EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog

5. Biomass Conversion Technologies

Inthecontextofthisdocument,biomassconversionreferstotheprocessofconvertingbiomass
intoenergythatwillinturnbeusedtogenerateelectricityand/orheat.Theprincipalcategoriesof
biomassconversiontechnologiesforpowerandheatproductionaredirect-fired andgasification systems.
Withinthedirect-firedcategory,specifictechnologiesincludestokerboilers,fluidizedbedboilers,and
cofiring.Withinthegasificationcategory,specifictechnologiesincludefixedbedgasifiersandfluidized
bedgasifiers.Anaerobicdigestersarealsoconsideredabiomassconversiontechnology;however,
extensiveinformationaboutdigestersisreadilyavailablefromEPAsAgSTARProgram
<www.epa.gov/agstar>andtherefore,willnotbediscussedwithinthischapter.
Biomasspowersystemsaretypicallybelow50MWinsize,comparedtocoal-firedplants,which
areinthe100- to1,000-MWrange.Mostoftodaysbiomasspowerplantsaredirect-fired systems. The
biomassfuelisburnedinaboilertoproducehigh-pressuresteamthatisusedtopowerasteamturbine-
drivenpowergenerator.Inmanyapplications,steamisextractedfromtheturbineatmediumpressures
andtemperaturesandisusedforprocessheat,spaceheating,orspacecooling.Cofiring involves
substitutingbiomassforaportionofthecoalinanexistingpowerplantboiler.Itisthemosteconomic
near-termoptionforintroducingnewbiomasspowergeneration.Becausemuchoftheexistingpower
plantequipmentcanbeusedwithoutmajormodifications,cofiringisfarlessexpensivethanbuildinga
newbiomasspowerplant.Comparedtothecoalitreplaces,biomassreducesSO
2
,NO
X
,andcertainother
airemissions.
Biomassgasification systemsoperatebyheatingbiomassinanenvironmentwherethesolid
biomassbreaksdowntoformaflammablegas.Thegasproducedsynthesisgas,orsyngascanbe
cleaned,filtered,andthenburnedinagasturbineinsimpleorcombined-cyclemode,comparabletoLFG
orbiogasproducedfromananaerobicdigester.Insmallersystems,thesyngascanbefiredin
reciprocatingengines,microturbines,Stirlingengines,orfuelcells.Gasificationtechnologiesusing
biomassbyproductsarepopularinthepulpandpaperindustrywheretheyimprovechemicalrecoveryand
generateprocesssteamandelectricityathigherefficienciesandwithlowercapitalcoststhan
conventionaltechnologies.Pulpandpaperindustrybyproductsthatcanbegasifiedincludehoggedwood,
bark,andspentblackliquor.
Table 5-1 providesasummaryofbiomassconversiontechnologiesforproducingheatandpower.
Table 5-1. Summary of Biomass CHP Conversion Technologies
Biomass Conversion
Technology
Common Fuel Types Feed
Size
Moisture
Content
Capacity Range
Stokergrate,
underfirestoker
boilers
Sawdust,bark,chips,hog
fuel,shavings,endcuts,
sanderdust
0.252in. 1050% 4to300MW(manyin
the20to50MWrange)
Fluidizedbedboiler Woodresidue,peat,wide
varietyoffuels
<2in. <60% Upto300MW(manyin
the20to25MWrange)
Cofiringpulverized
coalboilers
Sawdust,bark,shavings,
sanderdust
<0.25in. <25% Upto1000MW
Cofiringstoker,
fluidizedbedboilers
Sawdust,bark,shavings,
hogfuel
<2in. 1050% Upto300MW
Fixedbedgasifier Chippedwoodorhogfuel,
ricehulls,shells,sewage
sludge
0.254in. <20% Upto50MW
Fluidizedbedgasifier Mostwoodandagriculture
residues
0.252in. 1530% Upto25MW
Source:BasedonWright,2006.
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 30

EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog
Modular systems employsomeofthesametechnologiesmentionedabove,butonasmallerscale
thatismoreapplicabletofarms,institutionalbuildings,andsmallindustry.Anumberofmodularsystems
arenowunderdevelopmentandcouldbemostusefulinremoteareaswherebiomassisabundantand
electricityisscarce.
5.1 Direct-FiredSystems
Themostcommonutilizationofsolidfuelbiomassisdirectcombustionwiththeresultinghot
fluegasesproducingsteaminaboileratechnologythatgoesbacktothe19
th
century.Boilerstoday
burnavarietyoffuelsandcontinuetoplayamajorroleinindustrialprocessheating,commercialand
institutionalheating,andelectricitygeneration.Boilersaredifferentiatedbytheirconfiguration,size,and
thequalityofthesteamorhotwaterproduced.Boilersizeismostoftenmeasuredbythefuelinputin
MMBtuperhour(MMBtu/hr),butitmayalsobemeasuredbyoutputinpoundsofsteamperhour.
Becauselargeboilersareoftenusedtogenerateelectricity,itcanalsobeusefultorelateboilersizeto
poweroutputinelectricgeneratingapplications.Usingtypicalboilerandsteamturbinegenerating
efficiencies,100MMBtu/hrheatinputprovidesabout10MWelectricoutput.
Thetwomostcommonlyusedtypesofboilersforbiomassfiringarestokerboilersandfluidized
bedboilers.Eitherofthesecanbefueledentirelybybiomassfuelorcofiredwithacombinationof
biomassandcoal.Theefficiency,availability,operatingissues,equipmentandinstalledcosts,O&M
requirementsandcosts,andcommercialstatusofeachoftheseoptionsarediscussedbelow.
5.1.1 Boilers
Characterization
Stoker Boilers
Stokerboilersemploydirectfirecombustionofsolidfuelswithexcessair,producinghotflue
gases,whichthenproducesteamintheheatexchangesectionoftheboiler.Thesteamisuseddirectlyfor
heatingpurposesorpassedthroughasteamturbinegeneratortoproduceelectricpower.Stoker-fired
boilerswerefirstintroducedinthe1920sforcoal;inthelate1940stheDetroitStokerCompanyinstalled
thefirsttravelinggratespreaderstokerboilerforwood.Mechanicalstokersarethetraditionaltechnology
thathasbeenusedtoautomaticallysupplysolidfuelstoaboiler.Allstokersaredesignedtofeedfuel
ontoagratewhereitburnswithairpassingupthroughit.Thestokerislocatedwithinthefurnacesection
oftheboilerandisdesignedtoremovetheashresidueaftercombustion.Stokerunitsusemechanical
meanstoshiftandaddfueltothefirethatburnsonandabovethegratelocatednearthebaseoftheboiler.
Heatistransferredfromthefireandcombustiongasestowatertubesonthewallsoftheboiler.
Modernmechanicalstokersconsistoffourelements,1)afueladmissionsystem,2)astationary
ormovinggrateassemblythatsupportstheburningfuelandprovidesapathwayfortheprimary
combustionair,3)anoverfireairsystemthatsuppliesadditionalairtocompletecombustionand
minimizeatmosphericemissions,and4)anashdischargesystem.Figure 5-1 illustratesthedifferent
sectionsofastokerboiler.
Asuccessfulstokerinstallationrequiresselectingthecorrectsizeandtypeofstokerforthefuel
beingusedandfortheloadconditionsandcapacitybeingserved.Stokerboilersaretypicallydescribedby
theirmethodofaddinganddistributingfuel.Therearetwogeneraltypesofsystemsunderfeed and
overfeed.Underfeedstokerssupplyboththefuelandairfromunderthegrate,whileoverfeedstokers
supplyfuelfromabovethegrateandairfrombelow.Overfeedstokersarefurtherdividedintotwo
typesmass feed andspreader.Inthemassfeedstoker,fueliscontinuouslyfedontooneendofthegrate
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 31

EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog
surfaceandtravelshorizontallyacrossthe
Figure 5-1. Cut-Away View of a Traveling Grate
grateasitburns.Theresidualashis
Stoker Boiler
dischargedfromtheoppositeend.
Combustionairisintroducedfrombelow
thegrateandmovesupthroughtheburning
bedoffuel.Inthespreaderstoker,themost
commontypeofstokerboiler,combustion
airisagainintroducedprimarilyfrom
belowthegratebutthefuelisthrownor
spreaduniformlyacrossthegratearea.The
finerparticlesoffuelcombustin
suspensionastheyfallagainsttheupward
movingair.Theremainingheavierpieces
fallandburnonthegratesurface,withany
residualashremovedfromthedischarge
endofthegrate.Chaingrate,traveling
grate,andwater-cooledvibratinggrate
stokersareotherlesscommon
configurationsthatusevariousmeansto
maintainaneven,thinbedofburningfuel
onthegrate.Otherspecializedstoker
boilersincludebalanceddraft,cyclone-
fired,fixedbed,shakerhearth,tangential-fired,andwall-fired.Practicalconsiderationslimitstokersize
and,consequently,themaximumsteamgenerationrates.Forcoalfiring,thismaximumisabout350,000
poundsperhour(lb/hr);forwoodorotherbiomassfiringitisabout700,000lb/hr.
Underfeed Stokers
Underfeedstokerssupplybothfuelandprimarycombustionairfrombeneaththegratesothatthe
topofthefuelpileisnotcooledbycoldandmoistfuelorcoldair.Thefuelismovedintoahopperand
ontothegratebyeitherascrew- orram-drivenmechanism.Underfeedstokerspushthefuelintothe
bottomofthebedoffuelwhileheatcausesvolatilizationandcompletecombustionofthefuelbythetime
itrisestothetopofthebedasashandisdischarged.Asthefuelmovesoutoverthegratewhereitis
exposedtoairandradiantheat,it
Figure 5-2. Cross Section of Underfeed, Side-Ash
beginstoburnandtransferheatto
Discharge Stoker
thewatertubes.Aswithany
combustionprocess,ashaccumulates
asthefuel,isburned.Thetwobasic
typesofunderfeedstokersare:1)the
horizontal-feed,side-ashdischarge
typeand2)thegravity-feed,rear-ash
dischargetype.Across-sectionofan
underfeed,side-ashdischargestoker
isshowninFigure 5-2.Thedemand
forunderfeedstokershasdiminished
duetocostandenvironmental
considerations.Underfeedstokersare
bestsuitedforrelativelydryfuel
(under40to45percentmoisture.)
Source:ORNL,2002.
Source:ORNL,2002.
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 32

EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog
Overfeed Stokers
Overfeedstokersaregenerallyclassifiedbythewaythefuelisdistributedandburnedwithinthe
boiler.Theprimarydesignationsaremass-feedorspreaderstokers.Mass-feedstokersintroducefuel
continuouslyatoneendofagrate.Asthefuelmovesintotheboiler,itfallsontothegratebygravity.To
controltheamountoffuelthatenterstheboiler,agatecanbemovedupordown,orthespeedatwhich
thefuelmovesbeneaththegatecanbeadjusted.Insidetheboiler,thefuelburnsasittravelsalongthe
grate.Primarycombustionair
flowsupwardfrombeneaththe
Figure 5-3. Cross Section of Overfeed, Water-Cooled,
grateandthroughtheburning
Vibrating-Grate, Mass-Feed Stoker
bedoffuel,allowingfor
completecombustion.Anyash
thatremainsonthegrateis
thendischargedattheopposite
endofthesystem.Thetwo
primarymass-feedstokersare
1)water-cooledvibratinggrate
and2)moving(chainand
traveling)gratestokers.A
cross-sectionofanoverfeed,
water-cooledvibratinggrate
mass-fedstokerispresentedin
Figure 5-3.
Spreader Stokers
Spreaderstokersarethemostcommonlyusedstokersbecauseoftheirversatility.Theyare
capableofdistributingfuelevenlyandtoauniformdepthovertheentiregratesurfacebyusingadevice
thatpropelstheindividualfuelparticlesintotheairabovethegrate.Methodsusedtopropelthefuel
particlesincludeairinjectionandunderthrowandoverthrowrotors.Asthefuelisthrownintotheboiler,
fineparticlesigniteandburnwhilesuspendedinthecombustionair.Duetosuspensionburning,response
timesofspreaderstokersarebetterthanformassfeedorunderfeedstokers.Thecoarserparticlesthatfall
ontothegrateendupburninginathinbedoffuelonthegrate.Primarycombustionairissuppliedfrom
beneaththegrate.Becausethefuelisevenlydistributedacrosstheactivegratearea,thecombustionairis
uniformlydistributedunderandthroughthegrate.Aportionofthetotalcombustionairisadmitted
throughportsabovethegrateasoverfireair,completingthecombustionprocess.Gratesforspreader
stokersaregenerallydesignedtomoveratherthanremainstationary.Therefore,travelinggrates,air-
cooledvibratinggrates,andwater-cooledvibratinggratesaredesignsthathavebeenusedeffectively.
Modernboilerswithspreaderstokersincorporate:
Equipmentthatdistributesfueluniformlyoverthegrate.
Speciallydesignedair-meteringgrates.
Dustcollectionandreinjectionequipment.
Forceddraftfansforbothundergrateandoverfireair.
Combustioncontrolstocoordinatefuelandairsupplywithsteamdemand.
49
49
ORNL,2002.
Source:ORNL,2002.
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 33

EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog
Alongwiththefuelfeedsystemandfurnacesectiongeometry,airsystemdesignplaysan
importantroleinefficientandcompletecombustionofbiomassfuelsinstokerboilers.Excessairfor
bark,wood,andmostbiomassfuelsissetat25percentoraboveforstokerfiring.Becausebiomassfuels
aretypicallyhighlyvolatileonadrybasis,areheterogeneousinsize,andmoreoftenburninsuspension
comparedtocoal,biomasscombustionairsystemsaredesignedtoprovidemoreoverfireairthanthose
usedforcoal.Moderndesignsuseundergrateandoverfirequantitiesof40and60percent,respectively.
Fluidized Bed Boilers
Fluidizedbedboilersarethemostrecenttypeofboilerdevelopedforsolidfuelcombustion.The
primarydrivingforcefordevelopmentoffluidizedbedcombustionisreducedSO
2
andNO
x
emissions
fromcoalcombustion.Asthetechnologydeveloped,itbecameapparentthattheprocesscouldefficiently
burnbiomassandotherlow-gradefuelsthataredifficultorimpracticaltoburnwithconventional
methods.
Inthismethodofcombustion,fuelisburnedinabedofhotinert,orincombustible,particles
suspendedbyanupwardflowofcombustionairthatisinjectedfromthebottomofthecombustortokeep
thebedinafloatingorfluidizedstate.Thescrubbingactionofthebedmaterialonthefuelenhancesthe
combustionprocessbystrippingaway
theCO
2
andsolidsresidue(char)that
normallyformsaroundthefuelparticles.
Thisprocessallowsoxygentoreachthe
combustiblematerialmorereadilyand
increasestherateandefficiencyofthe
combustionprocess.Oneadvantageof
mixinginthefluidizedbedisthatit
allowsamorecompactdesignthanin
conventionalwatertubeboilerdesigns.
Naturalgasorfueloilcanalsobeusedas
astart-upfueltopreheatthefluidized
bedorasanauxiliaryfuelwhen
additionalheatisrequired.Theeffective
mixingofthebedmakesfluidizedbed
boilerswell-suitedtoburnsolidrefuse,
woodwaste,wastecoals,andothernon-
standardfuels.Figure 5-4 showsthe
componentsofafluidizedbed
combustionboiler.
Figure 5-4. Cut-Away View of a Fluidized Bed
Combustion Boiler
Source:Babcock&Wilcox,2005.
Thefluidizedbedcombustionprocessprovidesameansforefficientlymixingfuelwithairfor
combustion.Whenfuelisintroducedtothebed,itisquicklyheatedaboveitsignitiontemperature,
ignites,andbecomespartoftheburningmass.Theflowofairandfueltothedensebediscontrolledso
thatthedesiredamountofheatisreleasedtothefurnacesectiononacontinuousbasis.Typically,
biomassisburnedwith20percentorhigherexcessair.Onlyasmallfractionofthebediscombustible
material;theremainderiscomprisedofinertmaterial,suchassand.Thisinertmaterialprovidesalarge
inventoryofheatinthefurnacesection,dampeningtheeffectofbrieffluctuationsinfuelsupplyor
heatingvalueonboilersteamoutput.
Fuelsthatcontainahighconcentrationofash,sulfur,andnitrogencanbeburnedefficientlyin
fluidizedbedboilerswhilemeetingstringentemissionlimitations.Duetolongresidencetimeandhigh
intensityofmasstransfer,fuelcanbeefficientlyburnedinafluidizedbedcombustorattemperatures
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 34

EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog
considerablylowerthaninconventionalcombustionprocesses(1,400to1,600Fcomparedto2,200F
foraspreaderstokerboiler).ThelowertemperaturesproducelessNO
x
,asignificantbenefitwithhigh
nitrogen-contentwoodandbiomassfuels.SO
2
emissionsfromwoodwasteandbiomassaregenerally
insignificant,butwheresulfurcontaminationofthefuelisanissue,limestonecanbeaddedtothefluid
bedtoachieveahighdegreeofsulfurcapture.Fuelsthataretypicallycontaminatedwithsulfurinclude
constructiondebrisandsomepapermillsludges.
Fluidizedbedboilersarecategorizedaseitheratmosphericorpressurizedunits.Atmospheric
fluidizedbedboilersarefurtherdividedintobubbling-bedandcirculating-bedunits;thefundamental
differencebetweenbubbling-bedandcirculating-bedboilersisthefluidizationvelocity(higherfor
circulating).Circulatingfluidizedbedboilersseparateandcapturefuelsolidsentrainedinthehigh-
velocityexhaustgasandreturnthemtothebedforcompletecombustion.Atmospheric-pressurebubbling
fluidizedbedboilersaremostcommonlyusedwithbiomassfuels.Thetypeoffluidbedselectedisa
functionoftheas-specifiedheatingvalueofthebiomassfuel.Bubblingbedtechnologyisgenerally
selectedforfuelswithlowerheatingvalues.Thecirculatingbedismostsuitableforfuelsofhigher
heatingvalues.
Inapressurizedfluidizedbedboiler,theentirefluidizedbedcombustorisencasedinsidealarge
pressurevessel.Burningsolidfuelsinapressurizedfluidizedbedboilerproducesahigh-pressurestream
ofcombustiongases.Afterthecombustiongasespassthroughahotgascleanupsystem,theyarefedinto
agasturbinetomakeelectricity,andtheheatinthehotexhaustgasstreamcanberecoveredtoboilwater
forasteamturbine.Therefore,apressurizedfluidizedbedboilerismoreefficient,butalsomore
complicatedandexpensive.Capitalcostsofpressurizedfluidizedbedcombustiontechnologyarehigher
thanatmosphericfluidizedbeds.
Efficiency
Boilerefficiencyisdefinedasthepercentageofthefuelenergythatisconvertedtosteamenergy.
Majorefficiencyfactorsinbiomasscombustionaremoisturecontentofthefuel,excessairintroduced
intotheboiler,andthepercentageofuncombustedorpartiallycombustedfuel.AccordingtotheCouncil
ofIndustrialBoilerOwners(CIBO),thegeneralefficiencyrangeofstokerandfluidizedbedboilersis
between65and85percentefficient.
50
Fueltypeandavailabilityhaveamajoreffectonefficiencybecause
fuelswithhighheatingvaluesandlowmoisturecontentcanyieldefficienciesupto25percenthigher
thanfuelshavinglowheatingvaluesandhigh-moisturecontents.
Biomassboilersaretypicallyrunwithaconsiderableamountofexcessairsothattheycan
achievecompletecombustion,butthishasanegativeimpactonefficiency.ACIBOruleofthumb
indicatesthatboilerefficiencycanbeincreased1percentforeach15percentreductioninexcessair.
51
Table 5-2 comparestheefficiencyofabiomassstokerandafluidizedbedboilerthatareoperated
with50percentexcessairwithafinalfluegasexittemperatureof350F.Theefficienciesareestimated
basedontheheat-lossmethod,whichisawayofdeterminingboilerefficiencybymeasuringthe
individualheatlosses(expressedasapercentofheatinput)andsubtractingthemfrom100percent.As
canbeseeninthetable,thelargestenergylossinaboileristheheatthatleavesthestack.Thislosscould
amounttoasmuchas30to35percentofthefuelinputinolder,poorlymaintainedboilers.Thetable
showsthatdecreasingfuelmoisturecontentfrom30to0percentincreasesthermalefficiencybyabout6
percentagepoints.Thisestimateassumesthattheair-fuelratioismaintainedbyadjustingairinputbased
ontheinputmoisturecontent.Ifthequantityofairisnotreducedwhenwetterfuelenterstheboilerthen
efficiencywilldropevenmoreasfuelmoistureisincreased.
50
CouncilofIndustrialBoilerOwners,1997.
51
ORNL,2002.
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 35

EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog
Theprimarydifferenceinefficiencybetweenastokerboilerandafluidizedbedboileristhe
amountoffuelthatremainsunburned.AsshowninTable 5-2,theefficiencyoffluidizedbedboilers
comparesfavorablywithstokerboilersduetolowercombustionlosses.Stokerboilerscanhave30to40
percentcarbonintheashandadditionalvolatilesandCOinthefluegases,whilefluidizedbedboiler
systemstypicallyachievenearly100percentfuelcombustion.Theturbulenceinthecombustorcombined
withthethermalinertiaofthebedmaterialprovideforcomplete,controlled,anduniformcombustion.
Thesefactorsarekeytomaximizingthethermalefficiency,minimizingchar,andcontrollingemissions.
Table 5-2. Biomass Boiler Efficiency as a Function of Input Fuel and Combustion Characteristics
Characteristics
Biomass Stoker Biomass Fluidized Bed
Dry As Received Dry As Received
Excessair(%) 50 50 50 50
Dryfluegas(lb/lbfuel) 15.25 10.675 15.25 10.675
Finalexhausttemp(F) 350 350 350 350
Highheatingvalue(HHV)ofthefuel(Btu/lb) 8,500 5,950 8,500 5,950
Moisturecontentoffuel(%) 0 30 0 30
Hydrogenpercentinthefuel(%) 4.59 3.21 4.59 3.21
Efficiency Losses
Dryfluegaslosses(%) 11.63 11.63 11.63 11.63
Moistureinfuel(%) 0.00 5.90 0.00 5.90
Latentheat(%) 5.69 5.69 5.69 5.69
Unburnedfuel(%)(1) 3.50 3.50 0.25 0.25
Radiationandmiscellaneous(%)(2) 2.03 2.03 2.03 2.03
Total Combustion Losses (%) 22.85 28.74 19.60 25.49
Boiler Efficiency HHV Basis (%) 77.15 71.26 80.40 74.51
(1)Estimated
(2)Includesradiation,moistureinair,andothermiscellaneousissues.
Whenconsideringfactorsthatinfluenceboilerperformance,itshouldbenotedthatefficiencyis
notconstantthroughouttheentireoperatingrangeofaboiler.Peakefficiencygenerallyoccursata
particularboileroutputthatisdeterminedbydesigncharacteristics.Wheneverboileroperationsdeviate
fromthisoutput,theresultingperformanceisusuallybelowpeakefficiency.Operatingcontinuouslyat
peakefficiencyisnotpracticalduetoseasonaldemands,loadvariationsandfuelpropertyvariations;
however,operatingatasteadyloadandavoidingcyclicoron-offoperationcanimproveefficiency.
Operating Availability
52
Typically,bothstokerandfluidizedboilersaredesignedforcontinuousoperation,anddesign
performanceisinthe90+percentavailabilityrange.Seasonalvariabilityinfuelavailabilityand/orquality
canaffecttheplantavailability,butthisisafeedstockissue,notanissueofboilerperformance.Awell
52
Theavailabilityofapowergenerationsystemisthepercentageoftimethatthesystemcanoperate,oris
availabletooperate.Bothplannedmaintenanceandunplannedoutageshaveanegativeeffectuponsystem
availability.Thereforeanavailabilityof100%wouldrepresentasystemthatneverbrokedownorneeded
maintenance(impossibletoachieveinrealoperation).
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 36

EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog
designedbiomasssteamsystemhasareasonableexpectationofoperatinginthe92to98percent
availabilityrange.
53
Operating Advantages and Disadvantages
Stokerandfluidizedbedboilershavespecificoperatingadvantagesanddisadvantageswith
biomassfuelsdependingonthefuelcharacteristicsandsiterequirements.Biomassfuelsareextremely
variableintermsofheatingvalue,moisturecontent,andotherfactorsthataffectcombustion.Woodand
mostotherbiomassfuelsarecomposedprimarilyofcelluloseandmoisture.Asdiscussedpreviously,the
highproportionofmoistureissignificantbecauseitactsasaheatsinkduringthecombustionprocess.
Thelatentheatofevaporationdepressesflametemperature,takingheatenergyawayfromsteam
production,andcontributingtothedifficultyofefficientlyburningbiomassfuels.Cellulose,inadditionto
containingthechemicalenergyreleasedincombustion,containsfuel-boundoxygen.Thisoxygen
decreasesthetheoreticalairrequirementsforcombustionand,accordingly,theamountofnitrogen
includedintheproductsofcombustion.Afewgeneralguidelinesfordirectfiringofwoodandbiomassin
boilersinclude:
Maintainstablecombustion,whichcanbeachievedinmostwater-cooledboilerswithfuel
moisturecontentsashighas65percentbyweight,asreceived.
Useofpreheatedcombustionairreducesthetimerequiredforfueldryingpriortoignition
andisessentialtospreaderstokercombustionsystems.Designairtemperatureswillvary
directlywithmoisturecontent.
Ahighproportionofthecombustiblecontentofwoodandotherbiomassfuelsburnsinthe
formofvolatilecompounds.Alargeproportionofthecombustionairrequirement,therefore,
isaddedabovethefuelinstokerandotherconventionalcombustionboilersasoverfireair.
Solidcharsproducedintheinitialstagesofcombustionofbiomassfuelsareofverylow
density.Conservativeselectionoffurnacesectionsizeisusedtoreducegasvelocityandkeep
charentrainmentintothefluegasesandpossiblyoutthestackatacceptablelevels.
Toensuresmoothfuelfeeding,biomassfuelshavetobecarefullysizedandprocessed.As
discussedabove,themoisturecontentofwoodandotherbiomasswastecanvaryoverawiderange,from
10percenttomorethan60percent.Toensuresteadyheatinputintotheboilerusingvolumetricfeeders,
efficienthomogenizationoffuelwithdifferentmoisturecontentsatthefuelyardisanecessity.
Biomass-basedfuelscanincreasetheriskofslaggingandfoulingofheattransfersurfacesand,in
somecases,theriskoffiresidecorrosionaswell.Potassiumashcontentisrelativelyhighinfreshwood,
greenparticles,andfast-growingbiomass,whichcausestheashtomeltatlowtemperaturesandleadstoa
tendencyforfoulingandslagging.Additionally,biomassfuelscancontainchlorine,which,togetherwith
alkalis,caninduceaggressivecorrosion.
Table 5-3 providesacomparisonofcombustioncharacteristicsandfuelissuesforstokerand
fluidizedbedboilers.Stokerboilershavebeenaroundforalongtimeandarearelativelybasic
technology,whereasfluidizedbedtechnologyisnewerandmorecomplex,butoffersmoreflexibilityand
operatingcontrol.Fluidizedbedsystemsoffersignificantoperatingflexibilitybecausetheycanoperate
underawiderangeofloadconditions.Thethermalinertiaofthebedmaterialallowsittowithstand
changesinmoistureandheatingcontentofthefuelwithoutnegativeimpacts.Additionally,thelowfuel
53
EnergyProductsofIdaho,acompanythatprovidesfluidizedbedboilers,hasreportedoperatingavailabilitiesof
98percentfortheirunits,<www.energyproducts.com/fluidized_bed_combustors.htm>.
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 37

EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog
inventorypresentintheunitmakesitresponsivetovariableloads.Anotheradvantageisthatthefluidized
bedcanalsomaintainefficiencyduringsystemturn-down.Fluidizedbedmanufacturershavereported
thattheoperatingflexibilityoftheirunitshasallowedtheircustomerstotakeadvantageofutility
incentiveprogramsforgenerationthatfollowselectricdemand.
54
Table 5-3. Comparison of Stoker and Fluidized Bed Boilers
Feature
Boiler Type
Stoker Fluidized Bed
Combustion Mechanism
Flowofsolidfuel Transportedonstoker Fluidizedbycombustionairand
circulatedthroughthecombustion
chamberandcyclone
Combustionzone Onthestoker Entireareaofthecombustionfurnace
Masstransfer Slow Activeverticalmovement-massand
heattransfer
Combustion Control
Responsiveness Slowresponse Quickresponse
Excessaircontrol Difficult Possible
Fuel Issues
Applicabilitytovariousfuels Fair High
Fuelpretreatment Generallynotnecessary Lumpsmustbecrushed
Environmental Factors
Lowsulfuroxide(SO
x
)
combustion
In-furnacedesulfurizationnot
possible
Highrateofin-furnacedesulfurization
LowNO
x
combustion Difficult InherentlylowNO
x
Appropriatefacilitysize Small Mediumtolarge
Equipment and Installed Costs
Abiomassboilersystemisacomplexinstallationwithmanyinterrelatedsubsystems.An
integratedsteamsystemwillincludethefuelprep-yardandhandlingequipment,theboileritself,induced
andforcedairfans,controls,andwatertreatmentsystems.Varyinglevelsofemissioncontrolequipment
willnormallybeneededaswell.Mostinstallationswillincludecycloneseparatorstocapturelargefly
ash,abaghouseforfineparticulatematter(PM),andadryscrubbersystem.NO
x
emissionscontrolin
stokerboilersisprovidedbyaselectivenon-catalyticreductionsystemusingureaorammoniathatis
installedinthetopoftheboiler.Othercontrolequipmentincludesacidgasremovalsystem,stack,ash
handling,andcontinuousemissionsmonitoringequipmentifrequired.
Table 5-4 providestotalcapitalcostestimates(equipmentandinstallation)forbothstokerand
circulatingfluidizedbedsteamsystemsforthreebiomassfuelfeedrates:100tons/day,600tons/dayand
900tons/day.Thesefeedratesarecomparabletosteamsystemsproducing20,000;150,000to185,000;
and250,000to275,000lb/hrofsteam,respectively,dependingonsteamtemperatureandpressure.
Installedcostscanvarysignificantlydependingonthescopeoftheequipmentincluded,outputsteam
conditions,geographicalarea,competitivemarketconditions,siterequirements,emissioncontrol
requirements,andprevailinglaborrates.Theestimatespresentedinthetablearebudgetaryestimates
basedonpublisheddataanddiscussionswithequipmentsuppliersanddevelopers.Theestimatesare
54
EnergyProductofIdaho,n.d.
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 38

EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog
basedonsteamconditionsthatmightbetypicalforaprocessheating-onlyapplicationinthesmall100
tons/daybiomassunit(250poundspersquareinchgauge[psig]saturatedsteam),andhighersteam
pressures(750psig)forasteamturbineCHPconfigurationinthelargerunits.Therangeofexpectedcost
variationscanbeashighas+/- 35percentdependingonthesiteandsystemvariableslistedabove.Steam
conditionsalsohaveasignificantimpactonboilercost;highertemperaturesandpressuresrequirethicker
tubesandmoreexpensivematerials(seeTable 5-5).
Table 5-4. Estimated Installed Capital Costs for a Biomass-Fueled Steam Plant
Biomass Fuel Feed (tons/day)
Characteristics 100 600 900
Biomassheatinput(MMBtu/hr) 35.4 297.5 446.3
Steampressure(psig) 275 750 750
Stoker Boiler Integrated Steam Plant
Steamoutput(lb/hr) 20,000 165,000 250,000
Stokerboilerequipmentcost $1,195,000 $7,980,000 $10,790,000
Otherequipmentandinstallation $795,000 $10,020,000 $12,460,000
TotalInstalledBoilerSystemCost $1,990,000 $18,000,000 $23,250,000
TotalInstalledBiomassPrep-Yard* $2,640,000 $5,430,000 $7,110,000
Total Installed Steam Plant Cost $4,630,000 $23,430,000 $30,360,000
UnitCost($/lbsteam) $232 $142 $121
Fluidized Bed Integrated Steam Plant
Steamoutput(lb/hr) 20,000 175,000 260,000
Fluidizedbedboilerequipmentcost $6,175,000 $14,490,000 $19,790,000
Otherequipmentandinstallation $795,000 $10,020,000 $12,460,000
TotalInstalledBoilerSystemCost $6,970,000 $24,510,000 $32,250,000
TotalInstalledBiomassPrep-Yard* $2,640,000 $5,430,000 $7,110,000
Total Installed Steam Plant Cost $9,610,000 $29,940,000 $39,360,000
UnitCost($/lbsteam) $480 $171 $151
*Prep-Yardcostsareestimatedbasedonthecapitalcostcurvedevelopedinsection4.1.5
Source:BasedondatafromAntaresGroup,Inc.,2003;discussionwithequipmentsuppliersanddevelopers.
AsshowninTable 5-4,theprep-yardandfuelhandlingsystemrepresentsasignificantportionof
thetotalsteamsystemcosts,rangingfrom15to25percentofthetotalsteamsystemcostsforthelarger
sizedunitsand25to50percentofthetotalcostofthe100tons/daysteamsystem.Fluidizedbedboiler
equipmentcostsarehigherthanthesimplerstokertechnology;thefluidizedbedboileritselfismorethan
threetimesasexpensiveasastokerboilerinthesmallestsizeshown;inthelargersizes,thefluidizedbed
boileris35to40percentmoreexpensive.Theunitcapitalcosts($/lbsteam)forabiomass-fueledsteam
plant,includingtheprep-yardcosts,are20to25percentmoreexpensiveforthelargerfluidizedbed
systems.Aportionofthehighercapitalcostisoffsetbythehigheroutputduetohigherefficiency.
ThecostoftheboilerisalsoafunctionofthesteamoutputconditionsasshowninTable 5-5.
Generatinghigherpressureandtemperaturesteamrequiresspecialandmoreexpensivealloysandthicker
watertubes.Boilersproducingveryhighpressuresteamcanbemorethantwiceasexpensiveasboilers
generatinglowpressuresteam.
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 39

EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog
Table 5-5. Effect of Steam Output Conditions on Boiler Capital Costs
Steam Conditions Boiler Cost Factor
150250psig 1.0
600750psig 1.151.25
1,2501,500psig 1.52.0
Source:Matches,2003.
O&M Costs
Estimatednon-fuelO&McostsforstokerandfluidizedbedboilersystemsareprovidedinTable
5-6 forthethreesteamsystemsizes,basedonpublisheddataanddiscussionwithmanufacturers.The
O&Mcostsareevaluatedwithinthecontextofanintegratedplant.TotalO&Mcostsincludethelaborfor
theprep-yard,andlabor,materials,andpartsfortheboilersystemitself.BoilersystemO&Mestimates
werebasedonanannualnon-laborcomponentforsparepartsandmaintenanceequipmentassumedtobe
2percentofboilercapitalcosts.Variablecostsforchemicals,water,andelectricityneededtorunblowers
andauxiliaryequipmentwereassumedtobeapproximately$0.20to$0.25perthousandpoundsofsteam
output.
Table 5-6. Annual O&M Costs for a Biomass-Fueled Steam Plant
Biomass Fuel Feed (tons/day)
Characteristics 100 600 900
Stoker Boiler Integrated Steam Plant
Steamoutput(lb/hr) 20,000 165,000 250,000
Prep-yardlabor $400,000 $320,000 $320,000
BoilersectionO&M $160,000 $1,095,000 $1,110,000
Total Annual O&M $560,000 $1,415,000 $1,430,000
Total Annual O&M ($/1,000 lb Steam)* $3.55 $1.09 $0.73
Fluidized Bed Integrated Steam Plant
Steamoutput(lb/hr) 20,000 175,000 260,000
Prep-yardlabor $400,000 $320,000 $320,000
BoilersectionO&M $260,000 $1,190,000 $1,205,000
Total Annual O&M $660,000 $1,510,000 $1,525,000
Total Annual O&M, ($/1,000 lb Steam)* $4.19 $1.09 $0.74
*Basedon90to95percentsteamsystemcapacityfactor.
Source:BasedondatafromAntaresGroup,Inc.,2003;discussionswithdevelopers.
AsshowninTable 5-6,thetwoboilertypesareassumedtohavetheidenticalprep-yardlabor
requirementforthesameoutput.The100tons/dayplantusesalessautomatedsystem,sothelabor
requirementishigherthanforthelargerplantsusinganautomatedprep-yard.Onaunitcostbasis,O&M
costsarehigherforthefluidizedbedboilerinthe100tons/daysize,butequaltothestokerboilerO&M
costsforthetwolargersizes.
Commercialization Status
Stokerboilershavelongbeenastandardtechnologyforbiomassaswellascoal,andareoffered
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 40

EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog
byanumberofmanufacturers.Fluidizedbedboilersareamorerecenttechnology,butarealso
commerciallyavailablethroughanumberofmanufacturers.Untilrecently,however,fluidizedbedboiler
usehasbeenmorewidespreadinEuropethantheUnitedStates,andmanyofthesuppliersareEuropean-
based.
AsshowninTable 5-6, whenevaluatedwithinthecontextofanintegratedplantonaunitcost
basis,O&Mcostsarehigherforasmallercirculatingfluidizedbedprocessing100tons/day,butlower
thanthestokerboilerforthetwolargersizesevaluatedinthisstudy.
Overall Cost and Performance Characteristics
AsummaryofthecostandperformanceoftypicalbiomasssteamsystemsisshowninTable 5-7.
Table 5-7. Summary of Biomass Combustion Boiler System Cost and Performance
Biomass Fuel Feed (tons/day)
System 100 600 900
BiomassFuelCharacteristics
Energycontent(dry)(Btu/lb) 8,500 8,500 8,500
Moisturecontent(%) 50 30 30
Energycontent(asreceived)(Btu/lb) 4,250 5,950 5,950
Stoker Boiler Integrated Steam Plant
Steamoutput(lb/hr) 20,000 165,000 250,000
Boilerefficiency(zeromoisture)(%) 77 77 77
Boilerefficiency(moistureadjusted)(%) 63 71 71
Heatinputtoboiler(MMBtu/hr) 35.4 297.5 446.3
Heatinputtosteam(MMBtu/hr) 22.5 212.0 318.0
Capacityfactor(%) 95 95 95
Cost Factors
Totalinstalledboilercosts $1,990,000 $18,000,000 $23,250,000
Totalinstalledsteamsystemcosts $4,630,000 $23,430,000 $30,360,000
Unitcapitalcost($/lbsteam) $232 $142 $121
Non-fuelO&Mcost($/1,000lbsteam) $3.55 $1.09 $0.73
Fluidized Bed Integrated Steam Plant
Steamoutput(lb/hr) 20,000 175,000 260,000
Boilerefficiency(zeromoisture)(%) 80 80 80
Boilerefficiency(moistureadjusted)(%) 67 75 75
Heatinputtoboiler(MMBtu/hr) 35.4 297.5 446.3
Heatinputtosteam(MMBtu/hr) 23.6 221.7 332.5
Capacityfactor(%) 95 95 95
Cost Factors
Totalinstalledboilercosts $6,970,000 $24,510,000 $32,250,000
Totalinstalledsteamsystemcosts $9,610,000 $29,940,000 $39,360,000
Unitcapitalcost($/lbsteam) $480 $171 $151
Non-fuelO&Mcost($/1,000lbsteam) $4.19 $1.09 $0.74
Source:NREL,2003.
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 41

EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog
5.1.2 Cofiring
Oneofthemostcosteffectiveandeasilyimplementedbiomassenergytechnologiesiscofiring
withcoalinexistingcoal-firedboilers.Cofiringreferstothepracticeofmixingbiomasswithafossilfuel
inhigh-efficiencyboilersasasupplementaryenergysource.Inbiomasscofiring,biomasscansubstitute
forupto20percentofthecoalusedintheboiler.Cofiringistypicallyusedwheneitherthesupplyof
biomassisintermittentorwhenthemoisturecontentofthebiomassishigh.Atlargeplants,biomassis
cofiredwithcoal,andmorecoalistypicallyusedthanbiomass.Atsmallplants,biomassiscofiredwith
naturalgas,andmorebiomassistypicallyusedthannaturalgasbecausethenaturalgasisusedto
stabilizecombustionwhenbiomasswithhigh-moisturecontentisfedintotheboiler.
Characterization
Figure 5-5 showsaprocessdiagramforastandardcoal-basedcofiringplant.Biomasshasbeen
cofiredwithcoaleconomicallyincommercialplants,whichisprincipallyviewedasafuelcostreduction
strategy.Incertainsituations,cofiringhasprovidedopportunitiesforutilitiestogetfuelfromwood
manufacturingandotherbusinessesatzeroornegativecost.Overallproductioncostsavingscanalsobe
achievedbyreplacingcoalwithinexpensivebiomassfuelsourcessuchaswoodwasteandwastepaper.
Typically,biomassfuelsuppliesshouldcostatleast20percentless,onathermalbasis,thancoalsupplies
beforeacofiringprojectcanbeeconomicallyattractive.
Figure 5-5. Biomass Cofiring in Coal Power Plant
Source:AntaresGroup,Inc.,2003.
Biomasscofiringismainlyaretrofitapplication.Abasicprincipleofcofiringisthatsignificant
changestotheboilerarenotrequiredbeyondsomeminorburnermodificationsoradditionsnecessaryto
introduceandburnthesupplementalfuel.Tomeetthisobjective,cofiringbiomassfuelsisusuallydone
onalimitedbasis,withtheamountofbiomassrangingfrom5to15percentofthetotalheatinputtothe
boiler.
55
Biomassfuelsthathavebeensuccessfullycofiredincludewoodandpelletizedwastepaper.
Interestisgrowingincofiringbiomassamongelectricutilitiesandotherusersofcoalboilers,chieflydue
totheneedtoimproveairemissionsfromcoal-burningfacilities,aswellastodiversifyfuelsupplies.
Table 5-8 givesasenseofthesizeoftypicalutilitycofiringpowerplants,thepercentageof
biomassfuelused(generallyabout10percent,butupto50percent),andthetypesofbiomassfeedstock
used(wood,woodwaste,woodresidues,andsawdust).
55
FehrsandDonovan,1999.
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 42

EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog
Table 5-8. Utility Cofiring Biomass With Coal (Continuous Operation)
Plant Name Location Biomass
Feedstock
Total Plant
(MW)
Biomass
(MW)
Boiler
Type
6thStreetAlliantEnergy CedarRapids,IA
Agriculturaland
woodwaste
85 6.5
Fluidized
bed
BayFrontNorthern
States
Ashland,WI Woodresidues 34 5.0 Stoker
ColbertTennesseeValley
Authority
Tuscumbia,AL Woodresidues 190 3.0
Pulverized
coal
GreenridgeAES
Corporation
Dresden,NY Woodresidues 108 10.0
Pulverized
coal
KingNorthernStates
Power
Bayport,MN Sawdust 560 10.0 Cyclone
TacomaSteamPlant#2 Tacoma,WA Wood 25 12.5
Fluidized
bed
WillowIslandAllegheny
Energy
Pleasants,WV
Sawdust,tire-
derivedfuel
188 2.3 Cyclone
YatesSouthern
Co./GeorgiaPower
Newnan,GA Woodresidues 150 2.0
Pulverized
coal
Source:AntaresGroup,2003
Efficiency
Usually,nomajorchangesinboilerefficiencyresultfromcofiring.However,somedesignand
operationalchangesmightbeneededtomaximizeboilerefficiencywhilemaintainingacceptableopacity,
baghouseperformance,andotheroperatingrequirements.Withouttheseadjustments,boilerefficiency
andperformancecandecrease.Forexample,atabiomassheatinputlevelof10percent,boilerefficiency
lossesof2percentweremeasuredduringcofiringtestsatafacilitywithapulverizedcoalboilerwhenno
adjustmentsweremade.
56
Numerouscofiringprojectshavedemonstratedthatefficiencyandperformance
lossescanbeminimizedwithproperawarenessofoperationalissues.
Operating Availability
Theavailabilityofbiomassandcoalcofiredboilersissimilartothatofregularcoalboilers,if
propermodificationsaremadetothesystem.Ifsomeofthepotentialoperatingissuesmentionedinthe
nextsectionmanifest,thenavailabilitymightbenegativelyaffected.
Operating Advantages and Disadvantages
Typically,cofiringbiomassinanexistingcoalboilerrequiresmodificationsoradditionstofuel
handling,processing,storage,andfeedsystems.Slightmodificationstoexistingoperationalprocedures,
suchasincreasingoverfireair,mightalsobenecessary,aswellasincreasingfuelfeederratesto
compensateforthelowerdensityandheatingvalueofbiomass.
AscoveredinChapter4,fuelcharacteristicsandprocessingcangreatlyaffecttheabilitytouse
biomassasafuelinboilers.Woodchipsarepreferabletomulch-likematerialforcofiringwithcoalin
stokerboilersbecausethechipsaresimilartostokercoalintermsofsizeandflowcharacteristics.This
56
Tillman,2000.
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 43

EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog
similarityminimizesproblemswithexistingcoalhandlingsystems.Whenusingamulch-likematerialor
abiomasssupplywithahighfractionoffineparticles(sawdustsizeorsmaller),periodicblockageoffuel
flowopeningsinvariousareasoftheconveying,storage,andfeedsystemscanoccur.Theseblockages
cancausesignificantmaintenanceincreasesandoperationalproblems;therefore,fuelshouldbeprocessed
toavoiddifficultieswithexistingfuelfeedingsystems.
Anotherfuelconsiderationwhendealingwithbiomassisthepotentialforproblemswith
slagging,fouling,andcorrosion.Somebiomassfuelshavehighalkali(principallypotassium)orchlorine
contentthatcanleadtounmanageableashdepositionproblemsonheatexchangeandash-handling
surfaces.Chlorineincombustiongases,particularlyathightemperatures,cancauseacceleratedcorrosion
ofcombustionsystemandfluegascleanupcomponents.Theseproblemscanbeminimizedoravoidedby
screeningfuelsuppliesformaterialshighinchlorineandalkalis,limitingthebiomasscontributionto
boilerheatinputto15percentorless,usingfueladditives,orincreasingsoot-blowing.Themost
troublesomebiomassresourcetendstobeagriculturalresidues,includinggrassesandstraws,whichhave
highalkaliandchlorinecontents.Incontrast,mostwoodymaterialsandwastepapersarerelativelylowin
alkaliandchlorineandshouldnotpresentthisproblem.
Currently,about25percentoftheflyashfromcoal-firedpowerplantsisusedasafeedstockfor
cementandconcreteproduction,whileanother15percentisusedasafeedstockinotherapplications.
57
Accordingtocurrentindustrystandards,
58
onlyflyashfromcoalcombustionqualifiesforusein
cement/concreteapplications.Cofiringbiomassinacoalpowerplantwouldkeeptheflyashfrom
meetingthecurrentstandard.Similarly,coalflyashwillsometimesnotmeetthecurrentstandardwhen
certainemissionscontroltechniquesareused,suchasammoniainjection.Thoughtheserestrictionscan
impacttheeconomicsofbiomasscofiring,thevalueoffindingaproductiveuseforflyashandothercoal
combustionproductsisprimarilytheavoidanceofaroughly$20/tonlandfillfee.Forcoalwith10percent
ashcontent,thisvaluewouldbeworthabout$2/tonoftheinputfuelcost.Whilethecurrentrestrictions
areabarriertoconsideringcofiringinsomeapplications,otherusesofflyasharenotaffected,and
researchersarecurrentlystudyingtheimpactofusingflyashfrombiomassandbiomass/coalcofiringon
concretecharacteristics.Earlyresultsshowthatbiomassandcofiredfuelsdonotadverselyaffectthe
usefulnessofflyashincementandconcrete,andinfactmighthavesomeadvantages.
59
Itislikelythat
thisworkwilleventuallyleadtoareevaluationofthestandardandinclusionofflyashfromcofiringasan
acceptablecement/concretefeedstockashasalreadyhappenedinEurope.
60
Equipment and Installed Costs
Cofiringtypicallydoesnotinvolveaddedinvestmentfortheboilerequipmentthatisalreadyin
placeforthecoal-firedplant.Thereareadditionalcostsfornewfuelhandlingandprocessingequipment,
boilermodifications,controls,engineeringfees,andcontingency.Forblendedfuelinputsystems,in
whichthebiomassisaddedupstreamofthecoalfuelpreparationequipment,thecostsfortheaddedfeed
preparationareontheorderof15to30percentofthecostsshownintheprevioussectioninTable5.4for
adedicatedbiomasssystem.Forsystemsusingaseparatefuelfeedsystem,thecostsarecomparableto
thecosts($/tonofbiomassfeed)foradedicatedbiomassplant.
57
AmericanCoalAshAssociation,n.d.
58
ASTMC-618.
59
Wang,2007.
60
In2004,EuropeanStandardEN450dealingwithflyashspecificationsforuseinconcretewasapprovedfor
modificationtoincludeflyashfromawiderangeofcofiredbiomassandwastefeedstocks.Thesechangesareinthe
processofbeingadoptedbytheEuropeanUnionmembercountries.
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 44

EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog
O&M Issues
Asdiscussedundercapitalcosts,additionalO&Mtotheboilersectionattributabletotheaddition
ofbiomassforcofiringisminimal.Maintenancerequirementsforboilerscofiringbiomassandcoalare
similartothoseforcoal-onlyboilers.However,slightchangestopreviousoperationalprocedures,suchas
increasingoverfireairandfuelfeederspeeds,mightbeneeded.IncreasesinO&Mcostsforbiomass
cofiringwithcoalarealmostentirelyforthebiomassreceivingandfeedpreparation.Forablended
system,theadjustmentstofeedpreparationO&Marealsoontheorderof15to30percentofthecostofa
dedicatedbiomassplant.
Commercialization Status
Organizationssuchaselectricutilities,DOE,andtheElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI),
haveconductedresearchandfieldtestsonbiomasscofiringinsmall- andlarge-scaleutilityboilersfora
numberofyears.Thesetestshaveshownthatcofiringwithbiomasshasbeensuccessfullyaccomplished
inawiderangeofboilertypes,includingcyclone,stoker,pulverizedcoal,andbubblingandcirculating
fluidizedbedboilers.AccordingtotheFederalEnergyManagementProgram,atleast182separateboilers
andorganizationsintheUnitedStateshavecofiredbiomasswithfossilfuelsalthoughthisnumberisnot
comprehensive.Ofthe182cofiringoperations,114(or63percent)havebeenatindustrialfacilities,32at
utility-ownedpowerplants,18atmunicipalboilers,10ateducationalinstitutions,andeightatfederal
facilities
61
.
5.2 GasificationTechnologies
Biomassgasificationforpowerproductioninvolvesheatingsolidbiomassinanoxygen-starved
environmenttoproducealowormediumcalorificgas.Dependingonthecarbonandhydrogencontentof
thebiomassandthegasifiersproperties,theheatingvalueofthesyngas,canrangeanywherefrom100to
500Btu/cubicfoot(10to50percentthatofnaturalgas).Theheatingvalueofsyngasgenerallycomes
fromCOandhydrogenproducedbythegasificationprocess.Theremainingconstituentsareprimarily
CO
2
andotherincombustiblegases.Biomassgasificationofferscertainadvantagesoverdirectlyburning
thebiomassbecausethegascanbecleanedandfilteredtoremoveproblemchemicalcompoundsbeforeit
isburned.Gasificationcanalsobeaccomplishedusingchemicalsorbiologicaction(e.g.,anaerobic
digestion);however,thermalgasificationiscurrentlytheonlycommercialornearcommercialoption.
Thefueloutputfromthegasificationprocessisgenerallycalledsyngas, thoughincommonusage
itmightbecalledwood gas,producer gas, orbiogas.Syngascanbeproducedthroughdirectheatingin
anoxygen-starvedenvironment,partialoxidation,orindirectheatingintheabsenceofoxygen.Most
gasificationprocessesincludeseveralsteps.Theprimaryconversionprocess,calledpyrolysis,isthe
thermaldecompositionofsolidbiomass(inanoxygen-starvedenvironment)toproducegases,liquids
(tar),andchar.Pyrolysisreleasesthevolatilecomponentsofthebiomassfeedataround1,100Fthrough
aseriesofcomplexreactions.Biomassfuelsareanidealchoiceforpyrolysisbecausetheyhavesomany
volatilecomponents(70to85percentondrybasis,comparedto30percentforcoal).Thenextstep
involvesafurthergasificationprocessthatconvertstheleftovertarsandcharintoCOusingsteamand/or
partialcombustion.Incoalgasification,pureoxygenoroxygen-enrichedairispreferredastheoxidant
becausetheresultingsyngasproducedhasahigherheatingvalue,andtheprocessismoreefficient.In
biomassgasification,oxygenisgenerallynotusedbecausebiomassashhasalowermeltingpointthan
coalash,andbecausethescaleoftheplantsisgenerallysmaller.
61
DOE,2004.
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 45

EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog
Veryhightemperatureprocessesinvolvingpassingthebiomassthroughaplasmaarchavebeen
developedandtestedprimarilyforwasteremediation,contaminatedwastes,andMSW.Plasmaprocesses
arenotdiscussedinthisreport.
Comparedwithdirect-firedbiomasssystems,gasificationisnotyetanestablishedcommercial
technology.Thereisgreatinterest,however,inthedevelopmentanddemonstrationofbiomass
gasificationforanumberofreasons:
Agaseousfuelismoreversatilethanasolidfuel.Itcanbeusedinboilers,processheaters,
turbines,enginesandfuelcells,distributedinpipelines,andblendedwithnaturalgasorother
gaseousfuels.
Gasificationcanremovefuelcontaminantsandreduceemissionscomparedtodirect-fired
systems.
Gasificationcanbedesignedtohandleawiderangeofbiomassfeedstocks,fromwoodyresidues
toagriculturalresiduestodedicatedcrops,withoutmajorchangesinthebasicprocess.
Gasificationcanbeusedtoprocesswastefuels,providingsaferemovalofbiohazardsand
entrainmentofheavymetalsinnon-reactiveslag.
Agaseousfuelcanbeusedinahigh-efficiencypowergenerationsystem,suchasagasturbine-
combinedcycleorfuelcells,provideditiscleanedofcontaminants.Whenequipmentisaddedtorecover
theheatfromtheturbineexhaust,systemefficienciescanincreaseto80percent.
Likethedirectcombustionprocessesdescribedintheprevioussection,twoprincipaltypesof
gasifiershaveemerged:fixedbedandfluidizedbed.Fixedbedgasifiersaretypicallysimpler,less
expensive,andproducealowerheatcontentsyngas.Fluidizedbedgasifiersaremorecomplicated,more
expensive,andproduceasyngaswithahigherheatingvalue.
5.2.1 Gasifiers
Characterization
Fixed Bed Gasifiers
Fixedbedgasifierstypicallyhaveafixedgrateinsidearefractory-linedshaft.Thefreshbiomass
fuelistypicallyplacedontopofthepileoffuel,char,andashinsidethegasifier.Afurtherdistinctionis
basedonthedirectionofair(oroxygen)flow:downdraft(airflowsdownthroughthebedandleavesas
biogasunderthegrate),updraft(airflowsupthroughthegrateandbiogasiscollectedabovethebed),or
crossflow(airflowsacrossthebed,exitingasbiogas).Schematicsoftheprimarysectionofthefixedbed
gasifiertypesareshowninFigure 5-6.
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 46

EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog
Figure 5-6. Fixed Bed Gasifier Types
Source:Bain,2006.
Table 5-9 comparesfixedbedgasifiertypes.Table 5-10 providestypicalphysicalcharacteristics
ofafixedbedgasifier.Fixedbedgasifiersareusuallylimitedincapacity,typicallyusedforgeneration
systemsthatareabletoproducelessthan5MW.Thephysicsoftherefractory-linedshaftreactorvessel
limitsthediameterandthusthethroughput.Developershaveidentifiedagoodmatchbetweenfixedbed
gasifiersandsmall-scaledistributedpowergenerationequipment.However,thevariableeconomicsof
biomasscollectionandfeeding,coupledwiththegasifierslowefficiency,maketheeconomicviabilityof
thetechnologyparticularlysite-specific.
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 47

EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog
Table 5-9. Comparison of Fixed Bed Gasification Technologies
Type of Gasifier
Downdraft Updraft Crossflow
Operation
Biomassisintroduced
fromthetopandmoves
downward.Oxidizer(air)is
introducedatthetopand
flowsdownward.Syngas
isextractedatthebottom
atgratelevel.
Biomassisintroducedfrom
thetopandmoves
downward.Oxidizeris
introducedatthebottom
andflowsupward.Some
dryingoccurs.Syngasis
extractedatthetop.
Biomassisintroducedfrom
thetopandmoves
downward.Oxidizeris
introducedatthebottomand
flowsacrossthebed.
Syngasisextractedopposite
theairnozzleatthegrate.
Advantages
Tarsandparticulateinthe
syngasarelower,allowing
directuseinsome
engineswithoutcleanup.
Thegrateisnotexposed
tohightemperatures.
Canhandlehigher-moisture
biomass.Higher
temperaturescandestroy
sometoxinsandslag
mineralsandmetal.Higher
tarcontentaddstoheating
value.
Simplestofdesigns.
Strongercirculationinthe
hotzone.Lower
temperaturesallowtheuse
oflessexpensive
constructionmaterials.
Disadvantages
Biomassmustbeverydry
(<20percentmoisture
content).Thesyngasis
hotandmustbecooledif
compressionorextensive
cleanupisrequired.About
4to7percentofthe
carbonisunconvertedand
remainsintheash.
Highertarcontentcanfoul
enginesorcompressors.
Thegrateisexposedto
hightemperaturesand
mustbecooledor
otherwiseprotected.
Morecomplicatedto
operate.Reportedissues
withslagging.Highlevelsof
carbon(33%)intheash.
Table 5-10. Typical Characteristics of a Fixed Bed Gasifier
Parameter Fixed Bed, Downdraft
Fuelsize(inches) 0.4-4
Fuelashcontent(%weight) <6
Operatingtemperature(F) 1450-2550
Control Simple
Turn-downratio 4:1
Constructionmaterial Mildsteel+refractory
Capacity(MW
thermal
)(tonsbiomass/day) <5(<30)
Start-uptime Minutes
Operatorattention Low
Tarcontent(lb/MMBtuproductgas) <1.2
Heatingvalue(Btu/scf)HHV 130
Source:GasNet,n.d.
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 48

EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog
Fluidized Bed Gasifiers
Fluidizedbedgasifiersutilizethesamegasificationprocessesandofferhigherperformancethan
fixedbedsystems,butwithgreatercomplexityandcost.Similartofluidizedbedboilers,theprimary
gasificationprocesstakesplaceinabedofhotinertmaterialssuspendedbyanupwardmotionofoxygen-
deprivedgas(Figure 5-7).Astheamountofgasisaugmentedtoachievegreaterthroughput,thebedwill
begintolevitateandbecomefluidized.Sandoraluminaisoftenusedtofurtherimprovetheheat
transfer.Notablebenefitsoffluidizedbeddevicesaretheirhighproductivity(perareaofbed)and
flexibility.Fluidizedbedgasifierscanalsohandleawiderrangeofbiomassfeedstockswithmoisture
contentsupto30percentonaverage.
Figure 5-7. Fluidized Bed Gasifier
Source:Bain,2006.
Therearethreestagesoffluidizationthatcanoccuronthegasifierdependingonthedesign:
bubbling,recirculating,andentrainedflow.Atthelowerendoffluidization,thebedexpandsandbegins
toactasafluid.Asthevelocityisincreased,thebedwillbegintobubble.Withafurtherincreasein
airflow,thebedmaterialbeginstoliftoffthebed.Thismaterialistypicallyseparatedinacycloneand
recirculatedtothebed.Withstillhighervelocities,thebedmaterialisentrained(i.e.,pickedupand
carriedoffintheairflow).
Fluidizedbedgasifierscanbedesignedtouseaportionofthepyrolysisgasestogeneratetheheat
todrivetheprocess,ortheycanbeexternallyfired.Operatingthegasifierathigherpressuresincreases
thethroughput;however,thisalsoincreasesthegasifierscomplexityandcost.Intheseunits,thebiomass
isfullyconvertedaftergoingthroughthepyrolysisandcharconversionprocesses.
Byreducingthequantityofairandprocesstemperature,itispossibletooperatefluidizedbed
boilersasgasifiers.Inthisoperatingmode,thegasifiersproduceagaswithaheatingvalueofslightly
morethan100Btu/cubicfoot(ft
3
).Thisgasisburnedabovethebedasadditionalairsupplyisinjected
upstreamoftheboilertubesection.
Table 5-11 providestypicalphysicalcharacteristicsofafluidizedbedgasifier.Anumberof
advanced-conceptfluidizedbedgasifiersaimingtoproduceasyngaswithaheatingvaluebetween250
and400Btu/ft
3
areunderdevelopment.Thistypeofsyngaswouldbemoreappropriateforuseingas
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 49

EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog
turbines,fuelcells,andreciprocatinginternalcombustionengines;however,theseadvancedconcept
gasifiershavenotreachedthepointwheretheyareprovenincommercialoperation.
Table 5-11. Typical Characteristics of a Fluidized Bed Gasifier
Parameter Fluidized Bed
Fuelsize(inches) 0-0.8
Fuelashcontent(%weight) <25
Operatingtemperature(F) 1,350-1,750
Control Average
Turn-downratio 3
Constructionmaterial Heat-resistantsteel
Capacity(MW
thermal
)(biomasstons/day) 5andup(>30)
Start-uptime Hours
Operatorattention Average
Tarcontent(lb/MMBtuproductgas) <2
Heatingvalue(Btu/scf)HHV 150
Source:GasNet,n.d.
Efficiency
Bothfixedandfluidizedbedbiomassgasificationusessimilartypesofequipmentasdirect
combustion.Thebiomassfuelisfedintoacombustion/reactionvesselwitheitherafixed,fluidized,or
movingbed.Thethermodynamicsofheatlossaresimilar,butgasificationconditionsaredifferentfrom
directcombustion.Indirectcombustion,10to14timestheweightofthefuelisintroducedasair.In
gasification,theairenteringthereactor,ifany,isonlyonetotwotimestheweightofthefuel.This
differencereducesheatlossesfromthereactionzone.Ontheotherhand,thesyngasexitsthegasification
reactoratveryhightemperatures(1,200to1,500F);someofthisheatlosscanberecoveredeither
directlythroughtheuseofheatexchangersinthegascoolingsection,orindirectlythroughtheuseofheat
recoveryfromthecombustionofthesyngasinthepowergenerationsection.Totheextentthatheatis
usedtopreheatincomingair,introducehigh-temperaturesteam,ordrytheincomingbiomass,the
efficiencyofbiomasstosyngasconversionwillbeincreased.Heatthatisrecoveredfromthehotgas
coolingsectioncanalsobeaddedtotheCHPheatrecovery.Inthiscase,theintermediateefficiencyvalue
ofsyngasconversionisnotincreasedbuttheoverallCHPefficiencyis.Thesedifferencescombineto
producebiomasstosyngasefficiencies(heatingvalueofthesyngasdividedbytheheatingvalueofthe
biomass)of60to80percent.Inintegratedconfigurations,however,additionalsteamcanbegenerated
fromcoolingthehotsyngasexitingthereactorpriortocleanup.
Operating Availability
Duetothefactthatcommercializationofbiomassgasificationplantsisinitsearlystages,no
facilitysurveyinformationwasfoundontheiravailabilityorreliability.Plantsaredesignedfor
continuousoperation,anddesignperformanceisinthe90+percentrange.Actualexperiencewith
emergingtechnologytendstoresultinloweravailabilitythanisexperiencedduringbroadcommercial
use,asmaterialshandlingproblems,controlissues,andcomponentfailurescausemorefrequent
unplannedoutagesthanareseenafteraccumulatingadditionaloperatingexperience.Withanewly
establishedsupportinfrastructure,outagesalsotendtolastlongerbeforebeingfixedorsolved.Awell
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 50

EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog
designedsystem,however,hasareasonableexpectationofoperatinginthe85to95percentavailability
range.
Operating Issues
Asdiscussedabove,moisturecontent,gascleanup,andoperatingpressurecanallaffectoperation
ofagasifier.Thereareanumberofoperatingissuescommontothedifferenttypesofgasification
systems.
Moisture Content
Greenbiomass,definedasfreshlyharvestedplantmaterial,cancontainasignificantamountof
waterbyweight(upto60percent).Thiswaterdoesnotcontributetotheheatcontentofthesyngaswhile
consumingasignificantamountofenergyingasification.Eventhoughwatercannotbeburned(oxidized)
atelevatedtemperatures,itwilldissociateintoitselementalcomponentshydrogenandoxygen.The
hydrogenwillcontributetothecalorificvalueofthesyngas.Thisreactionisverytemperature-sensitive,
andthehydrogenandoxygenwillusuallyrecombineintowatervaporasthesyngascools.Therefore,the
moisturecontentofbiomassmustbestrictlylimited.Ifthereisexcessmoisture,thegasificationprocess
cannotsustainitselfwithoutanexternalsourceofheat.Asthemoisturecontentofthebiomassincreases,
thenetenergyavailableinthesyngasdecreases.Fixedbedgasifiersthatuseinternalcombustionofthe
syngastypicallyutilizebiomasswithlessthan20percentmoisturecontent.Fluidizedbedgasifiers
typicallyrequirelessthan30percentmoisturecontent.
Greenbiomassisthemostreadilyavailableandinexpensivebiomassproduct.Thedryingprocess
requiresaconsiderableadditionalcapitalinvestmentandincreasestheO&Mcosts.Unfortunately,the
costofthedryingequipment(equipmentcostandO&Mcost)seldomcoversthecostsavingsofusing
greenbiomass.
Gas Cleanup
Assyngasleavesthegasifier,itcontainsseveraltypesofcontaminantsthatareharmfulto
downstreamequipment,ashhandling,andemissions.Thedegreeofgascleanupmustbeappropriately
matchedtoitsintendeduse.Foruseinreciprocatingengines,gasturbines,andespeciallyfuelcells,a
verycleangasisrequired.AsdiscussedinTable 5-12,theprimarycontaminantsinsyngasaretars,
particles,alkalicompounds,andammonia.Thetypesofcontaminantsthatareobserveddependonthe
biomassfeedstockandthegasificationprocessused.
Table 5-12. Gas Cleanup Issues
Contaminant Description Treatment
Tar
Tars(creosote)arecomplexhydrocarbonsthat
persistascondensablevapors.
Wetscrubbers,electrostaticprecipitators,barrier
filters,catalysts,orcombustion.
Particles
Particlesareverysmall,solidmaterialsthat
typicallyincludeashandunconvertedbiomass.
Cycloneseparators,fabricfilters,electrostatic
precipitators,andwetscrubbers.
Alkali
compounds
Potassium,alkalisalts,andcondensedalkali
vaporsarepartofthechemicalcompositionof
biomass.
First,coolsyngasbelow1,200F,causingthe
alkalivaporstocondense.Second,usecyclone
separators,finefabricfilters,electrostatic
precipitators,andwetscrubbers.
Ammonia
Ammoniaisformedfromnitrogen(fuel-bound
andinair)andhydrogen(infuelandin
moisturecontent).Whensyngasisburned,
ammoniaisconvertedtoNOx.
Catalysts,hydrocarbonreforming,orwet
scrubbing.
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 51

EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog
Becausegasificationoccursatanelevatedtemperature,syngascanhaveasmuchasathirdofits
totalenergyinsensibleheat.Cleaningthegaswhileitishotwouldbeadvantageousfromanenergyuse
perspective,butthistaskiscurrentlydifficulttoaccomplish.Researchisongoingregardinghotgas
filters,whichcanbeappliedincoalgasification,aswellasotherhigh-temperatureprocesses.Wet
scrubbersarecurrentlyoneofthemostreliableandleastexpensiveoptionsforgascleanup,eventhough
theysacrificealargeportionofthesensibleheatofthesyngas.Coolingthehotsyngascanprovidea
sourceofsteamforthecleaningprocess,powergeneration,orend-use.
Operating Pressure
Gasifierscanbeoperatedateitheratmosphericorelevatedpressures.Air-blown,atmospheric
gasifiersproduceaverylowBtugas110to170Btu/scf.Tointroducethisgasintoagasturbineinthe
powergenerationsectionoftheplantrequiresconsiderablecompressionenergy,uptoathirdofthe
turbinesoutput.Therefore,itwouldbeadvantageoustoproducethesyngasatahighpressuresothatit
canbeintroduceddirectlyintothecombustionsectionofagasturbinewithoutadditionalcompression.
Pressurizedreactors,however,doneedtocompressanycombustionairoroxygenthatisintroducedinto
thereactorandmaintainapressuresealonthebiomassinputandashremovalsystems.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Fixedbedandfluidizedbedgasifiershavespecificoperatingadvantagesanddisadvantageswith
biomassfuelsdependingonthebiomasscharacteristicsandsiterequirements.Table 5-13 providesa
qualitativecomparisonofgasifiercharacteristicsandoperatingissuesforfixedbedandfluidizedbed
systems.
Table 5-13. Relative Advantages/Disadvantages of Gasifier Types
Gasifier Advantages Disadvantages
Updraftfixedbed Matureforheat
Small-scaleapplications
Canhandlehighmoisture
Nocarboninash
Feedsizelimits
Hightaryields
Scalelimitations
LowBtugas
Slaggingpotential
Downdraftfixedbed Small-scaleapplications
Lowparticulates
Lowtar
Feedsizelimits
Scalelimitations
LowBtugas
Moisture-sensitive
Bubblingfluidbed Large-scaleapplications
Feedcharacteristics
Direct/indirectheating
CanproducehigherBtugas
Mediumtaryield
Higherparticleloading
Circulatingfluidbed Large-scaleapplications
Feedcharacteristics
CanproducehigherBtugas
Mediumtaryield
Higherparticleloading
Entrainedflowfluidbed Canbescaled
Potentialforlowtar
Potentialforlowmethane
CanproducehigherBtugas
Largeamountofcarriergas
Higherparticleloading
Particlesizelimits
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 52
Section

EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog
Equipment and Installed Costs
Themaincostforthegasificationtrainistheprimarygasificationreactoritself.Supplementary
processingcanoccurinatarcracker.Indirectgasifiershaveseparatecharcombustorstosupplyheat.The
nextmajorpartisthegascleanupsection,whichincludesashremoval,quench,bagfilter,wetscrubber,
andheatexchangerstocoolthesyngasandprovideheattootherpartsoftheprocessortocontributeto
theCHPheatutilization.Capitalcostsforthegasificationsectionandforabiomass-to-syngasplantare
showninTable 5-14.Thesecostsareestimatedbasedonpublishedestimates(AntaresGroup,Inc.,2003)
anddiscussionswithequipmentsuppliers.Theunitcostsdonotshowauniformdecliningtrendasa
functionofsize,butinsteadvarydependingontheprocessconsidered.
Table 5-14. Biomass Gasification Capital Costs to Produce Syngas
Gasifier Cases
Atmospheric
Gasification
Atmospheric
Gasification
Atmospheric
Gasification
High-Pressure
Gasifier
Gasifiertype Fixed Fluidized Fluidized Fluidized/
high-pressure
Tons/day(asreceived) 100 260 450 1,200
Gasifierequipment $1,225,000 $10,050,000 $15,158,000 $34,682,000
Installation $612,000 $5,024,000 $7,578,000 $17,338,000
Total Installed Gasification $1,837,000 $15,074,000 $22,736,000 $52,020,000
BiomassPrepYard* $2,639,700 $3,947,400 $4,972,000 $9,685,766
Total Installed Capital Cost $4,476,700 $19,021,400 $27,708,000 $61,705,766
UnitCost($/MMBtu/hr)(syngas) $127,164 $209,425 $174,130 $161,270
*Prep-Yardcostsareestimatedbasedonthecapitalcostcurvedevelopedinsection4.1.5
Source:BasedondatafromAntaresGroup,Inc.,2003;discussionwithequipmentsuppliersanddevelopers.
O&M Costs
Non-fuelO&McostsforgasificationincludeO&Mlabor,supervisorylabor,water,ashremoval,
insurance,taxes,royalties,andotheroperatingmaterials.ThesecostsareestimatedinTable 5-15 based
onpublishedestimatesanddiscussionswithequipmentsuppliers.
62
62
AntaresGroupInc.,2003
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 53

EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog
Table 5-15. Gasification O&M Cost Estimates for Syngas Production
Gasifier Cases
Atmospheric
Gasification
Atmospheric
Gasification
Atmospheric
Gasification
High-Pressure
Gasifier
Gasifiertype Fixed Fluidized Fluidized Fluidized/
high-pressure
Tons/day(asreceived) 100 260 450 1,200
Netcapacity,MMBtu/hr 35.2 90.8 159.1 382.6
Prep-yardlaborcosts $400,000 $320,000 $320,000 $400,000
GasifiersectionO&M $502,000 $634,500 $789,500 $2,235,800
Total Annual O&M
(to syngas) $902,000 $954,500 $1,109,500 $2,635,800
GasificationO&M($/MMBtu) $3.250 $1.333 $0.884 $0.874
Source:BasedondatafromAntaresGroup,Inc.,2003;discussionwithequipmentsuppliersanddevelopers.
Asummaryofthecostandperformancefortherangeofbiomassgasificationsystemsconsidered
isprovidedinTable 5-16.
Table 5-16. Biomass Gasification Cost and Performance
Gasification Technologies
Atmospheric
Gasification
Atmospheric
Gasification
Atmospheric
Gasification
High-
Pressure
Gasifier
Gasifiertype Fixed Fluidized Fluidized Fluidized/
high-pressure
Tons/day(asreceived) 100 260 450 1,200
Feedstock Characteristics
Energycontentdry(Btu/lb) 8,500 8,500 8,500 8,476
Moisturecontent(%) 30 30 30 38
Energycontentasreceived(Btu/lb) 5,950 5,950 5,950 5,255
Biomass Conversion
Gasifierefficiency
(moistureadjusted)(%)
65 71 71 72
Biomassfuelvaluetogasifier
(MMBtu/hr)
49.6 127.9 224.1 531.9
Fuelproduced(MMBtu/hr) 32.2 90.8 159.1 382.6
Heatingvalue(Btu/scfHHV) 110.0 110.0 110.0 128.8
Fuelpressure(psig) Atmospheric Atmospheric Atmospheric Pressurized
Plantcapacityfactor(%) 90 90 90 90
Capital Costs
Gasifierequipment $1,225,000 $10,050,000 $15,158,000 $34,682,000
Installation $612,000 $5,024,000 $7,578,000 $17,338,000
Total Installed Gasification Section
$1,837,000 $15,074,000 $22,736,000 $52,020,000
BiomassPrep-Yard $2,639,700 $3,947,400 $4,972,000 $9,685,766
Total Installed Capital Cost
$4,476,700 $19,021,400 $27,708,000 $61,705,766
UnitCost($/MMBtu/hr)(syngas) $127,164 $209,425 $174,130 $161,270
Source:BasedondatafromAntaresGroup,Inc.,2003;discussionwithequipmentsuppliersanddevelopers.
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 54

EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog
Commercial Status
Themajorityofcommercialgasificationprojectsusecoalorpetroleumcokeasafeedstock.
Biomassgasificationtechnologieshavebeenasubjectofcommercialinterestforseveraldecades.Bythe
1990s,CHPhadbeenidentifiedasapotentialnear-termtechnology.Researchanddevelopment
concentratedonintegratedgasificationcombinedcycleandgasificationcofiringdemonstrations,which
ledtoanumberofcommercial-scalesystems.IntheUnitedStates,projectsmostlyprocessedhard-to-
managefeedstockslikebagasseandalfalfa.Low-energygasifiersarenowcommerciallyavailable,and
dozensofsmall-scalefacilitiesareinoperation.
AreviewofgasifiermanufacturersinEurope,theUnitedStates,andCanada
63
identified50
manufacturersofferingcommercialgasificationplantsinwhich75percentofthedesignswerefixedbed
downdrafttype;20percentofthedesignswerefluidizedbedsystems.Theactualnumberofbiomass
gasificationsystemsinoperationworldwideisunknown,butisestimatedtobebelow50basedon
literaturereviewanddiscussionswithindustrysources.Thereareonlyahandfulofcommercially
operatingbiomassgasificationsystemsintheUnitedStatesatthistime,andmanyofthesearepartially
government-fundeddemonstrationunits.Incomparison,therearecurrentlymorethan100biomass-fueled
fluidizedbedboilersinoperationaroundtheworld.
Thereisstillaconsiderableamountofdevelopmentactivityunderwaytoaddressexisting
technicalandoperationalissues:
GasificationSomegasificationtechnologiesusingbiomassandblackliquorhave
developedtothepointoflarge-scaledemonstration.However,gasifiersystemshavenot
reachedwidespreadcommercialavailabilityforsystemssuitableforintegrationwith
hydrogenseparationtechnologiesforfuelcellsorfuelsynthesis.Thisisdueinparttoareas
offuelchemistrythatarenotestablishedenoughtosupportthecommercialdemonstration
programsandfacilitatethedevelopmentandscale-upofadvancedgasifiersandgascleanup
systems.
Syngas cleanup and conditioningTherawgasesfrombiomasssystemsdonotcurrently
meetstrictqualitystandardsfordownstreamfuel,chemicalsynthesiscatalysts,orthosefor
somepowertechnologies.Thesegaseswillrequirecleaningandconditioningtoremove
contaminantssuchastar,particulates,alkali,ammonia,chlorine,andsulfur.Available
cleanuptechnologiesdonotyetmeettheneededcost,performance,orenvironmentalcriteria
neededtoachievecommercialimplementation.
Sensors and controlsDevelopmentofeffectiveprocesscontrolsisneededtomaintain
plantperformanceandemissionsattargetlevelswithvaryingload,fuelproperties,and
atmosphericconditions.Newsensorsandanalyticalinstrumentsareunderdevelopmentto
optimizecontrolsystemsforthermochemicalsystems.
Process integrationAswithallnewprocesstechnologies,demonstratingsustained
integratedperformancethatmeetstechnical,environmental,andsafetyrequirementsat
sufficientlylargescaleisessentialtosupportingcommercialization.Applicationssuchas
blackliquorintegrationinpapermillshastheaddedcomplexityofbeingattachedtoan
existingcommercialprocesswheretheunitoperationsassociatedwithsteamproduction,
power,pulping,andchemicalrecoverymustallbeintegrated.
63
EuropeanBiomassIndustryAssociation,n.d.
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 55

EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog
Containment (materials of construction)Experiencewithexistinggasifiersindicatesthat
gasificationreactionsaredifficulttocontainandthatmaterialsdevelopmentforreactorshells
andinternals,refractorymaterialstolinecontainmentvessels,vesseldesign,andincreased
knowledgeofbedbehaviorandagglomerationwillimproveperformanceoverthelongterm.
5.3 ModularSystems
Modularbiomass-fueledCHPsystemsaredefinedassmallsystems,lessthan5MW,though
typicallysmaller,withthemainoperatingcomponentscominginoneormorepre-engineeredand
packagedmodulesforsimpleinstallationattheuserssite.Thesystemstypicallyincludeafuelprocessor
(combustionorgasification),necessaryintermediatefuelcleanup,anelectricgenerator,andheatrecovery
fromboththepowergenerationandenergyconversionsections.Anautomaticfuelstorageanddelivery
systemmustbeaddedforacompleteoperatingsystem.
Smallmodularbiomasssystemscansupplyelectricitytoruralareas,farms,businesses,and
remotevillages.Thesesystemsuselocallyavailablebiomassfuelssuchaswood,cropwaste,animal
manure,andLFG.Developmentofbiomass-fueledmodularpowersystemsisofgreatinterest
internationallyasameanstobringpowertoisolatedcommunitiesinareaslackingpowerandfuel
infrastructure.IntheUnitedStates,thereisinterestinsmallsystemstoutilizeopportunityfuelsfroma
localarea,suchascropwastesorfirecontrolforestthinnings.
Apartiallistingofspecificdeveloper/manufacturermodularsystemsisprovidedinAppendixD.
Characterization
Modularsystemsareessentiallyscaleddownversionsoflargersystems.Therearesystemsthat
usedirect-firedtechnologywithsteampower,andsystemsthatusegasificationtechnologyandgaseous
fuelburningpowertechnologies(discussedinChapter6)suchasinternalcombustionengines,
microturbines,andStirlingengines.TherearealsodirectfiredsystemsthatuseStirlingenginesforpower
production,aswellassystemsthatemploygasification,whereinthehotrawgasiscombustedtoraise
steam.
Modular Gasification Systems
Figure 5-8 showsaschematicofa75-kWmodularbiomassgasificationsystemthatis
representativeofsystemsunderdevelopment.Thefigureshowsthatthereareeightsubmodulesincluded
inthebasicsystemandthatthestorageandfeedsubmodulesarenotincluded.
BasicPackageModules
1. Automaticbiomassfeedsystem.
2. Dryertoreducethefeedstockmoisturecontent.
3. Chipsorterforsizing.
4. Heatexchangerthatextractsheatfromthegasifierforuseinthedryerandforonsitethermal
applications.
5. Gasifierfeeder.
6. AdowndraftgasifierproducinglowBtugas(heatingvalueofabout110Btu/scfHHV).
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 56

EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog
7. Filteringstagesthatremoveparticulates.
8. Thepower modulethis can bean internal combustion engine designed to run on lowBtu
fuel, a microturbine, a Stirling engine, or even a fuel cell. Thepower modulealso has heat
recoveryequipmenttoprovideadditionaluseablethermalenergyforonsiteuse.Becausethe
gasisofsuchalowBtucontent,propaneornaturalgasisrequiredonsystemstart-up.After
start-up,thesystemcanrunonthesyngasalone.
Systemssuchasthesewillrequirefeedstockstoragewithanin-placedeliverysystem.Anin-
groundstoragebunkerwithamovingbedwouldallowdirectdeliveryoffuelloadsintotheautomated
system.Thiscanconsistofapermanentlyinstalledlivebottomvanintowhichdumptruckscandelivera
sizedfuelsupply.
Figure 5-8. Example Modular Biomass Gasification System
Source:CommunityPowerCorporation,n.d.
Modular Combustion Systems
64
Directcombustioninfixedbedcombustorsisacommercialtechnologyinlargersizes.Inthese
largersystems,ascharacterizedpreviously,powerisgeneratedbysteamturbines.Inmodularsystems,
otherpowersystemsarebeingdevelopedthataremoresuitableforsmall-sizedapplications.Thetypical
powerandheatcyclesbeingemployedorexploredforuseareasfollows:
Steamcycle
OrganicRankinecycle(ORC)
Braytoncycle,hotairturbine
64
Exampleshown,BioMax,isdevelopedbyCommunityPowerCorporation.
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 57

EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog
Entropiccycle,asdefinedbyitsdeveloper,similartoOrganicRankinecyclebutwitha
highertemperaturedifferentialproducinghigherefficiencies
StirlingEngine,externalcombustion
ModularpowerandheatcyclesthatcanbedrivenbybiomasscombustionareshowninFigure 5-9.
Figure 5-9. Heat Engine Power Cycles for Modular Biomass Combustion Systems
65
Source:Smith,2006.
Inadditiontothefourpowercyclesshown,verysmall(500wattsto10kW)modularsystemsare
beingdevelopedusingStirlingenginetechnology.Thegeneratorswillconvertvariousbiomassfuels
(wood,woodpellets,sawdust,chips,orbiomasswaste)toelectricityandusefulheat.
66
Thesesystems
typicallyconvert10to20percentofthefuelenergytoelectricity;60to70percentoffuelenergyisthen
availableforheatingwaterandspaces.Theburnerfortheprototypesystemincludesaceramicfirebox
andafuelhopperwithafuelcapacityof24hours.Itaccomplishescompletetwo-stagecombustionwith
comparativelylowemissions.TheStirlingengine-alternatorrequiresminimalmaintenancebecauseits
gasbearingseliminatecontact,friction,andwear.Itsprojectedlifeis40,000hours.
Modular Hybrid Gasification/Combustion Systems
Themodularhybridgasification/combustionsystemoperatesfunctionallylikeadirect
combustionsystem.Powerisderivedbyaback-pressuresteamturbinethatalsoprovidessteamforonsite
thermalenergyrequirements.Thedifferenceisthatthecombustionchamberisactuallyagasification
systemthatusesatwo-chambergasifierapproach.Thesystemissimilartoatwo-stagecombustionboiler
65
Smith,2006.
66
AsystemunderdevelopmentbySunpowerStirlingenginetechnologylicenseeisExternalPowerLLCof
Indianapolis.
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 58

EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog
design.Thisapproachallowstheproductionofgasinarelativelycoolchamberattemperaturesfrom
1,000Fto1,400F,andthencombustioninarelativelyhotchambertheboilerattemperaturesupto
2,300F.Thesetemperaturesallowthecompleteremovalofcarbonfromthefuelinthegasifier,andmore
completeoxidationofcomplexorganicsintheoxidationzone.Thecombinationofthesefeaturesresults
inaclean-burning,fuel-efficientsystem.CHPunitsincludesmallback-pressuresteamturbinesfrom100
kWuptoseveralmegawatts.
Thisapproachcombinesthesimplicityandlowcostofacombustionsystemwiththegasification
advantagesofmorecompletecarbonconversionandcleanercombustioncharacteristics.Anexampleofa
modulargasification/combustionsystemisshowninFigure 5-10.Thissystemhasthecapabilitytouse
fuelswithmoisturecontentsrangingfrom6to55percent(wetbasis).Thesystemalsohasa20:1turn-
downratiotoallowittoidleduringperiodsoflowheatdemand.
Figure 5-10. Example of Modular Gasification/Combustion Process
67
Source:Chiptec

WoodEnergySystems,n.d.
Efficiency
ModularsystemelectricgenerationefficienciesaretypicallyfairlylowasshowninTable 5-17.
Inapplicationsrequiringconsiderablethermalenergy,theoverallCHPefficienciesarecomparabletogas-
firedsystems.However,theelectrictothermalratioforthesesystemsismuchlower,somoreofthetotal
usefulenergyisdeliveredintheformofheatratherthanintheformofhighervalueelectricity.
67
ExampleshownisapatentedprocessbyChiptec

WoodEnergySystems,Burlington,Vermont.
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 59

EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog
Table 5-17. Efficiencies of Modular Biomass Systems, Based on Conversion of Switchgrass at 20
Percent Moisture
System Type Electric
Efficiency
Thermal Energy
Delivered
Overall CHP
Efficiency
Smallsteam 6% 59% 65%
AirBrayton 8% 41% 49%
OrganicRankine 11% 56% 67%
Entropic 13% 63% 76%
Stirling 13% 64% 77%
Modulargasifier 1622% 2953% 5575%
Hybridgasifier/combustor <15% 4555% 6070%
Operating Advantages and Disadvantages
Themainoperatingadvantagestodayareintheuseofopportunitybiomassfuelsoflowvalue
suchaswoodchipsorforestthinnings.Inaddition,manyofthesystemsaretargetedatremote
applicationswhereitwouldbetoocostlytoconnecttogridelectricity.
Themaindisadvantageaffectingalltypesofmodularsystemsisthecomparativelyhighcapital
costsassociatedwithalloftherequiredequipment.Thisequipmentalsotakesupconsiderablespace
comparedtoconventionalgas-firedCHPsystems.Theenginegeneratorsystemsoccupyonlyabout5
percentofthetotalspacerequiredforthemodularbiomasssystem.Anotherdisadvantageistheneedfor
maintenanceandrepairsassociatedwiththemanysubsystems,particularlythesolidshandling
componentsandfilters.
Equipment and Installed Cost
Equipmentcostsarespeculative.Informationinthissectionisasprovidedbythevendorsand
secondarysources.Figure 5-11 showsarangeofcosts($/kW)fordifferenttypesofdirect-firedsystems.
Itisnotclearthatthesecostsincludethecostsoffeedstockstorageanddelivery,whichwouldadd
another$600to1,000/kWtotheoverallcosts.
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 60

EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership BiomassCHPCatalog
Figure 5-11. Size and Cost Ranges for Direct-Fired Modular Systems
68
Source:Smith,2006.
Modulargasificationcostsareestimatedtobebetween$2,500to$4,000/kWforthebasic
equipmentwithanother$600to$1,000/kWforabiomassstoragebunkerand$1,000to$2,000/kWfor
installation.
Thehybridgasification/combustionsystembyitselfcostsabout$300/kW.Thiscomponentmust
bematchedwithfeedstockstorageanddelivery($600to$1,000/kW),small-scaleboiler,small-scale
steamturbinegenerator($900to$1,200/kW),andotherequipment,includingcontrols,cycloneflyash
recoverysystem,andexhauststack.Overallinstalledcapitalcostswouldbe$12,000to$18,000/kW.
O&M Costs
Mostmodularsystemsarecharacterizedbycontinuousoperation,automaticashandchar
extraction,automaticfeed,andautomaticprocesscontrol.Maintenanceof0.5to3hoursperweekis
requiredformonitoringfeedstockdeliveries,ashremoval,filtercleaningorreplacement,andinspecting
andfixingproblemswiththeautomaticfeedsystem.Inaddition,primemoverssuchasinternal
combustionenginesormicroturbinesrequiresimilarmaintenanceattentionasforgas-firedsystems.
Theoverallcostsandreliabilityofthesesystemshasnotyetbeenestablished.
Commercial Status
Thereareanumberofsmalldevelopmentcompaniesworkingonmodularbiomassheatand
powersystems(listedinAppendixD).MostofthesystemsthathavebeeninstalledintheUnitedStates
arepartofresearch,development,anddemonstrationprojectsfundedbyavarietyoffederalandstate
sources.DOEhasanactiveresearchanddevelopmentprogramonmodularbiomassasdoesUSDAand
theU.S.ForestService.TheUnitedNationsalsohasanongoingprograminthisareatodevelopvillage
powersystemsusingbiomass.
68
Smith,2006.
5.BiomassConversionTechnologies 61