Glassman [1], the optimum ratio of V

y1
to U
1
is given by
V
y1
U
1
1
2
Z
r
61
where Z
r
is the rotor blade count at the inlet (includes both full and partial
blades). The optimum blade speed occurs for U=C
0
0:7 [see Eq. (43)]
according to empirical data from Rodgers [27] and analytical results from
Rohlik [28]. Specication of the optimum rotor inlet vector diagram is
completed by choosing a stator exit angle of approximately 758 (measured
from radial) based on data from Rohlik [28].
Due to the change in radius through the rotor, local blade solidity (the
ratio of blade spacing to chord) changes appreciably. At the rotor inlet,
more blades are needed than at the rotor exit if uniform blade loading is to
be maintained. This situation can be treated by adding partial blades at the
rotor inlet. These partial blades, called splitters, end before the exducer. The
intent of adding the splitter blades is to reduce the blade loading in the inlet
portion of the rotor and so reduce the boundary-layer losses. However, the
splitters increase the rotor surface area, counteracting some of the benet of
reduced loading. Futral and Wasserbauer [29] tested a radial-inow turbine
both with and without splitters (the splitters were machined off for the
second test) and found only slight differences in turbine performance. In this
particular case, the benets of reduced blade loading were almost completely
offset by the increased surface area frictional losses. It is not clear that this
result can be universally extended, but it does indicate that splitters should
not always be included in a radial-inow turbine design.
For low-cost turbines such as those in automotive turbochargers, no
nozzle vanes are used, with all ow turning being done in the scroll. This
increases the scroll frictional losses due to the increased velocity and also
decreases the obtainable rotor inlet absolute ow angle. Balje [3] has
calculated the efciency ratio for radial-inow turbines with and without
nozzles and found it to be approximately 0.92, regardless of specic speed.
Adjustments for the effects of diffusers and Reynolds number changes
are similar to those previously presented for axial turbines.
Mechanical, Geometric, and Manufacturing Constraints
Radial-inow turbine design is as much affected by mechanical considera-
tions as axial-inow turbines. As with axial-ow turbines, turbine efciency
for high-temperature applications is limited by materials, not aerodynamics.
Material and manufacturing limitations affect both the geometry of the
turbine wheel and its operating conditions.
Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
When Rohlik performed his analytical study in 1968, he limited the
rotor exit hub-to-tip radius ratio to values greater than 0.4. The turbine
investigated by Kofskey and Nusbaum [25] had a hub-to-tip radius ratio at
the exit of 0.53. However, with the desire for smaller and less expensive
turbine wheels, hub-to-tip radius ratios now are seen as low as 0.25 and less.
Along with inertia and stress considerations, this limits rotor blade count
from 10 to 14 (Rodgers [27]).
Typical materials for radial-inow turbine wheels are cast superalloys
for high-temperature applications and cast or forged steel for lower
temperatures. Ceramics have been used in production turbochargers and
are in a research stage for small gas turbines. Radial-inow turbine wheels
have three critical stress locations: inlet blade root, exducer blade root, and
hub centerline. Rodgers [27] notes that the tip speed of current superalloy
radial-inow turbine wheels is limited to approximately 2,200 ft/sec. The
exact value is dependent on both operating temperature and desired life. For
moderate inlet temperatures and pressure ratios T
0
in
< 500

F and
p
0
in
=p
dis
< 4, stress considerations, while they must be addressed in the
mechanical design, usually do not constrain the aerodynamic design of the
turbine. This includes free-run operation.
As previously mentioned, radial-inow turbine blades are usually
radial at the inlet to eliminate bending loads. At the exit, the rotor blade
angle is limited to about 608 from axial for manufacturing reasons. With
casting being the preferred method of construction, rotor trailing-edge
thickness should be greater than 0.020 in. Limitations on the radial-inow
stator are similar to those for an axial-ow stator: exit blade angle should be
less than 758 (for a radial-inow stator, this is measured from the radial
direction) and trailing-edge thickness should be 0.015 in. or greater.
Signicantly thicker trailing edges are needed if the stator vanes are cooled.
Trailing-edge blockage for both stators and rotors should be kept below
10% for best performance. With low hub-to-tip radius ratios at rotor exit,
this guideline is frequently violated at the hub, where the blade spacing is
smallest and the trailing-edge thickness is large for mechanical reasons.
Overall package diameter is determined by rotor tip diameter, radius
ratio across the stator, and the size of the scroll. In addition, there is
normally a vaneless space between the stator and rotor, similar to the axial
gap between the stator and rotor in an axial-ow turbine. The vaneless space
radius ratio is usually held to 1.05 or less. Stator vane radius ratio is
controlled by stator vane count and stator turning. In most radial-inow
turbines, a scroll provides a signicant amount of tangential component at
stator inlet, resulting in relatively low amounts of ow deection in the
stator vane row. This results in reduced solidity requirements, so that fewer
and shorter stator vanes can be used. Rodgers [24] states that a common
Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
design fault in the radial-inow turbine stator is too high a value of solidity,
resulting in excessive frictional losses. Based on turbine designs presented by
Rodgers [27] and the turbine used by Kofskey and Nusbaum [25], stator
vane radius ratios range from 1.2 to 1.3. For preliminary sizing exercises, a
value of about 1.25 may be taken as typical. The radius to the centerline of
the scroll inlet of the turbine from Kofskey and Nusbaum [25] is twice the
radius at stator inlet. Cross-section radius at scroll inlet is approximately
two thirds the stator inlet radius, so the maximum package radius is roughly
2.67 times the stator inlet radius. This represents a fairly large scroll,
commensurate with the high efciency levels obtained during testing. For a
reduction in efciency, the scroll size can be reduced.
An Example of Radial-Inow Turbine Sizing
To demonstrate the concepts and guidelines described in this and preceding
sections, we will size a radial-inow turbine for the same application as the
axial-ow turbine example presented earlier. The design requirements for
that turbine were:
1. Generates 100 hp at design point.
2. Operates at an overall pressure ratio of 3:1 in air.
3. Inlet pressure is 44.1 psia, and inlet temperature is 300 8F.
A procedure similar to that used in the axial-ow turbine sizing example will
be used here with a few modications:
1. Determine available energy (isentropic enthalpy drop).
2. Guesstimate overall efciency to calculate ow rate.
3. Calculate vector diagram based on optimum parameters.
4. Select specic speed based on Fig. 17.
5. Determine overall geometry.
6. Determine overall efciency when equipped with a diffuser.
The process is iterative, since the efciency determined in step 6 is used to
improve the efciency guess made in step 2. The process is repeated until the
efciencies from steps 2 and 6 agree. Perfect gas behavior is assumed, with
c
p
0:24 Btu=lb
m
, g 1:4, and R
gas
53:34 ft-lb
f
=lb
m
- sec.
The isentropic overall enthalpy drop across the turbine is the same as
in the axial-ow turbine example:
Dh
isentropic
0:24
Btu
lb
m
R

760 R 1
1
3

0:4=1:4
" #
49:14
Btu
lb
m
Note that more digits are carried through the calculations than indicated, so
Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.