Puting Concepts

CHAPTER 6.
MOBILE COMPUTING CONCEPTS

Introduction To Mobile Comutin!
Con"ider#tion O$ %#t# Lin& L#'er
C(#nnel Alloc#tion
)irele"" LAN
Bluetoot(
Con"ider#tion O$ Net*or& L#'er
Routin! In A% Hoc Net*or&"
Con"ider#tion O$ Tr#n"ort L#'er
Con"ider#tion O$ Alic#tion L#'er
Securit' on Mobile comutin!
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Introduction To Mobile Computing
Mobile Computing is an umbrella term used to describe technologies
that enable people to access network services anyplace, anytime, and
anywhere. Ubiquitous computing and nomadic computing are
synonymous with mobile computing. Information access via a mobile
device is plagued by low available bandwidth, poor connection
maintenance, poor security, and addressing problems. Unlike their
wired counterparts, design of software for mobile devices must
consider resource limitation, battery power and display size.
Consequently, new hardware and software techniques must be
developed. For eample, applications need to be highly optimized for
space, in order to fit in the limited memory on the mobile devices. For
Internet enabled devices, the good old !C"#I" stack cannot be used$ it
takes too much space and is not optimized for minimal power
consumption. %iven the plethora of cellular technologies that have
emerged in such a market, it becomes etremely difficult to provide
support for inter&device communication.
' new hardware technology solution, Bluetooth, has been proposed to
overcome this barrier. 'ny device with a (luetooth chip will be able to
communicate seamlessly with any other device having a similar chip
irrespective of the communication technologies they might be using.
For the sake of eplanation, an analogy can be drawn between the
)ava *irtual +achine and (lue tooth.
In the recent past, cellular phone companies have shown an interesting
growth pattern. !he number of customers has been steadily increasing
but the average airtime per user has slowed to a constant. !o increase
the user average connect time, many cellular providers have started
providing data services on their networks which entices the user to use
the mobile device for both voice and data communication. !ypical data
services include chat, e&mail, Internet browsing. 'n eample of this
type of service is SMS ,-hort +essage -ervice.. It is a data service in a
%-+ cellular network that allows the users to send a maimum of /01&
character message at a time ,similar to paging.. Inherently, this
service is not feasible for browsing, checking e&mail or chatting. %-+
networks provide another service called GPRS ,%eneral "acket 2adio
-ervice. that allows information to be sent and received across the
cellular network.
!here has also been a recent effort defining common standards for
providing data services on hand&held devices. WAP ,3ireless
'pplication "rotocol. and KVM ,4ilobyte *irtual +achine. deserve a
mention here. 3'" is a protocol suite that comprises of protocols
tailored for small devices. 3'" has been developed by the 3'" Forum
5 www.wapforum.org6 and runs over an underlying bearer protocol like
I" or -+-. In the 3'" model, a service provider operates a 3'"
gateway to convert Internet content to a miniaturized subset of 7!+8
that is displayed by a mini-browser on the mobile device. Companies
like 9okia, :ricsson and +otorola have already developed 3'" enabled
phones. 's of now, these phones are available and functional mostly in
:urope.
7!+8, the de&facto Internet language, is not optimized for these
devices. 7andheld devices are characterized by small display sizes,
limited input capabilities and limited bandwidth. !he 7!+8 document
model consisting of headers, titles, paragraphs, etc, does not work well
for a /1 row by /; character wide screen. 4eeping in mind the memory
constraints of the mobile device, the browser should not be heavy ,i.e.
the markup language should not be too detailed.. 'lternative markup
languages that have been proposed include HDM ,7andheld <evice
+arkup 8anguage && a prevalent standard., WM ,3ireless +arkup
8anguage && 3'" brainchild. and Comp!ct HTM . <etails about these
standards can be obtained from w=c site . Curious readers can also
subscribe to the mailing list www&mobile>w=.org. !he popular mini&
browser in the market right now is "P#bro$%er from phone.com
5www.phone.com6. !he browser has been licensed to many cellular
phone manufacturers like +otorola, :ricsson, -ony and !oshiba.
Con%ider!tion &' D!t! in( !)er
!he data link layer is the second layer in the ?-I ,open systems
interconnection. seven&layer reference model. It responds to service
requests from the network layer above it and issues service requests
to the physical layer below it.
!he data link layer is responsible for encoding bits into packets prior to
transmission and then decoding the packets back into bits at the
destination. (its are the most basic unit of information in computing
and communications. "ackets are the fundamental unit of information
transport in all modern computer networks, and increasingly in other
communications networks as well.
!he data link layer is also responsible for logical link control, media
access control, hardware addressing, error detection and handling and
defining physical layer standards. It provides reliable data transfer by
transmitting packets with the necessary synchronization, error control
and flow control.
!he data link layer is divided into two sublayers@ the media access
control ,+'C. layer and the logical link control ,88C. layer. !he former
controls how computers on the network gain access to the data and
obtain permission to transmit it$ the latter controls packet
synchronization, flow control and error checking.
!he data link layer is where most 8'9 ,local area network. and wireless
8'9 technologies are defined. 'mong the most popular technologies
and protocols generally associated with this layer are :thernet, !oken
2ing, F<<I ,fiber distributed data interface., '!+ ,asynchronous
transfer mode., -8I" ,serial line Internet protocol., """ ,point&to&point
protocol., 7<8C ,high level data link control. and '<CC" ,advanced
data communication control procedures..
!he data link layer is often implemented in software as a driver for a
network interface card ,9IC.. (ecause the data link and physical layers
are so closely related, many types of hardware are also associated
with the data link layer. For eample, 9ICs typically implement a
specific data link layer technology, so they are often called :thernet
cards, !oken 2ing cards, etc. !here are also several types of network
interconnection devices that are said to operate at the data link layer
in whole or in part, because they make decisions about what to do with
data they receive by looking at data link layer packets. !hese devices
include most bridges and switches, although switches also encompass
functions performed by the network layer.
<ata link layer processing is faster than network layer processing
because less analysis of the packet is required.
Ch!nnel Alloc!tion In Mobile Computing
Channel allocation deals with the allocation of channels to cells in a
cellular network. ?nce the channels are allocated, cells may then allow
users within the cell to communicate via the available channels.
Channels in a wireless communication system typically consist of time
slots, frequency bands and#or C<+' pseudo noise sequences, but in an
abstract sense, they can represent any generic transmission resource.
!here are three maAor categories for assigning these channels to cells
,or base&stations.. !hey are
Fied Channel 'llocation,
<ynamic Channel 'llocation and
7ybrid Channel 'llocation which is a combination of the first two
methods.
*i+ed Ch!nnel Alloc!tion
Fied Channel 'llocation ,FC'. systems allocate specific channels to
specific cells. !his allocation is static and can not be changed. For
efficient operation, FC' systems typically allocate channels in a
manner that maimizes frequency reuse. !hus, in a FC' system, the
distance between cells using the same channel is the minimum reuse
distance for that system. !he problem with FC' systems is quite simple
and occurs whenever the offered traffic to a network of base stations is
not uniform. Consider a case in which two adAacent cells are allocated
9 channels each. !here clearly can be situations in which one cell has
a need for 9Bk channels while the adAacent cell only requires 9&m
channels ,for positive integers and m. In such a case, k users in the
first cell would be blocked from making calls while m channels in the
second cell would go unused. Clearly in this situation of non&uniform
spatial offered traffic, the available channels are not being used
efficiently. FC' has been implemented on a widespread level to date.
D)n!mic Ch!nnel Alloc!tion
<ynamic Channel 'llocation ,<C'. attempts to alleviate the problem
mentioned for FC' systems when offered traffic is non&uniform. In <C'
systems, no set relationship eists between channels and cells.
Instead, channels are part of a pool of resources. 3henever a channel
is needed by a cell, the channel is allocated under the constraint that
frequency reuse requirements can not be violated. !here are two
problems that typically occur with <C' based systems.
First, <C' methods typically have a degree of randomness
associated with them and this leads to the fact that frequency
reuse is often not maimized unlike the case for FC' systems in
which cells using the same channel are separated by the
minimum reuse distance.
-econdly, <C' methods often involve comple algorithms for
deciding which available channel is most efficient. !hese
algorithms can be very computationally intensive and may
require large computing resources in order to be real&time.
H)brid Ch!nnel Alloc!tion Scheme
!he third category of channel allocation methods includes all systems
that are hybrids of fied and dynamic channel allocation systems.
-everal methods have been presented that fall within this category
and in addition, a great deal of comparison has been made with
corresponding simulations and analyses 5Co, :lnoubi, )iang, 4atzela,
Cue, Dhang6. 3e will present several of the more developed hybrid
methods below.
Ch!nnel Borro$ing is one of the most straightforward hybrid
allocation schemes. 7ere, channels are assigned to cells Aust as in fied
allocation schemes. If a cell needs a channel in ecess of the channels
previously assigned to it, that cell may borrow a channel from one of
its neighboring cells given that a channel is available and use of this
channel wonEt violate frequency reuse requirements. 9ote that since
every channel has a predetermined relationship with a specific cell,
channel borrowing ,without the etensions mentioned below. is often
categorized as a subclass of fied allocation schemes. !he maAor
problem with channel borrowing is that when a cell borrows a channel
from a neighboring cell, other nearby cells are prohibited from using
the borrowed channel because of co&channel interference. !his can
lead to increased call blocking over time. !o reduce this call blocking
penalty, algorithms are necessary to ensure that the channels are
borrowed from the most available neighboring cells$ i.e., the
neighboring cells with the most unassigned channels.
!wo etensions of the channel borrowing approach are Borro$ing
$ith Ch!nnel &rdering ,(C?. and Borro$ing $ith Direction!l
Ch!nnel oc(ing ,(<C8..
(orrowing with Channel 8ocking was designed as an
improvement over the simpler Channel (orrowing approach as
described above 5:lnoubi6. (C? systems have two distinctive
characteristics 5:lnoubi6@
/. !he ratio of fied to dynamic channels varies with traffic
load.
F. 9ominal channels are ordered such that the first nominal
channel of a cell has the highest priority of being applied to
a call within the cell.
!he last nominal channel is most likely to be borrowed by
neighboring channels. ?nce a channel is borrowed, that channel
is locked in the co&channel cells within the reuse distance of the
cell in question. !o be GlockedG means that a channel can not be
used or borrowed. Dhang and Cum 5Dhang6 presented the (<C8
scheme as an improvement over the (C? method. From a
frequency reuse standpoint, in a (C? system, a channel may be
borrowed only if it is free in the neighboring co&channel cells.
!his criteria is often too strict.
In (orrowing with <irectional Channel 8ocking, borrowed
channels are only locked in nearby cells that are affected by the
borrowing. !his differs from the (C? scheme in which a
borrowed channel is locked in every cell within the reuse
distance. !he benefit of (<C8 is that more channels are available
in the presence of borrowing and subsequent call blocking is
reduced. ' disadvantage of (<C8 is that the statement
Gborrowed channels are only locked in nearby cells that are
affected by the borrowingG requires a clear understanding of the
term Gaffected.G !his may require microscopic analysis of the
area in which the cellular system will be located. Ideally, a
system can be general enough that detailed analysis of specific
propagation measurements is not necessary for implementation.
' natural etension of channel borrowing is to set aside a portion of
the channels in a system as dynamic channels with the remaining
,nominal. channels being fied to specified cells. If a cell requires an
etra channel, instead of borrowing the channel from a neighboring
cell, the channel is borrowed from the common GbankG of dynamic
channels. 'n important consideration in hybrid systems of this type is
the ratio of dynamic channels to fied channels. 'nalysis by Co and
2eudlink 5Co & /HI=6 showed that given ten channels per cell, an
optimum ratio was J fied channels and F dynamic channels. In
general, the optimum ratio depends upon the traffic load 5Dhang6. In
addition to (<C8, a second channel allocation method was presented
by Cum and Dhang 5Dhang6. 2eferred to as 8ocally ?ptimized <ynamic
'ssignment -trategy ,8?<'., this method is best described as a purely
dynamic channel allocation procedure as opposed to a hybrid method.
In this strategy there are no nominal channels$ all channels are
dynamic. 3hen a given cell needs to accommodate a call, it chooses
from among the bank of available channels according to some cost
criteria. !he channel with minimum cost is assigned. In a general
sense, the cost is a measure of the future blocking probability in the
vicinity of the cell given that the candidate channel is assigned. ' more
detailed description of the cost function will be addressed below.
D)n!mic Ch!nnel Re!%%ignment
-imilar to the goals of dynamic channel assignment is the process of
<ynamic Channel 2eassignment ,<C2.. 3hereas a <C' scheme
allocates a channel to an initial call or handover, a <C2 system
switches a cellEs channel ,that is currently being used. to another
channel which is closer to the optimum according to frequency reuse
or other cost criteria. !hus, for eample, a user communicating with
channel n may be switched to channel m during the middle of her#his
call if channel m is a more efficient use of the available bandwidth
from a frequency reuse point of view. "hilosophically, <C2 is
equivalent to <C'.
Simul!tion !nd Comp!ri%on o' Ch!nnel Alloc!tion
Scheme%
' great deal of work is available comparing various realizations of
channel allocation schemes 5Co, :lnoubi, )iang, 4atzela, Cue, Dhang6.
In comparing performance, typical system metrics include blocking
probability of new calls and blocking probability of handover calls.
!hese metrics are written as functions of offered traffic ,where the
traffic may be written in a variety of forms.. It is generally assumed
that a blocked new call is preferred over a blocked hand&off call. !he
idea being that with a blocked hand&off, users are forced to terminate
communication in the middle of their session. If this blocking happens
at a particularly inopportune time, the results could be disastrous ,e.g.,
business partners cut off in the middle of a vital negotiation.. In the
case of a blocked new call, at least the business negotiation hasnEt
started and the involved parties arenEt interrupted. (locking probability
is an important metric throughout the field of queuing theory and in
the case of +#+#/ queues, the :rlang&( formula is often used for
analysis of blocking probability. (ecause blocked calls can be very
disconcerting, systems are typically designed to have blocking
probabilities of no more than /K or FK. !his is consistent with the
assumption of small offered traffic loads.
Co and 2eudink were the first researchers to present published
comparisons of different channel allocation schemes. !heir comparison
was based on simulation of an outdoor vehicular wireless
communication system 5Co & /HI/, Co & /HIF, )akes6. !he simulation
divided a region into a grid of square cells. !he movement of vehicles
had a two dimensional normal distribution with 1 mean and =1 mph
standard deviation in each of the two orthogonal directions. "oisson
arrivals were assumed for the rate of calls per vehicle and call
durations were assume to have a truncated normal distribution
,truncated on the left at zero. with a GmeanG H1 seconds ,true mean of
/1=.; seconds..
Co and 2eudinkEs study considered uniform and non&uniform
distributions of spatial traffic. In the uniform case, all cells had
approimately the same call arrival rate while in the non&uniform case,
some cells had a significantly higher call arrival rate. 3ith both the
uniform and non&uniform spatial distributions, fied channel allocation
schemes were optimally matched so that the cells with the greatest
numbers of calls had the greatest number of channels to deal with
those calls. In both cases of uniform and non&uniform traffic, results
showed that for low blocking probabilities, dynamic channel allocation
schemes could handle more calls than fied channel allocation
schemes. +ore specifically, in the case of uniform traffic, the <C'
approach outperformed the FC' approach when the blocking
probability was lower than /1K. 't a blocking probability of /K, the
<C' approach could handle over /1K more calls than the FC'
approach. In the case of non&uniform traffic, the <C' approach
outperformed FC' for blocking rates up to 01K. 't a blocking rate of
/K, <C' could handle almost I1K more calls per cell than FC'. Co
and 2eudink performed another comparison involving dynamic channel
reassignment in 5Co & /HI=6. In this hybrid procedure, the total
number of available channels is broken into two groups@ fied and
dynamic channels. 3hen a cell requires a channel, it first searches for
an available fied channel that is pre&assigned to the cell. If none of
the fied channels are available, a dynamic channel is searched for
from the common bank of dynamic channels. If this search is in vain,
the call is blocked. 3hen users who were assigned fied channels end
their calls, these freed fied channels are then assigned to users in the
same cell who are currently using dynamic channels. !his frees the
dynamic channel for future use and ensures that a large number of
channels being used are the optimally&spaced, fied channels. 2esults
from Co and 2eudinkEs study of dynamic channel reassignment
showed that channel use was increased by over 01K compared to
fied channel allocation for a blocking rate of /K. !his result
corresponds to uniform offered traffic.
,h!ng !nd -um comp!red 'our ch!nnel !%%ignment
Fied Channel 'ssignment ,FC'.,
(orrowing with Channel ?rdering ,(C?.,
(orrowing with <irectional Channel 8ocking ,(<C8. and
8ocally ?ptimized <ynamic 'ssignment ,8?<'..
3ith respect to uniform offered traffic, their results showed that (<C8
had the lowest blocking probability followed by (C?, 8?<' and FC'.
3ith non&uniform offered traffic, the relative performance of the four
methods was the same with the eception that in this case, 8?<'
performed better than (C?. It makes sense that the ordering for (<C8,
(C? and FC' was as found. Indeed, (<C8 was specifically designed as
an improvement over (C? and (C? was designed as an improvement
over FC' 5Dhang, :lnoubi6. !he fact that the performance of 8?<'
varies under uniform versus non&uniform traffic is rather interesting
however. !he reason behind this phenomenon is that 8?<' provides
optimal channel allocation only in local regions. %iven non&uniform
traffic which consists of dense regions in certain local areas, 8?<' will
accommodate these regions of high traffic offering. 7owever, in a
global sense, the 8?<' algorithm will not necessarily provide the
optimal allocation. 3ith uniform offered traffic, 8?<' does not have
any regions with peak traffic to optimize$ i.e., no local regions within
which the benefits of 8?<' can be realized. Furthermore, with respect
to the entire region, the optimization is generally not optimal in a
global sense. !he result is that with uniform traffic, 8?<' does not
have any advantage to offer over (C?. From the previous discussion
we see that one general result of all of the comparisons is that
dynamic channel allocation outperforms fied channel allocation for
low blocking rates ,below /1K in most cases.. (locking rates above /K
or FK are generally not tolerated. !his is generally an accepted
guideline throughout the telecommunications industry and we will
adhere to this design constraint as well.
Common Principle &' Ch!nnel Alloc!tion
!he large array of possible channel allocation systems can become
cumbersome. 7owever, all channel allocation methods operate under
simple, common principles. !hroughout this report we have touched on
three points which an efficient channel allocation scheme should
address@
/. Channel allocation schemes must not violate minimum frequency
reuse conditions.
F. Channel allocation schemes should adapt to changing traffic
conditions.
=. Channel allocation schemes should approach ,from above. the
minimum frequency reuse constraints so as to efficiently utilize
available transmission resources.
's the first requirement suggests, all channel allocation schemes
adhere to condition /. From a frequency reuse standpoint, a fied
channel allocation system distributes frequency ,or other transmission.
resources to the cells in an optimum manner$ i.e., common channels
are separated by the minimum frequency reuse distance. !hus, a fied
channel allocation scheme perfectly satisfies condition = as well.
7owever, a fied allocation scheme does not satisfy condition F.
"hilosophically, any dynamic channel allocation scheme will meet the
requirements of all of the above three conditions to some degree. 't
the system architecture level dynamic channel allocation schemes may
differ widely, but fundamentally, their only difference is in the degree
to which they satisfy condition =. <ifferent <C' schemes attempt to
satisfy condition = ,in addition to conditions / and F. by approaching
the minimum frequency reuse constraint arbitrarily closely, and by
doing so in as short a time period as possible. !he above three
conditions point to the fact that design of dynamic channel allocation
schemes falls within the general class of optimization problems.
Furthermore, since we can always assume that the available number of
base stations is finite and the transmission resources will always be
countable ,due to FCC requirements if nothing else. then our problem
can be reduced to the subclass of combinatorial optimization problems.
's with all combinatorial optimization problems, there will eist a
solution space and a cost function 5'arts L 4orst6. ' typical element of
the solution space could be a particular layout of frequency channels
among the base&stations. !he cost function can be loosely
characterized as the difference between the frequency reuse of an
arbitrary solution and the frequency reuse of the optimized solution.
!he error associated with a non&optimized cost is realized as a future
increased blocking probability or an otherwise unwarranted lack of
channel availability. It is typically assumed that the solution to the
wireless dynamic channel allocation problem is 9"&complete 5Cue, Co
& /HI/6. !he definition of np&completeness follows from the conAecture
made in the late /H01Es that there eists a class of combinatorial
optimization problems of such inherent compleity that any algorithm,
solving each instance of such a problem to optimality, requires a
computational effort that grows superpolynomially with the size of the
problem. In the case of dynamic channel allocation, the compleity is
generally attributed to the required inclusion of co&channel
interference in any analysis of dynamic channel allocation schemes
5Cue6. !he author is aware of one published article to date offering an
analytical method ,approimate. for calculating the performance of
dynamic channel allocation 5see Cue6. 2ecently, several approimation
techniques have been proposed as methods for solving condition = of
the dynamic channel allocation problem. In particular there has been
interest in applying simulated annealing techniques 5<uque&'nton6 and
neural network methods 5Chan, 4unz, Funabiki6 to dynamic channel
allocation.
Wirele%% A.
' $irele%% A. or WA. is a wireless local area network, which is the
linking of two or more computers without using wires. 38'9 utilizes
pread&spectrum or ?F<+ modulation technology based on radio waves
to enable communication between devices in a limited area, also
known as the basic service set. !his gives users the mobility to move
around within a broad coverage area and still be connected to the
network.
For the home user, wireless has become popular due to ease of
installation, and location freedom with the gaining popularity of
laptops. "ublic businesses such as coffee shops or malls have begun to
offer wireless access to their customers$ some are even provided as a
free service. 8arge wireless network proAects are being put up in many
maAor cities. %oogle is even providing a free service to +ountain *iew,
California and has entered a bid to do the same for -an Francisco. 9ew
Cork City has also begun a pilot program to cover all five boroughs of
the city with wireless Internet access.
Hi%tor) &' Wirele%% A.
In /HI1 University of 7awaii, under the leadership of 9orman
'bramson, developed the worldMs first computer communication
network using low&cost ham&like radios, named '8?7'net. !he bi&
directional star topology of the system included seven computers
deployed over four islands to communicate with the central computer
on the ?ahu Island without using phone lines.
GIn /HIH, F.2. %feller and U. (apst published a paper in the I:::
"roceedings reporting an eperimental wireless local area network
using diffused infrared communications. -hortly thereafter, in /HJ1, ".
Ferrert reported on an eperimental application of a single code spread
spectrum radio for wireless terminal communications in the I:::
9ational !elecommunications Conference. In /HJN, a comparison
between Infrared and C<+' spread spectrum communications for
wireless office information networks was published by 4aveh "ahlavan
in I::: Computer 9etworking -ymposium which appeared later in the
I::: Communication -ociety +agazine. In +ay /HJ;, the efforts of
+arcus led the FCC to announce eperimental I-+ bands for
commercial application of spread spectrum technology. 8ater on, +.
4avehrad reported on an eperimental wireless "(O system using code
division multiple access. !hese efforts prompted significant industrial
activities in the development of a new generation of wireless local area
networks and it updated several old discussions in the portable and
mobile radio industry.
!he first generation of wireless data modems was developed in the
early /HJ1Es by amateur radio operators. !hey added a voice band
data communication modem, with data rates below H011 bit#s, to an
eisting short distance radio system, typically in the two meter
amateur band. !he second generation of wireless modems was
developed immediately after the FCC announcement in the
eperimental bands for non&military use of the spread spectrum
technology. !hese modems provided data rates on the order of
hundreds of kbit#s. !he third generation of wireless modem 5then6
aimed at compatibility with the eisting 8'9s with data rates on the
order of +bit#s. -everal companies 5developed6 the third generation
products with data rates above / +bit#s and a couple of products 5had6
already been announced 5by the time of the first I::: 3orkshop on
3ireless 8'9s6.G
G!he first of the I::: 3orkshops on 3ireless 8'9 was held in /HH/. 't
that time early wireless 8'9 products had Aust appeared in the market
and the I::: J1F.// committee had Aust started its activities to
develop a standard for wireless 8'9s. !he focus of that first workshop
was evaluation of the alternative technologies. 5(y /HH06, the
technology 5was6 relatively mature, a variety of applications 5had6
been identified and addressed and technologies that enable these
applications 5were6 well understood. Chip sets aimed at wireless 8'9
implementations and applications, a key enabling technology for rapid
market growth, 5were6 emerging in the market. 3ireless 8'9s 5were
being6 used in hospitals, stock echanges, and other in building and
campus settings for nomadic access, point&to&point 8'9 bridges, ad&
hoc networking, and even larger applications through internetworking.
!he I::: J1F.// standard and variants and alternatives, such as the
wireless 8'9 interoperability forum and the :uropean 7I":28'9
specification 5had6 made rapid progress, and the unlicensed "C-
5 Unlicensed "ersonal Communications -ervices 6 and the proposed
-U":29et, later on renamed as U&9II, bands also presented new
opportunities.G
?n )uly F/, /HHH, 'ir"ort debuted at the +acworld :po in 9ew Cork
City with -teve )obs picking up an i(ook supposedly to give the
cameraman a better shot as he surfed the 3eb. 'pplause quickly built
as people realized there were no wires. !his was the first time 3ireless
8'9 became publicly available at consumer pricing and easily available
for home use. (efore the release of the 'irport, 3ireless 8'9 was too
epensive for consumer use and used eclusively in large corporate
settings.
?riginally 38'9 hardware was so epensive that it was only used as
an alternative to cabled 8'9 in places where cabling was difficult or
impossible. :arly development included industry&specific solutions and
proprietary protocols, but at the end of the /HH1s these were replaced
by standards, primarily the various versions of I::: J1F.// ,3i&Fi.. 'n
alternative '!+&like ; %7z standardized technology, 7I":28'9, has so
far not succeeded in the market, and with the release of the faster ;N
+bit#s J1F.//a ,; %7z. and J1F.//g ,F.N %7z. standards, almost
certainly never will.
In 9ovember F110, the 'ustralian Commonwealth -cientific and
Industrial 2esearch ?rganization ,C-I2?. won a legal battle in the U-
federal court of !eas against (uffalo !echnology which found the U-
manufacturer had failed to pay royalties on a U- 38'9 patent C-I2?
had filed in /HH0. C-I2? are currently engaged in legal cases with
computer companies including +icrosoft, Intel, <ell, 7ewlett&"ackard
and 9etgear which argue that the patent is invalid and should negate
any royalties paid to C-I2? for 38'9&based products.
Bene'it% &' Wirele%% A.
!he popularity of wireless 8'9s is a testament primarily to their
convenience, cost efficiency, and ease of integration with other
networks and network components. !he maAority of computers sold to
consumers today come pre&equipped with all necessary wireless 8'9
technology.
!he benefits of wireless 8'9s include@
Convenience@ !he wireless nature of such networks allows users
to access network resources from nearly any convenient location
within their primary networking environment ,home or office..
3ith the increasing saturation of laptop&style computers, this is
particularly relevant.
+obility@ 3ith the emergence of public wireless networks, users
can access the internet even outside their normal work
environment. +ost chain coffee shops, for eample, offer their
customers a wireless connection to the internet at little or no
cost.
"roductivity@ Users connected to a wireless network can maintain
a nearly constant affiliation with their desired network as they
move from place to place. For a business, this implies that an
employee can potentially be more productive as his or her work
can be accomplished from any convenient location.
<eployment@ Initial setup of an infrastructure&based wireless
network requires little more than a single access point. 3ired
networks, on the other hand, have the additional cost and
compleity of actual physical cables being run to numerous
locations ,which can even be impossible for hard&to&reach
locations within a building..
:pandability@ 3ireless networks can serve a suddenly&increased
number of clients with the eisting equipment. In a wired
network, additional clients would require additional wiring.
Cost@ 3ireless networking hardware is at worst a modest
increase from wired counterparts. !his potentially increased cost
is almost always more than outweighed by the savings in cost
and labor associated to running physical cables.
Di%!d/!nt!ge &' Wirele%% A.
3ireless 8'9 technology, while replete with the conveniences and
advantages described above, has its share of downfalls. For a given
networking situation, wireless 8'9s may not be desirable for a number
of reasons. +ost of these have to do with the inherent limitations of
the technology.
-ecurity@ 3ireless 8'9 transceivers are designed to serve
computers throughout a structure with uninterrupted service
using radio frequencies. (ecause of space and cost, the antennas
typically present on wireless networking cards in the end
computers are generally relatively poor. In order to properly
receive signals using such limited antennas throughout even a
modest area, the wireless 8'9 transceiver utilizes a fairly
considerable amount of power. 3hat this means is that not only
can the wireless packets be intercepted by a nearby adversaryEs
poorly&equipped computer, but more importantly, a user willing
to spend a small amount of money on a good quality antenna
can pick up packets at a remarkable distance$ perhaps hundreds
of times the radius as the typical user. In fact, there are even
computer users dedicated to locating and sometimes even
cracking into wireless networks, known as wardrivers. ?n a wired
network, any adversary would first have to overcome the
physical limitation of tapping into the actual wires, but this is not
an issue with wireless packets. !o combat this consideration,
wireless networks users usually choose to utilize various
encryption technologies available such as 3i&Fi "rotected 'ccess
,3"'.. -ome of the older encryption methods, such as 3:" are
known to have weaknesses that a dedicated adversary can
compromise. (See main article: Wireless security.)
Range: The typical range of a common 80.!!g networ" with
stan#ar# e$uipment is on the or#er of tens of meters. While
sufficient for a typical home% it will be insufficient in a larger
structure. To obtain a##itional range% repeaters or a##itional
access points will ha&e to be purchase#. 'osts for these items
can a## up $uic"ly. (ther technologies are in the #e&elopment
phase% howe&er% which feature increase# range% hoping to ren#er
this #isa#&antage irrele&ant. (See Wi)*+)
Reliability: ,i"e any ra#io fre$uency transmission% wireless
networ"ing signals are sub-ect to a wi#e &ariety of interference%
as well as comple. propagation effects (such as multipath% or
especially in this case Rician fa#ing) that are beyon# the control
of the networ" a#ministrator. /n the case of typical networ"s%
mo#ulation is achie&e# by complicate# forms of phase-shift
"eying (0S1) or $ua#rature amplitu#e mo#ulation (2*))% ma"ing
interference an# propagation effects all the more #isturbing. *s
a result% important networ" resources such as ser&ers are rarely
connecte# wirelessly.
Spee#: The spee# on most wireless networ"s (typically !-!08
)bit3s) is reasonably slow compare# to the slowest common
wire# networ"s (!00 )bit3s up to se&eral 4bit3s). There are also
performance issues cause# by T'0 an# its built-in congestion
a&oi#ance. 5or most users% howe&er% this obser&ation is
irrele&ant since the spee# bottlenec" is not in the wireless
routing but rather in the outsi#e networ" connecti&ity itself. 5or
e.ample% the ma.imum *6S, throughput (usually 8 )bit3s or
less) offere# by telecommunications companies to general-
purpose customers is alrea#y far slower than the slowest
wireless networ" to which it is typically connecte#. That is to say%
in most en&ironments% a wireless networ" running at its slowest
spee# is still faster than the internet connection ser&ing it in the
first place. 7owe&er% in speciali8e# en&ironments% the throughput
of a wire# networ" might be necessary. 9ewer stan#ar#s such as
80.!!n are a##ressing this limitation an# will support pea"
throughputs in the range of !00-00 )bit3s.
Wireless ,*9s present a host of issues for networ" managers.
:nauthori8e# access points% broa#caste# SS/6s% un"nown stations% an#
spoofe# )*' a##resses are -ust a few of the problems a##resse# in
W,*9 troubleshooting. )ost networ" analysis &en#ors% such as
9etwor" /nstruments% 9etwor" 4eneral% an# 5lu"e% offer W,*9
troubleshooting tools or functionalities as part of their pro#uct line.
Architecture &' Wirele%% A.
'll components that can connect into a wireless medium in a network
are referred to as stations. 'll stations are equipped with wireless
network interface cards ,39ICs.. 3ireless stations fall into one of two
categories@ access points and clients.
Acce%% point%
'ccess points ,'"s. are base stations for the wireless network.
!hey transmit and receive radio frequencies for wireless enabled
devices to communicate with.
Client%
3ireless clients can be mobile devices such as laptops, personal
digital assistants, I" phones, or fied devices such as desktops
and workstations that are equipped with a wireless network
interface.
B!%ic %er/ice %et
!he basic service set ,(--. is a set of all stations that can
communicate with each other. !here are two types of (--@
independent (-- and infrastructure (--. :very (-- has an
identification ,I<. called the (--I<, which is the +'C address of the
access point servicing the (--.
Independent b!%ic %er/ice %et
'n independent (-- is an ad&hoc network that contains no
access points, which means they can not connect to any other
basic service set.
In'r!%tructure b!%ic %er/ice %et
'n infrastructure (-- can communicate with other stations not in
the same basic service set by communicating through access
points.
0+tended %er/ice %et
'n etended service set ,:--. is a set of connected (--es. 'ccess
points in an :-- are connected by a distribution system. :ach :-- has
an I< called the --I< which is a =F&byte ,maimum. character string.
For eample, GlinksysG is the default --I< for 8inksys routers.
T)pe% &' Wirele%% A.
Peer1to1peer
' peer&to&peer ,"F". allows wireless devices to directly communicate
with each other. 3ireless devices within range of each other can
discover and communicate directly without involving central access
points. !his method is typically used by two computers so that they
can connect to each other to form a network.
If a signal strength meter is used in this situation, it may not read the
strength accurately and can be misleading, because it registers the
strength of the strongest signal, which may be the closest computer.
J1F.// specs define the physical layer ,"7C. and +'C ,+edia 'ccess
Control. layers. 7owever, unlike most other I::: specs, J1F.//
includes three alternative "7C standards@ diffuse infrared operating at
/ +bit#s in$ frequency&hopping spread spectrum operating at / +bit#s
or F +bit#s$ and direct&sequence spread spectrum operating at / +bit#s
or F +bit#s. ' single J1F.// +'C standard is based on C-+'#C'
,Carrier -ense +ultiple 'ccess with Collision 'voidance.. !he J1F.//
specification includes provisions designed to minimize collisions.
(ecause two mobile units may both be in range of a common access
point, but not in range of each other. !he J1F.// has two basic modes
of operation@ 'd hoc mode enables peer&to&peer transmission between
mobile units. Infrastructure mode in which mobile units communicate
through an access point that serves as a bridge to a wired network
infrastructure is the more common wireless 8'9 application the one
being covered. -ince wireless communication uses a more open
medium for communication in comparison to wired 8'9s, the J1F.//
designers also included a shared&key encryption mechanism, called
wired equivalent privacy ,3:"., or 3i&Fi "rotected 'ccess, ,3"',
3"'F. to secure wireless computer networks.
Bridge
' bridge can be used to connect networks, typically of different types.
' wireless :thernet bridge allows the connection of devices on a wired
:thernet network to a wireless network. !he bridge acts as the
connection point to the 3ireless 8'9.
Introduction &' Bluetooth
Bluetooth is an industrial specification for wireless personal area
networks ,"'9s.. (luetooth provides a way to connect and echange
information between devices such as mobile phones, laptops, "Cs,
printers, digital cameras, and video game consoles over a secure,
globally unlicensed short&range radio frequency. !he (luetooth
specifications are developed and licensed by the (luetooth -pecial
Interest %roup.
Uses
(luetooth is a standard and communications protocol primarily
designed for low power consumption, with a short range ,power&class&
dependent@ / meter, /1 meters, /11 meters.
5/6
based on low&cost
transceiver microchips in each device.
(luetooth enables these devices to communicate with each other when
they are in range. !he devices use a radio communications system, so
they do not have to be in line of sight of each other, and can even be
in other rooms, as long as the received transmission is powerful
enough.
Cl#""
M#+imum Permitted Po*er
,m)-dBm.
R#n!e
,#ro+im#te.
Cl#"" / 100 mW (20 dBm) ~100 meters
Cl#"" 0 2.5 mW (4 dBm) ~10 meters
Cl#"" 1 1 mW (0 dBm) ~1 meter
It has to be noted that in most cases the effective range of class F
devices is etended if they connect to a class / transceiver, compared
to pure class F network. !his is accomplished by higher sensitivity and
transmitter power of the Class / device. !he higher transmitter power
of Class / device allows higher power to be received by the Class F
device. Furthermore, higher sensitivity of Class / device allows
reception of much lower transmitted power of the Class F devices.
!hus, allowing operation of Class F devices at much higher distances.
<evices that use a power amplifier on the transmit, have improved
receive sensitivity, and highly optimized antennas are available that
routinely achieve ranges of /km within the (luetooth Class / standard.
2er"ion
%#t# R#te

2er"ion /.0 1 Mbit/s
2er"ion 0.3 4 E%R 3 Mbit/s
)iMedi# Alli#nce
,roo"ed.
53 - 480 Mbit/s
Bluetooth Pro'ile%
In order to use (luetooth, a device must be compatible with certain
(luetooth profiles. !hese define the possible applications and uses of
the technology.
i%t o' !pplic!tion%
+ore prevalent applications of (luetooth include@
3ireless control of and communication between a mobile phone
and a hands&free headset or car kit. !his was one of the earliest
applications to become popular.
3ireless networking between "Cs in a confined space and where
little bandwidth is required.
3ireless communications with "C input and output devices, the
most common being the mouse, keyboard and printer.
!ransfer of files between devices with ?(:O.
!ransfer of contact details, calendar appointments, and
reminders between devices with ?(:O.
2eplacement of traditional wired serial communications in test
equipment, %"- receivers, medical equipment, bar code
scanners, and traffic control devices.
For controls where infrared was traditionally used.
-ending small advertisements from (luetooth enabled
advertising hoardings to other, discoverable, (luetooth devices.
-eventh&generation game consolesP9intendo 3ii, -ony
"lay-tation =Puse (luetooth for their respective wireless
controllers.
<ial&up internet access on personal computer or "<' using a
data&capable mobile phone as a modem.
2eceiving commercial advertisements ,GspamG. via a kiosk, e.g.
at a movie theatre or lobby
Bluetooth /%# Wi1*i in net$or(ing
(luetooth and 3i&Fi have slightly different applications in todayEs
offices, homes, and on the move@ setting up networks, printing, or
transferring presentations and files from "<'s to computers. (oth are
versions of unlicensed spread spectrum technology.
(luetooth differs from 3i&Fi in that the latter provides higher
throughput and covers greater distances, but requires more epensive
hardware and higher power consumption. !hey use the same
frequency range, but employ different multipleing schemes. 3hile
(luetooth is a cable replacement for a variety of applications, 3i&Fi is a
cable replacement only for local area network access. (luetooth is
often thought of as wireless U-(, whereas 3i&Fi is wireless :thernet,
both operating at much lower bandwidth than the cable systems they
are trying to replace. 7owever, this analogy is not entirely accurate
since any (luetooth device can, in theory, host any other (luetooth
devicePsomething that is not universal to U-( devices, therefore it
would resemble more a wireless Fire3ire.

(luetooth eists in a many products, such as phones, printers, modems
and headsets. !he technology is useful when transferring information
between two or more devices that are near each other in low&
bandwidth situations. (luetooth is commonly used to transfer sound
data with phones ,i.e. with a (luetooth headset. or byte data with
hand&held computers ,transferring files..
(luetooth simplifies the discovery and setup of services between
devices. (luetooth devices advertise all of the services they provide.
!his makes using services easier because there is no longer a need to
setup network addresses or permissions as in many other networks.
Wi1*i
3i&Fi is more like traditional :thernet networks, and requires
configuration to set up shared resources, transmit files, and to set up
audio links ,for eample, headsets and hands&free devices.. It uses the
same radio frequencies as (luetooth, but with higher power output
resulting in a stronger connection. 3i&Fi is sometimes called Gwireless
:thernet.G !his description is accurate, it also provides an indication of
its relative strengths and weaknesses. 3i&Fi requires more setup, but is
better suited for operating full&scale networks because it enables a
faster connection, better range from the base station, and better
security than (luetooth.
Computer re2uirement%

' personal computer must have a (luetooth adapter in order to be able
to communicate with other (luetooth devices ,such as mobile phones,
mice and keyboards.. 3hile some desktop computers already contain
an internal (luetooth adapter, most require an eternal (luetooth
dongle. +ost recent laptops come with a built&in (luetooth adapter.
Unlike its predecessor, Ir<', which requires a separate adapter for
each device, (luetooth allows multiple devices to communicate with a
computer over a single adapter.
&per!ting S)%tem Support
+ac ?- O has supported (luetooth since version /1.F released in F11F
?f +icrosoft platforms, 3indows O" -ervice "ack F and later releases
have native support for (luetooth. "revious versions required the users
to install their (luetooth adapterEs own drivers, which was not directly
supported by +icrosoft. +icrosoftEs own (luetooth dongles ,that are
packaged with their (luetooth computer devices. have no eternal
drivers and thus require at least 3indows O" -ervice "ack F.
8inu provides two (luetooth stacks, with the (lueD stack included
with most 8inu kernels. It was originally developed by Qualcomm and
'ffi. (lueD supports all core (luetooth protocols and layers.
Speci'ic!tion% !nd 'e!ture%
!he (luetooth specification was developed in /HHN by )aap 7aartsen
and -ven +attisson, who were working for :ricsson +obile "latforms in
8und, -weden. !he specification is based on frequency&hopping spread
spectrum technology.
!he specifications were formalized by the (luetooth -pecial Interest
%roup ,-I%., organized by +ohd -yarifuddin. !he -I% was formally
announced on +ay F1, /HHJ. !oday it has over I111 companies
worldwide. It was established by :ricsson, -ony :ricsson, I(+, Intel,
!oshiba, and 9okia, and later Aoined by many other companies.
Bluetooth 3#4 !nd 3#4B
*ersions /.1 and /.1( had many problems, and manufacturers had
difficulties making their products interoperable. *ersions /.1 and /.1(
also had mandatory (luetooth hardware device address ,(<R'<<2.
transmission in the Connecting process, rendering anonymity
impossible at a protocol level, which was a maAor setback for services
planned to be used in (luetooth environments, such as Consumerium.
Bluetooth 3#3
2atified as I::: -tandard J1F./;./&F11F.
+any errors found in the /.1( specifications were fied.
'dded support for non&encrypted channels.
2eceived -ignal -trength Indicator ,2--I..
Bluetooth 3#5
!his version is backward&compatible with /./ and the maAor
enhancements include the following@
Faster Connection and <iscovery
*#apti&e fre$uency-hopping sprea# spectrum (*57), which
improves resistance to radio frequency interference by avoiding
the use of crowded frequencies in the hopping sequence.
7igher transmission speeds in practice, up to IF/ kbit#s, as in
/./.
:tended -ynchronous Connections ,e-C?., which improve voice
quality of audio links by allowing retransmissions of corrupted
packets.
7ost Controller Interface ,7CI. support for three&wire U'2!.
2atified as I::: -tandard J1F./;./&F11;.
Bluetooth 5#4
!his version, specified on /1th 9ovember F11N is backward&compatible
with /./. !he main enhancement is the introduction of an :<2 of =.1
+bit#s. !his has the following effects@
!hree times faster transmission speedPup to /1 times in certain
cases ,up to F./ +bit#s..
8ower power consumption through a reduced duty cycle.
-implification of multi&link scenarios due to more available
bandwidth.
!he practical data transfer rate is F./ megabits per second and the
basic signalling rate is about = megabits per second.
!he G(luetooth F.1 B :<2G specification given at the (luetooth -pecial
Interest%roup ,-I%. includes :<2 and there is no specification
G(luetooth F.1G as used by many vendors. !he 7!C !y!9 pocket "C
phone, shows G(luetooth F.1 without :<2G on its data sheet and
another source states (luetooth F.1 without :<2 is equivalent to
version /.F with additional bug fies. In many cases it is not clear
whether a product claiming to support G(luetooth F.1G actually
supports the :<2 higher transfer rate.
Bluetooth 5#3
(luetooth Core -pecification *ersion F./ , is fully backward&compatible
with /./, and was adopted by the (luetooth -I% on 'ugust /, F11I.
!his specification includes the following features@
:tended inquiry response@ provides more information during the
inquiry procedure to allow better filtering of devices before
connection. !his information includes the name of the device, a
list of services the device supports, as well as other information
like the time of day, and pairing information.
-niff subrating@ reduces the power consumption when devices
are in the sniff low&power mode, especially on links with
asymmetric data flows. 7uman interface devices ,7I<. are
epected to benefit the most, with mouse and keyboard devices
increasing the battery life by a factor of = to /1.
:ncryption "ause 2esume@ enables an encryption key to be
refreshed, enabling much stronger encryption for connections
that stay up for longer than F=.= hours ,one (luetooth day..
-ecure -imple "airing@ radically improves the pairing eperience
for (luetooth devices, while increasing the use and strength of
security. It is epected that this feature will significantly increase
the use of (luetooth.
9FC cooperation@ automatic creation of secure (luetooth
connections when 9FC radio interface is also available. For
eample, a headset should be paired with a (luetooth F./ phone
including 9FC Aust by bringing the two devices close to each
other ,a few centimeters.. 'nother eample is automatic
uploading of photos from a mobile phone or camera to a digital
picture frame Aust by bringing the phone or camera close to the
frame
*uture &' Bluetooth
(roadcast Channel@ enables (luetooth information points. !his
will drive the adoption of (luetooth into cell phones, and enable
advertising models based around users pulling information from
the information points, and not based around the obAect push
model that is used in a limited way today.
!opology +anagement@ enables the automatic configuration of
the piconet topologies especially in scatternet situations that are
becoming more common today. !his should all be invisible to the
users of the technology, while also making the technology Aust
work.
@ enables the use of alternative ands for transporting (luetooth
profile data. !he (luetooth 2adio will still be used for device
discovery, initial connection and profile configuration, however
when lots of data needs to be sent, the high speed alternate +'C
"7CEs will be used to transport the data. !his means that the
proven low power connection models of (luetooth are used when
the system is idle, and the low power per bit radios are used
when lots of data needs to be sent.
improvements@ enable audio and video data to be transmitted at
a higher quality, especially when best effort traffic is being
transmitted in the same
(luetooth technology already plays a part in the rising *oice over I"
,*?I". scene, with (luetooth headsets being used as wireless
etensions to the "C audio system. 's *?I" becomes more popular,
and more suitable for general home or office users than wired phone
lines, (luetooth may be used in cordless handsets, with a base station
connected to the Internet link.
High %peed Bluetooth
?n the (luetooth -pecial Interest %roup announced its selection of the
3i+edia 'lliance +ulti&(and ?rthogonal Frequency <ivision
+ultipleing ,+(&?F<+. version of U3( for integration with current
(luetooth wireless technology.
U3( integration will create a version of (luetooth wireless technology
with a high&speed#high&data&rate option. !his new version of (luetooth
technology will meet the high&speed demands of synchronizing and
transferring large amounts of data, as well as enabling high&quality
video and audio applications for portable devices, multi&media
proAectors and television sets, and wireless *?I".
't the same time, (luetooth technology will continue catering to the
needs of very low power applications such as mice, keyboards, and
mono headsets, enabling devices to select the most appropriate
physical radio for the application requirements, thereby offering the
best of both worlds.
Bluetooth 6#4
!he net version of (luetooth after vF./, code&named -eattle ,the
version number of which is !(<. has many of the same features, but is
most notable for plans to adopt ultra&wideband ,U3(. radio
technology. !his will allow (luetooth use over U3( radio, enabling very
fast data transfers of up to NJ1 +bit#s, while building on the very low&
power idle modes of (luetooth.
"ltr! o$ Po$er Bluetooth
?n )une /F, F11I, 9okia and (luetooth -I% announced that 3ibree will
be a part of the (luetooth specification as an ultra low power (luetooth
technology. :pected use cases include watches displaying Caller I<
information, sports sensors monitoring your heart rate during eercise,
as well as medical devices. !he +edical <evices 3orking %roup is also
creating a medical devices profile and associated protocols to enable
this market.
Technic!l In'orm!tion &' Bluetooth
Communic!tion !nd connection
' master (luetooth device can communicate with up to seven devices.
!his network group of up to eight devices is called a piconet.
' piconet is an ad&hoc computer network, using (luetooth technology
protocols to allow one master device to interconnect with up to seven
active devices. Up to F;; further devices can be inactive, or parked,
which the master device can bring into active status at any time.
't any given time, data can be transferred between the master and
one other device, however, the devices can switch roles and the slave
can become the master at any time. !he master switches rapidly from
one device to another in a round&robin fashion. ,-imultaneous
transmission from the master to multiple other devices is possible, but
not used much..
(luetooth specification allows connecting two or more piconets
together to form a scatternet, with some devices acting as a bridge by
simultaneously playing the master role and the slave role in one
piconet. !hese devices are planned for F11I.
+any U-( (luetooth adapters are available, some of which also include
an Ir<' adapter. ?lder ,pre&F11=. (luetooth adapters, however, have
limited services, offering only the (luetooth :numerator and a less&
powerful (luetooth 2adio incarnation. -uch devices can link computers
with (luetooth, but they do not offer much in the way of services that
modern adapters do.
Setting up connection%
'ny (luetooth device will transmit the following sets of information on
demand@
<evice name.
<evice class.
8ist of services.
!echnical information, for eample, device features,
manufacturer, (luetooth specification, clock offset.
'ny device may perform an inquiry to find other devices to which to
connect, and any device can be configured to respond to such
inquiries. 7owever, if the device trying to connect knows the address
of the device, it always responds to direct connection requests and
transmits the information shown in the list above if requested. Use of
device services may require pairing or acceptance by its owner, but
the connection itself can be started by any device and held until it
goes out of range. -ome devices can be connected to only one device
at a time, and connecting to them prevents them from connecting to
other devices and appearing in inquiries until they disconnect from the
other device.
:very device has a unique NJ&bit address. 7owever these addresses
are generally not shown in inquiries. Instead, friendly (luetooth names
are used, which can be set by the user. !his name appears when
another user scans for devices and in lists of paired devices.
+ost phones have the (luetooth name set to the manufacturer and
model of the phone by default. +ost phones and laptops show only the
(luetooth names and special programs that are required to get
additional information about remote devices. !his can be confusing as,
for eample, there could be several phones in range named !0/1 ,see
(lueAacking..
P!iring
"airs of devices may establish a trusted relationship by learning ,by
user input. a shared secret known as a pass"ey. ' device that wants to
communicate only with a trusted device can cryptographically
authenticate the identity of the other device. !rusted devices may also
encrypt the data that they echange over the air so that no one can
listen in. !he encryption can, however, be turned off, and passkeys are
stored on the device file system, not on the (luetooth chip itself. -ince
the (luetooth address is permanent, a pairing is preserved, even if the
(luetooth name is changed. "airs can be deleted at any time by either
device. <evices generally require pairing or prompt the owner before
they allow a remote device to use any or most of their services. -ome
devices, such as -ony :ricsson phones, usually accept ?(:O business
cards and notes without any pairing or prompts.
Certain printers and access points allow any device to use its services
by default, much like unsecured 3i&Fi networks. "airing algorithms are
sometimes manufacturer&specific for transmitters and receivers used
in applications such as music and entertainment.
Air Inter'!ce *or Bluetooth
!he protocol operates in the license&free I-+ band at F.N&F.NJ=; %7z.
!o avoid interfering with other protocols that use the F.N; %7z band,
the (luetooth protocol divides the band into IH channels ,each / +7z
wide. and changes channels up to /011 times per second.
Implementations with versions /./ and /.F reach speeds of
IF=./ kbit#s. *ersion F.1 implementations feature (luetooth :nhanced
<ata 2ate ,:<2. and reach F./ +bit#s. !echnically, version F.1 devices
have a higher power consumption, but the three times faster rate
reduces the transmission times, effectively reducing power
consumption to half that of /. devices ,assuming equal traffic load..
Securit)
(luetooth implements confidentiality, authentication and key
derivation with custom algorithms based on the -'F:2B block cipher.
In (luetooth, key generation is generally based on a (luetooth "I9,
which has to be entered into both devices. !his procedure might get
modified slightly, if one of the devices has a fied "I9, which is the
case e.g. for headsets or similar devices with a restricted user
interface. Foremost, an initialization key or master key is generated,
using the :FF algorithm
!he :1 stream cipher is used for encrypting packets, granting
confidentiality and is based on a shared cryptographic secret, namely a
previously generated link key or master key. !hose keys, used for
subsequent encryption of data sent via the air interface, hardly rely on
the (luetooth "I9, which has been entered into one or both devices.
' demonstration of this reduction has been put effort in by C. -haked
and '. 3ool in . 'n overview of the most important vulnerabilities and
the most common eploits to those vulnerabilities is presented in.
Soci!l concern%
54467
In 9ovember F11=, (en and 'dam 8aurie from '.8. <igital 8td.
discovered that serious flaws in (luetooth security may lead to
disclosure of personal data. It should be noted, however, that the
reported security problems concerned some poor implementations of
(luetooth, rather than the protocol itself.
In a subsequent eperiment, +artin 7erfurt from the trifinite.group was
able to do a field&trial at the Ce(I! fairgrounds, showing the
importance of the problem to the world. ' new attack called (lue(ug
was used for this eperiment.
!his is one of a number of concerns that have been raised over the
security of (luetooth communications. In F11N the first purported virus
using (luetooth to spread itself among mobile phones appeared on the
-ymbian ?-. !he virus was first described by 4aspersky 8ab and
requires users to confirm the installation of unknown software before it
can propagate.
!he virus was written as a proof&of&concept by a group of virus writers
known as FH' and sent to anti&virus groups. !hus, it should be
regarded as a potential ,but not real. security threat to (luetooth or
-ymbian ?- since the virus has never spread in the wild.
In 'ugust F11N, a world&record&setting eperiment ,see also (luetooth
sniping. showed that the range of Class F (luetooth radios could be
etended to /.IJ km ,/.1J mile. with directional antennas and signal
amplifiers. !his poses a potential security threat because it enables
attackers to access vulnerable (luetooth&devices from a distance
beyond epectation. !he attacker must also be able to receive
information from the victim to set up a connection. 9o attack can be
made against a (luetooth device unless the attacker knows its
(luetooth address and which channels to transmit on.
54487
In 'pril F11;, Cambridge University security researchers published
results of their actual implementation of passive attacks against the
"I9&based pairing between commercial (luetooth devices, confirming
the attacks to be practicably fast and the (luetooth symmetric key
establishment method to be vulnerable. !o rectify this vulnerability,
they carried out an implementation which showed that stronger,
asymmetric key establishment is feasible for certain classes of devices,
such as handphones.
In )une F11;, Caniv -haked and 'vishai 3ool published the paper
GCracking the (luetooth "I9/,G which shows both passive and active
methods for obtaining the "I9 for a (luetooth link. !he passive attack
allows a suitably equipped attacker to eavesdrop on communications
and spoof if they were present at the time of initial pairing. !he active
method makes use of a specially constructed message that must be
inserted at a specific point in the protocol, to make the master and
slave repeat the pairing process. 'fter that, the first method can be
used to crack the "I9. !his attackEs maAor weakness is that it requires
the user of the devices under attack to re&enter the "I9 during the
attack when the device prompts them to. 'lso, this active attack
probably requires custom hardware, since most commercially available
(luetooth devices are not capable of the timing necessary.
In 'ugust F11;, police in Cambridgeshire, :ngland, issued warnings
about thieves using (luetooth&enabled phones to track other devices
left in cars. "olice are advising users to ensure that any mobile
networking connections are de&activated if laptops and other devices
are left in this way.
54497
In 'pril F110, researchers from -ecure 9etwork and F&-ecure published
a report that warns of the large number of devices left in a visible
state, and issued statistics on the spread of various (luetooth services
and the ease of spread of an eventual (luetooth worm.
In ?ctober F110, at the 8uemburgish 7ack.lu -ecurity Conference,
4evin Finistere and !hierry Doller demonstrated and released a remote
root shell over (luetooth on +ac ?-O /1.=.H and /1.N. !hey also
demonstrated the first (luetooth "I9 and 8inkkeys cracker, which is
based on the research of 3ool and -haked.
Blue:!c(ing@
(lueAacking allows phone users to send business cards anonymously
using (luetooth wireless technology. (lueAacking does 9?! involve the
removal or alteration of any data from the device. !hese business
cards often have a clever or flirtatious message rather than the typical
name and phone number. (lueAackers often look for the receiving
phone to ping or the user to react. !hey then send another, more
personal message to that device. ?nce again, in order to carry out a
blueAacking, the sending and receiving devices must be within range of
each other, which is typically /1 meters for most mobile devices.
"hone owners who receive blueAack messages should refuse to add the
contacts to their address book. <evices that are set in non&
discoverable mode are not susceptible to blueAacking. 7owever, the
use of the 8inu application 2edfang, allows this to be bypassed. 5/6
He!lth concern%
(luetooth uses the microwave radio frequency spectrum in the F.N %7z
to F.NJ=; %7z range. +aimum power output from a (luetooth radio is
/ m3, F.; m3, and /11 m3 for Class =, Class F, and Class / devices
respectively, which puts Class / at roughly the same level as cell
phones, and the other two classes much lower. 'ccordingly, Class F
and Class = (luetooth devices are considered less of a potential hazard
than cell phones, and Class / may be comparable to that of cell
phones.
Con%ider!tion &' .et$or( !)er
!he net$or( l!)er is the third layer out of seven in the ?-I model and
the third layer out of five in the !C"#I" model. In the !C"#I" reference
model it is called the Internet l!)er. In all of the models, the network
layer responds to service requests from the transport layer and issues
service requests to the data link layer.
In essence, the network layer is responsible for end to end ,source to
destination. packet delivery, whereas the data link layer is responsible
for node to node ,hop to hop. packet delivery.
!he network layer provides the functional and procedural means of
transferring variable length data sequences from a source to a
destination via one or more networks while maintaining the quality of
service, and error control functions.
!he network layer deals with transmitting information all the way from
its source to its destination & transmitting from anywhere, to anywhere.
7ere are some things that the network layer needs to address@
Is the network connection&oriented or connectionlessS
For eample, snail mail is connectionless, because you can send
a letter to someone without them doing anything and they will
receive the letter. ?n the other hand, the telephone system is
connection&oriented, because the other party is required to pick
up the phone before communication can be established. !he ?-I
9etwork 8ayer protocol can be either connection&oriented, or
connectionless. !he !C"#I" Internet 8ayer ,equivalent to ?-IEs
9etwork 8ayer. supports only the connectionless Internet
"rotocol ,I"..
3hat are the %lobal 'ddressesS
:verybody in the network needs to have a unique address which
determines who they are. !his address will normally be
hierarchical, so you can be GFred +urphyG to <ubliners, or GFred
+urphy, <ublinG to people in Ireland, or GFred +urphy, <ublin,
IrelandG to people anywhere in the world. ?n the internet, these
addresses are known as I" 'ddresses.
7ow do you forward a messageS
!his is of particular interest to mobile applications, where a user
may rapidly move from place to place, and it must be arranged
that his messages follow him. *ersion N of the Internet "rotocol
,I"vN. doesnEt really allow for this, though it has been hacked
somewhat since its inception. Fortunately, the forthcoming I"v0
has a much better designed solution, which should make this
type of application much smoother.
i%t o' .et$or( l!)er %er/ice%
Forwarding
2outing
P!c(et *or$!rding In .et$or( !)er
*or$!rding is the relaying of packets from one network segment to
another by nodes in a computer network.
' unicast forwarding pattern, typical of many networking technologies
including the overwhelming maAority of Internet traffic
' multicast forwarding pattern, typical of "I+
' broadcast forwarding pattern, typical of bridged :thernet

!he simplest forwarding model & unicasting &
involves a packet being relayed from link to link along a chain leading
from the packetEs source to its destination. 7owever, other forwarding
strategies are commonly used. (roadcasting requires a packet to be
duplicated and copies sent on multiple links with the goal of delivering
a copy to every device on the network. In practice, broadcast packets
are not forwarded everywhere on a network, but only to devices within
a broadcast domain, making broadcast a relative term. 8ess common
than broadcasting, but perhaps of greater utility and theoretical
significance is multicasting, where a packet is selectively duplicated
and copies delivered to each of a set of recipients.
9etworking technologies tend to naturally support certain forwarding
models. For eample, fiber optics and copper cables run directly from
one machine to another form natural unicast media & data transmitted
at one end is received by only one machine at the other end. 7owever,
as illustrated in the diagrams, nodes can forward packets to create
multicast or broadcast distributions from naturally unicast media.
8ikewise, traditional :thernet ,/1('-:; and /1('-:F, but not the
more modern /1('-:&!. are natural broadcast media & all the nodes
are attached to a single, long cable and a packet transmitted by one
device is seen by every other device attached to the cable. :thernet
nodes implement unicast by ignoring packets not directly addressed to
them. ' wireless network is naturally multicast & all devices within a
reception radius of a transmitter can receive its packets. 3ireless
nodes ignore packets addressed to other devices, but require
forwarding to reach nodes outside their reception radius.
't nodes where multiple outgoing links are available, the choice of
which, all, or any to use for forwarding a given packet requires a
decision making process that, while simple in concept, is of sometimes
bewildering compleity. -ince a forwarding decision must be made for
every packet handled by a node, the total time required for this can
become a maAor limiting factor in overall network performance. +uch
of the design effort of high&speed routers and switches has been
focused on making rapid forwarding decisions for large numbers of
packets.
!he forwarding decision is generally made using one of two processes@
routing, which uses information encoded in a deviceEs address to infer
its location on the network, or bridging, which makes no assumptions
about where addresses are located and depends heavily on
broadcasting to locate unknown addresses. !he heavy overhead of
broadcasting has led to the dominance of routing in large networks,
particularly the Internet$ bridging is largely relegated to small networks
where the overhead of broadcasting is tolerable. 7owever, since large
networks are usually composed of many smaller networks linked
together, it would be inaccurate to state that bridging has no use on
the Internet$ rather, its use is localized.
Routing In .et$or( !)er
Routing ,or routing. is the process of selecting paths in a network
along which to send data or physical traffic. 2outing is performed for
many kinds of networks, including the telephone network, the Internet,
and transport networks.
2outing directs forwarding, the passing of logically addressed packets
from their source toward their ultimate destination through
intermediary nodes$ typically hardware devices called bridge routers,
gateways, firewalls, or switches. ?rdinary computers with multiple
network cards can also forward packets and perform routing, though
with more limited performance. !he routing process usually directs
forwarding on the basis of routing tables which maintain a record of
the routes to various network destinations. !hus constructing routing
tables, which are held in the routersE memory, becomes very important
for efficient routing.
2outing, in a more narrow sense of the term, is often contrasted with
bridging in its assumption that network addresses are structured and
that similar addresses imply proimity within the network. (ecause
structured addresses allow a single routing table entry to represent the
route to a group of devices, structured addressing ,routing, in the
narrow sense. outperforms unstructured addressing ,bridging. in large
networks, and has become the dominant form of addressing on the
Internet, though bridging is still widely used, albeit within localized
environments.
About Adhoc .et$or(
'n ad hoc network is a dynamic multi&hop wireless network that is
established by a group of mobile hosts on a shared wireless channel by
virtue of their proimity to each other. -ince wireless transmissions are
locally broadcast in the region of the transmitting host, hosts that are
in close proimity can hear each other and are said to be neighbors.
!he transitive closure of the neighborhood of all the hosts in the set of
mobile hosts under consideration forms an ad hoc network. !hus, each
host is potentially a router and it is possible to dynamically establish
routes by chaining together a sequence of neighboring hosts from a
source to a destination in the ad hoc network.
!he scarcity of the wireless channels makes it difficult for resource
critical applications to eecute in wireless environments. 'lso, efficient
resource utilization becomes a challenging task. !his proAect focuses
on mechanisms for routing in ad&hoc networks such that the routes
would have a higher chance of satisfying the required resources
Hi%tor) o' Ad hoc .et$or(%##
In /HH0 !I+:8C started looking at theoretical aspects of
approimations to minimum dominating sets. 9odes in dominating sets
were identified as candidate nodes for maintaining shared information
in a network. !his work led to the genesis of routing based on spine
architecture. !he spine was an approimation to minimum connected
dominating set. -everal routing algorithms based on spine were
developed, such as "-2, ?-2 etc. (ut global computation was the
maAor drawback of the spine architecture. ?ver the years this work
evolved into C:<'2 which briefly, is a Qo- routing architecture for ad&
hoc networks based on management and computation of core nodes
,dominating nodes. and distributed state.
Routing Protocol In Mobile ADhoc .et$or(%
+obile ad&hoc networks, also known as short&lived networks, are
autonomous systems of mobile nodes forming network in the absence
of any centralized support. !his is a new form of network and might be
able to provide services at places where it is not possible otherwise.
'bsence of fied infrastructure poses several types of challenges for
this type of networking. 'mong these challenges is routing.
(y routing, we mean process of echanging information from one
station to the other stations of the network. 2outing protocols of
mobile ad&hoc network tend to need different approaches from eisting
Internet protocols, since most of the eisting Internet protocols were
designed to support routing in a network with fied structure. In the
academic and industrial world, those who think about such things have
written quite a few papers proposing various routing solutions for
mobile ad&hoc networks. "roposed solutions could be classified into si
types@ table&driven, on&demand, hierarchical, power&aware,
geographical, and multicast protocols.
!able&driven protocols are one of the old ways of acquiring routing in
mobile ad&hoc networks. !hese protocols maintain consistent overview
of the network. :ach node uses routing tables to store the location
information of other nodes in the network. !his information is used to
transfer data among various nodes of the network.
!o ensure the freshness of the routing tables, these protocols adopts
different sorts of mechanisms. ?ne of the adopted methods is
broadcasting Ghello,G a special message containing address
information, at fied intervals of time. ?n receiving this message, each
node updates its routing tables with fresh locations information of
other participating nodes. <estination -equence <istance *ector
routing protocol ,<-<*., 3ireless 2outing "rotocol ,32". and Cluster&
head %ateway -witch 2outing ,C%-2. are some of the popular table&
driven protocols for mobile ad&hoc networks.
!able&driven protocols might not be considered an effective routing
solution for mobile ad&hoc network. 9odes in mobile ad&hoc networks
operate with low battery power and with limited bandwidth. "resence
of high mobility, large routing tables and low scalability result in
consumption of bandwidth and battery life of the nodes. +oreover
continuous updates could create unnecessary network overhead.
&n Dem!nd Routing Protocol
'nother in the family of routing protocols for mobile ad&hoc network is
on&demand routing protocols. 3ith on&demand protocols, if a source
node requires a route to the destination for which it does not have
route information, it initiates a route discovery process which goes
from one node to the other until it reaches to the destination or an
intermediate node has a route to the destination.
It is the responsibility of the route request receiver node to reply back
to the source node about the possible route to the destination. !he
source node uses this route for data transmission to the destination
node. -ome of the better known on&demand protocols are 'd&hoc ?n&
demand <istance *ector routing ,'?<*., <ynamic -ource 2outing
,<-2. and !emporary ?rdered 2outing 'lgorithm ,!?2'..
!hese protocols differ on storing the previously known route
information and on how they use the established route data. 'gain, in
a network with many participating nodes we may suffer with same sort
of problems what we have seen in table&driven protocols.
Conclu%ion
In conclusion, routing is one of the core issues in mobile ad&hoc
network. 'n effective routing mechanism will be helpful to etend the
successful deployment of mobile ad&hoc networks. Current routing
protocols provide routing solutions up to a certain level, but are lacking
the ability to handle other related issues.
+oreover most of these protocols have designed and implemented on
small scale. If these protocols could be etended further by taking into
accounts other routing related factors we may come out with a
standard routing solution for mobile ad&hoc network.
Pro:ect Go!l%
%iven the nature of the network and the requirements of the
applications, the following are the key goals of C:<'2.
,a. 2oute computation must be distributed because centralized
routing in a dynamic network is impossible even for fairly small
networks.
,b. 2oute computation should not involve the maintenance of
global state, or even significant amounts of volatile non&local
state. In particular, link state routing is not feasible for highly
dynamic networks because of the significant state propagation
overhead when the network topology changes.
,c. 's few nodes as possible must be involved in state
propagation and route computation, since this involves
monitoring and updating at least some state in the network. ?n
the other hand, every host must have quick access to routes on&
demand.
,d. :ach node must only care about the routes corresponding to
its destination, and must not be involved in frequent topology
updates for parts of the network to which it has no traffic.
,e. -tale routes must be either avoided, or detected and
eliminated quickly.
,f. (roadcasts must be avoided as far as possible because
broadcasts are highly unreliable in ad&hoc networks.
,g. If the topology stabilizes, then routes must converge to the
optimal routes.
,h. It is desirable to have a backup route when the primary route
has become stale and is being recomputed.
,i. 'pplications provide a minimum bandwidth requirement for a
connection, and the routing algorithm must efficiently compute a
route that can satisfy the bandwidth requirement with high
probability.
,A. !he amount of state propagation and topology update
information must be kept to a minimum. In particular, every
change in available bandwidth should not result in updated state
propagation.
,k. <ynamic links ,either unstable or low bandwidth links. must
not cause state propagation throughout the network. ?nly stable
high bandwidth link information must be propagated throughout
the network.
,l. !he Qo- route computation algorithm should be simple and
robust. 2obustness, rather than optimality, is the key
requirement.
Tr!n%port !)er In Mobile Computing
Tr!n%port l!)er
In computing and telecommunications, the tr!n%port l!)er is the
second highest layer in the four and five layer !C"#I" reference models,
where it responds to service requests from the application layer and
issues service requests to the Internet layer. It is also the name of
layer four of the seven layer ?-I model, where it responds to service
requests from the session layer and issues service requests to the
network layer. !he definitions of the transport layer are slightly
different in these two models. !his article primarily refers to the !C"#I"
model. -ee also the ?-I model definition of the transport layer.
' tr!n%port protocol is a protocol on the transport layer. !he two
most widely used transport protocols on the Internet are the
connection oriented !C" ,!ransmission Control "rotocol., and U<"
,User <atagram "rotocol.. !C" is the more complicated and most
common. ?ther options are the <atagram Congestion Control "rotocol
,<CC". and -tream Control !ransmission "rotocols.
!he transport layer is typically handled by processes in the host
computer operational system, and not by routers and switches. !he
transport layer usually turns the unreliable and very basic service
provided by the 9etwork layer into a more powerful one.
In the !C"#I" model, the transport layer is responsible for delivering
data to the appropriate application process on the host computers.
!his involves statistical multipleing of data from different application
processes, i.e. forming data packets, and adding source and
destination port numbers in the header of each transport layer data
packet. !ogether with the source and destination I" address, the port
numbers constitutes a network socket, i.e. an identification address of
the process&to&process communication. In the ?-I model, this function
is supported by the session layer.
Finally, some transport layer protocols, for eample !C" but not U<",
provides end&to&end reliable communication, i.e. error recovery by
means of error detecting code and automatic repeat request ,'2Q.
protocol. !he '2Q protocol also provides flow control, which may be
combined with congestion avoidance.
+
i%t &' Tr!n%port !)er Ser/ice%
!here is a long list of services that can be optionally provided by the
transport layer. 9one of them are compulsory, because not all
applications want all the services available. -ome can be wasted
overhead, or even counterproductive in some cases.
Connection&oriented
!his is normally easier to deal with than connection&less models,
so where the 9etwork layer only provides a connection&less
service, often a connection&oriented service is built on top of that
in the !ransport layer.
-ame ?rder <elivery
!he 9etwork layer doesnEt generally guarantee that packets of
data will arrive in the same order that they were sent, but often
this is a desirable feature, so the !ransport layer provides it. !he
simplest way of doing this is to give each packet a number, and
allow the receiver to reorder the packets.
2eliable <ata
"ackets may be lost in routers, switches, bridges and hosts due
to network congestion, when the packet queues are filled and
the network nodes have to delete packets. "ackets may be lost
or corrupted in for eample :thernet due to interference and
noise, since :thernet does not retransmit corrupt packets.
"ackets may be delivered in the wrong order by an underlying
network. -ome transport layer protocols, for eample !C", can
fi this. (y means of an error detection code, for eample a
checksum, the transport protocol may check that the data is not
corrupted, and verify that by sending an 'C4 message to the
sender. 'utomatic repeat request schemes may be used to
retransmit lost or corrupted data. (y introducing segment
numbering in the transport layer packet headers, the packets
can be sorted in order. ?f course, error free is impossible, but it
is possible to substantially reduce the numbers of undetected
errors.
Flow Control
!he amount of memory on a computer is limited, and without
flow control a larger computer might flood a computer with so
much information that it canEt hold it all before dealing with it.
9owadays, this is not a big issue, as memory is cheap while
bandwidth is comparatively epensive, but in earlier times it was
more important. Flow control allows the receiver to say G3hoaTG
before it is overwhelmed. -ometimes this is already provided by
the network, but where it is not, the !ransport layer may add it
on.
Congestion avoidance
9etwork congestion occurs when a queue buffer of a network
node is full and starts to drop packets. 'utomatic repeat request
may keep the network in a congested state. !his situation can be
avoided by adding congestion avoidance to the flow control,
including slow&start. !his keeps the bandwidth consumption at a
low level in the beginning of the transmission, or after packet
retransmission.
(yte orientation
2ather than dealing with things on a packet&by&packet basis, the
!ransport layer may add the ability to view communication Aust
as a stream of bytes. !his is nicer to deal with than random
packet sizes, however, it rarely matches the communication
model which will normally be a sequence of messages of user
defined sizes.
"orts
,"art of the transport layer in the !C"#I" model, but of the
session layer in the ?-I model. "orts are essentially ways to
address multiple entities in the same location. For eample, the
first line of a postal address is a kind of port, and distinguishes
between different occupants of the same house. Computer
applications will each listen for information on their own ports,
which is why you can use more than one network&based
application at the same time.
Tr!n%port Protocol Comp!ri%on T!ble
U%P TCP %CCP SCTP
Packet header size 8 Btes 20 Btes !aries
12 Btes " !ariab#e
$h%&k 'eader
(ra&s)*rt #aer )acket e&tit +ata,ram -e,me&t +ata,ram +ata,ram
P*rt &%mberi&, .es .es .es .es
/rr*r detecti*& 0)ti*&a# .es .es .es
1e#iabi#it2 /rr*r rec*3er b
a%t*matic re)eat re4%est (516)
7* .es 7* .es
!irt%a# circ%its2 -e4%e&ce &%mberi&,
a&d re*rderi&,
7* .es .es 0)ti*&a#
8#*9 c*&tr*# 7* .es .es .es
$*&,esti*& a3*ida&ce2 !ariab#e
c*&,esti*& 9i&d*9: s#*9 start: time
*%ts
7* .es .es .es
M%#ti)#e streams 7* 7* 7* .es
Applic!tion !)er In Mobile Computing
!he !pplic!tion l!)er is the seventh level of the seven&layer ?-I
model. It interfaces directly to and performs common application
services for the application processes$ it also issues requests to the
presentation layer.
!he common application layer services provide semantic conversion
between associated application processes. 9ote: :amples of common
application services of general interest include the virtual file, virtual
terminal, and Aob transfer and manipulation protocols.
!he application layer of the four layer and five layer !C"#I" models
corresponds to the application layer, the presentation layer and
session layer in the seven layer ?-I model.
!he application layer is the top layer in the ?-I protocol stack.
'pplications that provide network features reside at this layer and
access underlying communication protocols. :amples include file
access and transfer over the network, resource sharing, and print
services. !he ?-I model specifies that applications must provide their
own layer I protocols. !he ?-I F!'+ ,File !ransfer 'ccess and
+anagement. utility and the O.N11 electronic mail standard provide
services at the ?-I application layer.
In the Internet world, the application layer resides directly on top of the
!C"#I" protocol stack. In this model, the presentation layer and session
layer of the ?-I protocol stack are used. !he application layer talks
directly with the transport layer ,!C" and U<".. Common Internet
applications in the application layer include !elnet, F!" ,File !ransfer
"rotocol., 9F- ,9etwork File -ystem., -+!" ,-imple +ail !ransport
"rotocol., and <9- ,<omain 9ame -ystem..
Securit) In Wirele%% Mobile Computing
Securit) in Bro!d Sen%e
-ecuring information from unauthorized access is a maAor problem for
any network & wireline or wireless -ecurity, in a broad sense, focuses
on network security, system security, information security, and
physical security. It is made up of a suite of multiple technologies that
solve numerous authentication, information integrity, and identification
problems. It includes the following technologies U firewalls,
authentication servers, biometrics, cryptography, intrusion detection,
virus protection, and *"9s.
"nder%t!nding the Component%

A Schematic of Security Architecture for Mobile WAP-based Devices
Securit) Problem%
-ecurity is an even greater problem for wireless networks, since radio
signals travel through the open atmosphere where they can be
intercepted by individuals who are constantly on the move P and
therefore difficult to track down. -econdly, wireless solutions are,
almost universally, dependent on public&shared infrastructure where
you have much less control of, and knowledge about, the security
discipline employed. 7orror stories of hackers scanning airwaves and
siphoning off cellular I< numbers for fraudulent use have become
commonplace. :ven pager messages are no longer safe.
7ere are some eamples of common security breaches@
Interception of law enforcement data on -+2, private radio or
C<"< networks by criminal elements
Interception of credit card authorizations over wireless networks
"hysical breach of security at unmanned base stations or other
communications centers.
Interception of e&mail messages on wireless internet connections
-tealing of cellular airtime
3hile it may not be possible to make any system completely secure,
there are certain steps that can be and must be taken to ensure that
the risk of security breaches is minimized.
-ources of -ecurity 8eaks
+any local echange carriers use microwave communications for their
inter&8'!' calls. -ince the frequencies used by carriers is public
information, it is not at all difficult for an intruder to intercept both
voice and data transmissions.
:ven with inter&echange circuits increasingly being converted to fiber,
radio and satellite transmissions are still used by many carriers.
9etwork providers should be asked specifically what type of circuits
are used for traffic back&haul from base stations, and in particular what
circuits will be used in any proposed networking solution.
!ampering with Cellular 9'+s as a -ecurity 8eak
' common problem in the cellular industry is the theft of air time by
individuals who make cellular calls without paying for them. !hese
people have found a relatively easy way of pirating the numeric
assignment numbers ,9'+s. of valid users. :ven combinations of 9'+
plus +'9/ or +'9F sequences are no longer secure. "C- digital
networks are somewhat more secure than analog cellular networks.
Ste!ling In'orm!tion
It is not uncommon for individuals intent on industrial espionage to
scoop up vast quantities of information by placing small scanners at
appropriate locations and searching with very powerful algorithms.
Credit card numbers and bank account numbers are among the most
common types of information stolen. 3hile such an effort does require
determination and planning on the part of thieves, it should be
remembered that often the law breaker is far more motivated than is
the person in charge of security. -ecurity system designers need to
keep this in mind and to make their security arrangement as tight as
the technology and the budget will allow.
Wirele%% A. Securit) Con%ider!tion%
3ireless 8'9s used to ,some still do. rely on 3ired :quivalent "rivacy
,3:". protocol & that uses N1 bit encryption. !his is not strong enough
encryption in todayEs environment. !his code can be broken in a day or
less by a good encryption hacker, according to University of (erkeleyEs
research team. !he following schematic from e3eek ,February /F,
F11/ issue. shows how this is possible.
9ow vendors have started implementing superior encryption codes. 's
an eample, Cisco 'ironet =;1 wireless 8'9 uses 2adius security
protocol based on /FJ bit encryption. 3ireless 8'9 infrastructure
planners should investigate the level of security built into vendorEs
hardware. %o to our siteEs 3ireless -ecurity pages for more. For virus
protection in wireless environment, go here.
Impro/ing WA. Securit)
I::: J1F.//i +ore durable standards based security solution. !he
standard will be approved in late F11= with vendors building products
to comply with it in F11N in our estimation.
Interim -olutions@ a number of solutions have been proposed by
different vendors. -ome of these are described hereunder@
'theros ,' chip vendor. ':- -olution & 'theros is to include ':-
,advanced :ncryption -tandard. in its net generation of chips.
'theros builds chips for J1F.//a, J1F.//b and J1F.//g. ':- is in
firmware. :ventually will require chip upgrade.
-ymbol !emporal 4ey Integrity "rotocol ,!4I". @ 3ill require

upgrade in future when J1F.//i is implemented. -ymbol has
announced a scaled&down version of !4I" called +obile Computer
+ode ,+C+. for handheld devices that can not handle full&
fledged !4I"..
CiscoEs ":'"& "rotected :tensible authentication "rotocol &
Combines transport layer security and :'". 'uthored by
+icrosoft, Cisco and 2-' -ecurity Inc., it is already in some
products.
-pecial -ecurity %ateway boes & From (lue-ocket and 2eefedge
3:"F & 2ebuild 3:" using new 'dvanced :ncryption -tandard
,':-. instead of 2CN and 4erberos authentication
P!c(et Ke)ing 1 Thi% relie% on modi'ic!tion to RC; th!t
e%%enti!ll) clo%e% the loop hole in W0P
SS. <Simple Secure .et$or(= Initi!ti/e 'rom S)mbol>
Inter%il> Intermec> Micro%o't !nd Ci%co 1 "nder thi%
%cheme> encr)ption (e) ch!nge% periodic!ll)
VP.% 'or H!ndheld De/ice%
VP. Client h!% been built 'or Poc(et PC 1 go to
http7??$$$#poc(etpc#com
Admit&ne 'or Poc(et PC 'rom *un( %o't$!re 1
http7??$$$#'un(#com
Certicom@% Mo/i!nVP. 'or Windo$% C0> P!lm> !nd
S)mbi!n 1
http7??$$#certicom#com
Mergic VP. 'ort P!lm &S http7??$$$#mergic#com
De%igning 'or Securit) in Mobile Computing
!here are several steps that can be taken in designing for security in
mobile computing networks and applications@
Ph)%ic!l Securit)> Policie% !nd Procedure%
!here is no point in implementing epensive hi&tech security systems
while the physical security of end user devices, base stations, and
information servers is ignored. ' notebook left in the back seat of an
unlocked car is an obvious and only too common security violation that
should be discouraged in the strongest possible terms.
!his potential problem will soon be eacerbated with the advent of
inepensive "C-#"C9 micro&cells located in small and unattended sites
throughout communities.
Applic!tion !nd S)%tem A%%i%ted Securit)
!he use of user passwords and similar mechanisms is very common
method of ensuring security. 3e shall not dwell on these techniques
here. Instead, we shall concentrate on mobile computing security
issues.
Di!l B!c( !% ! Securit) Techni2ue
2emote access type mobile computing applications can incorporate
dial back technique where users and their location are known. +any
hardware&based security servers provide this feature.
*ire$!ll% A Securit) Ser/er% !t the Ho%t
+any specialized security companies are providing security servers
that can be installed at the corporate host server. -everal 2emote
'ccess -ervers also provide this functionality as an integral part of the
communications server. Cylink is well&known for providing 2'- security
products in wireline remote access environment. Cou may get more
information from their web site.
2acalMs %uardata 3atchword II token offers convenient alternatives to
passwords based on common names, birthdays, etc. 3hen using
3atch3ord II, critical information is never entered in clear. !he
operating principle is based on the challenge#response mechanism
described in the '9-I OH.F0 secure sign&on standard. !he user enables
the token by entering a "I9. !he 3atch3ord %enerate process takes a
digital challenge from the host computer system entered into the
token P which then generates a seven&digit response@ a one&time
password. !he response is calculated from the challenge using the <:-
cryptographic process. !here is a security controller or server at the
host between the modem pool and the information server. It is
anticipated that the net generation of security products will integrate
security into the modem or communications server products.
9ow, wireless security servers are being provided by companies such
as Certicom, <iversinet, :ntrust ,subsidiary of 9ortel., -oneraEs
-mart!rust ,for m&commerce., etc.. "lease see references to these
vendors further down in the page..
De%igning 'or Securit) in Mobile Computing##
!here are several steps that can be taken in designing for security in
mobile computing networks and applications@
Ph)%ic!l Securit)> Policie% !nd Procedure%
!here is no point in implementing epensive hi&tech security systems
while the physical security of end user devices, base stations, and
information servers is ignored. ' notebook left in the back seat of an
unlocked car is an obvious and only too common security violation that
should be discouraged in the strongest possible terms.
!his potential problem will soon be eacerbated with the advent of
inepensive "C-#"C9 micro&cells located in small and unattended sites
throughout communities.
Applic!tion !nd S)%tem A%%i%ted Securit)
!he use of user passwords and similar mechanisms is very common
method of ensuring security. 3e shall not dwell on these techniques
here. Instead, we shall concentrate on mobile computing security
issues.
Di!l B!c( !% ! Securit) Techni2ue
2emote access type mobile computing applications can incorporate
dial back technique where users and their location are known. +any
hardware&based security servers provide this feature.
*ire$!ll% A Securit) Ser/er% !t the Ho%tB
+any specialized security companies are providing security servers
that can be installed at the corporate host server. -everal 2emote
'ccess -ervers also provide this functionality as an integral part of the
communications server. Cylink is well&known for providing 2'- security
products in wireline remote access environment. Cou may get more
information from their web site.
%uardata 3atchword II token offers convenient alternatives to
passwords based on common names, birthdays, etc. 3hen using
3atch3ord II, critical information is never entered in clear. !he
operating principle is based on the challenge#response mechanism
described in the '9-I OH.F0 secure sign&on standard. !he user enables
the token by entering a "I9. !he 3atch3ord %enerate process takes a
digital challenge from the host computer system entered into the
token P which then generates a seven&digit response@ a one&time
password. !he response is calculated from the challenge using the <:-
cryptographic process. !here is a security controller or server at the
host between the modem pool and the information server. It is
anticipated that the net generation of security products will integrate
security into the modem or communications server products.
9ow, wireless security servers are being provided by companies such
as Certicom, <iversinet, :ntrust ,subsidiary of 9ortel., -oneraEs
-mart!rust ,for m&commerce., etc.. "lease see references to these
vendors further down in the page..
D!t! 0ncr)ption Proce%% in Mobile Computing
:ncryption involves scrambling digital information&bits with
mathematical algorithms and is the most potent protection available
against security intrusions into wireless and wire line communications.
<ifferent encryption schemes have been proposed and implemented.
!he <ata :ncryption -tandard ,<:-. is one algorithm that has held
sway since the /HI1s. 2-', based on public key cryptography and
named for the three +I! professors P 2ivest, -hamir and 'dleman P
who developed it, is another. "retty %ood "rivacy ,"%". is a public
domain implementation of 2-' available for non&commercial use on
the Internet in 9orth 'merica.
+any cellular carriers are now providing encryption between cell sites
and the +!-?. Unfortunately, the last segment ,i.e., between the end
user device and the cell, or base station. obviously cannot be
encrypted and this is where all the theft occurs. For end&to&end
security, the only answer is to build encryption#decryption capabilities
into the end user device itself. Unfortunately, this can be done only
with end user devices on digital cellular networks P and digital cellular
is still not ubiquitous ,only N1 percent&coverage in the U.-. in /HH;,
according to <ataquest..
0ncr)ption Ke) T)pe%
!here are three types of keys used in encrypting data@
/. ' private key known only by the sender and the recipient
F. ' private#public key combination
=. ' one&time key
Vendor Director)
3ireless -ecurity -oftware*endors ,%eneral&purpose 3ireless 8'9 and
3'9 Issues.
Bluefire Security Technologies
website :
email :
tel :
address :
www.bluefiresecurity.com
N/A
1-410-637-8171
Product Service Descri!tion :
provides complete security solution for !ndeld
devices" deliverin# firew!ll" intrusion prevention"
inte#rity m!n!#ement" encryption" !utentic!tion !nd
policy-b!sed enterprise security m!n!#ement fe!ture
t!t !llow secure use of mobile !nd wireless
!pplic!tions.
Blueice "esearch - now !art of #e$us - Swedish %om!any &'une ())(*
website
:
email :
tel :
address
:
www.ne$us.co
m
N/A
N/A
%ultip!ss solution provides &'( services to &)As !nd sm!rt pones -
user !utentic!tion" certific!te re*uest !ndlin#" di#it!l si#n!ture
verific!tion !s well !s di#it!l receipt services
Bluesoc+et
website :
email :
tel :
address
:
www.bluesoc+et.com
info,bluesoc+et.com
1-781-3-8-0888
7 New .n#l!nd .$ecutive &!r+ 4t
/loor
0urlin#ton" %A 01803" 12A
&rovidin# 34AN security !nd m!n!#ement
solutions
%erticom
website :
email :
tel :
address :
www.certicom.com
N/A
1-510-780-51--
6erticom7s %ovi!n6rypt product for &!lm 82" uses te
new Adv!nced .ncryption 2t!nd!rd 9A.2: !l#oritm"
encrypts e!c record in ! &!lm7s d!t!b!se.
,-Secure
website :
email :
tel :
address :
www.f-
secure.com
N/A
N/A
Product Service
Descri!tion :
Antivirus for &)As - &oc+et
&6" &!lm 82 !nd No+i! ;-00
92ymbi!n 82 pl!tform:. /-
2ecure7s 2ecurity,<!nd
includes its /ile6rypto
softw!re. /ile6rypto uses
1-8bit encryption !nd re*uires
! p!ssword to decrypt files.
.ncryption is controlled vi!
policy !dministr!tion tools"
wic lets (= m!n!#ers ret!in
some control over te w!y
users !ndle sensitive d!t!.
PDA-./
website :
email :
tel :
address :
www.pd!lo+.com
N/A
N/A
Product Service
Descri!tion :
&)A4o+> uses Penflow0s
Biometric Signature
"ecognition 9find out
more:" wic me!sures
uni*ue be!viour!l
c!r!cteristics" to ensure
only te ri#tful owner is
#r!nted !ccess to teir
&oc+et &6. (dentific!tion
only t!+es ! millisecond?
PDA Defense
website :
email :
tel :
address :
www.pd!defense.com
N/A
N/A
Product Service
Descri!tion :
&)A )efense provides
multi-l!yered security
91-8-bit 0lowfis
encryption: for &!lm"
&oc+et &6 !nd
0l!c+berry devices. &)A
)efense is bein# used
witin milit!ry" te 3ite
<ouse" te /0( !nd
civili!n enterprises. &)A
)efense .nterprise
supports or#!ni@!tions
wit 50 &)A users or
more.
Trust Digitals PDA Secure
website :
email :
tel :
address :
www.trustdi#it!l.com
N/A
N/A
Product Service
Descri!tion :
=rust )i#it!l provides
bot st!nd-!lone !nd
enterprise 9networ+ed0
version of its softw!re for
securin# &)A d!t!
Mergic 1P# for Palm .S
website :
email :
tel :
address :
www.mer#ic.com
N/A
N/A
Product Service
Descri!tion :
%er#ic> A&N !llows you
to securely !ccess !
priv!te networ+" suc !s
your corpor!te or ome
4AN" usin# ! connection to
te (nternet. =is me!ns
t!t you c!n !ccess
resources on your 4AN Bust
!s if you were directly
connected to it.
Tip% *or Wirele%% Securit)
:nterprises should look at the enterprise security principles and
infrastructure before deciding on handheld security software.
!herefore, wireless security issues should be addressed
consistent with overall enterprise security architecture.
Cou should analyze the entire transaction or message path,
including wireless network, *"9 gateways, wireless network
providerEs routers#gateways, network interconnections between
I-"s and the enterprise, enterprise firewalls, enterprise
authentication servers, user location hardware like wireless
routers and handheld device itself
:tend eisting authentication management infrastructure for
mobile security, if possible assuming that such software supports
wireless networks and mobile devices.
If you are medium or large enterprise, focus on directories,
authentication servers, access management servers, *"9
gateways and I" address management tools
Install anti&virus software for the handheld device. V
2oaming issues between wireless networks should be
considered. 2emember, wireless security is a problem in not only
wireless 8'9s. It is also a problem in wireless wide&area
networks, including those supplied by I-"s.
Install filtering to avoid flooding of e&mails on handheld devices
(esides user id and passwords, augment security by at
authentication servers, smart cards, biometrics, "4I or digital
certificates.
Critic!l Succe%% *!ctor% 'or Wirele%% Securit)
Information Courtesy of Capslock
Capslock ,www.capslock.fi., a provider of secure wireless infrastructure
software for etending web and other application access to all wireless
devices, has created the following list of considerations to help
organizations implement secure wireless access@
-ecurity may be hard, and soft. -I+ cards that work with the current
generation of 3'" devices are easy to use and do provide a hardware
approach to basic encryption and decryption capabilities. (ut not all
wireless devices can use them. Future "<' and -mart "hone platforms,
running :"?C, +obile )ava, +obile 8inu, "alm?- or 3indows C: =.1 or
later will require something different. ' software approach provides the
only possible multi&platform security solution and should be considered
instead of or in addition to -I+ cards.
+irror, mirror on the call. 3hatever degree of security you implement
for your web application, you should mirror it for mobile access to that
application. -ecurity is not automatic for wireless access. It is a
different transport, separate from the fied connection to your web
application. <onMt transmit unencrypted transactions to wireless
devices that are not secured or encrypted on your web site. +ake the
same assumptions about security for the wireless services you offer as
you do on your web site.
. ItMs safer at home. !he best wireless security implementation may be
defeated or ineffective when a user is roaming. +ake sure that
planning and testing of security measures account for users that roam.
?ne is the loneliest number. 9o single security solution is likely to
address all security risks. (e prepared to implement multiple
approaches to completely secure wireless application access. For
many, the perception eists that viruses are the primary or only
security threat in the wireless world. *iruses are a real threat, but only
half of the problem. -ending data in the clear that should be
encrypted, and allowing user access without authentication pose even
greater security threats. ' wireless security plan should address all of
these eposures.
?ne size doesnMt fit all. <ifferent levels of security are needed for
different mobile services. -ecure chatting services probably donMt
require the same robust encryption you would implement for a
commerce transaction. -ecurity should be tailored to the wireless
application to prevent over&securing some mobile services, and leaving
others eposed. (ut donMt the service provider make these decisions.
-ervice providers should offer an easy download of a secure client
component when needed, but users should have a say about when
they invoke these measures. !hen, the wireless device should
graphically display when a secure connection is in use.
W!tch th!t he!/) li'ting# !he processing power and memory
capacity of many wireless devices is quite limited. -elect encryption
solutions that account for these limited resources and rely on the
server to do as much of the Wheavy liftingX as possible. (enchmarking
the performance of security solutions with mobilized applications is
highly recommended.
There m!) be chin(% in )our !rmor# Cour wireless carrier provides
some security for you, including security between the wireless device
and the base station and across the carrierMs physical network
connecting base stations and switching centers. (ut the carrierMs
security measures end with the network and therefore donMt provide
end&to&end, cross&platform security for any wireless device. For
eample, 3'" Internet access introduces a point of potential
vulnerability where the 3ireless !ransport 8ayer -ecurity
,38!-., which secures the connection between the mobile device and
the 3'" gateway, changes to a -ecure -ocket 8ayer ,--8. connection
between the 3'" gateway and the 3eb server. ' comprehensive
solution for wireless access should provide a secure end&to&end
channel for transmission, authentication and encryption that works in
any kind of network environment, fied or wireless, that supports
!C"#I".eV
Mobile Computing Applic!tion I%%ue%
!he programs used in mobile devices like mobile phones, laptops, palm
computers, etc. for internet connectivity and other computer related
activities are called mobile computing applications. !he various issues
and designs of mobile computing application are discussed under
various headings below.
Technic!l De%ign
First comes the !echnical <esign Issues, which consist of network
design, capacity planning, response time calculations, data
compression considerations, system availability design and security
issues. !he technical design plays a key role in a mobile computing
proAect and offers unique challenges to the system professionals.
.et$or( De%ign
'll issues regarding 3ireless 8'9 design and 3ide 'rea 2adio 9etwork
<esign which network design comprises are discussed below.
!# Wirele%% A. de%ign i%%ue%
!he number of mobile users who will use wireless 8'9 and the
number of them active during the peak period.
!he types of 8'9 application accessed by them. ,4eeping in mind
that wireless 8'9s will not be acceptable for the intended users
as they operate at much slower speeds than wired 8'9s..
Use of notebook with a wireless 9IC as a primary and user
device.
2oaming areas, location L range of needed access point.
Impact of construction materials in single penetration.
"referred technology&spread spectrum or frequency hopping.
2adio frequency interference from any other devices in office,
factory or campus etc.
b# Wide Are! R!dio .et$or( De%ign I%%ue%
!he need of building a private radio network.
+ost appropriate radio network technology for the suite of
applications.
+atching of user application&usage profiles to a given network
capacity.
Integration of 29' technology with a radio network
infrastructure.
:nsuring good coverage L minimum number of dead spots.
If distributed wireless network design with several +C--s must
be usedS
+anaging the way logic networks will be influenced by network
design options.
The C!p!cit) Pl!nning C re%pon%e time C!lcul!tion%#
' mobile computing application transaction has to cover a synchronous
set of hardware as well as software components before it reaches the
destination server. <iverse physical links, wireless L wired line in
between the end userEs client application software and the information
server are present in its reverse path too. -o scheduling on a network
requires comple rules, which makes it difficult to build a mathematical
model to estimate response times. "lanning reliable capacities in
advance is a hard task still. !he network providers give an estimate
using comple queuing models or rule&of thumb calculation based on
the other customerEs eperience.
D!t! Compre%%ion Con%ider!tion
's the bandwidth of wireless network is scarce L inepensive it is
necessary to compress data to get the maimum out of this
bandwidth. !his is usually done in the modem by going beyond the
modem hardware in reducing the quantity of traffic on wireless
networks using client application programs.
S)%tem !/!il!bilit) De%ign
2ather than sticking on with the general base station hardware L
network controllers, redundancy L message switches are typically built
on fault&tolerant platforms. "ublic shared network providers must be
approached for details of their redundancies. +C-- is another vital
component that badly needs inbuilt redundancy.
Securit) i%%ue%
It is tough to track down securing information by unauthorized access.
Common security breaches of mobile computing applications include,
9etwork by criminal elements.
"hysical breach security at communication centers mainly
unmanned base stations.
Interception of credit card authorization over wireless network.
Careful security considerations including on&the&air encryption L
firewalls must be used.
&ther th!n technic!l de%ign the ne+t m!:or i%%ue
under Mobile computing !pplic!tion i% 0rgonomic% C
ogi%tic% De%ign $here the de%igner% e/!lu!te the
'ollo$ing#
Form factor of end user device
(attery life
Input method&keyboard, pen, touch or voice
2uggedness
3hether "ortable or fied
-afety L 7ealth issues.
+obile computing application deals with the future of computer usage
and is therefore of great relevance.
Mobile Applic!tion De/elopment Pl!t'orm
+obile application development platforms are aided by various specific
as well as generic sets of tools. !he following are the various choices in
development tools.
!raditional +icrosoft 3indows HJ # F111 # 9! # O" tools.

"alm ?- 'pplication <evelopment tools@ )ava being the standard
dominant application development tool for server side
programming has made it easier to write safe and reliable code
through features, like automatic memorizing and standard
eception&handling. )ava interfaces are supported by several
application servers.

+odern 'pplication -erver !ools offer application server solutions
in a web environment based on conventional application servers
and this etension is moulded for mobile applications and
wireless networks.
Wirele%% .et$or( %peci'ic de/elopment#
-everal mobile gateway vendors like I(+, (road beam, ?racle, -ybase,
and !elecordia technologies offer mobile application development tools
kit. Investigating specialized middleware for wireless and mobile
applications are conducted to find the vendors who address all these
requirements.
D!t! %)nchroniD!tion product%
9umerous files L <(+- synchronization products are available to solve
the problem of synchronizing information in notebook and "<'s with
master information in the desktop or the server. Customization can be
done through '"Is.
!he various choices in development tools being furnished for +obile
application development platforms, decision&making regarding use of
the same, becomes easy.

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CHAPTER 6.

MOBILE COMPUTING CONCEPTS

-ymbol !emporal 4ey Integrity "rotocol ,!4I". @ 3ill require

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