MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Group No. 1


Marzo, Shintaro D.

Abaya, Princess Monica B.
Briones, Minette A.
Dinglasan, Alyssa R.
Lasi, Frances Doreen B.
Real, Mark Joseph M.
















2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Introduction and Terminology for Mechanical Properties
Reporter: Marzo, Shintaro D.

The mechanical properties of a material describe how it will react to physical
forces. Mechanical properties occur as a result of the physical properties inherent to
each material, and are determined through a series of standardized mechanical tests.
Having knowledge about the mechanical properties of a material is essential in
material selection. Some materials can become brittle when temperatures are low
and/or strain rates are high. The special chemistry of the steel used on the Titanic and
the stresses associated with the fabrication and embrittlement of this steel when
subjected to lower temperatures have been identified as factors contributing to the
failure of the ships hull.
There are some commonly used terminologies used for mechanical properties:
Stress: Force per unit area over which the force is acting.
Strain: Elongation per unit length.
Modulus of Elasticity (E): Youngs modulus, or the slope of the linear part
of the stressstrain curve in the elastic region. It is a measure of the
stiffness of the bonds of a material and is not strongly dependent upon
microstructure.
Plastic deformation or strain: Permanent deformation of a material when a
load is applied, then removed.
Elastomers: Natural or synthetic plastics that are composed of molecules
with spring-like coils that lead to large elastic deformations (e.g., natural
rubber, silicones).
Viscous material: A viscous material is one in which the strain develops
over a period of time and the material does not return to its original shape
after the stress is removed.
Anelastic (viscoelastic) material: A material in which the total strain
developed has elastic and viscous components. Part of the total strain
recovers similar to elastic strain. Some part, though, recovers over a
period of time. Examples of viscoelastic materials include polymer melts
and many polymers. Typically, the term anelastic is used for metallic
materials.
Stress relaxation: Decrease in stress for a material held under constant
strain as a function of time, which is observed in viscoelastic materials.
Stress relaxation is different from time dependent recovery of strain.
Viscosity (): Measure of the resistance to flow, defined as the ratio of
shear stress to shear strain rate (units Poise or Pa-s).

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Newtonian Materials: in which the shear stress and shear strain rate are
linearly related (e.g., light oil or water).
Non-Newtonian: Materials in which the shear stress and shear strain rate
are not linearly related; these materials are shear thinning or shear
thickening (e.g., polymer melts, slurries, paints, etc.).
Shear thinning (pseudoplastics): Materials in which the apparent viscosity
decreases with increasing rate of shear.
Shear thickening (dilatant): Materials in which the apparent viscosity
increases with increasing rate of shear.
Thixotropic behavior: Materials that show shear thinning and also an
apparent viscosity that at a constant rate of shear decreases with time.
Rheopectic behavior: Materials that show shear thickening and also an
apparent viscosity that at a constant rate of shear increases with time.

References:
http://www.engineershandbook.com/Materials/mechanical.htm
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FSGeskFzE0s
The Science and Engineering of Materials, 6e, Askeland, Fulay, Wright
















4 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Hardness of Materials, Strain Rate Effects and Impact Behavior
Reporter: Dinglasan, Alyssa R.

HARDNESS OF MATERIALS
Hardness the relative capacity or resistance of a material to scratching or indentation.
Measurements of Hardness:
Scratch Hardness - the measure of how resistant a sample is to fracture or
permanent plastic deformation due to friction from a sharp object.

Rebound hardness - also known as dynamic hardness, measures the
height of the "bounce" of a diamond-tipped hammer dropped from a fixed
height onto a material.

Indentation hardness - measures the resistance of a sample to material
deformation due to a constant compression load from a sharp object.
Hardness Tests
Rockwell Hardness Test
- uses a small-diameter steel ball for soft materials and a diamond cone which
is called a Brale, for harder materials. The testing machine automatically
measures the depth of penetration of the indenter and converts it to the
Rockwell hardness number (HR).
- There are two variations of this test, the Rockwell C (HRC) test which is used
for hard steels and the Rockwell F (HRF) which is more suited for aluminium.
Brinell Hardness Test
- uses a hard steel sphere (usually 10mm in diameter) which is forced into the
surface of the material. The diameter of the impression is measured and the
Brinell hardness number (HB) is calculated.
Vickers hardness test
- similar to Brinell hardness test but usually uses a diamond pyramid indentor.
Knoop hardness test
- a microhardness test, forming such small indentations that a microscope is
required to obtain the measurement. The load t apply should be less than 2N.


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STRAIN RATE EFFECTS AND IMPACT BEHAVIOR
When a material is subjected to a sudden, intense blow, in which the strain rate
is extremely rapid, it may behave in a much more brittle manner than it is observed in
the tensile stress.
An impact test is used to evaluate the brittleness of a material under these
conditions. Note that the strain rates in this test are much higher.
In the Izod test (usually for plastics), a heavy pendulum, starting at an elevation
h
0
, swings through its arc, strikes and breaks the specimen, and reaches a lower final
elevation h
f
. Now, if we know the initial and final elevations of the pendulum, we can
calculate the difference in potential energy. This difference is the impact energy
absorbed by the specimen during failure.
Impact toughness is the ability of a material to withstand an impact blow.
Tensile toughness is the area under the true or engineering stress-strain curve.
In both cases, we are measuring the energy needed to fracture a material. The
difference is that, in tensile tests, the strain rates are much smaller compared to those
used in an impact test. Another difference is that in an impact test we usually deal with
materials that have a notch.
Fracture toughness is the ability of the material containing flaws to withstand
applied load.
Properties Obtained from Impact Test
Ductile to Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT)
o the temperature at which a material changes from ductile to brittle fracture.
Notch Sensitivity
o this cause concentrating stress and reducing toughness of materials. The
absorbed energies are much lower in notched specimens if the material is
notch-sensitive.
References:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardness
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charpy_impact_test
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tpGhqQvftAo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RJXJpeH78iU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G2JGNlIvNC4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5HcsPgkusZ0
http://realitypod.com/2011/08/top-10-hardest-materials/

6 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
The Science and Engineering of Materials, 6e, Askeland, Fulay, Wright













Fracture Mechanics
Reporter: Marzo, Shintaro D.

Fracture mechanics is the discipline concerned with the behavior of materials
containing cracks or other small flaws. The term flaw refers to such features as small
pores (holes), inclusions, or microcracks. Fracture toughness measures the ability of a
material containing a flaw to withstand an applied load.
From investigating fallen structures, engineers found that most failure began with
cracks. These cracks may be caused by material defects (dislocation, impurities...),
discontinuities in assembly and/or design (sharp corners, grooves, nicks, voids...), harsh
environments (thermal stress, corrosion...) and damages in service (impact, fatigue,
unexpected loads...). Most microscopic cracks are arrested inside the material but it
takes one run-away crack to destroy the whole structure.
To analyze the relationship among stresses, cracks, and fracture toughness,
Fracture Mechanics was introduced. The first milestone was set by A. A. Griffith in his
famous 1920 paper that quantitatively relates the flaw size to the fracture stresses.
However, Griffith's approach is too primitive for engineering applications and is only
good for brittle materials.

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Fracture mechanics is significant for its approach allows us to design and select
materials while taking into account the inevitable presence of flaws.
1. Selection of a Material: If we know the maximum size of flaws in the
material and the magnitude of the applied stress, we can select a material
that has a fracture toughness K
C
or K
1C
large enough to prevent the flaw
from growing.
2. Design of a Component: If we know the maximum size of any flaw and the
material (and therefore its K
C
or K
1C
has already been selected), we can
calculate the maximum stress that the component can withstand. Then we
can size the part appropriately to ensure that the maximum stress is not
exceeded.
3. Design of a Manufacturing or Testing Method: If the material has been
selected, the applied stress is known, and the size of the component is
fixed, we can calculate the maximum size of a flaw that can be tolerated.
A nondestructive testing technique that detects any flaw greater than this
critical size can help ensure that the part will function safely. In addition,
we find that, by selecting the correct manufacturing process, we can
produce flaws that are all smaller than this critical size.



Brittle fracture refers to any crack or imperfection limits the ability of a ceramic to
withstand a tensile stress. This is because a crack (sometimes called a Griffith flaw)
concentrates and magnifies the applied stress.
Three ways of applying a force to enable a crack to
propagate:

Mode I fracture Opening mode (a tensile stress normal to
the plane of the crack)





8 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Mode II fracture Sliding mode (a shear stress acting parallel to the plane of the
crack and perpendicular to the crack front)



Mode III fracture Tearing mode (a shear stress
acting parallel to the plane of the crack and
parallel to the crack front)




References:
http://www.efunda.com/formulae/solid_mechanics/fracture_mechanics/fm_intro.cfm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fracture_mechanics
The Science and Engineering of Materials, 6e, Askeland, Fulay, Wright
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1r84NWV710

Microstructural Features of Fracture in Metallic Materials & Microstructural
Features of Fracture in Ceramics, Glasses, and Composites
Reporter: Abaya, Princess Monica B.

Microstructural Features of Fracture in Metallic Materials
Fracture is the separation of a body into two or more pieces in response to an
imposed stress that is static and at temperatures that are low relative to the melting
temperature of the material. Failure in structures leads to lost of properties and
sometimes lost of human lives. Failure in metallic materials can be divided into two main
categories; Ductile and Brittle Fracture.
Ductile fracture normally occurs in a transgranular manner in metals that have
good ductility and toughness and are usually caused by simple overloads, or by
applying too high a stress to the material. It involves a large amount of plastic
deformation and can be detected beforehand. Microvoids are formed when a high

9 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
stress causes separation of the metal at grain boundaries or interfaces between the
metal and small impurity particles.
Brittle Fracture occurs in high-strength metals and alloys or metals and alloys
with poor ductility and toughness. It is frequently observed when impact, rather than
overload causes failure. Brittle fracture is more catastrophic and has been intensively
studied. In some cases, the crack may take an intergranular path particularly when
segregation or inclusions weaken the grain boundaries. Chevron Pattern is a common
fracture feature produced by separate crack fronts propagating at different levels in the
material. It is visible with the naked eye or a magnifying glass and helps us identify both
the brittle nature of the failure process as well as the origin of the failure.

Microstructural Features of Fracture in Ceramics, Glasses, and Composites
In Ceramic Materials, Ionic or covalent bonds permit little or no slip.
Consequently, failure is a result of brittle fracture. Most crystalline ceramics fail by
cleavage along widely spaced, closely packed planes. Fracture surface is typically
smooth and frequently no characteristic surface features point to the origin of the
fracture.
Glass is also a fracture in a brittle manner. Conchoidal fracture is a fracture
surface containing a very smooth mirror zone near the origin of the fracture, with tear
lines comprising the remainder of the surface.
Polymers fail by either a ductile or brittle mechanism. Composites are fracture
in fiber-reinforced composite materials is more complex. These composites contain
strong, brittle fibers surrounded by a soft, ductile matrix, as in boron- reinforced
aluminum.


References:
http://neon.mems.cmu.edu/rollett/27301/L6A_GriffithEq-15Oct07.pdf
www.ttu.ee/public/s/Sustainable.../materials/..._/L13-14_Fracture.pptx
http://books.google.com.ph/books?id=ZbBWT6r4VG4C&pg=PA198&lpg=PA198&dq=Mi
crostructure+Features+of+fracture+in+Ceramics,+Glasses+and+Composites&source=bl
&ots=18m5qWtUPq&sig=gz0kb3BnGCEvuEjKtDAhP6QBJfk&hl=en&sa=X&ei=LfveU7T
MCNO6uASI-
YLwDg&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Microstructure%20Features%20of%20fr
acture%20in%20Ceramics%2C%20Glasses%20and%20Composites&f=false
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6apSK893p7E
The Science and Engineering of Materials, 6e, Askeland, Fulay, Wright

10 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES




















Fatigue
Reporter: Lasi,Frances Doreen B.

Fatigue is the structural damage that results from repeated or otherwise varying
stress which never reaches a level sufficient to cause failure in a single application.
Fatigue is also the initiation and growth of a crack, or growth from a pre-existing defect,
which progresses until a critical size is reached.
Some terminologies used for fatigueness of a material:
Fatigue: is the lowering of strength or failure of a material due to cyclic loading.

11 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Stages of Fatigue Failure
Initiation: is the most complex stage of fatigue fracture.The initiation site of a given
fatigue fracture is very small, never extending for more than two to five grains around
the origin.
Propagation: is a stage where fatigue causes the microcrack to change direction and
grow perpendicular to the tensile stress.
Rapid Fracture Crack: As the propagation of the fatigue crack continues, gradually
reducing the cross-sectional area of the part or test specimen, it eventually weakens the
part so greatly that final, complete fracture can occur with only one more load
application.
Fatigue Life:The number of cycles permitted at a particular stress before a material fails
by fatigue.
Fatigue Test: Measures the resistance of a material to failure when the stress below the
yield strength is repeatedly applied.
Fatigue Strength: the stress required to
cause failure by fatigue in a given number of
cycles, such as 500 million cycles.
S-N Curve (Whler Curve) : a graph showing
stress as a function of number of cycles in
fatigue.
Endurance Ratio: Endurance limit divided by
the tensile strength of the material. The ratio
is about 0.5 for many ferrous metals.
Endurance limit: An older concept that
defined a stress below which a material will not fail in a fatigue test.
Tensile strength (TS) or ultimate strength, is the maximum stress that a material can
withstand while being stretched or pulled before failing or breaking.

Factors that affect Fatigue Failure:

Mean Stress: increasing the mean stress level leads to a decrease in fatigue life.
Surface Effects: For many common loading situations, the maximum stress within a
component or structure occurs at its surface. Consequently, most cracks leading to
fatigue failure originate at surface positions, specifically at stress amplification sites.

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Design Factors: The design of a component can have a significant influence on its
fatigue characteristics. Any notch or geometrical discontinuity can act as a stress raiser
and fatigue crack initiation site; these design features include grooves, holes, keyways,
threads, and so on.
Surface Treatments: During machining operations, small scratches and grooves are
invariably introduced into the work piece surface by cutting tool action. These surface
markings can limit the fatigue life.

Figure (a), represents a revolving shaft with sharp corner Figure (b) is a revolving shaft
with fillet in corners for fatigue life improvement.


Case Hardening: is a technique by which both surface hardness and fatigue life are
enhanced for steel alloys. This is accomplished by a carburizing or nitriding process
whereby a component is exposed to a carbonaceous or nitrogenous atmosphere at an
elevated temperature.
Environmental Effects
Thermal fatigue: is normally induced at
elevated temperatures by fluctuating
thermal stresses; mechanical stresses
from an external source need not be
present.
Corrosion fatigue: is the failure that
occurs by the simultaneous action of a
cyclic stress and chemical attack.
References:
The Science and Engineering of Materials, 6e, Askeland, Fulay, Wright
Calister, William D. Jr. ; Rethwisch, David G. Materials Science and Engineering, 8th
edition John Wiley & Sons, Inc. , 2010
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6apSK893p7E
http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatigue_(material)





13 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES


































Creep
Reporter: Minette A. Briones

Creep which sometimes called cold flow is a time dependent permanent
deformation at high temperatures, occurring at constant load or constant stress and the
tendency of solid material to move slowly or deform permanently under the influence of
mechanical stresses. It is more severe in materials that are subjected to heat like metals
for long periods, and generally increases as they near their melting point.

Creep test will help to determine the creep characteristic of a metal, wherein it
measures the resistance of a material to deformation and failure when subjected to a

14 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
static load below the yield strength at an elevated temperature.

Stages of Creep

In the first stage or the primary stage of creep of metals, many dislocations climb
away from obstacles equals the rate at which the dislocations are blocked by other
imperfections. The second state which is known as steady-state creep is the most
understood stage wherein the steady-state portion of the creep curve is the creep rate.

Creep rate =




During the third stage or the tertiary creep, necking begins, the stress increases,
and the specimen deforms at an accelerated rate until failure occurs.


References:
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creep_(deformation)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hUk2_Y34WRI
The Science and Engineering of Materials, 6e, Askeland, Fulay, Wright











Stress Rupture and Stress Corrosion
Reporter: Mark Joseph M. Real

Stress Rupture is the sudden and complete failure of a material held under a
definite constant load for a given period of time at a specific temperature. In stress
rupture testing, loads may be applied by tensile bending, flexural, biaxial or hydrostatic
methods. Ductile stress-rupture failures occur at high creep rates and relatively low
exposure temperatures and have short rupture times. Brittle stress-rupture failures show
only little necking and occur more often at smaller creep rates and high temperatures.
And theres a way to measure the stress rupture by means of Stress Rupture Test
(SRT) determines the tendencies of materials that may break under an overload. During

15 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
the stress rupture test, material is subjected to a constant load at a constant
temperature while the time to rupture is measured. The reported results are very useful
in the selection of materials where dimensional tolerances are not critical, but rupture
cannot be allowed.

Stress Corrosion is a phenomenon in which materials react with corrosive
chemicals in the environment. This lead to formation of cracks and lowering of strength.
Stress Corrosion is evidenced when the metal strength loss resulting from the combined
stress and corrosion is greater than the effects of stress and corrosion acting
separately. The magnitude of the combined effect is a measure of the susceptibility of
the material to stress corrosion. SCC is the conjoint action of stress and a corrosive
environment which leads to the formation of a crack which would not have developed by
the action of the stress or environment alone. Why is it a problem? Because, it can
happen unexpectedly and rapidly after a period of satisfactory service leading to
catastrophic failure of structures or leaks in pipe work. Where does it occur? Typical
SCC failures are seen in pressure vessels, pipework, highly stressed components and
in systems when an excursion from normal operating conditions or the environment
occurs.

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is the growth of crack formation in
a corrosive environment. It can lead to unexpected sudden failure of
normally ductile metals subjected to a tensile stress, especially at elevated temperature
in the case of metals. SCC is highly chemically specific in that certain alloys are likely to
undergo SCC only when exposed to a small number of chemical environments. The
chemical environment that causes SCC for a given alloy is often one which is only
mildly corrosive to the metal otherwise. Hence, metal parts with severe SCC can appear
bright and shiny, while being filled with microscopic cracks. This factor makes it
common for SCC to go undetected prior to failure. SCC often progresses rapidly, and is
more common among alloys than pure metals.

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) results from the combined action of three factors:
1. Tensile stresses in the material
2. A corrosive medium - especially chloride-bearing or hydrogen- sulphide (H
2
S) media.
Chloride-induced SCC normally occurs above 60C (140F).
3. The use of material susceptible to stress corrosion cracking (SCC)

Methods of minimizing stress corrosion

By selecting a material that is not susceptible
By controlling stresses through careful design and minimizing stress
By keeping concentrations below the critical value
By reducing stresses through heat treatments and careful design for
manufacturing
By using corrosion inhibitors during cleaning operations

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By coating the material and effectively isolating the material from the
environment

References:
http://www.labtesting.com/services/materials-testing/mechanical-testing/stress-rupture/
http://corrosion-doctors.org/Forms-SCC/scc.htm
http://www.smt.sandvik.com/en/materials-center/corrosion/wet-corrosion/stress-
corrosion-cracking-scc/
The Science and Engineering of Materials, 6e, Askeland, Fulay, Wright
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z0bmZGcQOu8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4As4csiS4bg