Sentence Structure

Sentences are nice little packages of words that come together to

express one complete thought.
They make it easy to understand ideas and learn information.
In order to be a complete sentence, a group of words needs to contain a
subject and a verb, and it needs to express a complete thought.
If a group of words is missing any of that information, it is called a
sentence fragment.
If you have a group of words that contains two or more independent
clauses that are not properly punctuated, it is called a run-on sentence.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SPE!IN" ND WRITIN"
There are many diferences between the processes of speaking and
writing. riting is not simply speech written down on paper. !earning to
write is not a natural extension of learning to speak. "nlike speech,
writing re#uires systematic instruction and practice. $ere are some of the
diferences between speaking and writing that may clarify things for you
and help you in your eforts as a writer and speaker.
SPEEC# WRITIN"
"niversal, everybody ac#uires it
%ot everyone learns to read and
write
Spoken language has dialect
variations that represent a region
ritten language is more restricted
and generally follows a standardised
form of grammar, structure,
organi&ation, and vocabulary
Speakers use their voices 'pitch,
rhythm, stress( and their bodies to
communicate their message
riters rely on the words on the
page to express meaning and their
ideas
Speakers use pauses and intonation riters use punctuation
Speakers pronounce riters spell
Speaking is often spontaneous and
unplanned.
)ost writing is planned and can be
changed through editing and
revision before an audience reads it
Speakers have immediate audiences
who nod, interrupt, #uestion and
comment
riters have a delayed response
from audiences or none at all and
have only one opportunity to convey
their message, be interesting,
informative, accurate and hold their
reader*s attention
Speech is usually informal and
repetitive
riting on the other hand is more
formal and compact. It progresses
more logically ith fewer
explanations and digressions.
Speakers use simpler sentences
connected by lots of ands and buts.
riters use more complex
sentences ith connecting words
like however, ho, although, and in
addition.
Speakers draw on their listeners
reactions to know how or whether to
continue
riters are often solitary in their
process
Speakers can gauge the attitudes,
beliefs, and feelings of their
audience by their verbal and non-
verbal reactions
riters must consider what and how
much their audience needs to know
about a given topic
Intro$uct%on to Wr%t%ng & 'anguage an$ st(le
In any language, diferent styles of expression are appropriate in diferent
situations. e can go from the formal to the informal, the written to the
spoken, from technical language 'or +argon( to slang.
Pr%nc%ples o) Engl%sh *r%tten st(le+
Note: these are principles: they are by no means to be considered as
"rules".
a( The more )ormal a document is, the more it will use inanimate nouns
as sub+ects of a sentence.
b( The more )ormal language is, the more it is likely to use passive
structures.
c( The more )ormal language is, the more verbal nouns it will use.
d( The more )ormal a document is, the more words of !atin origin it will
use.
Conversel(
a( The more %n)ormal or spontaneous language is, the more it will use
humans as the sub+ects of sentences.
b( The more %n)ormal a text is, the less it will use passive structures,
c( The more %n)ormal a text is, the more it will use verb structures
'where a choice is possible( instead of verbal nouns.
b( The more %n)ormal or spoken a text is, the more words of ,ermanic
origin it will use.
WRITIN" NEWSPPER RTIC'ES
%ews writing is a key skill for +ournalists, but it helps with other types of writing
as well. That*s because news writing is about telling a story #uickly and
concisely. -nyone can learn to do this, with a bit of help. $ere*s how you can
write the news and get your story across. The techni#ue also works well for
writing press releases.
Ne*s Wr%t%ng Structure
%ews writing has its own structure. It*s called the inverted pyramid 'see
diagram above(. This upside down triangle serves as a guide for how you
include information in the story. "sing the inverted pyramid means starting
with the most important information, then putting the next most important info
and so on. It can also serve as a guide for writing each paragraph in the story.
Start with the most important point, then the next most important and so on.
The inverted pyramid has an interesting history. .efore digital printing and
desktop publishing, news was laid out manually. If a late breaking story came in
and the editor needed to make room, then the editor would order another story
to be cut. $aving the most important information at the top meant that readers
always got the essential parts of the story.
Wr%t%ng The Facts
-nother way to think of the inverted pyramid is that you start with the facts
and then add the background. So, how do you know what background to add/
It*s easy. 0ou can use the 6Ws
Strictly speaking, there aren*t six Ws, there are actually 1s and 2$, but the
formula seems to work. That mnemonic reminds us to include the *ho,
*here, *hat, *h(, *hen and ho* of a story.
8 Parts of Speech
Here are some sentences made with different English parts of speech:
1) Verb
2) Noun
3) Pronoun
4) d!ecti"e
#) d"erb
$) Preposition
%) &on!unction
') (nter!ection
%nterject
%on
pro
n-
con
j-
a$j-
nou
n
verb
pre
p-
nou
n
$ve
rb
ell, she and
youn
g
3ohn
walke
d
To
scho
ol
slowly
.
Essay Writing
Three .a%n Parts o) an Essa(+
2( The Intro$uct%on - will explain the academic problem as you see it, and say
how you intend to handle it. It tells the reader what to expect, and what to look
for. The introduction of a persuasive essay or paper must be substantial.
$aving 4nished it, the reader ought to have a very clear idea of the author5s
purpose in writing.
6( The Bo$( /or Content0 & of the essay will contain the points you want to
make, with supporting arguments and evidence. It must show the reader that
you know your sub+ect. 0ou do this by explaining the sub+ect to the reader. It
should also present the evidence for the essay5s argument.
7( The Conclus%on & In much the same way that the introduction lays out the
thesis for the reader, the conclusion of the paper should reiterate the main
points8it should never introduce new ideas or things not discussed in the body
of the paper98and bring the argument home. The force with which you express
the theme here is especially important, because if you5re ever going to
convince the reader that your thesis has merit, it will be in the conclusion. -ll in
all, remember these are the last words your reader will hear from you before
passing +udgment on your argument. )ake them as focused and forceful as
possible.
The F%ve&Paragraph Essa(
- classic format for compositions is the 4ve-paragraph essay. It is not the
only format for writing an essay, of course, but it is a useful model for
you to keep in mind, especially as you begin to develop your
composition skills.
:aragraph 2 ; The Introduction
:aragraphs 6, 7, and < ; The .ody of the =ssay 'developments of the
main arguments(
:aragraph 1 ; The >onclusion
-s an example of the estimated length of each of these sections, and
taking a 1?? word essay as a model, the following estimates give an
idea of the length of each section@
2( Introduction ; 2?? words
6( The .ody ; 71? words
7( The >onclusion ; 1? words
n Example Essa( /1,222 *or$s0
Th%s %s ho* an essa( plan m%ght loo3 /%t shoul$ be poss%ble *%th
a short essa( o) 1,222 *or$s or so to get the plan on to t*o or
three sheets o) paper0+
40 Intro$uct%on
- few lines of notes on how you*re going to introduce the essay. Three or
four lines will be suAcient. rite this part of the plan and the conclusion
last.
10 .a%n arguments
S%ngle sentence statement o) the po%nt to be
ma$e ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...
.. ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....
Notes on ho* the po%nt *%ll be $evelope$ /%nclu$e re)erences to
texts, page numbers
etc0- ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ....
. ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..
... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .
....
$$%t%onal sentence sho*%ng ho* po%nt %s relevant to t%tle
/necessar( %) (ou have a ten$enc( to stra( )rom the t%tle0
..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ....
. .....
Carry on with the above (Point 2, Point 3 etc.) until you reach the last
one.
50 Conclus%on
- few lines giving you an idea of how you might conclude your work.
Bemember, it*s always best to write the essay, add a few tentative lines
in the way of a conclusion, then put it to one side for a couple of days
before returning to it to complete the conclusion.
Essa( *r%t%ng gu%$e+ stages o) *r%t%ng an essa(
hen writing an essay, certain things need to be done at several stages.
4- nal(se an$ $e6ne the top%c or 7uest%on
-nalyse the topic or #uestion if it is already set ; what =C->T!0 is the
lecturer asking you to do/
If answering a set #uestion, use the sub+ect-angle-process method of
analysis.
If writing on a general topic, consider making it into a #uestion as a
speci4c #uestion is easier to research and write on than a general topic.
1- I$ent%)( some 3e( %$eas
!ook at course outlines, lecture notes, tutorialDseminar readings to
identify key themes of the course.
"se brainstorming or mind-mapping techni#ues to identify key ideas.
5- The 6rst l%terature search
.ased on the topic and the brainstorming session, identify some
E=0FBGS with which to search library catalogues, abstracts and
databases for material.
:ay particular attention to +ournals in the general 4eld ; skim back
issues.
>over the key writers in the 4eld ; how can you identify these/
8- Rea$
Initially, it may be useful to go over the seminarDrecommended readings
on the topic or set #uestion before looking at the materials discovered
during independent research.
Bead to obtain an overview of what people are writing on the topic@
where are the debates within this topic/ hat are the key issues of these
debates/ -re there any key theorists writing on the topic/ hat evidence
is being used to +ustify each position or interpretation of the topic/
Take careful notes as you read.
9- Formulate (our argument %n relat%on to the top%c
Try to express your argument or position in one clear sentence, eg, HIt is
argued that . . .I
The argument re#uires supporting evidence and ideas.
%ext, consider what things you need to do to persuade the reader of
your position. ill you need to de4ne key terms, compare and contrast,
critically evaluate the literature, provide background context, analyse a
case study, and so on/ Fnce you have thought of the things you will do,
this is called the structure of argument and it provides a potential outline
of the main sections of the essay.
:- Develop the prel%m%nar( outl%ne o) the essa(
The 4rst division of your topic into parts represents your view of what is
important in these debates@ this is your preliminary analysis.
Eeeping the re#uired length of the essay in mind, transfer key ideas and
supporting ideas from the brainstorm session to a linear structure
'outline(.
:repare a more detailed outline ; with a section and sub-section plan.
=xpand or contract the outline to suit the length re#uired ; add or delete
main points, supporting points, the evidence you will use to explain and
support them, potential responses to counter-arguments or challenges to
your position.
;- Wr%te the 6rst $ra)t+ )or (oursel)
The purpose of this draft is to work out what you think about the topic, in
relation to what you have read.
Try to write it all in one go@ .FG0, >F%>!"SIF% then I%TBFG">TIF%
last/ hich order do you prefer/
<- Do some more )ocuse$ rea$%ng
Identify where you need more information.
idenDextendDnarrow your literature search for more material.
Jind examples to support your main points.
=- Ta3e a brea3
:ut some critical distance and time between yourself and your work.
42- Rev%se 6rst $ra)t, complete secon$ $ra)t+ )or (our rea$er
,ive this draft to someone else for comments and feedback, for
example, a friend, your partner, a fellow student, or an -S!> adviser.
Take note of their comments.
44- E$%t
"se a checklist for editing the 4nal draft, which incorporates formatting
re#uirements as well as things you know you often have problems with,
eg, referencing, expression, etc.
CDE.IC WRITIN" PR>T>C>'S
W#T IS REFERENCIN"?
hen you research a topic for an assignment you may use ideas or
information from a number of sources, including books, articles from
+ournals or newspapers, and websites to support your own work.
Beferencing is a way of showing what sources you have used, giving
credit to the original authors.
W#@ D> WE REFERENCE?
Wh( $o *e re)erence?
To avoid plag%ar%sm by giving credit to the original source of an
idea, piece of information or resource.
To support your work with the authoritative work of another author.
To demonstrate your knowledge and familiarity with a topic that
you have researched.
To help readers of your work to 4nd the original source of
information or ideas that you have used.
We nee$ to re)erence %n the )ollo*%ng s%tuat%ons+
when presenting the views and work of others, you must give an
indication of the source of the material@
5... as Sharpe (!!3) has shown", and then give full details of the
work #uoted in your bibliography
i
.
if you #uote text verbati#, make this completely evident@
5The elk is of necessity less graceful than the ga&elle5 'Thompson,
2K<6, p. <L( and then give the full details in your bibliography as
above.
if you wish to set out the work of another at length so that you can
produce a counter-argument, set the #uoted text apart from your
own text 'e.g. by indenting a paragraph( and identify it in a
suitable way 'e.g. by using inverted commas and adding a
reference as above(.
W#T IS P'"IRIS.?
:lagiarism is presenting the words or ideas of someone else as your own
without giving credit to the original author.
#>W T> A>ID P'"IRIS.
!earn good note-taking techni#ues
Paraphrase appropriately
Summar%se correctly and eAciently
"se direct #uotations appropriately, and always referenced.
"se 5common 3no*le$geB
l*a(s reference your sources correctly.
i
W#T IS P'"IRIS.?
:lagiarism is presenting the words or ideas of someone else as your own without giving
credit to the original author.
#>W T> A>ID P'"IRIS.
!earn good note-taking techni#ues
Paraphrase appropriately
Summar%se correctly and eAciently
"se direct #uotations appropriately, and always referenced.
"se 5common 3no*le$geB
l*a(s reference your sources correctly.