Del Operator

Del Operator
The del operator ( )is a vector differential
operator. This operator is extremely used
in operations on vector calculus and is
primarily useful in defining:
1. The gradient of a scalar V, written as
2. The divergence of a vector ,written as
3. The curl of a vector , written as
4. The Laplacian of a scalar V, written as
V
V V
D - V D
E E x V
V
2
V
Del Operator
Del Operator in the different coordinate
systems:
Cartesian:

Cylindrical:

Spherical:
z y x
a
z
a
y
a
x c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V
z
a
z
a a
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V
|
|
1
| u
| u u
a
r
a
r
a
r
r
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V
sin
1 1
Gradient of a Scalar
Suppose that T
1
(x,y,z) is the temperature
at point P
1
(x,y,z) in some region of space
and T
2
(x + dx, y + dy, z + dz) is the
temperature at a near by point P
2
. the
differential distance dx, dy, and dz are the
components of the differential vector . l d
z y x
a dz a dy a dx l d + + =
Gradient of a Scalar
The differential temperature dT = T
2
T
1
is
given by:

We can rewrite the equation as:
dz
z
T
dy
y
T
dx
x
T
dT
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
z y x
a l d
z
T
a l d
y
T
a l d
x
T
dT -
c
c
+ -
c
c
+ -
c
c
=
l d a
z
T
a
y
T
a
x
T
dT
z y x
-
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
Gradient of a Scalar

Differential distance vector between P
1
and P
2
.
Gradient of a Scalar
The vector inside the parenthesis defines
the change in temperature dT
corresponding to a vector change in
position . This vector is called the
gradient of T ( or grad T)
l d
T V
l d T a
z
T
a
y
T
a
x
T
gradT T
z y x
- V =
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= = V
Gradient of a Scalar
Note that the gradient operator has no
physical meaning in itself. It achieves
physical meaning once operated on a
scalar physical quantity. The result of this
operation is a vector whose magnitude is
equal to the maximum rate of change of
that physical quantity per unit distance and
whose direction is along the direction of
the maximum increase.
Gradient of a Scalar
With , where is the unit vector
of , the directional derivative of T along
the direction of is:
l
a dl l d = l
a
l d
l
a
l
a T
dl
dT
- V =
Example
The electric field intensity is derivable as
the negative gradient of the electric
potential V, . Let V = 2xy
2
z
3
+
3ln(x
2
+ 2y
2
+ 3z
2
). At point P(3,2,-1),
evaluate: (a) |V| at P; (b)
V E V =
E
Example
Determine the gradient of V
O
e
-2
sin3 at
(1, /2, 3) in cylindrical coordinates.
Example
Given = xy + yz + xz, determine the
gradient of at point (1,2,3) and the
directional derivative of at the same
point in the direction toward (3,4,4).
Divergence and Divergence
Theorem
= net flow of the flux of around
a closed surface

Definition: The divergence of at a given
point P is the outward flux per unit volume
as the volume shrinks about P.
D
D
}
- S d D
v
S d D
D divD
v
A
-
= - V =
}
A
lim
0
Divergence and Divergence
Theorem
We may consider the divergence of a
vector field at a given point as a
measure of how much the field diverges or
emanates from that point.

We can obtain an expression for
divergence in Cartesian coordinates as
shown in the figure
D
Divergence and Divergence
Theorem

S d D S d D
Bottom Top Right Left Back Front
-
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + + + = -
} } } } } } }
Divergence and Divergence
Theorem
A three dimensional Taylor series
expansion of D
X
about P:


Where we only have to approximate D
X
at
this front face. The front face is at a
distance x/2 from P. Hence,
D
X,front
= D
X0
+ x/2 (rate of change of D
X

with x)
( ) z y D a z y D S d D
front x
x
Front
Front
A A = A A - = -
}
,
Divergence and Divergence
Theorem
D
X,front
= D
X0
+ (x/2)(cD
x
/ cx)
Where D
X0
is the value of D
X
at P and
where a partial derivative must be used to
express the rate of change of D
X
with x, as
D
X
in general also varies with y and z. This
expression could be more formally
obtained by using the constant term and
the term involving the first derivative in the
Taylors series expansion of D
X
in the
neighborhood of P.
Divergence and Divergence
Theorem
We now have:

Consider now the integral over the back
surface:

and
z y
x
D x
D S d D
x
x
Front
A A
|
.
|

\
|
c
c A
+ = -
}
2
0
( ) z y D a z y D S d D
back x
x
Back
Back
A A = A A - = -
}
,
|
.
|

\
|
c
c A
=
x
D x
D D
x
x back x
2
0 ,
Divergence and Divergence
Theorem
giving

Combining the two terms:

Performing the same process, we may
determine that:
z y
x
D x
D S d D
x
x
Back
A A
|
.
|

\
|
c
c A
+ = -
}
2
0
z y x
x
D
x
Back Front
A A A
c
c
= +
} }
z y x
y
D
y
Left Right
A A A
c
c
= +
} }
z y x
z
D
z
Bottom Top
A A A
c
c
= +
} }
z y x
z
D
y
D
x
D
S d D
z
y
x
Front
A A A
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= -
}
Divergence and Divergence
Theorem
Returning to the definition of divergence
with v = x yz


Divergence Formulas
Cartesian:

Cylindrical:
z
D
y
D
x
D
v
S d D
D divD
z
y
x S
v
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
A
-
= - V =
}
A 0
lim
z
D
y
D
x
D
D divD
z
y
x
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= - V =
( )
z
D
D
D D divD
z
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= - V =
|


|
1 1
Divergence and Divergence
Theorem
Spherical:

Properties of the Divergence of a Vector
field
1. It produces a scalar field (since dot
product is involved).
2. The divergence of a scalar V makes no
sense.
( ) ( )
| u
u
u u
|
u
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= - V =
D
r
D
r
Dr r
r r
D divD
sin
1
sin
sin
1 1
2
2
Divergence and Divergence
Theorem
From the definition, one can also expect
that:

This is called the divergence theorem or
the Gauss-Ostogradsky theorem.
The divergence theorem states that the
total outward flux of a vector field through
a closed surface S is the same as the
volume integral of the divergence of .
} }
- V = -
V S
dv D S d D
D
Divergence and Divergence
Theorem
Example:
Calculate the divergence at the point
specified if:
(a)
at P(2,3,-1)
(b)
at P(2,110
O
,-1)
z y x
ya x a xy z x a y xyz D
2 2 2
) 2 ( ) 2 ( + + =
z
a z a z a z D | | |
|
2 2 2 2 2
sin 2 2 sin sin 2 + + =
Divergence and Divergence
Theorem
Example:
Evaluate both sides of the divergence
theorem for the field

in the region. 0 < x < 2, 0 < y < 3, 0 < z <
5.
z y x
yza a z x xya D 4 ) ( 2 4
2 2
+ + + =
Curl of a Vector
The curl of a vector is an axial or rotational
vector whose magnitude is the maximum
circulation of per unit area as the area
tends to zero and whose direction of the
area when the area is oriented so as to
make the circulation maximum.
max
0
lim
N
L
S
a
S
l d A
A x A curl
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
A
-
= V =
}
A
Curl of a Vector
The curl provides the maximum value of
the circulation of the field per unit area
(circulation density) and indicates the
direction along which this maximum value
occurs. The curl of a vector may be
viewed as a measure of the circulation or
how much the field curls around a point.
Curl of a Vector
Some properties of the Curl:
1. The curl of a vector field is another vector
field.
2. The curl of a scalar field, , makes no
sense.
3. The divergence of the curl of a vector field
vanishes, that is, .
4. The curl of the gradient of a scalar field
vanishes, that is, .
A x V
( ) 0 = V - V A x
0 = V V V x
Curl of a Vector
Derived Formulas for the Curl:
Cartesian:

Cylindrical:

Spherical:
z
x
y
y
z x
x
y
z
a
y
H
x
H
a
x
H
z
H
a
z
H
y
H
H x
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

c
c
+ |
.
|

\
|
c
c

c
c
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

c
c
= V
z
z z
a
H H
a
H
z
H
a
z
H
H
H x
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

c
c
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

c
c
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

c
c
= V
|

|
|
|

|
) (
1 1
|
u
u
|
u
|
u | u | u
u
u
a
H
r
rH
r
a
r
rH
H
r
a
H
H
r
H x
r r
r |
.
|

\
|
c
c

c
c
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

c
c
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

c
c
= V
) ( 1
) (
sin
1 1
) sin (
1
sin
1
Curl of a Vector
Stokes Theorem
Stokes theorem states that the circulation
of a vector field around a closed path L is
equal to the surface integral of the curl of
over the open surface S bounded by L
provided that and are continuous on S
( ) S d A x l d A
S L
- V = -
} }
Curl of a Vector
Example:
Determine the curl of the following vector
fields and evaluate them at the points
specified:
(a)
at (1, -2, 3)
(b)
at (5, /2, 1)
z y x
a y a xy a yz A + + = 4
|
| | a z a z B cos 3 sin
2
+ =
Curl of a Vector
Example:
If
, verify Stokes theorem over the
hemisphere and .
z y x
a x a x a z F ) 1 4 ( ) 2 3 ( ) 5 2 ( + + + =
4
2 2 2
= + + z y x
0 > z
Laplacian of a Scalar
The Laplacian of a scalar field V, written
as , is the divergence of the gradient
of V.

V
2
V
Laplacian of a Scalar
Laplacian:
In cartesian coordinates:


In cylindrical coordinates:


In spherical coordinates:
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
z
V
y
V
x
V
V
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V
2
2
2
2
2
2
1 1
z
V V V
V
c
c
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
c
c
= V
|

2
2
2 2 2
2
2
2
sin
1
sin
sin
1 1
| u u
u
u u c
c
+
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
c
c
+
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
c
c
= V
V
r
V
r r
V
r
r r
V
Laplacian of a Scalar
A scalar field V is deemed harmonic in a
given region if its Laplacian vanishes in
the region: . This is also called Laplaces
equation.

Laplacian of a Vector
When applied to vectors, is now defined
as the gradient of the divergence of minus
the curl of the curl of
Laplacian of a Scalar
Example
Find the laplacian of the following scalar
field
(a)
(b)
y xz F + =
|

2 sin
20
sin
20
2
2
2
+ = D
Classification of Vector Fields
A vector field is uniquely characterized
by its divergence and curl. All vector fields
can be classified in terms of their
vanishing or non-vanishing divergence or
curl as follows:
0 , 0 . 4
0 , 0 . 3
0 , 0 . 2
0 , 0 . 1
= V = - V
= V = - V
= V = - V
= V = - V
A x A
A x A
A x A
A x A
Classification of Vector Fields







Illustration of the categories of vector fields
Classification of Vector Fields
A vector field is said to be solenoidal (or
divergenceless) if . Such field
has neither source nor sink. From the
divergence theorem:
Hence, flux lines of entering any closed
surface must also leave it. Examples of
solenoidal fields are incompressible fluids,
magnetic fields and conduction current
density under steady state conditions.
A
0 = - V A
0 = - V = -
} }
dv A S d A
v S
Classification of Vector Fields
A vector field is said to be irrotational (or
potential) if .
Thus, in an irrotational field, the circulation
of around a closed path is identically zero.
This implies that the line integral of is
independent of the chosen path. Therefore,
an irrotational field is also known as a
conservative field. Examples of irrotational
field are the electrostatic field and the
gravitational field.
0 = V A x
( ) 0 = - V = -
} }
S d A x l d A
S L