
0.15458E-01 +j 0.14433E-01
-0.18928E-01 -j 0.14330E-02
-0.86213E-01 +j 0.42196E-02
0.55363E-O1 -j 0.65679E-01
309
Substitute them into (9-12) to construct A and D and calculate the coefficients by (9-13).
Table 9.5 presents the coefficients Z estimated from 4 runs (m=4) and from 2 runs
(m=2). The estimated coefficients from 4 runs and from 2 runs are quite close, which
means the bearing running conditions do not change significantly during the 5 test runs.
Since the misalignments of two bearings are different, and their eccentricities are also
different (mainly because of a difference in clearances, Ci>C2), the coefficients of two
bearings differ from one another as shown in Table 9.5.
Table 9.5 Estimated coefficients
(S=0.2154,
t
= 0.426, E
2
= 0.369, 0^=3.366x10* N/m, Cb=149.4 N.S/m)
m
4
2
Bearing No.
#1
#2
#1
#2
Kxx
5.93
5.95
5.70
5.82
Kxy
-2.90
-1.92
-2.62
-1.69
Kyx
14.43
9.01
14.71
8.76
Kyy
8.02
3.27
7.96
3.36
Bxx
15.15
12.30
15.43
12.54
Bxy
6.55
2.98
6.83
3.22
Byx
7.84
3.31
7.83
3.36
Byy
29.47
21.41
29.75
21.65
03
X 0.2
-0.1 -
-0.2
(a) Unbalance responses to Ui
o.oo
o XI + X2
YI A Y2
From inverse FFT
0.01
0.02 t(s)
2 = 222.6 rad/s, oil temperature 24 C
Suffix .k-0 indicates response under U* after subtracting the initial vibration
.kr means the recovered curve from the frequency response Qk(j
fl
) - QoO^)
Fig.9.8(a) Measured unbalance responses to Ui

03
0.2
-0.2
, 1 r
(b) Unbalance responses to U2
o XI + X2
YI A Y2
From inverse FFT
0.00 0.01 0.02 t(s)
Fig.9.8(b) Measured unbalance responses to U2
311
03
.
S 0.2
o
i
w 0.1
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
(c) Unbalance
-
^ ^ O o P ^ ^
/AÂtfr-f^^Pi ft ft
" ^ ^ T A ^m!hiyj-i
^ > w ^ _ ^ j * < ^
T ' '
responses to U3
*7
jftaô ^
i
0
i 1
XI + X2
YI A Y2 -
- From inverse FFT
.
^CSs
-
-
i
0.00 0.01 0.02 {(s)
Fig.9.8(c) Measured unbalance responses to U3
03
0.2
-0.2
0.00
(d) Unbalance responses to U4
o xi + X2
Yl A Y2
From inverse FFT
pcrxfiBi
0.01 0.02 t(s)
Fig.9.8(a) Measured unbalance responses to Ui
312
9.6 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Using the foregoing method, the bearings' dynamic coefficients at different
running conditions are measured. In the experiments, the rotor was run five times at each
ruiming condition. The rotor speed variation among five runs is less than 0.2%. The
variation of the bearing loads among five runs is less than 0.2%. The oil temperature
difference measured at the outlet of the bearings among five runs is less 0.2 C. All
experiments were performed at the operating oil temperature from 24 to 26 C. The
viscosity of the lubricant is 17.3 to 18.2 N.s/m.
The estimated dimensionless stiffness and damping coefficients of the two tested
bearings are plotted in Figs.9.9 and 9.10 respectively. In the figures, the superscripts 1
and 2 distinguish bearing 1 and 2. The bearing coefficients were calculated by two
different ways, one use all five sets of experimental data (m=4), the other only used the
data of initial vibration and at Ui and U
2
(m=2, <b
2
=nl2). The estimated results are
slightly different for two different calculation methods as shown in Figs.9.9 and 9.10,
but the variation is within the uncertainty of the coefficient estimation (see Section 9.7.4).
Solid lines in Figs.9.9 and 9.10 are theoretical coefficients of a full cylindrical
bearing with zero supply pressure and slenderness ratio L/D=l. The theoretical
coefficients are calculated by the FDM-IFP method and presented in Table 3.11.
Dash lines in Figs.9.9 and 9.10 are theoretical coefficients of the same bearing
with a misalignment of T = 0.4 in horizontal direction (y - it). The coefficients under
the misalignment have been plotted on Figs.5.8(b) through 5.14(b), but in Figs.9.9 and
9.10 the coefficients have been divided by S to match the experimental coefficients
defined by Eq (6-28).
Referring to Figs.9.9 and 9.10, the estimated coefficients are closer to those with
misalignment Since the misalignment is inevitable in a test rig as shown Fig.9.5,
misalignment consideration in the theoretical calculation can yield more practical values
313
for the experimental bearings. The estimated coefficients of bearing 1 are larger than
those of bearing 2 especially at heavy loads. This could be caused by the coupling
constraints, which are closer to bearing 1. The coupling constraints help the bearing to
resist the lateral motion of the rotor as the additional stiffness and damping(see also
Section 9.7.2).
Employing the estimated bearing coefficients, the critical stable speeds at different
loads are calculated according to (4-19) and (4-22). Fig.9.11 is the dimensionless
stability contour compared with theoretical prediction. The trend of the critical speed
predicted from the estimated coefficients agrees well with the theory, although the
theoretical critical speed of the aligned bearing (T=0) is lower than the experimental
critical speed. However if misalignment (x=0.4, y=n/2) is considered, the theoretical
predictions as shown in dash line in Fig.9.11 agree very well with the experimental
results.
160

Kxx
120
80
40
0
.1 1 10 1/S
10

Fig.9.9(a) Estimated stiffness coefficients of ungrooved bearingsK
I I TI 1TT| I r "I r . ! [ . . . . . . .
Ungrooved bearings, L/D=l, ps =0
n(c/Rf
Kij=-
\iQL
kii
o Kxx
2
Kxx
Tneoretical-T=0
Theoretical-x=0.4, y=it/2
III
III
1
' '
160
i
Kxy
120
80
40
I |
i i i i 1 1 1
-40
o
A
Kxy
2
Kxy
Tneoretieal-T=0
- Theoretical-x=0.4,y=c/2
' i i 1 1 1 1 i _
10
1/S ioo
Fig.9.9(b) Estimated stiffness coefficients of ungrooved bearingsK
xy
160

Kyx
120
80
40
-40
-" 1 I I T'T"rT't| t f i ' i ' r T r r | I I J I l i l t
.1
0
A
Kyx
2
Kyx
Theoretical-T=0
Theoretical-T=0.4, y=rc/2
' i i i ' 1 1 '
l io 1/S
100
Fig.9.9(c) Estimated stiffness coefficients of ungrooved bearingsKyx
315
160
i
Kyy
120
80
40
-40
I ' ' ' i i
Ungrooved bearings, L/D=l, p
s
=0
O
A
Kyy
2
Kyy
Theoretical~T=0
Theoretical-T=0.4,Y=jt/2
i 1 1 1 1 I . I I I .
10
1/S
100
Fig.9.9(d) Estimated stiffness coefficients of ungrooved bearingsKyy
160
i
Bxx
120
80
40
-40
' ^ w "T" '!' r f"^^
1
I " I I I I P P I | m i T
1
-' I"
. n(c/R? ,
Bij=-
H&L
o Bxx
2
* Bxx
Theoretical-T=^)
Tneoretical~x=0.4, y =re/2
J L.
J-uL

.1
100
i io 1/S
Fig.9.10(a) Estimated damping coefficients of ungrooved bearingsB
M
316
160
i
Bxy
&
i
Byx
80
40
-40
I i
s
=0
o Bxy
o Byx
Bxy
A Byx
i i i i i i
Bxy=Byx Theoretical-x=0
Bxy=Byx Theoretical--xM).4,y=jc/2
- i ' _i_L 1
io 1/S
100
Fig.9.10(b) Estimated damping coefficients of ungrooved bearingsB
xy
and By,
160
Byy
120
80
40
- By =
-40
^ ^ ~ ^ T * I I 1
II
T"I^ I I I f I I I ]
A
,
n(c/Rf
[iClL
o Byy
Byy
Theoretical-x=0
Theoretical-x=0.4, y =rc/2 yf
.1 i io l/s ioo
Fig.9.10(c) Estimated damping coefficients of ungrooved bearingsByy
317
20
e
15
10
I ,
s
=0
i
O
A
-^ 1
iZcrit
2
Qcrit
Theoretical-x=0
Theoretical~x=0.4, y=n/2
s.W_
i
- i i
10
1/S
100
Fig.9.11 Critical speed predicted from estimated coefficients of ungrooved bearings
9.7 E R R O R ANALYSIS
9.7.1 Transducers Error
Only four proximity probes are used in the unbalance excitation method, their
rated error is 4 % . Employing the perturbation method as used in Section 7.5.5, 4 %
transducer error will result in 2 0 % variation in the estimated coefficients.
9.7.2 Lateral Coupling Force Effect
During the experiments, the rotor vibration was found to be sensitive to the
structure and axial gap of the coupling. Since the rotor is designed to run at different
eccentricities and will be misaligned with the driving shaft (motor shaft) under dynamic
condition, the coupling could produce some lateral constraining force on the rotor which
will affect the accuracy of coefficient. It is difficult to consider the lateral coupling force
in the system model, so keeping the lateral coupling force negligible is essential for the
318
proposed synchronous unbalance excitation method. Painstaking work was done to
minimise this coupling force in the small test rig. A flexcross coupling was modified by
inserting two ball bearings at the contact surface as shown in Fig.8.5(b) to minimise the
contact friction force which m a y otherwise constrain the lateral movement of the rotor.
The initial vibration includes the effects of centrifugal force of the unbalanced rotor mass
and the coupling force, therefore subtracting the initial vibration from the unbalance
responses can reduce the effect of the coupling force.
9.7.3 Experimental Errors
For the unbalance method, the rotor has to be run at least twice, and therefore the
running conditions, such as speed, static load and temperature should be carefully
controlled. If the trial unbalance masses change the rotor's eccentricity in the bearings,
the bearing coefficients will vary a little which will introduce an error in their estimation
because the coefficients are assumed constant during each running. To avoid the trial
unbalance masses affecting the journal's eccentricity in the bearings, the trial masses
should be as small as possible; but the unbalance force must be large enough to vibrate
the rotor to a measurable displacement. To increase the unbalance force without
increasing the trial masses, the rotation speed should be high and two trial masses should
distributed as far away the journal axis as possible (increase CI and pi and P2 in Fig.9.1).
In the aforementioned experiments, since the total weight of the trial masses was
less than 0.2% of the gravity of the rotor, the bearing load can be considered as
unchanged. From the optical signals, the speed variation among five runs was less than
0.2%. Thus the speed can be considered as constant in the data processing. The oil
temperature measured at the outlet of the bearing was maintained to within 0.2C for
five successive test runs. Therefore, the running conditions in the test rig did not change
significantly.
319
The vibration amplitudes of the unbalance responses are smaller than 0.16c for
eccentricities lower than 0.4, and are smaller than 0.08c for higher eccentricities.
According to the relation between coefficient variation and the perturbation amplitudes
(see Table 3.14), these vibration amplitudes could produce about 1 0 % difference from
the theoretical coefficients calculated by the infinitesimal perturbation method.
The unbalance excitation method was also performed on the large bearing test rig
described in Chapter 7. The rotor speed and the pressure of the air bellows have to be
reduced to zero before each run (the driving motor in the large test rig can not start-up at
loaded condition). Since the error of the speed controller of the D C motor in the big test
rig is 1 % at 1000 rpm, and the error of the pressure-reducing-valve is worse (as high as
5 % ) , the bearing operating conditions (speed and the load) can not be accurately
controlled. It is difficult to eliminate the initial vibration if the rotation speed changed for
different runs. A m o n g five runs in the large test rig, the eccentricity variation was about
5 % , which changes bearing coefficients. All these errors make the bearing coefficients
estimated from the unbalance responses on the large test rig unreliable.
9.7.4 Uncertainty in the estimated bearing coefficients
To determine the uncertainty of the estimated coefficients, the perturbed method
as described in Section 7.5.5 is employed. Simulation shows that the m a x i m u m
coefficient variation due to 4 % displacement error is about 2 0 % at the experimental
loads shown in Figs.9.9 and 9.10.
Simulation also shows, to keep the uncertainty of the estimated coefficients lower
than 2 0 % , the speed variation among each run should less than 0.5% and the
eccentricity change should also less than 1 % . To achieve this eccentricity accuracy, the
lubricant temperature should also be controlled within 1.5C and the load be controlled
within 0.5% for moderate eccentricity.
320
Misalignments affect the bearing coefficients considerably. If the misalignment is
considered in the theoretical calculation, the theoretical coefficients correlated very well
with the estimated coefficients. It is difficult to avoid the misalignment in the bearings as
used in a test rig with free-journal configuration. It is also difficult to determine the
misalignment especially at dynamic condition. More works are recommended in Chapter
10.
9.8 CONCLUSIONS
(1) This chapter develops an experimental method to estimate all dynamic coefficients
of two journal bearings. Using the unbalance displacement responses under two or more
sets of trial unbalances, the method can determine all 16 dynamic coefficients of two
bearings. Comparing with the previous identification methods, the main advantage is that
it can be conveniently applied to estimate the coefficients of large journal bearings on site,
without having to generate large dynamic force to excite the rotor.
(2) Vibrating more times can increase the confidence level but it can also introduce
errors arising from bearing condition variations. If the test runs are limited to twice, the
trial masses should be distributed at right angle (<&
2
= nt2 ) to obtain better results than
positioning them in line. The proposed method can easily eliminate the initial unbalance
effect on the coefficients' estimation.
(3) Fast Fourier Transform combined with the re-sampling technique can greatly
simplify the data process and minimise the noise influences. Choosing the sample
duration of one or two rotational periods can increase F F T accuracy.
(4) Select the sample duration to be the integer multiple period of the shaft rotation
can increase the accuracy of the frequency characteristics.
321
(5) Careful selection of the trial unbalances to keep all displacement vibrating
amplitudes at comparable level can increase the measurement accuracy.
(6) The proposed method is thoroughly examined by experiments. The measured
coefficients at different bearing eccentricities correlate very well with the theory if the
misalignment is considered in the theoretical calculation. The critical stable speeds
predicted from the estimated bearing coefficients also agree well with the theory.
(7) T o apply the unbalance excitation method, normally the speed and the static load
of the bearing should be controlled within 0.5%, the temperature should be controlled
within 1.5 C for moderate eccentricity. It is possible to achieve these accuracy
requirements in practice. Therefore, the unbalance method will be a promising method in
detennining the coefficients of large journal bearing in situ.
322
CIEIAIP'IITO m
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The main conclusions of the thesis are:
(1) Three different numerical methods developed in this thesis can be used to calculate
the static and dynamic characteristics of circular journal bearings with different
slenderness ratios, different grooves and different supply pressures.
(2) To keep the coefficient accuracy within 2.5%, for eccentricity ratio up to 0.4 the
displacement perturbation amplitudes should be less than 0.11c, and the velocity
perturbation amplitude should be less than 0.05Qc; for eccentricity ratio from 0.6 to
0.8, the displacement perturbation amplitudes should be less than 0.05c, and the
velocity perturbation amplitude should be less than 0.04Cic.
(3) At the critical speed, the average whirl frequencies from nonlinear simulation are
very close (within 5 % error) to the value predicted by the linear theory. The forms
of the dynamic excitations, such as position perturbation, unbalance forces and
harmonic excitation, will not significantly change the critical whirl frequency of the
rotor bearing system.
The critical whirl frequency, which appears at a frequency close to 1/2 rotation
speed, works as a resonance frequency of rotor-bearing system. W h e n the excitation
frequency is close to the critical whirl frequency, the whirl amplitude will increase
significantly.
323
The linear force coefficients can also be used to predict the trajectory, but the
vibration amplitude should not excess 0.1c for eccentricity ratio up to 0.8 to keep the
trajectory error within 5%.
To determine the force coefficients from the linear model, the excitation force
amplitude should be less than 1 5 % of the static load.
(4) For a flexible rotor, if the rotor's stiffness is much smaller than the equivalent
stiffness of the bearing, the critical speed of the rotor-bearing system is about double
the critical speed of the rotor. If the rotor is much stiffer than that of the bearing, the
critical speed of the rotor-bearing system will be lower than that of the critical speed
of the rotor. W h e n the oil whirl frequency coincides with the rotor's critical speed,
the whip normally occurs.
(5) The bearing misalignment affects some bearing characteristics considerably. Under
the same load, the misaligned bearing is more stable than the parallel (aligned)
bearing and thus the misalignment can improve the stability of the rotor-bearing
system. If a misaligned bearing is unstable, its whirl frequency ratio will be lower
than that of the aligned bearing. The whirl frequency of highly misaligned bearing
could be 3 0 % lower than that of the aligned bearing. This m a y be used to indicate
the misalignment condition in situ from the unstable vibration signals.
(6) The traditional harmonic excitation method to identify 8 bearing force coefficients of
one journal bearing is extended to identify 16 bearing force coefficients of two
asymmetric journal bearings. T w o different data processing techniques are
developed for the separated excitation and combined excitation procedures.
For the same sample duration, the separated excitation method can produce more
accurate frequency characteristics thus obtain more accurate coefficients. W h e n the
bearing running conditions can not be accurately controlled, the combined excitation
324
procedure can yield more accurate estimation if the frequency resolution of F F T is
less than 0.2 Hz.
To keep the coefficient estimation error or uncertainty within 25% or 10%, the
condition number of matrix A in Eq (6-39) should be less than 100 or 45
respectively. Exciting the rotor in only one direction will not yield satisfactory
estimation of the bearing coefficients because of the ill-condition of the estimation
equation.
To reduce the sensitivity of the estimated results to the experimental errors, the
excitation frequencies should be 1 to 1.4 times of rotation speed for bearing
eccentricities up to 0.6; for the eccentricities higher than 0.7, the excitation
frequencies should be 0.5 to 0.9 times of rotation speed.
The estimated dynamic coefficients of two grooved journal bearings correlated well
with the theory especially when the misalignment is considered in the theoretical
calculation. The typical uncertainty of the estimated coefficients is 3 2 % due to the
measurement errors, which is similar to the others.
If the misalignment is considered in the theoretical calculation, the critical stable
speeds of the experimental rotor-bearing system agree well with the theoretical
prediction. The experimental results verify that the misalignment can improve the
(7) For the impact excitation method, an explicit coefficient estimator on least-square-
estimation is developed and all 16 bearing coefficients can be calculated through one
operation. From the transfer functions of displacements to the impact forces, the oil
whirl phenomena can be found. The whirl frequency ratio co/ii =0.4 to 0.7 agrees
well with the prediction from the estimated coefficients.
(8) The unbalance excitation method developed in this thesis can identify all 16 force
coefficients of two journal bearings from unbalance responses under two or more
325
sets of trial unbalanced masses. The main advantage of this unbalance excitation
method is that it can be applied to estimate the coefficients of large journal bearings in
situ, and avoid the difficulty of generating large dynamic forces to excite the rotor as
required by the previous identification methods.
The proposed unbalance method has been thoroughly examined by experiments.
The estimated coefficients of two ungrooved bearings correlate well with the theory
if the misalignment is considered in the theoretical calculation. The critical stable
speeds predicted from the estimated bearing coefficients also agree well with the
theory.
(9) If the sample duration of FFT is selected to be the integer multiple period of the shaft
rotation, the alias of frequency characteristics can be avoided and the accuracy of the
coefficient estimation can be increased. F F T combined with the re-sampling
technique can greatly simplify the data process and minimize the noise influence.
The data pre-processing program developed in this thesis can effectively remove the
outlier and other unreasonable data from the experimental signals without changing
signal's phase.
(10) The linearised force coefficients are affected by many factors, such as oil film
boundary, film thickness, temperature distribution, supply pressures, misalignment,
bearing surface roughness and the perturbation amplitude. The estimated
coefficients from the experimental signals will be considerably affected by these
factors. These effects are evident from the scattered estimated coefficients in this
thesis or in other previous publications. The uncertainty of the estimated coefficients
is normally higher than 2 0 % . There are dilemma in designing the experiments. One
of the most important considerations is the selection of perturbation amplitudes in the
experiments. Theoretically, the smaller the amplitude, the higher the accuracy.
Since the bearing clearance is normally very small, currently available displacement
sensors can not measure the small displacement accurately enough to dispel the high
326
uncertainty on the estimated coefficients. Another important factor is the
manufacturing error. The surfaces of the bearing and rotor are considered as smooth
cylinders in the theoretical calculation, but the experimental bearing surface is rough
and the shape is not a perfect cylinder. These factors contribute considerably to the
discrepancy between the theoretical prediction and the experimental results.
To improve the experimental results, the following suggestions are recommended for
further research:
(i) Develop or find some new type of transducers to measure the small displacement
with higher accuracy. To avoid the cross-coupling effect of the alternative signals at
the slip ring (see Appendix C.3), the alternative signals should be modulated before
passing the slip ring.
(ii) Increase the manufacturing precision of the bearing test rig. For the large test rig
($200 m m bearings), the bearing surface is rough (3|im), the shape is poor. The
m a x i m u m difference in diameter around the bearing is 0.01 m m . This diameter
difference accounts for 7 % bearing clearance which will definitely affect the bearing
characteristics. To improve the experimental results, the cylindricality of the bearing
and the journal should be smaller than 0.004 mm. The lump on the journal at the
probe's plane (see Fig.7.12) should be removed to improve the measurement
accuracy. The coaxiality between bearing internal and external surfaces should be
smaller than 0.004 mm. The coaxiality of two bearing cases should also be smaller
than 0.004 mm.
(iii) Increase the bearing clearance to about 0.25 m m . This can increase the rotational
speed and the vibration amplitude, which will improve the measurement accuracy.
(vi) Use more accurate controllers to control the static load and the rotation speed when
applying the unbalance excitation method on the large bearing test rig.
327
(v) For theoretical work, it should be significant to consider the misalignment moments
in the nonlinear simulation. In this case, the bearing forces should be integrated
from pressures around two bearings, each m a y be misaligned differently with the
journal dependant on the movement position of the journal.
The supply pressure will considerably affect the bearing characteristics, significant
conclusions will be obtained if different supply pressure values are input to the
programs developed by this thesis.
The thermal effect on the bearing characteristics could be significant, it is worth
further investigation.
328
a a 1R!IFEI&!N!
Abdel-Latif.L.A & Mokhtar,M.O.A, 1988 " Misalignment effects on hydrodynamicaly
lubricated journal bearings with rough surface" Wear, v. 128, p225-237
Abdul-wahed,N., Nicolas,D & Pascal,M.T., 1982 "Stability and unbalance response of
large turbine bearings"/ of Tribology, v. 104, p66-75
AkersA, Michaelson,S. & Cameron,A, 1971 "Stability contours for a whirling finite
journal bearing" J. of Lubric. Technol. v.93, pl77-190
Anway,T., Colsher,R. & Katsmata,S., 1982 " Computer aided design of fluid film
bearing" Advances in Computer Aided Bearing Design, A S M E publication
Asanabe,S, Akahoshi,M. & Asai,R., 1972 "Theoretical and experimental investigation
on misaligned journal bearing performance" Tribology Convention 1971, The Inst
of Mech. Eng., London, paper C36/71
AusmanJ.S., 1960 " Torque produced by misalignment of hydrodynamic gas-lubricated
journal bearing" J. of Basic Engineering, Trans. A S M E , Series D, v..82, p335-41
Bannister.R.H., 1976 "A Theoretical and experimental investigation illustrating the
influence of Non-linearity and misalignment on the eight oil film force coefficients"
Conf. Vibrations in Rotating Machinery, lnstMech. Eng., paper C219/76, p.271-
78
Barrett,L.E., Akers,A. & Gunter,EJ., 1976 "Effect of unbalance on a journal bearing
undergoing oil whirl" Proc. Inst, of Mech. Eng. v. 190, N0.31,p535-543
Basri,H. & Neal, P.B., 1986 " Oil flow in axial groove journal bearings" Proc. of 13th
Leeds/Lyon Tribology Symposium, England, pi 1-17
329
Bendy, D.E. & Muszynska, A., 1986 " Modal testing and parameter identification of
rotating shaft/fluid lubricated bearing system". 4th Int. Conf. on Modal Analysis,
Orlando
Boncompain,R. Fillon,M & FreneJ., 1986 "Analysis of thermal effects in
hydrodynamic bearings" /. of Tribology, v. 108, p219-224
Booker, J.F., 1965 "Dynamically loaded journal bearings: mobility method of solution",
A S M E . Journal of Basic Eng., Vol.87,537-546
BookerJ.F. & Huebner,K.H.,1972 "Application of finite element methods to
lubrication: an engineering approach" J.ofLubr. Tech., p313-21
Bou-said,B. & Nicolas,D., 1992 "Effect of misalignment on static and dynamic
characteristics of hybrid bearings" Tribology Transactions, v.35.2, p325-331
Braun,MJ., Choy, F.K.& Hu,Y., 1991 " Nonlinear effects in a plain journal bearing:
part 2- results"/, of Tribology, v.113, p563-570
Brigham,E.O ,1988 The Fast Fourier Transform and its Applications; Prentice-Hall,
Newjersay
Brockwell,K. & Deochowski,W., 1989 "Experimental determination of the journal
bearing oil film coefficients by the method of selective vibration orbits" Rotating
Machinery Dynamics DE18-1, A S M E Publication, p251-259
Brockwell,K. & Kleinbub,D., 1992 "Measurement and calculation of the dynamic
operating characteristics of the five shoe, tilting pad journal bearing" Tribology
Transactions, v.33.4, p481-492
Buckholz,R.H. & LinJ.F., 1986 " The effect of journal bearing misalignment on load
and cavitation for non-newtonian lubricants" J. of Tribology, v.l08,p645-654
330
Burrows, C.R., 1982 " A sensitivity analysis of squeeze-film bearing" /. of Lubric.
Technol v. 104, p516-522
Burrows, C.R. & Sahinkaya, M.N., 1982 " Frequency-domain estimation of linearized
oil-film coefficients" J. of Lubric. Technol, v. 104, p 210-215
Burrows, C.R., Sahinkaya, M.N. & Kucuk,N.C., 1986 " Modeling of oil-film forces in
squeeze-film bearings" /. of Tribology, v. 108, p262-269
Burrows.C.R, Kucuk,N.C. & Sahinkaya,M.N., 1987 "Estimation of squeeze-film
bearing inertia, damping and stiffness coefficients" Rotating Machinery Dynamics
A S M E publication, D E v.2, pt.l, pl09-l 14
Burrows,C.R.& Stanway,R., 1977 "Identification of journal bearing characteristics"
ASME Journal of Dynamic Systems Measurement and Control, v.99 , p 167-73
Burrows,C.R., Sayed-Esfahani, R. & Stanway,R., 1981" A Comparison of multi
frequency techniques for measuring the dynamics of squeeze-film bearings" /. of
Lubric. Technol, v.103, p 137-143
Cameron, A , 1955 " Oil whirl in bearings" Engineering, v.179, p237-239
Capone,E, 1973 " Oil whirl in journal bearings under no load conditions" Wear v.26,
p207-217
Capone,G & Russo,M., 1990, " Short bearing theory prediction of inertial turbulent
journal orbits" /. of Tribology, v. 112 p643-649
Capone,G. Russo,M. & Russo., 1992 " The influence of oil supply pressure on the
behavior of a rigid symmetrical balanced rotor in journal bearings with
circumferential feeding" /. of Tribology, v.114, p812-817
Castelli,V.& Elrod,H.G., 1965 " Solution of the stability problem for 360 deg. self-
acting, gas- lubricated bearings" /. of Basic Engineering, Series D, v.87, pl99-212
331
Chan,S.H. & White,M.F., 1991 "Experimental determination of dynamic characteristics
of a full size gas turbine tilting-pad journal bearing by an impact test method"
Modal analysis, Modeling, Diagnostics, and Control-Analytical and Experimental.
DE- v.38, A S M E publication, p291-298
Childs J)., Moes.H. & VanLeeuwen,H., 1977 "Journal bearing impedance descriptions
for rotordynamic applications" /. of Lubric. Technol, pl98-214
Choy, F.K., Braun,MJ. & Hu,Y., 1992a " Analytical and numerical study of a
misaligned cavitating hydrodynamic cryogenic journal bearing" Tribology
International, v.25.1, p3-15
Choy, F.K., Braun,MJ. & Hu,Y., 1992b " Nonlinear transient and frequency response
analysis of a hydrodynamic journal bearing" / of Tribology, v. 114, p448-454
Choy, F.K., Braun,MJ. & Hu,Y., 1991 " Nonlinear effects in a plain journal bearing:
part 1- analytical study"/, of Tribology, v. 113, p555-562
ChoyJLC, Gunter,E.J. & Allaire,P.E, 1978 "Fast Fourier transform analysis of rotor-
bearing system" Topics in Fluid Film Bearing and Rotor Bearing System Design
and Optimisation, A M S E publication, p245-272
Christopherson.D.G., 1941 " New mathematical method for the solution of film
lubrication problems" Proc. Inst, of Mech. Eng. v.146, pl26
Dogan, I.U., 1980 " Identification of journal bearing coefficients using a pseudo-random
binary sequence" IMechE 2nd Int. Conf on Vibration in Rotating Machinery,
Cambridge
Dubois, G.B., Mabie,H.H & Ocvirk^.W., 1951" Experimental investigation of oil film
pressure distribution for misalined plain bearings" N A C A Technical Note 2507,
Washington
332
Dubois, G.B., Ocvirk,F.W. & Ithaca,N.Y., 1955 " The short bearing approximation for
plain journal bearings" Trans. ASME, v.77, pi 173-1178
Dubois, G.B., Ocvirk,F.W. & Wehe,R.L, 1955 " Experimental investigation of
misalining couples and eccentricity at ends of misalined plain bearings" N A C A
Technical Note 3352, Washington
Dubois, G.B., Ocvirk,F.W. & Wehe,R.L., 1957 "Properties of misaligned journal
bearings" Trans, of ASME, v.79, pl205-1212
Ellis, J., Roberts, J.B. & Ramli, M.D., 1989 " The experimental determination of
squeeze-film dynamic coefficients using the state variable filter method of
parametric identification" / of Tribology, v. Ill, p252-259
Ellis, J., Roberts, J.B. & Sianaki, A.H., 1990" The complete determination of squeeze-
film linear dynamic coefficients from experimental data" /. of Tribology, v. 112,
p712-724
Elrod,H.G., 1981 "A cavitation algorithm"/ of Tribology, v.103, p350-354
Flack,R.D., Kostrzewsky,G.J. & Taylor, D.V.,1992 " A hydrodynamic journal bearing
test rig with dynamic measurement capabilities" ASME/STLE Tribology
Conference, San Diego, paper 92-TC-4E-3, Oct 19-21
Freund,N.O & Tieu, A.K., 1993 "Thermo-elasto-hydrodynamic study of journal bearing
with controlled deflection" / of Tribology, v. 115, p550-556
Glieneck,J., 1966-67 "Experimental investigation of the stiffness and damping
coefficients of turbine bearings and their application to instability prediction" Proc.
of the Inst, of Mech. Eng. v.181, Series 3B, pl01-08
GlieneckeJ., Han, D.-C. & Leonhard, M., 1980
n
Practical determination and use of
bearing dynamic coefficients" Tribology International, p297-309
333
Hagg,A.C, 1946 "The influence of oil-film journal bearings on stability of rotating
machines" J.of Applied Mechanics, v. 13, p211-220
HaggAC & Sankey.G.O., 1956 " Some dynamic properties of oil film journal bearing
with reference to unbalance vibration of rotors" J.of Applied Mechanics, v.23,
p302-310
Hagg,AC & Sankey.G.O., 1958 "Elastic and damping properties of oil-film journal
bearing for application to the unbalance vibration calculations" J.of Applied
Mechanics, v.25.1, pl41-143
HaggÂC & Sankey.G.O., 1956 "Some dynamic properties of oil-film journal bearing
with reference to the unbalance vibration of rotors" J.of Applied Mechanics,
v.23.2, p302-305
Hahn,EJ., 1975 "The excitability of flexible rotors in short sleeve bearings" / of
Lubric. Technol v.97,pl05-115
Hahn,EJ., 1979 " Stability and Unbalance response of centrally preloaded rotors
mounted in journal and squeeze film bearings" J. of Lubric. Technol. v. 101,
pl20-127
Hamming.R.W., 1989, Digital Filters. Prentice Hall
Hashimoto, H., 1992 " Dynamic characteristic analysis of short elliptical journal bearings
in turbulent inertial flow regime" Tribology Transactions, v.35.4, p619- 626
Hashimoto, H. & Wada, S., 1990 " Dynamic behaviour of unbalanced shaft supported
on turbulent journal bearings-- theory and experiment" / of Tribology, v. 112,
p404-408
Hashimoto, H., Wada, S. & Ito,J., 1987 "An application of short bearing theory to
dynamic characteristic problems of turbulent journal bearings"/ of Tribology,
v.109, p307-314
334
Hashimoto, H., Wada, S. & Sumitomo,M., 1988 "The effects of fluid inertia forces on
the dynamic behavior of short journal bearings in superlaminar flow regime" / of
Tribology, v. 110, p539-547
Hays,D.F, 1959 " A variational approach to lubrication problems and the solution of the
finite journal bearing" A S M E J.of Basic Engineering, v.81, nl, pl3-23
Hisa, S Matsuura, T. & Someya,T, 1980 "Experiments on the dynamic characteristics
of large scale journal bearings" IMechE 2nd Int. Conf. on Vibration in Rotating
Machinery, Cambridge
Holmes,R, 1966 " Instabiliy phenomena due to circular bearing oil films" / of Mech.
Eng. Science, v.8, No.4, p419-425
Holmes,R, 1960 " The vibration of a rigid shaft on short sleeve bearings" / of Mech.
Eng. Science, v.2, No.4, p337-341
Hori, Y., 1959 " A theory of oil whip" ASME J. of Applied. Mechanics, V.26, pi 89-
198
Hori, Y., 1988, "Anti-earthquake considerations in rotordynamics" 4th Intl. Conf.
Vibration in rotating machinery, IMechE, Paper C318/88, ppl-8
Huebner,K & Thorton,E.A, 1982 The Finite Element Method for Engineer. John Wiley
& Sons
Ikeuchi.K., Katsuse,S., Hamamura,K. & Mori,H., 1985 "Effects of misalignment in
full journal bearing with circumferential oil groove'. Proc. of the JSLE Intern.
Tribology Conf. Tokyo, p67-72
Jackson,K.R, 1985 " Error controlled sixth order Runge-Kutta subroutine" Commencial
software, Uni.of Tornonto
335
Jacobson, M,J., Charnes,A & Saibel,E., 1955 " The complete journal bearing with
circumferential oil inlet" Trans. A S M E , v.77, pi 179-1183
Jakeman, R. W., 1984 " A numerical analysis method based on flow continuity for
hydrodynamic journal bearings" Tribology International, v.l7.6,p325-333
Jakeman,R.W. & Parkins,D.W., 1986 "Theoretical and experimental orbits of a
dynamically loaded hydrodynamic journal bearing. "Proc. of 13th Leeds/Lyon
Tribology Symposium, England, p355-362
Jennings, U.D & Ocviik,F.W., 1962 " The simulation of bearing whirl on an electronic-
aaalog computer" / of Basic Eng. V.84, p503-510
Kato, T. & Hori,Y., 1989 " Theoretical condition for the C
xy
= Cy, relation in fluid film
journal bearings" / of Tribology, v. Ill, p426-429
Kato, T. & Hori,Y., 1988 "A fast method for calculating dynamic coefficients of finite
width journal bearings with Quasi Reynolds boundary condition"/ of Tribology,
v.110, p387-393
Kingsbury,A., 1931 " Problems in theory of fluid-film lubrication, with experimental
method of solution" Trans. ASME, v.53, paper APM-53-5(not copied)
Kirk,R.G. & Gunter,E.J., 1976 "Short bearing analysis applied to rotor dynamics, part
1: Theory" J. of Lubric. Technol. V.98, p47-56
Kirk,R.G. & Gunter,E.J., 1976 "Short bearing analysis applied to rotor dynamics, part
2: Theory" J. of Lubric. Technol v.98, p319-29
Klit,P.& Lund J. W . , 1986 "Calculation of the dynamic coefficients of a journal bearing,
using a variational approach" / of Tribology, v.108, p421-425
336
Kostrzewsky,GJ., 1990 Experimental determination of the steady state and dynamic
characteristics of fluid film bearings with results for a two-axial groove journal
bearing. PhD dissertation, Uni. of Virginia
Kostrzewsky.GJ. & Flack,R.D., 1990a " Accuracy evaluation of experimentally
derived dynamic coefficients of fluid film bearings part I: development of method"
Tribology Transactions v.33.1, p 105-114
Kostrzewsky.GJ. & Flack,R.D., 1990b "Accuracy evaluation of experimentally derived
dynamic coefficients of fluid film bearings part U: case studies" Tribology
Transactions v.33.1, pi 15-121
Kreyszig, E., 1993 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, John Wiley & Sons, New
York
Lee, C-W. & Hong S-W., 1989 " Identification of bearing coefficients by unbalance
response measurement" Proc. Inst, of Mech. Eng. V.203C, p93-101
Liu,D.G., FeiJ.G., Yu.Y.Y.J & Li.G.Y., 1983 "Collected algorithms in FORTRAN"
V..2, p554-567, Defence Industry Publishing House, Beijing
LundJ.W., 1968 "Calculation of stiffness and damping properties of gas bearings" / of
Lubric. Technol, p793-803
LundJ.W., 1974 "Stability and damped critical speeds of a flexible rotor in fluid-film
bearings" / of Eng. for Industry, v.96, p509-517
LundJ.W., 1987 "Review of the concept of dynamic coefficients for fluid film journal
bearings" / of Tribology, v.109, p38-41
LundJ.W., 1987 "Stability and damped critical speeds of a flexible rotor in fluid-film
bearings" Rotating Machinery Dynamics A S M E publication, D E v.2, ptl, pl-9
337
LundJ.W. & Saibel, E., 1967 " Oil whip whirl orbits of a rotor in sleeve bearings" / of
Eng. for Industry. V.89, p813-823
LundJ.W. & Sternlicht,B., 1962 " Rotor-bearing dynamics with emphasis on
attenuation" / Basic Eng., v.84, p491-502
LundJ.W. & Thomsen,K.K., 1978 " A calculation method and data for the dynamic
coefficients of oil-lubricated journal bearings" Topics in Fluid Bearing and Rotor
Bearing System, A S M E , pl-28
Majumdar,B.C, 1976 "Torque of misaligned gas lubriccted porous journal bearings "
Wear, v.39, 55-61
Majumdar, B.C. & Ghosh, M. K., 1990 " Stability of a rigid rotor supported on rough
oil journal bearings" / of Tribology, v. 112, p73-77
MakdissyJ., 1980" Theoretical and experimental study into the dynamic characteristics
of a hydrodynamic oil film bearing" PhD thesis, Crantfield Institute of Technology
Markho,P.H., Grewal,S.S. & Stowell,T.B., 1979 " An experimental investigation of
the effect of misalignment and directionality on the performance of an externally-
pressurized, orifice-compensated air journal bearing" J. of Lubric. Technol.
v.101, p28- 37
McHugh, J.D., 1984 " Shaft vibration evaluation " US patent 4,464,935, Aug. 14
McKee,S.A & McKee.T.R, 1932 "Pressure distribution in oil films of journal bearings"
Trans. ASME, v.57, pl49-165
McLean,L.J. & Hahn,E.J., 1978 "The transient response of a balanced rigid rotor
running in squeeze film supported journal bearings" Topics in Fluid Film Bearing
and Rotor Bearing System Design and Optimisation, A M S E publication, p203-230
338
MitehellJ.R., Holmes,R. & Ballegooyen,H.V., 1965-66 " Experimental determination
of a bearing oil- film stiffness" Proc. of the Inst, of Mech. Eng. v. 180, Pt 3K, p90-
96
MitchellJA., Holms*. & Byrne J., 1965-66 "Oil whirl of a rigid rotor in 360 journal
bearings: Further characteristics" Proc. Inst, of Mech. Eng. v.180, pt.l, N0.25,
p593-609
in
Mori,A. & Mori,H., 1991 "Re-examination of film rupture boundary condition
hydrodynamic lubrication under inertia effect"/ of Tribology, v. 113, p604-608
MortonJ>.G.,1975 " Dynamic characteristics of bearings- measurement under operating
conditions" GEC Journal of Science & Technology^ v.42, No.l
Morton,P.G., JohnsonJ.H. & Walton.M.H., 1986 "The influence of grooves in
bearings on stability and response of rotating systems" Proc. of 13th Leeds/Lyon
MottersheadJ, Firoozian,Riaz & Stanway,R, 1986 "Identification of fluid-film bearing
dynamics: time-domain or Frequency-domain?" Proc. of 13th Leeds/Lyon
Muszynska, A, 1986 " Model test of rotor/bearing system" Int. J. of Anal, and Exp.
Model Analysis, pi5-34
Muszynska, A., 1988 "Improvements in lightly loaded rotor/bearing and rotor/seal
models" J.of Vibration Acoustics, stress, and Reliability in Design, v. 110 ,pl29-
136
Muszynska, A.& Bendy,D.E., 1990 "Frequency-sweept rotating input perturbation
techniques and identification of the fluid force models in rotor/bearing/seal systems
and fluid handing machines" / Sound and Vibration, v. 143(1). pl03-124
339
Muszynska, A , Bently,D.E. Franklin,W.D. & Hayashida,R.D., 1989 "Identification of
model parameters of rotating system using perturbation techniques: part 1 and part
2" Rotating Machinery Dynamics DE18-1, A S M E Publication, pl07-l 12
Natsumeda,S & Someya,T., 1986 "Negative pressures in statically and dynamically
loaded journal bearings" Proc. of 13th Leeds/Lyon Tribology Symposium,
England, p65-72
Newkirk, B.L & Lewis, J.F., 1956 " Oil whirl-An investigation of disturbances due to
oil films in journal bearings" Trans. ASME, V78, pl3-27
Nordman,R., & Schollhorn,K., 1980 "Identification of stiffness and damping
coefficients of journal bearings by impact method" 2nd Intl. Conf. Vibrations in
Rotating Machinery, InstMech. Eng , paper C285/80, p231-38
Ocvirk,F.W., 1952 "Short bearing approximation for full journal bearing" NACA
TN2808
Orcutt F.K. & Arwas, E.B., 1967 "The steady state and dynamic characteristics of a full
circular bearing and a partial arc bearing in the laminar and turbulent flow regimes",
ASME. Journal of Lub. Tech., V.89, pl43-153
Othman,A, 1990 Steam turbine bearing vibration B. Eng. thesis, Dept. Mech. Eng.,
Pai,R. & Majumdar, B. C, 1992 " Stability of submerged oil journal bearings,
considering thermal effects" Wear, v.157, pl9-29
Pai,R. & Majumdar,B.C, 1992 " Theoretical analysis on conical whirl instability of
unloaded submerged oil journal bearings" Wear, v. 152, p309-316
Parkins, D.W., 1981 " Measured characteristics of a journal bearing oil film " / of
Tribology, v.103, pl20-125
340
Parkins, D.W., 1979 "Theoretical and experimental determination of the dynamic
characteristics of a hydrodynamic journal bearing" / of Lubric. Technol v.101,
pl29- 139
Parszewski,Z.A, NanJC. & Li,.D.X., 1987 " FEM for thermo-fluid bearing dynamic
characteristics" Conf. on F E M in Engineering, Melbourne
PinkusA, 1953 " Note on oil whip" / of Applied Mech. v.20, p450-451
Pinkus,0., 1956 " Experimental investigation of resonant whip" Trans. ASME, v.78,
p975-983
Pinkus.O. & Bupara,S.S 1979 " Analysis of misaligned grooved journal bearings" /
of Lubric. Technol v.101, p503-509
Pinkus,0. & Sternlight,B., 1957 " The maximum temperature profile in journal
bearings" Trans. ASME, v.79, p337-341
Poznyak, E.L., 1968 "The dynamic properties of the oil film in lubricated bearings",
ASME. J.ofLub. Tech., V.90, p321-328
Poritsky,H & Schenectady,N.Y., 1953 " Contribution to the theory of oil whip" Trans.
ASME, VJ5, pi 153-1161
PrabhuJB.S., Bhat,R.B. & Sankar,T.S., 1990 "Analytical methods for rotors supported
on hydrodynamic journal bearing" Tribology Transactions, v.33.1, p60-66
Purvis,M.B., Meyer,W.E & Benton.T.C, 1957 " Temperature distribution in the
journal bearing lubricant film" Trans. ASME, v.79, p343-350
Reddi,M.M , 1969 " Finite-element solution of the incompressible lubrication problem"
/ of Lubric. Technol, p524-533
341
Reddi,M.M & Trumpler,P.R.,1962 " Stability of high-speed journal bearing under
steady load" / of Engineering for Industry, Aug., p351-358
Rentzepis, G.M. & Sternlicht, B., 1962 " On stability of rotor in cylindrical journal
bearings" / of Basic Eng., v.84, p521-532
Reynolds,0., 1886 "On the theory of lubrication and its application in Mr Beaucamp
Tower's experiments", Phil. Trans, of The Royal Society. London, v.177, Pt.1
RfceJ.R., March 1965 "Misalignment torques of hydrodynamic gas-lubricated journal
bearings" / of Basic Engineering, p 193-198
Roberts,J.B., EllisJ. & Sianaki,A.H., 1990 " The determination of squeeze film
dynamic coefficients from transient two-dimensional experimental data" / of
Tribology, v.H2,p287-298
RobertsJ.B., Ramli, M.D. & EllisJ., 1988 " Experimental determination of squeeze-
film dynamic coefficients by a frequency domain method" Proc. Inst, of Mech.
Eng. V.202C4, p235-244
Rough JC.E., 1990 "Experimental evaluation of squeeze film damper coefficients with
frequency domain techniques" Tribology Transactions, v.33.1, p67-75
SanAndres,L.S., 1993 "Effect of shaft misalignment on the dynamic force response of
annular pressure seals" Tribology Transactions, v.36.2, pl73-182
SanAndres,L.S., 1993 "Effect of shaft misalignment on the operation of a turbulent flow
hydrostatic bearing" J. ofTribology v. 115, p355-363
Sato, Y., 1983 "Load capacity and stiffness of misaligned hydrostatic recessed journal
bearing" Wear, v.92, p231-241
Singh,D.V., Sinhasan,R. & Tayal,S.P., 1976 "Theoretical prediction of journal centre
motion trajectory" / of Lubric. Technol v.98, p619-629
342
Someya,T., 1989 Journal-Bearing Databook Springer-Verlag Berlin
Sommerfeld. A, 1904 "Zur hydrodynamische theorie der schmeirmittle-beibung.",
Zeitschrift furr Mathematik und Physik, Vol.50,97
Stanley, W.D., 1975, Digital Signal Processing. Prentice Hall
Stanway,R., 1983 Identification of linearized squeeze-film dynamics using
synchronous excitation" Proc. Inst, of Mech. Eng. v. 197C,p 199-204
Sternlicht, B., 1959," Elastic and damping properties of cylindrical journal bearings" /
of Basic Eng., V.81, plOl-109
Sternlicht3., Maginniss,F.J. & Schenectady,N.Y., 1957 " Application of digital
computers to bearing design" Trans. ASME, v.79, pl483-1493
Stokeley J.R. & Donaldson,R.R , 1969 " Misalignment effects in 180 partial journal
bearings" A S L E Trans, v.12, p216-226
Tieu, AK., 1973 "Oil-film temperature distribution in an infinitely wide slider bearing:
an application of the finite element method" / Mech. Eng. Sci., V.15, n4, p311-
320
Tieu, AK. & Othman,A., 1991 "Stability characteristics of fluid journal bearing" Proc.
of 3rd Asia-Pacific Vibration Conf, Perth, p8.44-8.50
Tondl,A., 1962 'Experimental investigation of self-excited vibrations of rotors due to the
action of lubricating oil film in journal bearings' Wear, Vol 5, pl36-147
Vijayraghavan, D. & Keith, T.G. Jr., 1990 " Analysis of a finite grooved misaligned
journal bearing considering cavitation and starvation effects" / of Tribology,
v.112, p60-67
343
Vijayraghavan, D. & Keith, T.G. Jr., 1989 " Effect of cavitation on the performance of a
grooved misaligned journal bearing" Wear, v. 134, p 377-397
Wada, S., Hayashi, H. and Migita, M., 1971 "Application of finite element method to
hydrodynamic lubrication problems (part 1, infinite-width bearing)', Bull, of
JSME, V.14, No.77, pl222-1233
Wada, S., Hayashi, H. and Migita, M., 1971 "Application of finite element method to
hydrodynamic lubrication problems (part 2, finite-width bearing)', Bull, of JSME,
Vol.14, No.77, pl234-1244
Wang, L.H. & Tieu A.K., 1989 " A study on the static and dynamic characteristics of
journal bearing" Research Report Tribology, 89/2, Dept. of Mech., University of
Wollongong
Woodcock J.S. & Homes,R., 1969-70 "Determination and application of the dynamic
properties of a turbo-rotor bearing oil film" Proc. of the Inst, of Mech. Eng. v. 184,
FH.3L, plll-119
Woomer,E. & Pilkey,W.D., 1978 "The estimation of parameters in a linear rotor-bearing
system model" Topics in fluid film bearing and rotor bearing system design and
optimisation, A M S E publication, pl57-170
Yan,W.Q. & Gu, L., 1986, Time Series Analysis and Dynamic Modelling. Publisher of
Beijing Technology University
Zhang Y.Y, Xie,Y.B.& Qiu D.M., 1990 " Identification of linearized oil-film
coefficients in a flexible rotor-bearing system, part I & II" Int. Conf. on
Hydrodynamic Bearing- Rotor System Dynamics, Xian, China, p93-108
Zhang,Q., Lallement,G & Fillod,R., 1987 "Identification of the dynamic characteristics
of oil- film bearings" Rotating Machinery Dynamics A S M E publication, D E v.2,
ptl, p57-61
344
Zhang,Z.M., 1979 Fluid Dynamics of Journal Bearings High Education Publishing
House, Beijing
Zhang,Z., Mao.Q. & Xu,H., 1986 "The effect of dynamic deformation on dynamic
properties and stability of cylindrical journal bearings."Proc. of 13th Leeds/Lyon
Zhang Y.Y, Xie,Y.B.& Qiu D.M., 1990 " Identification of linearized oil-film
coefficients in a flexible rotor-bearing system, part I & II" Int. Conf. on
Hydrodynamic Bearing- Rotor System Dynamics, Xian, China, p93-108
Zheng T.S. & X u Q.Y. 1992 " Identification of journal bearing oil-film dynamic
coefficients by attaching additional masses to a rotor" / of XVan Jiaotong Unl,
V.26^6, p99-106
345
A1HPI1NMX A
INSTRUCTION TO USE PROGRAM
CALCULATING BEARINGS
CHARACTERISTICS BY FDM-IFP
This is user's manual of the program 'fdmifp'. The program is designed to
calculate the static and dynamic characteristics of circular journal hearings by the Finite
Difference Method. The force coefficients are calculated by Infinitesimal Perturbation
Method (FDM-IFP). The method is described in Section 3.3 and this appendix gives the
instruction to use it
At first copy the program 'fdmifp' in 'wumus' or other unix systems which
support the standard fortran language. Type in the bearing parameters in file
fdmifp.dat'. For running the program just type fdmifp and press "return" key.
During running, some information, such as integration number, iterative attitude angle
will be shown on screen.
Input file: fdmifp.dat
The data in the input data file should he typed in following order:
RBUSH, WBUSH, RADCL, REVS,PS, VISCY
GFI, GL, TILT, GAMA, FLAG
DPHAL NSETS
INI, IN2, DE
EBS, ALPHA, LIMO
Where:
RBUSH = R, radius of the bearing, m
346
WBUSH
RADCL
REVS
PS
VISCY
GFI
GL
TILT
GAMA
FLAG
DPHAI
NSETS
INI
IN2
DE
EBS
ALPHA
UMO
= L, bearing width, m
= c, clearance, m
= W , rotation speed, rpm
= Ps, groove supply pressure, bar
= m , viscosity, N.s/m2
= 6, groove angle, degree
groove length, m
= x, misalignment ratio
= y, misalignment angle, degree
control index: F L A G < 0 only calculate static characteristics
F L A G > 0 calculate static and dynamic characteristics
= A4>, angular division
= n, axial division number
integer, eccentricity factor, the start eccentricity = IN1*DE
integer, eccentricity factor, the end eccentricity = IN2*DE, IN2>1N1
eccentricity increase length, DE<1/IN2, = i x D E , INl<i<lN2
= Sc, pressure convergence criterion, 5c<10-
5
= a, acceleration factor, 1< ce<2
integer, maximum integration number in finding the pressures. LIMO>100
The following data in the file fdmifp.dat are used in the calculation of all characteristics
of the circular bearing with two 20-grooves as presented in Table 3.1.:
0. 1 ,0.2, 1 .5e-4,3000.,0.,0.00845
20.,0.2,.0,0 1
1..20
1,9,0.1
1E-8,1.8,1600
0.01,0.01
347
The last two data are AX and A X for program 'femfp' which employs the finite element
and finite perturbation methods to calculate the bearing coefficients. The program femfp
shares the same input data file as fdmifp.
O u t p u t files: kb, esw and pre.3d
Calculated force coefficients are stored in file lib'. The following dynamic coefficients
are calculated from the above input data:
Full bearing with 2 20.0000deg. 0.200000 Long grooves
DPHAI= 1.00 N=20 LIM= 1600
Rbuh(m) WbuBh(m) c(m) Viscosity H(rpm)
0.10000 0.20000 0.00015 0.00845 3000.00
D i m e n s i o n l e s s P a r a m e t e r s :
KRTIO S Kxx Kxy Kyx
0.10 1.5119 1.50 -3.10 10.44
5.80
Psuply
0.00
0.20 0.7210 1.54 -1.71
0.30 0.4425 1.60 -1.30 4.42
0.40 0.2943 1.61 -1.04 3.82
0.50 0.1999 1.52 -0.67 3.46
0.60 0.1335 1.47 -0.37 3.34
0.70 0.0844 1.44 -0.08 3.41
0.80 0.0474 1.46 0.29 3.79
0.90 0.0195 1.56 0.99 5.05
Kyy
1.53
1.60
1.71
1.91
2.38
3.00
3.99
5.87
11.27
Bxx
6.32
3.66
2.95
2.58
2.00
1.61
1.29
1.04
0.80
Bxy
1.53
1.66
1.85
2.00
1.84
1.77
1.71
1.72
1.85
TILT
0.00
Byx
1.53
1.66
1.85
2.00
1.84
1.77
1.71
1.72
1.85
BETA
0.00
Byy
20.94
11.72
9.02
7.87
7.14
6.89
7.00
7.67
9.83
Calculated static characteristics are stored in the file 'esw'. The following data are
results calculated from the same input data:
BRTIO
0.1O0
0.200
0.300
0.400
0.500
0.600
0.700
0.800
0.900
BKTZO0
0.100
0.200
0.300
0.400
0.500
0.600
0.700
0.800
0.900
BRTIOL
0.100
0.200
0.300
0.400
0.500
0.600
0.700
0.800
0.900
s
1.5119
0.7210
0.4425
0.2943
0.1999
0.1335
0.0844
0.0474
0.0195
1/S
0.6614
1.3869
2.2598
3.3978
5.0034
7.4902
11.8421
21.1097
51.2779
PHAI0
76.4790
65.7272
57.9453
52.2853
47.3195
42.3311
37.0959
31.1837
23.4937
QS
0.0657
0.1208
0.1646
0.2006
0.2296
0.2512
0.2657
0.2732
0.2741
Ckc
28.7812
13.4903
8.3470
5.7455
4.1063
2.9814
2.1431
1.4771
0.8865
348
Where
E R T I O = e eccentricity ratio
E R T I O O = Eo eccentricity at bearing left end (z=0)
E R T I O L = L eccentricity at bearing right end ( Z = L )
P H A I O =<j>o attitude angle
Q S = Q
S
dimensionless side flow
fkc =f
t
friction coefficient
The steady pressures at different eccentricities are stored in the file 'pre.3d', which can
be opened by Nisus or Excel 4.0 to draw three dimensional pressure distribution graphs.
349
A1PPBNMX IB
NONLINEAR SIMULATION PROGRAM
This program simulates lateral motion of rotor in the journal bearing under
different dynamic excitations with considering the nonlinear bearing forces. The static
load is the gravity of the rotor. The nonlinear bearing forces are directly obtained from
the pressure which is solved from the Reynolds equation at each time step. The external
forces could be pulse, harmonic and synchronous unbalance forces. The motion
equation (4-2) is solved by a 6th-order Runge-Kutta method (Jackson, 1985), which can
automatically select step size to satisfy a given accuracy. The displacement signals are
transformed into frequency domain by FFT. The flow chart of the program is shown in
Fig.4.7.
The program name is: 'bls.f. Simulated trajectory data are saved in die file
locus'. The frequency characteristics are saved in the file 'trans'. The parameter data
are input in the file bls.dat' in the following order:
IPA, N, NF2, DET, ITOUT
RBUSH, WBUSH, RADCL, REVS, PS, VISCY
GFI, GL, TILT, GAMA
DPHAL NSETS, EBS, ALPHA, LIM
ERTIO, PHAIO, S
FEXR, FEYR, TO, RU, UFR
TOL,HMIN,HMAX
XO, TN, (Xo,r
0
, V o )
Part of the variables have been explained in Appendix A, the other symbols are:
350
IPA
N
NF2
DET
ITOUT
LIM
ERTIO
PHAIO
FEXR
FEYR
TO
RU
UFR
TOL
HMIN
HMAX
XO
TN
(XQ,YQ,XQ,YQ)
integer, normally, IPA=9
integer, sample number of FFT, N = 2
f f A
. If IPA=9, N=512
output points of frequency characteristics, 1 < N F 2 < N
output step length, degree
FFT sample interval factor, sample interval for FFT is ITOUT x D E T
integer, maximum iteration times in the solution of pressure
eccentricity of the equilibrium point, dimensionless
attitude angle at the equilibrium point, deg
= F^, peak value of the external force F
ex
, dimensionless
= FgyQ, peak value of the external force F
ey
, dimensionless
to in the impact force formula in Fig.4.9(d), s
R
u
, relative unbalance force, dimensionless
=oo/Q, relative unbalance force frequency to rotation speed.
relative error of the numerical integration, normally TOL<10"
6
minimum integration step length, normally H M t N < 1 0
4
maximum integration step length, normally HMAX=0.5
start integrating time, radian
end integrating time, radian
initial state variables
The typical input data in 'bls.dat' are
9,512,64,514,5.,2
.1,.2,.00015,3000,0.,0.00845
0.,0.,.0,0.
14,4,le-6,1.8,299
0.6,50.615,.1205
0.,0.,0.003,0.1,0.
le-6,le-6,l.
0.,1.,0.,0.,0.,0
351
The typical output data in 'locus' are:
by bls.f
Full bearing with 2.0 deg. 0. Long grooves
n DPHAI DET(Deg) TOL HMIN HMAX EBS LIM
14.0 4 5.0 0.10E-5 0.10E-5 0.10E+1 0.10E-05 299
Wbush(m) c(m) Viscosity Psuply TILT
0.00015 0.00845 0.00 0.00
PHAI0 S W
50.615 0.1205 0.621E+05
Rbush(m)
0.10000
N(rpm)
3000.000
FEX
0.000
0.20000
ERTIO0
0.600
FEY
GAMA
0.00
C02/g
1.5091
TO A2
0.000 0.300E-02 0.512E+06
RU
0.1000
UFR N2
0.0000 514
T(Deg.) X Y FX FY Wspeed
0.0 0.000E+00 0.000E+00 0.000E+00 0.000E+00 0.000E+00
10.0 -0.409E-04 0.848E-02 -0.586E+03 0.108E+05 0.124E+00
20.0 -0.218E-03 0.317E-01 -0.292E+04 0.204E+05 0.234E+00
Where:
A2
N2
C02/g
FX, FY
Wspeed
= a
2
, see Fig.4.9(d)
output points of the simulation. N2=N+2, automatically set by the
program
= cmft
2
/W=cQ
2
/g
bearing forces F
x
and F
y
in N
=(0/Cl, whirl ratio
352
AIPFIENMZ
o o o o o o Q
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3
TRANSDUCER CALIBRATION
To increase the measurement accuracy, the transducers are re-calibrated. Since
the natural frequencies of all transducers (except thermocouples) are higher than 10 kHz,
the dynamic properties of the transducers will not significantly affect the measurement of
the parameters in the experiments, where signal frequencies are lower than 300 Hz.
Therefore, the transducers are only statically calibrated. During calibration, the
transducers are wired in the way as they are used in the experimental system. This
appendix describes the calibration methods and presents typical results.
C.l Force cells
20
10 -
May 3,1993
Temperature: 21 C
o fl.up
+ fl.down
-10
-20
-0.8
fup = 0.21330 - 26.342 Ue R
A
2 = 1.000
fdown = 0.23994 - 26.060 Ue R
A
2 = 1.000
Fig. C I
-04 0.0
U e ( y )
0.4
Calibration curve of force cell SG2
Three straingauge force cells in the main test rig are calibrated on Interon 8033
hydraulic press, whose accuracy of force measurement is 0.5%. Fig.C.l shows the
353
calibration curve of force cell SG2. In the calibration, the load is gradually
increased(indicated with "up" in Fig.C.l), and then gradually decreased (indicated with
"down"). From the curve fitting, the formula between force and output voltage is
determined for both "up" and "down" cases. In the experimental data processing, the
average of formulae for both "up" and "down" is used. Similarly, the expressions for
other two load cells are determined and presented in Table C.
For Kisder 902A force washer, which is used in the impact hammer to measure
the impact force, the manufacturer calibrated data as presented in Table C is used.
C.2 Proximity probes for vibration measurement
Four Bendy Nevada 3300 series (8mm) proximity probes xi
p
, yi
p
, x
2p
and y
2p
in big test rig are calibrated by a micrometer with a minimum graduation of 5\im in a
simple oven, which is heated by a hair drier. The temperature is varied by adjusting the
distance between the proximity probe and the drier's heater. During the calibration at one
temperature as shown in Fig.C.2, the temperature variation measured from the probe'
surface was less than 1 C. The micrometer was re-zeroed at each temperature to remove
thermal-expansion of the probe case and its mounting. Fig.C.2 shows the calibration
curves of x
2 p
at three different temperatures: 29, 43 and 65 C. The gain slightly
decreased with an increase of temperature. In the practical data processing, the gain can
be determined by interpolating the gains from the calibration according to experimental
temperature. Table C presented the formulae used in the data processing for the gains of
four proximity probes.
Another four Bendy Nevada 7200 series (5mm) proximity probes in small test rig
are also calibrated in a similar way. Table C also presents the calibrated results.
354
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
i i i i i i
30/09/93
@ 2 9 C
o @29 C
+ @43 C
A @65 C
. X5.29 = 0.14564 - 0.12250 Ux R
A
2 = 1.000
x5.43 = 0.14655-0.12271 Ux R
A
2= 1.000
x5.65= 0.14727 - 0.12358 Ux R
A
2 = 1.000
0.2 '' i i l iJ i
X i
" "
6
- Ux5(V) -
2

Rg. C.2 Calibration curve of proximity x
2p
at different temperatures
Micrometer
S i /
Fig.C.3 Former calibration mechanism of proximity probes in shaft
355
C.3 Proximity probe in shaft
The proximity probes in shaft were at first calibrated in situ by a mechanism as
shown in Fig.C.4. During the calibration, filling the gap on the top of the probe with the
lubricating oil does not affect the output significandy. But the cross-coupling effect
among probes were found to be considerably serious, that is, moving a metal to or from a
probe will affect the output of another probe in the shaft. This cross-coupling effect is
caused by the slip ring, where the high frequency signals from the probes can not be
shielded. This cross-coupling effect makes the measurement of misalignment from the
shaft difficult. In the experiments, the calibration data were found not to agree well with
the practical values. Then the gains of the proximity probes in the shaft were
approximately determined in situ as shown in Fig.C.4.
In Fig.C.4, the shaft was manually turned to different angle <fo and pressed to the
bearing bottom. The gap seen by the probe should be:
hi*c (l+cosfc)
Assuming the output voltage of the probe is linearly related to the gap, i.e.:
U
t
= C^+U, = Cc(l + cos^) + t/
0
(C-l)
Recording the output l/i of at each probe angle (|>i, the gain C
pp
and the initial voltage
U{ of the probe can be determined by linearly fitting equation (C-l). Fig.C.5 shows
typical calibration curve of the probes in shaft Since the bearing surface is contaminated
by the thermocouples and inevitable surface roughness (see Fig.7.15), the linearity of
calibration curve in Fig.C.5 is not as good as those as shown in Fig.C.2. However, the
probes in shaft are only used to monitor the oil-film thickness, their accuracy will not
affect the measurement of the bearing force coefficients. Table C also presented the fitted
results of two proximity probes in shaft
356
probe in journal r
v
Fig.C.4 Calibration of proximity probe in site
0.4
hi= - 3.2776 - 0.75907 U R
A
2 = 0.995
22/04/94
@29 C
-4.2
Fig.C.5 Calibration curve of proximity probe xi in shaft
C.4 Pressure transducers
The pressure transducers in shaft were calibrated in situ by a mechanism as
shown in Fig.C.6. A dead weight pressure tester was used to apply standard pressure on
head of the pressure transducer. Fig.C.7 shows typical calibration curve of the pressure
transducers.
357
pressure tester
deadweight
T
J
HXh
Fig.C.6 Calibration of pressure transducers
4000
3000
2000
-J 1 r- -| r-
13/08/93
@ T=19.6 C "
1000 -
o p up
+ p down
pl.up = -19.815 - 513.05 Up R
A
2 = 1.000
pl.dn= - 21.080 - 513.53 Up R
A
2 = 1.000
- 8 - 6 - 4 - 2 TJ
p ( V )
0
Fig.C.7 Calibration curve of the pressure transducer Pi
358
C.5 Thermocouples
Thermocouples are calibrated by N. Freund. The soldered T type thermocouples
were inserted in a water tank, whose temperature was controlled within 0.2 C. The
relation between the temperature and the output voltage is fitted as the following 9th order
sectioned polynomial function:
f-i
T
\A112
36
forl7.079T<53.564
1.0352
V y / S "
for53
-
564
^
T<9102
(C-2)
Tq=10Vcj
cold junction voltage (V)
V^ro + TcjO-x+Tcjrz)
V
C
=V!+U
T=g
8
+ V
c
g
9
For i=7,6 1,0, T=& +V
C
T
U is the output voltage of thermocouple
Where
r
0
=0.525793xl0-
7
r
2
=4.18649xl0-
8
gl
=26861.2
g
3
=-4.64893x107
g
5
=2.27530xl0
12
g
7
=5.43576xl0i
fi
g
9
=2.830121xl0i
9
rx =0.386007x10-5
go =0.123812
g
2
=-896494
g
4
=1.2441 lxlO
10
g
6
=-6.39950xl0i
4
g
8
=-2.02362xl0
18
359
Table C Calibrated formulae of the transducers used in this thesis
transducer name
Strain gauge
Force transducers
KISTLER702A
force washer
BENTLY NEVADA
3300 series
Proximity probes
in big test rig
(see Fig.7.9)
BENTLY NEVADA
7200 series
Proximity probes
in small test rig
KULITE
SEMICONDUCTOR
XTM-1900
Pressure transducers
TType
thermocouples
Code
SGI
SG2
SG3
fx.fy
XI
X2
Xip
yip
X2p
y2
P
Xip
yip
X2p
V2p
Pi
P
2
Pi
p
4
Ps
P6
TC1-
TC51
location
see Fig.7.6
see Fig.7.6
Static load lever
impact hammer
(small rig)
bearing 1 centre
bearing 2 centre
see Fig.7.8
see Fig.8.1 and
Fig.8.5(b)
see Fig.7.9
t
unit
N
N
N
N
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
kPa
kPa
kPa
kPa
kPa
kPa
C
relation
/,=2.7215xl0
4
x(l/-l/
0
)*
f
2
= -2.6203 x IO
4
x (U - U
0
)
W = 2.4259 x\0
4
x(U-U
0
)
/ = 125.00 x(U-U
Q
)
hy = -7.5907 x 10"
4
x(U- U
0
)
y^ = -5.6449 x IO
-4
x (U - U
0
)
x
lp
= -1.5974 x 10"
4
x (V - U
0
)
y
lp
= -1.6290 x 10^ x (U - U
0
)
x
2p
= -1.2340 x IO"
4
x(U-U
0
)
y
2p
=-1.2154x10-* x(U-U
0
)
Xy, = -1.3849 x IO
-4
x (U - U
0
)
y
lp
= -1.2761 xlO-
4
X(U-U
0
)
x
2p
= -1.2930 x IO"
4
x(U-U
0
)
y
2p
= -1.2972 x IO"
4
x(U-U
0
)
Pl
= -513.05 x(U-U
0
)
p
2
= -6O0Mx(U-U
0
)
/>3= -535.59 x(U-U
0
)
p
4
=^421.90x(U-U
0
)
p
5
= -535.S2x(U-U
0
)
p
6
= -1056.2 x(U-U
0
)
Equation (C-2)
* U and U
0
are in voltage. For the force cells and pressure transducers, U
0
is
output voltage of the transducers measured at the beginning of the experiments, when no
force and pressure are exerted on the transducers. For the proximity probes, U
0
is
eliminated in the data processing because only relative displacements are used in
determining the eccentricity and harmonic responses.
360
AIPIPBNMX
METHOD TO REMOVE OUTLIERS FROM
EXPERIMENTAL SIGNALS
In the experimental signals, some data are widely separated from the normal
distribution, these data are outliers. The outliers should be removed, otherwise they will
affect the frequency characteristics considerably (Yang & Gu, 1986). To find the
outliers, each datum in a discrete series is compared with its estimation according to 5
neighbouring data. If the datum is far from its estimation, the datum is considered as an
outlier and is replaced with an interpolation value. For a discrete time series x<,(i), (i=l,
2,..., N ) , the detailed processing procedures are described as following:
(i) Construct a new series Xi(k) (k= 3,4,...,N-2 ) from Xo(i):
x
t
(k) = Neutral datum among x
0
(i), i = k - 2, k -1,..., k+2
fc= 3, 4,..., N-2 (D-l)
(ii) Construct the second new series X2G) (j=4> 5,...,N-3 ) from X!(k):
^0') = T *i(*> J= 4, 5,..., N-3 (D-2)
(iii) Construct the third new series x
3
(n) (n=5,6,...,N-4) from x
2
Q):
x
3
(n) = x
2
(n-l) + x
2
(n) + \x
2
(n + l) n= =5, 6,...,N-4 (D-3)
This is the estimation of the original datum Xo(n).
(vi) Compare the original datum with its estimation value. If
M")"*sMl>
S n=
=
5
'
6
-'
N
-
4 (IM)
361
The datum is considered as an outlier, and is replaced by a special interpolation value:
x
0
(n) = x
0
(n-l) + x
3
(n)-x
3
(n-l) (D-5)
8 in equation (D-4) is the threshold value and should be selected according to the
signal. For the displacement signals in the bearing test rig, selecting S = 3 p:m can
effectively remove the outliers and high level noise according to the data processing in
this diesis.
The outlier-removing method can effectively remove the outliers and does not
change the signal's phase (see Fig.7.12). Interpolation equation (D-5) uses information
of 8 neighboured data to smooth the signal if an outlier or a high-level-noisy point is
found. Applications show it can effectively remove the high level noise (>3um) data and
make signal smoother. The mehtod is used to process all displacement signals
throughout this thesis except for the impulse responses in Chapter 8.
362

1995 - Zhi Ling Qiu - A Theoretical and Experimental Study On Dynamic Characteristics o

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

1995 - Zhi Ling Qiu - A Theoretical and Experimental Study On Dynamic Characteristics o

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

University of Wollongong

. This flow should be equal to the flow at

You might also like