The subscriber telephone set consists of the following parts:

1. Microphone
2. Receiver
3. Switch connections to the telephone system
4. Ringing circuitry
. !ial networ"
The instrument# which contains the microphone an$ the receiver# is calle$ han$set. The han$set is
place$ on the cra$le when the telephone is not in use. %n this position it opens the switches an$
$isconnects the han$set from the telephone system. &n electromagnet# calle$ the ringer is
connecte$ to the telephone line on the e'change si$e# so that a ring can be receive$ from the
e'change when it is calle$. The e'change $etermines that whether the telephone is i$le or busy or
initiating a call by monitoring the $c current. & simplifie$ circuit an$ (loc" $iagram of the
telephone set is shown in the figure.
)ircuit $iagram of subscriber*s telephone set
Telephone Set Transmitter
Microphone in telephony is regar$e$ as transmitter.
%t is a trans$ucer# which converts soun$ energy into
electrical energy. There are $ifferent types of
transmitters but carbon granules transmitter is the
most wi$ely use$ in the han$set of the mo$ern telephony. +e will $iscuss the carbon granule
transmitter only. %t is base$ on the principle that the resistance of carbon granules is inversely
proportional to pressure. The constructional $etails of the carbon transmitter# is illustrate$ in the
figure.
%t is the property of carbon that its resistance varies with pressure. The carbon transmitter $oes
not pro$uce any e.m.f. but only change its resistance with the changing pressure.
)arbon granules are place$ between two electro$es in an insulate$ chamber. ,ne electro$e is
fi'e$ to the bac" of the chamber while the other electro$e is attache$ with the movable
$iaphragm. The two electro$es are connecte$ with the battery. The transmitter offers an electrical
resistance to the flow of current# which is the resistance of the carbon granules. +hen the
$iaphragm moves inwar$ an$ outwar$# $ue to soun$ pressure# the pressure on the carbon
granules also changes. Thus the resistance of the carbon granules also varies with the changing
pressure an$ hence the current flow between the two electro$es also varies. & current variation#
correspon$ing to the soun$ pressure.
Telephone Set Receiver
The soun$ repro$ucer in telephony is calle$
receiver. The receiver $oes the reverse function
of a transmitter. %t is a $evice# which converts
electrical energy into soun$ energy.The
constructional $etails of the telephone receiver# is
shown in the figure.
%t consists of a $iaphragm# permanent magnet
an$ win$ings. +hen the incoming signal current
passes through the win$ings# magnetic flu' is
pro$uce$. The magnetic flu' follows the
magnetic path# which consists of the iron path of
the permanent magnet# the pole pieces#
$iaphragm an$ the two air gaps between the
$iaphragm an$ the pole pieces. Thus a varying magnetic pull is pro$uce$# which causes the
$iaphragm to vibrate in accor$ance with the signal current receive$ an$ hence pro$uce the soun$.
The permanent magnet is use$ to polari-e the receiver. The pull on the $iaphragm $epen$s upon
the magnetic flu' $ensity in the air gaps between the $iaphragm an$ the pole pieces. Thus
ma'imum change will be pro$uce$ when the current changes in the coil.
Side Tone
+hen we spea" in front of the telephone transmitter# .we hear our own voice in the receiver as a
fee$bac". +ith the help of this fee$bac" we are able to a$.ust the volume of our voice accor$ing
to $ifferent situations. +hen the level of this fee$bac" is high# we lower our voice an$ when it is
low. we spea" lou$er This fee$bac" voice is calle$ si$e tone.
Si$e tone may be $efine$ as the repro$uction of soun$ in the receiver pic"e$ up from the
associate$ transmitter. ,r the amount of voice power couple$ from the transmitter to the receiver
of the same telephone.
Too much si$e tone an$ complete absence of it is un$esirable. %n the former case# the spea"er will
"eep his level of volume of voice very low an$ hence will affect the output of the transmitter. %n
the latter case# the telephone will/appear $ea$ to the subscriber an$ this is a very uncomfortable
feeling.
The $esirable amount of si$e tone is that which we have in our $aily free air conversation with
each other across the table.
Antiside Tone Circuit
To control the level of the si$e tone to the $esirable amount anti/si$e ton in$uction coil
0&.S.T.%.)1 is use$ in the subscriber*s telephone set. The anti/si$e tone in$uction coil serves the
following.
1. )ontrol the level of the si$e tone to the $esirable amount.
2. 2nsures that no $c current flows through the receiver.
3. Matching between the impe$ances of the transmitter an$ receiver with that of the line.
& simple circuit arrangement for the re$uction of si$e tone is shown in the 3igure.
The principle of the arrangement can be e'plaine$ as follow.
)onsi$er the figure 0&1 in this case the transmitter is transmitting.%f
4b 5 4i 6 71 5 72
then the transmitter current $ivi$es e8ually in 71an$ 72. The magnetic fiel$ pro$uce$ by these
two win$ings will be e8ual an$ opposite an$ hence cancel each other*s effect# thus no emf is
in$uce$ in 71 an$ the si$e tone is completely eliminate$. 9ractically 71an$ L2 are not e'actly
e8ual an$ hence some emf is in$uce$ in 71# thus the receiver receives a portion of transmitter
current. %n figure 0(1 the receiving current passes through 7% an$ 72. the magnetic fiel$ pro$uce$
are in the same $irection an$ reinforce$ each other*s effect. &n emf is in$uce$ in the receiver
circuit an$ current flows through the receiver.
The anti si$e tone circuit is mo$ifie$ to ma"e it more 9ractical an$ this mo$ifie$ circuit is shown
in the figure.
The tree win$ings 71# 72 an$ 73 are magnetically couple$. 71an$ 72 are not e8ual an$ hence an
emf is in$uce$ in 73 from the transmitter. The value of R# across which the receiver is connecte$#
is such that the voltage $rop across it is e8ual an$ opposite to the emf in$uce$ in 73. This results
in a much re$uce$ si$e tone in the receiver.
Magneto Bell
(ell is a means of signaling. +hen the calling party wants
to call the calle$ party. :e must first give him a bell to
$raw his attention. 3or this purpose magneto bells use$ in
the telephone set of each subscriber. The magneto bell
wor"s on &) supplie$ by the e'change. The
constructional $etail of the magneto bell is shown in the
figure .%t consists of a permanent magnet# two win$ings
on the two legs of the iron yo"e an$ an armature with a
hammer. The static flu' pro$uce$ by the permanent
magnet complete their path through the two parallel
magnetic circuits. &s the static fiel$ in each circuit is
e8ual# thus the armature remains stationary. +hen
alternating current flows through the win$ings#
electromagnets are pro$uce$. The two fiel$s interact with each other# supporting at one si$e an$
wea"ening at the other alternatively. The armature is attracte$ by the stronger magnetic fiel$ an$
the hammer stri"es the gongs alternatively# thus pro$uce a soun$.
Basics Of Communication
What is communication?
)ommunication is the means of transferring a message from a source to $estination in it;s original form at the most economical rate.
The
Telephone Instrument
The Telephone is an instrument that converts soun$ to electrical pulses 6 vice versa.
%t is $esigne$ to carry voice signals from one point to another
%t has a permissible fre8uency range of 3<< to 34<< :ert-.
The Telephone Set
3unction of the
Telephone Set
o )onverts soun$ into electric signals an$ vice versa
o The switch hoo" is a mechanism that originates an$ finali-es calls
KTS, PBX, Hosted PBX,
IP Centrex, CTI, iPBX
and WPBX, 2nd Edition
&uthors: 7awrence :arte# Robert 3loo$
=umber of 9ages: >?
=umber of !iagrams: 42
Select a 3ormat:
This boo" provi$es an intro$uction to the $ifferent types of private telephone
systems# how they operate an$ common call processing features they offer.
9rivate telephone systems are communication e8uipment an$ software that are
owne$# lease$ or operate$ by the companies that use these systems.
9rivate telephone systems are converting from company uni8ue 0proprietary1
circuit switche$ systems to in$ustry stan$ar$ pac"et $ata voice 0%9 Telephony1
systems. @ou will learn the basics of %9 Telephony voice over %nternet protocol
0Ao%91 an$ why it is so important to more....
Sample Diagrams
There are !e'planatory $iagrams in this boo"
Analog and Digital Telephone Stations
This $iagram shows the $ifference between stan$ar$ analog telephone stations
an$ more a$vance$ 9(B stations. This $iagram shows that analog telephones
receive their power $irectly from the telephone line an$ $igital 9(B telephones
re8uire a control section that gets its power from the 9(B system. &nalog
telephones also use in/ban$ signaling to sense comman$s 0e.g.# ring signals1 an$
to sen$ comman$s 0e.g.# sen$ $iale$ $igits1. !igital telephones use out/of/ban$
signaling on separate communication lines to transfer their control information
0e.g.# calling number i$entification1.
WHAT IS DTMF?
When you press a button in the telephone set keypad, a connection is made
that generates a resultant signal o t!o tones at the same time" These t!o tones
are taken rom a ro! re#uency and a column re#uency" The resultant re#uency
signal is called $Dual Tone Multiple Frequency$" These tones are identical and
uni#ue"
A DTMF signal is the algebraic sum o t!o dierent audio re#uencies, and
can be e%pressed as ollo!s&
't( ) A*sin'+,-,a,t( . /*sin'+,-,b,t( . """"""""""" 00000001'2(
Where a and b are t!o dierent audio re#uencies !ith A and / as their
peak amplitudes and as the resultant DTMF signal" a belongs to the lo!
re#uency group and b belongs to the high re#uency group"
3ach o the lo! and high re#uency groups comprise our re#uencies rom
the 4arious keys present on the telephone keypad5 t!o dierent re#uencies, one
rom the high re#uency group and another rom the lo! re#uency group are used
to produce a DTMF signal to represent the pressed key"
The amplitudes o the t!o sine !a4es should be such that
'*"6 7 'A8/( 7 *"9(: 000000001'+(
The re#uencies are chosen such that they are not the harmonics o each
other" The re#uencies associated !ith 4arious keys on the keypad are sho!n in
igure 'A("
When you send these DTMF signals to the telephone e%change through
cables, the ser4ers in the telephone e%change identiies these signals and makes
the connection to the person you are calling"
The ro! and column re#uencies are gi4en belo!&

Fig 'A(
When you press the digit ; in the keypad it generates a resultant tone
signal !hich is made up o re#uencies 66*H< and 2==>H<" ?ressing digit @ !ill
produce the tone taken rom tones @;+H< and 2==>H<" In both the cases, the
column re#uency 2==> H< is the same" These signals are digital signals !hich are
symmetrical !ith the sinusoidal !a4e"
A Typical re#uency is sho!n in the igure belo!&

Figure '/(
Along !ith these DTMF generator in our telephone set pro4ides a set o
special purpose groups o tones, !hich is normally not used in our keypad" These
tones are identiied as AAA, A/A, ABA, ADA" These re#uencies ha4e the same column
re#uency but uses ro! re#uencies gi4en in the table in igure 'A(" These tones
are used or communication signaling"
The re#uency table is as ollo!s&

Figure 'B(
Due to its accuracy and uni#ueness, these DTMF signals are used in controlling
systems using telephones" /y using some DTMF generating IBCs 'DM92+2E,
DM92+2E, etc( !e can generate DTMF tones !ithout depending on the telephone
set"
%n a !eca$ic 9ulse !ialing# also calle$ 7oop !isconnect !ialing# a !irect/)urrent 9ulse Train#
representing each !igit# is pro$uce$ by interrupting a continous Signal accor$ing to a $efine$
Ratio. 3igure 1 shows a !eca$ic 9ulse Telephone.
3igure 1: !eca$ic 9ulse Telephone
& !eca$ic 9ulse Telephone is e8uippe$ with a Rotary !ial with a 3inger 9late over it. The Rotary
!ial is $esigne$ to sen$ 2lectrical 9ulses. 3igure 2 shows the )ircuit of a 9ulse Telephone. The 3
spring contacts: the %mpulsing )ontact 0%)T1# the (ypass Switch 1 0(911 an$ the (ypass Switch
2 0(921 are mounte$ insi$e the Rotary !ial.
3igure 2: The Telephone is Rea$y to ma"e a )all when the :oo" Switch is )lose$. The :an$set
is ,ff the :oo".
Ma"ing a )all:
+hen the )ustomer lifts the :an$set 0,ff :oo"1# the :oo" Switch is close$ an$ a !) 7oop
between the Telephone 2'change an$ the )ustomer is forme$# 3igure 1. Therefore# a )ontinous
)urrent !) flows through the 7oop.
+hile !ialing a =umber# for e'ample# # the !ial is $rawn roun$ in the )loc"wise
!irection to the 3inger Stop 9osition an$ release$. The 3inger 9late will then return to the
Rest 9osition un$er the influence of a spring. Meanwhile# the (92 in the Rotary !ial is
close$ to ma"e a Short )ircuit# thus you hear no $isturbance in the 2arphone $uring
!ialing.
The %)T then generates the !ial 9ulses by closing an$ opening itself to interrupt the !)
)urrent loop. The number of interruptions is e8uivalent to the !iale$ !igit. This type of
Telephone generates two a$$itional 9ulses# which are eliminate$ by the (91.
(esi$es# there is also a mechanical $evice calle$ )entrifugal Covernor# mounte$ insi$e
the Rotary !ial# it helps to maintain a uniform spee$ of rotation.
&fter finishing !ialing# the 9ulses are then $eco$e$ at the Telephone 2'change that ma"e
a connection to the )alle$ )ustomer. The Aoice Signals from the )ustomer will be
transmitte$ to the 2arphone through an %solating Transformer. The 2arphone is connecte$
to the Secon$ary +in$ing of the %solating Transformer. This protects the 2arphone from
being $amage$ by !) )urrent. The Transformer also provi$es an 2lectrical %solation
between the Telephone 2'change an$ the 2ar. %n a$$ition# two anti/parallel !io$es
protects the 2ar from too much =oise. %f the Aoltage in the Secon$ary +in$ing is over a
certain level# one of the !io$es starts to )on$uct an$ ma"es a Short )ircuit for the
2arphone.
+hile tal"ing to the Microphone# the Soun$ Signal is transmitte$ to the )alle$ )ustomer
through the Telephone 2'change.
Receiving a )all:
+hen the :an$set is on the )ra$le# the Telephone is sai$ to be D,n the :oo"D# or rea$y to
receive a )all# 3igure 3. The :oo" Switch is opene$ an$ the path to the right part of the circuit is
$isconnecte$.
+henever there is an %ncoming )all# &n &) Ringing Signal from the Telephone
2'change is transmitte$ to the Telephone. The Ringing Signal is generally 1< m& &)
Signal# with a 3re8uency between 2< an$ 2 :-# that activates an 2lectromagnet which
operates a small :ammer to stri"e the (ells.
3igure 3: The Telephone is Rea$y to receive a )all when the :oo" Switch is ,pene$. The
:an$set is ,n the :oo".
The !TM3 Telephone# as its name implie$# is base$ on a concept "nown as !ual Tone Multi/
3re8uency 0!TM31# 3igure 1. %t generates a combination of two Tones for each !iale$ !igit# an$
sen$s the !igits to the Telephone 2'change by :earable Tones instea$ of 2lectrical 9ulses as in
!eca$ic 9ulse Telephone.
3igure 4: !TM3 Telephone
The !TM3 Telephone is e8uippe$ with a 9ushbutton !ial# in which 1< !ialing !igits 0< through
E1# the Star F G an$ the 9oun$ FHG symbols are assigne$ to specific 9ushbuttons. The 9ushbuttons
are arrange$ in an two/$imensional array with four Rows an$ three )olumns# as shown in 3igure
2. 2ach Row an$ 2ach )olumns is assigne$ a Tone of a specific 3re8uency# the )olumns having
Tones of higher 3re8uencies an$ the Rows having Tones of lower 3re8uencies. +hen a (utton is
pushe$# a !ual/Tone Signal is generate$. This Signal is a combination of Two Tones of $ifferent
3re8uencies# one from the 7ower 3re8uency Croup an$ the other from the Ipper 3re8uency
Croup# an$ it is the reason for calling it F!ual Tone Multi/3re8uencyG. %n this way# J 04 K 31
Tones of $ifferent 3re8uencies are use$ to generate 12 04 ' 31 combinations. 3or e'ample#
pushing the (utton FG# the Tones of JJ< :- an$ 133? :- are transmitte$ together to the
Telephone 2'change. This Signal is $eco$e$ by the Telephone 2'change in or$er to $etermine
which !igit was !iale$.
3igure : The 9ushbutton !ial an$ its correspon$ing 3re8uencies 9airs
Ma"ing a )all:
+hen the )ustomer lifts the :an$set 0,ff :oo"1# the :oo" Switch is close$ an$ a )ircuit
connection between the Telephone 2'change an$ the )ustomer Telephone is forme$.
"eneration of Signaling Tones
&s has been sai$# the operation of any 9ushbutton generates a Signal compose$ of Two
Tones# which last as long as the (utton is pushe$. 3igure 3 shows the )ircuit of a !TM3
Telephone.
3igure ?: The Telephone is Rea$y to ma"e a )all when the :oo" Switch is )lose$. The
:an$set is ,ff the :oo"
There are two ,scillation )ircuits for generating Tones at $ifferent 3re8uencies. 2ach
)ircuit consists of a Three/win$ing )oil 0&# &*# &D an$ (# (*# (D1 an$ a )apacitor 0)&
an$ )(1. +in$ings & an$ ( have a number of Spring )ontacts# $ivi$e$ in to Croup L&
an$ Croup L(. There are seven )ran"s un$er the 9ushbutton !ial# they are shown as the
$otte$ lines in 3igure 3# four of them correspon$s to Rows an$ three to )olumns. The
operation of pushing a (utton results in the actuation of a :ori-ontal )ran" an$ a Aertical
)ran". +hen a )ran" is actuate$# it will close the correspon$ing Spring )ontact. The
closure of one of the L& an$ one of the L( )ontacts connects each )apacitor to one of
the taps on the associate$ +in$ing & an$ (. %n this way# the ,scillation )ircuits
correspon$ing to the !iale$ =umber are setup.
Then# the actuation of the :ori-ontal )ran"s will also put a )ommon Switch L besi$e the
9ushbutton &rray in motion. The )ommon Switch L will operate a set of )ontacts in
se8uential or$er as liste$ in 3igure 3. The or$er an$ function of each )ontact is state$ in
the following:
1. &ttenuates the !ial Tones in the 2arphone so the )ustomer hears the !ial Signal
at a comfortable level.
2. 9owers up the Transistor.
3. !isables the Microphone so that no other =oise is receive$ from it to interfere the
!ial Signal.
4. %nitiates the !ual/Tone Signal from the ,scillation )ircuits. This Signal is
sustaine$ by 3ee$bac" &mplification through the Transistor an$ the Transformer
action between the Secon$ary 0&*# (*1 an$ Tertiary +in$ings 0&D# (D1 of each
)oil.
The whole Signal Ceneration )ircuit is mounte$ on the bac" of the 9ushbutton 9anel#
ma"ing the 9ushbutton !ial a self/containe$ unit that can be substitute$ for the Rotary
!ial in a !eca$ic 9ulse Telephone. The other parts of a !TM3 Telephone are similar to
those of a !eca$ic 9ulse Telephone# thus the process of Ma"ing an$ Receiving a )all is
similar to that of a 9ulse Telephone. &t the Telephone 2'change# the Tones are $eco$e$
an$ a )onnection is ma$e to the )alle$ )ustomer.
Receiving a )all:
+hen the :an$set is on the )ra$le# the Telephone is sai$ to be D,n the :oo"D# or rea$y to
Receive a )all. That is# the :oo" Switch in 3igure 3 is opene$ an$ the path to the right part of the
)ircuit is $isconnecte$.
+henever there is an %ncoming )all# &n &) Ringing Signal from the Telephone 2'change is
transmitte$ to the Telephone. The Ringing Signal is generally 1< m& &) Signal# with a
3re8uency between 2< an$ 2 :-# that activates a pair of 2lectromagnet which operates a small
:ammer to stri"e the (ells.
%n 1>J?# &le'an$er Craham (ell ma$e the first Telephone# calle$ the (ell Telephone# 3igure 1.
Telephone comes from the Cree" wor$ Ftele#G meaning Ffrom afarG# an$ FphoneG# meaning voice
or voice$ soun$.
3igure 1: (ell Telephone
The main parts of the (ell Telephone are: an %ron !iaphragm with attache$ 9ermanent Magnet
an$ a )oil of )opper +ires# 3igure 2.
3igure 2: )ross Section of the (ell 9hone
(y tal"ing to the Sen$er;s Telephone# the voice of the Sen$er ma"es the !iaphragm vibrating.
Since the Magnet is attache$ on the !iaphragm# the vibration of the !iaphragm also ma"es the
Magnet vibrating in the )oil an$ a )urrent is in$uce$. This %n$uce$ )urrent signal is then sent to
the Receiver;s Telephone through the )opper +ires.
&t the Receiver;s Telephone# the process is vice versa. The Telephone ta"es the %n$uce$ )urrent
signal an$ translates it bac" into physical vibrations of the !iaphragm. The Soun$ is repro$uce$
an$ can be hear$.
Telephone #istor$
%arl$ Telephone Development
3or more information on 7ey$en .ars# inclu$ing photographs an$ instructions on how to buil$
them# go this page at the Static Cenerator site:
http:MMwww.alas"a.netMNnatn"ellMley$en.htm
& static electricity web page is here: http:MMwww.sciencema$esimple.comMstatic.html
%n 1J2E 2nglish chemist Stephen Cray transmitte$ electricity over a wire. :e sent charges nearly
3<< feet over brass wire an$ moistene$ threa$. &n electrostatic generator powere$ his
e'periments# one charge at a time. & few years later# !utchman 9ieter van Musschenbroe" an$
Cerman 2wal$ Ceorg von Lleist in 1J4? in$epen$ently $evelope$ the 7ey$en .ar# a sort of
battery or con$enser for storing static electricity. =ame$ for its :ollan$ city of invention# the .ar
was a glass bottle line$ insi$e an$ out with tin or lea$. The glass san$wiche$ between the metal
sheets store$ electricityO a strong charge coul$ be "ept for a few $ays an$ transporte$. ,ver the
years these .ars were use$ in countless e'periments# lectures# an$ $emonstrations.
%n 1J3 an anonymous writer# possibly physician )harles Morrison# suggeste$ in The Scot*s
Maga-ine that electricity might transmit messages. :e thought up a scheme using separate wires
to represent each letter. &n electrostatic generator# he posite$# coul$ electrify each line in turn#
attracting a bit of paper by static charge on the other en$. (y noting which paper letters were
attracte$ one might spell out a message. =ee$ing wires by the $o-en# signals got transmitte$ a
mile or two. 9eople labore$ with telegraphs li"e this for many $eca$es. 2'periments continue$
slowly until 1><<. Many inventors wor"e$ alone# misun$erstoo$ earlier $iscoveries# or spent time
pro$ucing results alrea$y achieve$. 9oor e8uipment $i$n*t help either.
(al"y electrostatic generators pro$uce$ static electricity by friction# often by spinning leather
against glass. &n$ while static electricity coul$ ma"e hair stan$ on en$ or throw spar"s# it
coul$n*t provi$e the energy to $o truly useful things. %nventors an$ in$ustry nee$e$ a reliable an$
continuous current.
%n 1><< &lessan$ro Aolta pro$uce$ the first battery. & ma.or $evelopment# Aolta*s battery
provi$e$ sustaine$ low powere$ electric current at high cost. )hemically base$# as all batteries
are# the battery improve$ 8uic"ly an$ became the electrical source for further e'perimenting. (ut
while batteries got more reliable# they still coul$n*t pro$uce the power nee$e$ to wor" machinery#
light cities# or provi$e heat. &n$ although batteries woul$ wor" telegraph an$ telephone systems#
an$ still $o# transmitting speech re8uire$ un$erstan$ing two relate$ elements# namely# electricity
an$ magnetism.
%n 1>2< !anish physicist )hristian ,erste$ $iscovere$ electromagnetism# the critical i$ea nee$e$
to $evelop electrical power an$ to communicate. %n a famous e'periment at his Iniversity of
)openhagen classroom# ,erste$ pushe$ a compass un$er a live electric wire. This cause$ its
nee$le to turn from pointing north# as if acte$ on by a larger magnet. ,erste$ $iscovere$ that an
electric current creates a magnetic fiel$. (ut coul$ a magnetic fiel$ create electricityP %f so# a new
source of power bec"one$. &n$ the principle of electromagnetism# if fully un$erstoo$ an$
applie$# promise$ a new era of communication
3or an e'cellent summary of )hristian ,erste$*s life# visit:
http:MMwww.longman.co.u"MttQsecsciMresourcesMscimonMmarQ<1Moerste$.htm
%n 1>21 Michael 3ara$ay reverse$ ,erste$*s e'periment an$ in so $oing $iscovere$ in$uction. :e
got a wea" current to flow in a wire revolving aroun$ a permanent magnet. %n other wor$s# a
magnetic fiel$ cause$ or in$uce$ an electric current to flow in a nearby wire. %n so $oing#
3ara$ay ha$ built the worl$*s first electric generator. Mechanical energy coul$ now be converte$
to electrical energy. %s that clearP This is a very important point.
The simple act of moving ones* han$ cause$ current to move. Mechanical energy into electrical
energy. &lthough many years away# a turbine powere$ $ynamo woul$ let the power of flowing
water or burning coal pro$uce electricity. Cot a river or a $amP The water spins the turbines
which turns the generators which pro$uce electricity. The more water you have the more
generators you can a$$ an$ the more electricity you can pro$uce. Mechanical energy into
electrical energy.
0(y comparison# a motor turns electrical energy into mechanical energy. Than"s to &. &lmoian
for pointing out this "ey $ifference an$ to =eal Lling for another correction.1
)lic" here for a clear# large $iagram on turning mechanical energy into electrical energy.
&n$ it*s a goo$ science fair i$eaR
% also have a page on easy to $o electrical e'periments for "i$s
&gain# goo$ science fair i$eas.
3ara$ay wor"e$ through $ifferent electrical problems in the ne't ten years# eventually publishing
his results on in$uction in 1>31. (y that year many people were pro$ucing electrical $ynamos.
(ut electromagnetism still nee$e$ un$erstan$ing. Someone ha$ to show how to use it for
communicating.
3or more information on Michael 3ara$ay# visit the 2=) at:
http:MMwww.enc.orgMfeaturesMcalen$arMunitM<#1>1E#1E?#<<.shtm 0e'ternal lin"1
%n 1>3< the great &merican scientist 9rofessor Soseph :enry transmitte$ the first practical
electrical signal. & short time before :enry ha$ invente$ the first efficient electromagnet. :e also
conclu$e$ similar thoughts about in$uction before 3ara$ay but he $i$n*t publish them first.
:enry*s place in electrical history however# has always been secure# in particular for showing that
electromagnetism coul$ $o more than create current or pic" up heavy weights // it coul$
communicate.
%n a stunning $emonstration in his &lbany &ca$emy classroom# :enry create$ the forerunner of
the telegraph. %n the $emonstration# :enry first built an electromagnet by win$ing an iron bar
with several feet of wire. & pivot mounte$ steel bar sat ne't to the magnet. & bell# in turn# stoo$
ne't to the bar. 3rom the electromagnet :enry strung a mile of wire aroun$ the insi$e of the
classroom. :e complete$ the circuit by connecting the en$s of the wires at a battery. Cuess what
happene$P The steel bar swung towar$ the magnet# of course# stri"ing the bell at the same time.
(rea"ing the connection release$ the bar an$ it was free to stri"e again. &n$ while :enry $i$ not
pursue electrical signaling# he $i$ help someone who $i$. &n$ that man was Samuel 3inley
(reese Morse.
3or more information on Soseph :enry# visit the Soseph :enry 9apers 9ro.ect at:
http:MMwww.si.e$uMarchivesMih$M.hpMpapers<<.htm 0e'ternal lin"1
3rom the !ecember# 1E?3 &merican :eritage maga-ine# Da s"etch of :enry*s primitive telegraph#
a $o-en years before Morse# reveals the essential components: an electromagnet activate$ by a
$istant battery# an$ a pivote$ iron bar that moves to ring a bell.D See the two boo"s liste$ to the
left for more information.
%n 1>3J Samuel Morse invente$ the first wor"able telegraph# applie$ for its patent in 1>3># an$
was finally grante$ it in 1>4>. Soseph :enry helpe$ Morse buil$ a telegraph relay or repeater that
allowe$ long $istance operation. The telegraph later helpe$ unite the country an$ eventually the
worl$. =ot a professional inventor# Morse was nevertheless captivate$ by electrical e'periments.
%n 1>32 he hear$ of 3ara$ay*s recently publishe$ wor" on in$uctance# an$ was given an
electromagnet at the same time to pon$er over. &n i$ea came to him an$ Morse 8uic"ly wor"e$
out $etails for his telegraph.
&s $epicte$ below# his system use$ a "ey 0a switch1 to ma"e or brea" the electrical circuit# a
battery to pro$uce power# a single line .oining one telegraph station to another an$ an
electromagnetic receiver or soun$er that upon being turne$ on an$ off# pro$uce$ a clic"ing noise.
:e complete$ the pac"age by $evising the Morse co$e system of $ots an$ $ashes. & 8uic" "ey
tap bro"e the circuit momentarily# transmitting a short pulse to a $istant soun$er# interprete$ by
an operator as a $ot. & more lengthy brea" pro$uce$ a $ash.
Telegraphy became big business as it replace$ messengers# the 9ony 2'press# clipper ships an$
every other slow pace$ means of communicating. The fact that service was limite$ to +estern
Inion offices or large firms seeme$ har$ly a problem. &fter all# communicating over long
$istances instantly was otherwise impossible. @et as the telegraph was perfecte$# man*s thoughts
turne$ to speech over a wire.
%n 1>4 )harles (ourseul wrote about transmitting speech electrically in a well circulate$ article.
%n that important paper# the (elgian/born 3rench inventor an$ engineer $escribe$ a fle'ible $is"
that woul$ ma"e an$ brea" an electrical connection to repro$uce soun$. (ourseul never built an
instrument or pursue$ his i$eas further.
3or more information on (ourseul an$ early communications in general# vist this Cerman site:
http:MMwww.fht/esslingen.$eMtelehistoryM1>J</.html 0e'ternal lin"1
% have a page on easy to $o electrical e'periments for "i$s. &n$ a$ults who want to un$erstan$
the basics 0internal lin"1
%n 1>?1 Sohann 9hillip Reis complete$ the first non/wor"ing telephone. Tantali-ingly close to
repro$ucing speech# Reis*s instrument conveye$ certain soun$s# poorly# but no more than that. &
Cerman physicist an$ school teacher# Reis*s ingenuity was un8uestione$. :is transmitter an$
receiver use$ a cor"# a "nitting nee$le# a sausage s"in# an$ a piece of platinum to transmit bits of
music an$ certain other soun$s. (ut intelligible speech coul$ not be repro$uce$. The problem
was simple# minute# an$ at the same time monumental. :is telephone relie$ on its transmitter*s
$iaphragm ma"ing an$ brea"ing contact with the electrical circuit# .ust as (ourseul suggeste$#
an$ .ust as the telegraph wor"e$. This approach# however# was completely wrong.
Repro$ucing speech practically relies on the transmitter ma"ing continuous contact with the
electrical circuit. & transmitter varies the electrical current $epen$ing on how much acoustic
pressure it gets. Turning the current off an$ on li"e a telegraph cannot begin to $uplicate speech
since speech# once flowing# is a fluctuating wave of continuous characterO it is not a collection of
off an$ on again pulses. The Reis instrument# in fact# wor"e$ only when soun$s were so soft that
the contact connecting the transmitter to the circuit remaine$ unbro"en. Speech may have
travele$ first over a Reis telephone however# it woul$ have $one so acci$entally an$ against
every principle he thought woul$ ma"e it wor". &n$ although acci$ental $iscovery is the stuff of
invention# Reis $i$ not reali-e his mista"e# $i$ not un$erstan$ the principle behin$ voice
transmission# $i$ not $evelop his instrument further# nor $i$ he ever claim to have invente$ the
telephone.
The $efinitive boo" in 2nglish on Reis is:
Thompson# Silvanus 9. 9hillip Reis: %nventor of The Telephone. 2.63.=. Spon. 7on$on. 1>>3
3or other views an$ e'planations of the Reis instrument# visit &$ventures in )ybersoun$:
http:MMwww.acmi.net.auM&%)MR2%SQ(%,.html 0e'ternal lin"1
%n the early 1>J<s the worl$ still $i$ not have a wor"ing telephone. %nventors focuse$ on
telegraph improvements since these ha$ a waiting mar"et. & goo$# patentable i$ea might ma"e an
inventor millions. !eveloping a telephone# on the other han$# ha$ no imme$iate mar"et# if one at
all. 2lisha Cray# &le'an$er Craham (ell# as well as many others# were instea$ trying to $evelop a
multiple'ing telegraph# a $evice to sen$ several messages over one wire at once. Such an
instrument woul$ greatly increase traffic without the telegraph company having to buil$ more
lines. &s it turne$ out# for both men# the $esire to invent one thing turne$ into a race to invent
something altogether $ifferent. &n$ that is truly the story of invention.
&lan S. Rogers* e'cellent intro$uction to electromagnetic waves# fre8uencies# an$ ra$io
transmission. &ll applicable to telephony. Really well $one. 01E pages# 1?4L in .p$f1
////////////////////////////////////////////
Resources
T(ritannica $efinitionUDTelecommunications Systems: Telephone: T:2 T2729:,=2
%=STRIM2=TD (ritannica ,nline. D%n mo$ern electret transmitters# $evelope$ in the 1EJ<s# the
carbon layer is replace$ by a thin plastic sheet that has been given a con$uctive metallic coating
on one si$e. The plastic separates that coating from another metal electro$e an$ maintains an
electric fiel$ between them. Aibrations cause$ by speech pro$uce fluctuations in the electric fiel$#
which in turn pro$uce small variations in voltage. The voltages are amplifie$ for transmission
over the telephone line.D
T&ccesse$ 11 3ebruary 1EEEU E
DT9ie-oelectricU crystals are use$ as trans$ucers to convert mechanical or soun$ energy into
electrical energy in such things as microphones# phonographs# an$ in soun$ an$ vibration
$etection systems.D
D9ie-oelectricity was first observe$ in 1>>< when 9ierre an$ Sac8ues )urie put a weight on a
8uart- crystal an$ $etecte$ a proportional electric charge on its surface. & year later the converse
effect was $emonstrate$ // that is when a voltage is applie$ to a crystal# a $isplacement occurs
which is proportional to the voltage.D
DReversing the polarity of the voltages reverses the $irection of $isplacement. The term
pie-oelectricity is $erive$ from the Cree" wor$ pie-ein meaning to press. :ence# a pie-oelectric
crystal is one capable of pro$ucing electricity when sub.ecte$ to pressure.D
&n anonymous writer in the Suly# 1E?4 7en"urt !emo$ulator
&nalog an$ $igital signals compare$ an$ contraste$
&nalog transmission in telephone wor"ing. &t the top of the illustration we $epict $irect current
as a flat line. !.). is the stea$y an$ continuous current your telephone company provi$es. The
mi$$le line shows what tal"ing loo"s li"e. &s in all things analog# it loo"s li"e a wave. The thir$
line shows how tal"ing varies that $irect current. @our voice varies the telephone line*s electrical
resistance to represent speech. )lic" here for another $iagram that complements this illustration.
(elow is a simplifie$ view of a $igital signal. )urrent goes on an$ off. =o wave thing. There was
no chance the Reis telephone $escribe$ above coul$ transmit intelligible speech since it coul$ not
repro$uce an analog wave. @ou can*t $o that ma"ing an$ brea"ing a circuit. & pulse in this case is
not a waveR 0internal lin"1 %t was not until the early 1E?<s that $igital carrier techni8ues 0internal
lin"1 simulate$ an analog wave with $igital pulses. 2ven then this simulation was only possible
by sampling the wave >#<<< times a secon$. 09ro$ucing )! 8uality soun$ means sampling an
analog signal 44#<<< times a secon$.1 %n these $ays all traffic in &merica between telephone
switches is $igital# but the ma.ority of local loops are analog 0internal lin"1# still carrying your
voice to the central office by varying the current.
9ermalin" V )omments 0<1
The Inventors& "ra$ and Bell
2lisha Cray was a har$ wor"ing professional inventor with some success to his cre$it. (orn in
1>3 in (arnesville# ,hio# Cray was well e$ucate$ for his time# having wor"e$ his way through
three years at ,berlin )ollege. :is first telegraph relate$ patent came in 1>?>. &n e'pert
electrician# he co/foun$e$ Cray an$ (arton# ma"ers of telegraph e8uipment. The +estern Inion
Telegraph )ompany# then fun$e$ by the Aan$erbilts an$ S.9. Morgan# bought a one/thir$ interest
in Cray an$ (arton in 1>J2. They then change$ its name to the +estern 2lectric Manufacturing
)ompany# with Cray remaining an important person in the company. To Cray# transmitting
speech was an interesting goal but not one of a lifetime.
&le'an$er Craham (ell# on the other han$# saw telephony as the $riving force in his early life.
:e became consume$ with inventing the telephone. (orn in 1>4J in 2$inburgh# Scotlan$#
Craham was raise$ in a family involve$ with music an$ the spo"en wor$. :is mother painte$ an$
playe$ music. :is father originate$ a system calle$ visible speech that helpe$ the $eaf to spea".
:is gran$father was a lecturer an$ speech teacher. (ell*s college courses inclu$e$ lectures on
anatomy an$ physiology. :is entire e$ucation an$ upbringing revolve$ aroun$ the mechanics of
speech an$ soun$. Many years after inventing the telephone (ell remar"e$# D% now reali-e that %
shoul$ never have invente$ the telephone if % ha$ been an electrician. +hat electrician woul$
have been so foolish as to try any such thingP The a$vantage % ha$ was that soun$ ha$ been the
stu$y of my life // the stu$y of vibrations.D
%n 1>J< (ell*s father move$ his family to )ana$a after losing two sons to tuberculosis. :e hope$
the )ana$ian climate woul$ be healthier. %n 1>J3 (ell became a vocal physiology professor at
(oston )ollege. :e taught the $eaf the visual speech system $uring the $ay an$ at night he
wor"e$ on what he calle$ a harmonic or musical telegraph. Sen$ing several messages at once
over a single wire woul$ let a telegraph company increase their sen$ing capacity without having
to install more poles an$ lines. &n inventor who ma$e such a $evice woul$ reali-e a great
economy for the telegraph company an$ a fortune for his or her self. 3amiliar with acoustics# (ell
thought he coul$ sen$ several telegraph messages at once by varying their musical pitch. Soun$
o$$P %*ll give you a cru$e e'ample# a piano analogy# since +atson sai$ (ell playe$ the piano well.
%magine playing Morse co$e on the piano# stri"ing $ots an$ $ashes in mi$$le ). Then imagine
the instrument wire$ to a $istant piano. Stri"ing mi$$le ) in one piano might cause mi$$le ) to
soun$ in the other. =ow# by playing Morse co$e on the & or ) "eys at the same time you might
get the $istant piano to $uplicate your playing# sen$ing two messages at once. 9erhaps. (ell $i$n*t
e'periment with pianos# of course# but with $ifferently pitche$ magnetic springs. &n$ instea$ of
.ust sen$ing two messages at once# (ell hope$ to sen$ thirty or forty. The harmonic telegraph
prove$ simple to thin" about# yet ma$$eningly $ifficult to buil$. :e labore$ over this $evice
throughout the year an$ well into the spring of 1>J4.
Then# at a frien$*s suggestion# he wor"e$ that summer on a teaching ai$ for the $eaf# a gruesome
$evice calle$ the phonoautograph# ma$e out of a $ea$ man*s ear. Spea"ing into the $evice cause$
the ear*s membrane to vibrate an$ in turn move a lever. The lever then wrote a waveli"e pattern of
the speech on smo"e$ glass. Igh. Many say (ell was fascinate$ by how the tiny membrane
cause$ the much heavier lever to wor". %t might be possible# he speculate$# to ma"e a membrane
wor" in telephony# by using it to vary an electric current in intensity with the spo"en wor$. Such
a current coul$ then replicate speech with another membrane. (ell ha$ $iscovere$ the principle of
the telephone# the theory of variable resistance# as $epicte$ below. T(roo"sU (ut learning to apply
that principle correctly woul$ ta"e him another two years.
(ell continue$ harmonic telegraph wor" through the fall of 1>J4. :e wasn*t ma"ing much
progress but his tin"ering gathere$ attention. Car$iner Creene :ubbar$# a prominent (oston
lawyer an$ the presi$ent of the )lar"e School for The !eaf# became intereste$ in (ell*s
e'periments. :e an$ Ceorge San$ers# a prosperous Salem businessman# both sense$ (ell might
ma"e the harmonic telegraph wor". They also "new (ell the man# since (ell tutore$ :ubbar$*s
$aughter an$ he was helping San$er*s $eaf five year ol$ son learn to spea".
%n ,ctober# 1>J4# Creen went to +ashington !.). to con$uct a patent search. 3in$ing no
invention similar to (ell*s propose$ harmonic telegraph# :ubbar$ an$ San$ers began fun$ing
(ell. &ll three later signe$ a formal agreement in 3ebruary# 1>J# giving (ell financial bac"ing in
return for e8ual shares from any patents (ell $evelope$. The trio got along but they woul$ have
their problems. San$ers woul$ court ban"ruptcy by investing over W1<<#<<< before any return
came to him. :ubbar$# on the other han$# $iscourage$ (ell*s romance with his $aughter until the
harmonic telegraph was invente$. (ell# in turn# woul$ ris" his fun$ing by wor"ing so har$ on the
telephone an$ by getting engage$ to Mabel without :ubbar$*s permission.
%n the spring of 1>J# (ell*s e'perimenting pic"e$ up 8uic"ly with the help of a talente$ young
machinist name$ Thomas &. +atson. (ell feverishly pursue$ the harmonic telegraph his bac"ers
wante$ an$ the telephone which was now his real interest. See"ing a$vice# (ell went to
+ashington !.). ,n March 1# 1>J# (ell met with Soseph :enry# the great scientist an$ inventor#
then Secretary of the Smithsonian %nstitution. %t was :enry# remember# who pioneere$
electromagnetism an$ helpe$ Morse with the telegraph. Inintereste$ in (ell*s telegraph wor"#
:enry $i$ say (ell*s i$eas on transmitting speech electrically represente$ Dthe germ of a great
invention.D :e urge$ (ell to $rop all other wor" an$ get on with $eveloping the telephone. (ell
sai$ he feare$ he lac"e$ the necessary electrical "nowle$ge# to which the ol$ man replie$# DCet
itRD TCrosvenor an$ +essonU (ell 8uit pursuing the harmonic telegraph# at least in spirit# an$
began wor"ing full time on the telephone.
&fter lengthy e'perimenting in the spring of 1>J# (ell tol$ +atson D%f % can get a mechanism
which will ma"e a current of electricity vary in its intensity as the air varies in $ensity when a
soun$ is passing through it# % can telegraph any soun$# even the soun$ of speech.D T3agenU :e
communicate$ the same i$ea in a letter to :ubbar$# who remaine$ unimpresse$ an$ urge$ (ell to
wor" har$er on the telegraph. (ut having at last articulate$ the principle of variable resistance#
(ell was getting much closer.
,n Sune 2# 1>J# (ell an$ +atson were testing the harmonic telegraph when (ell hear$ a soun$
come through the receiver. %nstea$ of transmitting a pulse# which it ha$ refuse$ to $o in any case#
the telegraph passe$ on the soun$ of +atson pluc"ing a tune$ spring# one of many set at $ifferent
pitches. :ow coul$ that beP Their telegraph# li"e all others# turne$ current on an$ off. (ut in this
instance# a contact screw was set too tightly# allowing current to run continuously# the essential
element nee$e$ to transmit speech. (ell reali-e$ what happene$ an$ ha$ +atson buil$ a
telephone the ne't $ay base$ on this $iscovery. The Callows telephone# so calle$ for its
$istinctive frame# substitute$ a $iaphragm for the spring. @et it $i$n*t wor". & few o$$ soun$s
were transmitte$# yet nothing more. =o speech. !isheartene$# tire$# an$ running out of fun$s#
(ell*s e'perimenting slowe$ through the remain$er of 1>J.
!uring the winter of 1>J an$ 1>J? (ell continue$ e'perimenting while writing a telephone
patent application. &lthough he ha$n*t $evelope$ a successful telephone# he felt he coul$ $escribe
how it coul$ be $one. +ith his i$eas an$ metho$s protecte$ he coul$ then focus on ma"ing it
wor". 3ortunately for (ell an$ many others# the 9atent ,ffice in 1>J< $roppe$ its re8uirement
that a wor"ing mo$el accompany a patent application. ,n 3ebruary 14# 1>J?# (ell*s patent
application was file$ by his attorney. %t came only hours before 2lisha Cray file$ his =otice of
%nvention for a telephone.
Mystery still surroun$s (ell*s application an$ what happene$ that $ay. %n particular# the "ey point
to (ell*s application# the principle of variable resistance# was scrawle$ in a margin# almost as an
afterthought. Some thin" (ell was tol$ of Cray*s =otice then allowe$ to change his application.
That was never prove$# $espite some ?<< lawsuits that woul$ eventually challenge the patent.
3inally# on March 1<# 1>J?# one wee" after his patent was allowe$# in (oston# Massachusetts# at
his lab at 2'eter 9lace# (ell succee$e$ in transmitting speech. :e was not yet 3<. (ell use$ a
li8ui$ transmitter# something he ha$n*t outline$ in his patent or even trie$ before# but something
that was $escribe$ in Cray*s =otice.
(ell*s patent# I.S. =umber 1J4#4?# has been calle$ the most valuable ever issue$. %f you have
Xuic"Time or another way to view .tif files you can view the $ocument at the Inite$ States
9atent an$ Tra$emar" site 0e'ternal lin"1. Search for it by the number. 2ach page of the si' page
$ocument is about 23<L. &n$ yes# it is very har$ to follow. 9atents are meant to protect i$eas# not
necessarily to e'plain them . . .
The +atson/built telephone loo"e$ o$$ an$ acte$ strangely. (ellowing into the funnel cause$ a
small $is" or $iaphragm at the bottom to move. This $is" was# in turn# attache$ to a wire floating
in an aci$/fille$ metal cup. & wire attache$ to the cup in turn le$ to a $istant receiver. &s the wire
move$ up an$ $own it change$ the resistance within the li8ui$. This now varying current was
then sent to the receiver# causing its membrane to vibrate an$ thereby pro$uce soun$. This
telephone wasn*t 8uite practicalO it got speech across# but ba$ly. (ell soon improve$ it by using an
electromagnetic transmitter# a metal $iaphragm an$ a permanent magnet. The telephone ha$ been
invente$. =ow it was time for it to evolve.
3or the $efinitive answer on who invente$ the telephone 0& hint# it was (ell1# an$ a lin" to 2$win
S. Crosvenor*s authoritative# well researche$# an$ clear thin"ing site $efen$ing (ell# clic" here.
0internal lin"1
:ow the first telephone wor"e$
Simplifie$ $iagram of (ell*s li8ui$ transmitter. The $iaphragm vibrate$ with soun$ waves#
causing a con$ucting ro$ to move up an$ $own in a cup of aci$ water. (attery supplie$ power
electrifie$ the cup of aci$. &s the ro$ rose an$ fell it change$ the circuit*s resistance. This cause$
the line current to the receiver 0not shown1 to fluctuate# which in turn cause$ the membrane of the
receiver to vibrate# pro$ucing soun$.
This transmitter was 8uic"ly $roppe$ in favor of voice powere$ or in$uce$ mo$els. These
transmitte$ speech on the wea" electro/magnetic force that the transmitter an$ receiver*s
permanent magnets pro$uce$.
%t was not until 1>>2# with the intro$uction of the (la"e transmitter# that (ell telephones once
again use$ line power. The so calle$ local battery circuit use$ a battery supplie$ at the phone to
power the line an$ ta"e speech to the local switch. Aoice powere$ phones $i$ not go away
completely# as some systems continue$ to be use$ for critical applications# those which may have
been threatene$ by spar". %n 1E?4 =&S& use$ a voice powere$ system $escribe$ as follows:
D& networ" of 24 channels with a total of more than 4< soun$ powere$ telephones# which $erive
their power solely from the human voice# provi$e the communications between the 2ast &rea
central bloc"house 0left1 an$ the various test stan$s at =&S&*s Ceorge ). Marshall Space 3light
)enter here. . .D The complete article is here:
http:MMamericanhistory.si.e$uMscienceserviceM<<J<1?.htm 0e'ternal lin"1
/////////////////////////////////////
Resources
(roo"s# Sohn. Telephone: The 3irst :un$re$ @ears. =ew @or": :arper an$ Row# 1EJ: 41
3agen# M.!.# e$. & :istory of 2ngineering an$ Science in the (ell System. Aolume 1 The 2arly
@ears# 1>J /1E2. =ew @or": (ell Telephone 7aboratories# 1EJ# ?
Crosvenor# 2$win S. an$ Morgan +esson. &le'an$er Craham (ell :The 7ife an$ Times of the
Man +ho %nvente$ the Telephone. =ew @or": &brams# 1EEJ:
Rho$es# (eginning of Telephony 4/# 13/14 (ell $evelops the i$ea for the telephone.
9ermalin" V )omments 0<1
The Telephone %volves
&t this point telephone history becomes fragmente$ an$ har$ to follow. 3our $ifferent but relate$
stories begin: 011 the further history of the telephone instrument an$ all its parts# 021 the history of
the telephone business# 031 the history of telephone relate$ technology an$ 041 the history of the
telephone system. !ue to limite$ space % can cover only some ma.or =orth &merican events. ,f
these# the two most important $evelopments were the invention of the vacuum tube an$ the
transistorO to$ay*s telephone system coul$ not have been built without them.
9rogress came slowly after the original invention. (ell an$ +atson wor"e$ constantly on
improving the telphone*s range. They ma$e their longest call to $ate on ,ctober E# 1>J?. %t was a
$istance of only two miles# but they were so over.oye$ that later that night they celebrate$# $oing
so much began $ancing that their lan$la$y threatene$ to throw them out. +atson later recalle$
D(ell . . . ha$ a habit of celebrating by what he calle$ a war $ance an$ % ha$ got so e'pose$ at it
that % coul$ $o it 8uite as well as he coul$.D T+atsonU The rest of 1>J?# though# was $ifficult for
(ell an$ his bac"ers.
(ell an$ +atson improve$ the telephone an$ ma$e better mo$els of it# but these changes weren*t
enough to turn the telephone from a curiosity into a nee$e$ appliance. 9romoting an$ $eveloping
the telephone prove$ far har$er than :ubbar$# San$ers# or (ell e'pecte$. =o switchboar$s
e'iste$ yet# the telephones were in$ee$ cru$e an$ transmission 8uality was poor. Many
8uestione$ why anyone nee$e$ a telephone. &n$ $espite (ell*s patent# broa$ly covering the entire
sub.ect of transmitting speech electrically# many companies sprang up to sell telephones an$
telephone service. %n a$$ition# other people file$ applications for telephones an$ transmitters after
(ell*s patent was issue$. Most claime$ (ell*s patent coul$n*t pro$uce a wor"ing telephone or that
they ha$ a prior claim. 7itigation loome$. 3earing financial collapse# :ubbar$ an$ San$ers
offere$ in the fall of 1>J? to sell their telephone patent rights to +estern Inion for W1<<#<<<.
+estern Inion refuse$.
0Special than"s to +illiam 3ar"as of ,ntario# )ana$a for his remar"s an$ corrections1
%n 1>J? 2ricsson begins.
)lic" here for a short but nice history 0internal lin"1
,n &pril 2J# 1>JJ Thomas 2$ison file$ a patent application for an improve$ transmitter# a $evice
that ma$e the telephone practical. & ma.or accomplishment# 2$ison*s patent claim was $eclare$
in interference to a =otice of %nvention for a transmitter file$ .ust two wee"s before by 2mile
(erliner. This conflict was not resolve$ until 1>>? however# 2$ison $eci$e$ to pro$uce the
transmitter while the matter was $ispute$. 9ro$uction began towar$ the en$ of 1>JJ. To compete#
(ell soon incorporate$ in their phones an improve$ transmitter invente$ by 3rancis (la"e.
(la"e*s transmitter relie$ on the $iaphragm mo$ifying an e'isting electrical current# an outsi$e
power source. This was 8uite $ifferent than the original invention an$ its improvements. (ell*s
first telephone transmitter use$ the human voice to generate a wea" electro/magnetic fiel$# which
then went to a $istant receiver. (ell later installe$ larger# better magnets into his telephones but
there was a limit to what power the human voice coul$ provi$e# Myer in$icating about 1<
microwatts.
,n Suly E# 1>JJ San$ers# :ubbar$# an$ (ell forme$ the first (ell telephone company. 2ach
assigne$ their rights un$er four basic patents to :ubbar$*s trusteeship. &gainst tough criticism#
:ubbar$ $eci$e$ to lease telephones an$ license franchises# instea$ of selling them. This ha$
enormous conse8uences. %nstea$ of ma"ing money 8uic"ly# $ollars woul$ flow in over months#
years# an$ $eca$es. 9ro$ucts were also affecte$# as a lease arrangement meant telephones nee$e$
to be of rental 8uality# with innovations intro$uce$ only when the e8uipment was virtually trouble
free. %t prove$ a wise enough $ecision to sustain the (ell System for over a hun$re$ years.
%n September# 1>JJ +estern Inion change$ its min$ about telephony. They saw it woul$ wor"
an$ they wante$ in# especially after a subsi$iary of theirs# the Col$ an$ Stoc" Telegraphy
)ompany# rippe$ out their telegraphs an$ starte$ using (ell telephones. Rather than buying patent
rights or licenses from the (ell# +estern Inion $eci$e$ to buy patents from others an$ start their
own telephone company. They were not alone. &t least 1#J3< telephone companies organi-e$ an$
operate$ in the 1J years (ell was suppose$ to have a monopoly.
Most competitors $isappeare$ as soon as the (ell )ompany file$ suit against them for patent
infringement# but many remaine$. They either $isagree$ with (ell*s right to the patent# ignore$ it
altogether# or starte$ a phone company because (ell*s people woul$ not provi$e service to their
area. %n any case# +estern Inion began entering agreements with Cray# 2$ison# an$ &mos 2.
!olbear for their telephone inventions. %n !ecember# 1>JJ +estern Inion create$ the &merican
Spea"ing Telephone )ompany. & tremen$ous selling point for their telephones was 2$ison*s
improve$ transmitter. (ell Telephone was $eeply worrie$ since they ha$ installe$ only 3#<<<
phones by the en$ of 1>JJ. +estern Inion# on the other han$# ha$ 2<#<<< miles of telegraph
wire strung over 1<<#<<< miles of route. %f not stoppe$ they woul$ have an enormous hea$ start
on ma"ing telephone service available across the country. In$aunte$ by the si-e of +estern
Inion# then the worl$*s largest telecom company# (ell*s (oston lawyers sue$ them for patent
infringement the ne't year.
,n Sanuary# 2> 1>J> # the first commercial switchboar$ began operating in =ew :aven#
)onnecticut. %t serve$ 21 telephones on > lines conse8uently# many people were on a party line.
,n 3ebruary 1J# +estern Inion opene$ the first large city e'change in San 3rancisco. =o longer
limite$ to people on the same wire# fol"s coul$ now tal" to many others on $ifferent lines. The
public switche$ telephone networ" was born. ,ther innovations mar"e$ 1>J>.
3or a $etaile$ history of telephone e'changes# particularly $ial# please see R.(. :ill*s e'cellent
history: http:MMwww.Telecom+riting.comM2arly+or".html
,n 3ebruary 21# 1>J># the worl$*s first telephone $irectory came out# a single paper of only fifty
names. Ceorge +illiar$ )oy an$ a group of investors in the =ew :aven !istrict Telephone
)ompany at 21E )hapel Street pro$uce$ it. %t was followe$ 8uic"ly by the listing pro$uce$ by the
o$$ly name$ (oston Telephone !espatch )ompany. T3irst $irectoryU
%n 1>J> 9resi$ent Rutherfor$ (. :ayes a$ministration installe$ the first telephone in the +hite
:ouse. T3irst teleU Mary 3inch :oyt reports that the first outgoing call went to &le'an$er Craham
(ell himself# thirteen miles $istant. :ayes first wor$s instructe$ (ell to spea" more slowly.
T:oytU
%n that year the (utterstamp telephone came into use. This telephone combine$ the receiver an$
transmitter into one han$hel$ unit. @ou tal"e$ into one en$# turne$ the instrument roun$ an$
listene$ to the other en$. 9eople got confuse$ with this clumsy arrangement# conse8uently# a
telephone with a secon$ transmitter an$ receiver unit was $evelope$ in the same year. @ou coul$
use either one to tal" or listen an$ you $i$n*t have to turn them aroun$. This wall set use$ a cran"
to signal the operator.
The (utterstamp telephone.
3or another great page on the earliest commercial telephones go here:
http:MMatcaonline.comMphoneMin$e'.html 0e'ternal lin"1
,n &ugust 1# 1>J> Thomas +atson file$ for a ringer patent. Similar to :enry*s classroom
$oorbell# a hammer operate$ by an electromagnet struc" two bells. Turning a cran" on the calling
telephone spun a magneto# pro$ucing an alternating or ringing current. 9reviously# people use$ a
cru$e thumper to signal the calle$ party# hoping someone woul$ be aroun$ to hear it. The ringer
was an imme$iate success. (ell himself became more optimistic about the telephone*s future#
prophetically writing in 1>J> D% believe that in the future# wires will unite the hea$ offices of the
Telephone )ompany in $ifferent cities# an$ that a man in one part of the country may
communicate by wor$ of mouth with another in a $istant place.D
Subscribers# meanwhile# grew stea$ily but slowly. San$ers ha$ investe$ W11<#<<< by early 1>J>
without any return. :e locate$ a group of =ew 2nglan$ers willing to invest but unwilling to $o
business outsi$e their area. =ee$ing the fun$ing# the (ell Telephone )ompany reorgani-e$ in
Sune# 1>J># forming a new (ell Telephone )ompany as well as the =ew 2nglan$ Telephone
)ompany# a forerunner of the strong regional (ell companies to come. 1<#J (ell phones were
now in service. Reorgani-ing passe$ control to an e'ecutive committee# en$ing :ubbar$*s
stewar$ship but not his overall vision. 3or :ubbar$*s last act was to hire a far seeing general
manager name$ Theo$ore Aail. (ut the corporate shuffle wasn*t over yet. %n early 1>JE the
company reorgani-e$ once again# un$er pressure from patent suits an$ competition from other
companies selling phones with 2$ison*s superior transmitter. )apitali-ation was W><#<<<.
+illiam :. 3orbes was electe$ to hea$ the boar$ of $irectors. :e soon restructure$ it to embrace
all (ell interests into a single company# the =ational (ell )ompany# incorporate$ on March 13#
1>JE. Crowth was stea$y enough# however# that in late 1>JE the first telephone numbers were
use$.
,n =ovember 1<# 1>JE (ell won its patent infringement suit against +estern Inion in the Inite$
States Supreme )ourt. %n the resulting settlement# +estern Inion gave up its telephone patents
an$ the ?#<<< phones it manage$# in return for 2<Y of (ell rentals for the 1J year life of (ell*s
patents. %t also retaine$ its telegraph business as before. This $ecision so enlarge$ =ational (ell
that a new entity with a new name# &merican (ell )ompany# was create$ on 3ebruary 2<# 1>><#
capitali-e$ with over seven million $ollars. (ell now manage$ 133#<<< telephones. &s )hief
,perating ,fficer# Theo$ore Aail began creating the (ell System# compose$ of regional
companies offering local service# a long $istance company provi$ing toll service# an$ a
manufacturing arm provi$ing e8uipment. 3or the manufacturer he turne$ to a previous company
rival. %n 1>>< Aail starte$ buying +estern 2lectric stoc" an$ too" controlling interest on
=ovember# 1>>1. The ta"eover was consummate$ on 3ebruary 2?# 1>>2# with +estern 2lectric
giving up its remaining patent rights as well as agreeing to pro$uce pro$ucts e'clusively for
&merican (ell. %t was not until 1>> that Aail woul$ form his long $istance telephone company.
%t was calle$ &T6T.
,n Suly 1E# 1>>1 (ell was grante$ a patent for the metallic circuit# the concept of two wires
connecting each telephone. Intil that time a single iron wire connecte$ telephone subscribers#
.ust li"e a telegraph circuit. & conversation wor"s over one wire since groun$ing each en$
provi$es a complete path for an electrical circuit. (ut houses# factories an$ the telegraph system
were all groun$ing their electrical circuits using the same earth the telephone company employe$.
& huge amount of static an$ noise was conse8uently intro$uce$ by using a groun$e$ circuit. &
metallic circuit# on the other han$# use$ two wires to complete the electrical circuit# avoi$ing the
groun$ altogether an$ thus provi$ing a better soun$ing call.
The brilliant S.S. )arty intro$uce$ two wireservice commercially in ,ctober of that year on a
circuit between (oston an$ 9rovi$ence. %t cut noise greatly over those forty five miles an$
heral$e$ the beginning of long $istance service. Still# it was not until 1< years later that (ell
starte$ converting groun$e$ circuits to metallic ones
9ermalin" V )omments 0<1
'art A
(efore continuing let*s loo" at Strowger*s achievement. The automatic $ial system# after all#
change$ telephony forever. &lmon (rown Strowger 0pronounce$ STR,/.er1 was born in 1>3E in
9enfiel$# =ew @or"# a close suburb of Rochester. 7i"e (ell# Strowger was not a professional
inventor# but a man with a "een interest in things mechanical. Swihart says he went to an
e'cellent =ew @or" State university# serve$ in the )ivil +ar from 1>?1 to 1>? 0en$ing as a
lieutenant1# taught school in Lansas an$ ,hio afterwar$s# an$ woun$ up first in Tope"a an$ then
Lansas )ity as an un$erta"er in 1>>?. This unli"ely profession of an inventor so inspire$ seems
o$$ in$ee$# but the stories surroun$ing his motivation to invent the automatic switch are o$$er
still.
Than"s to Soe ,ster for supplying Strowger*s birthplace
The many stories suggest# none of which % can confirm# that someone was stealing &lmon
Strowger*s business. Telephone operators# perhaps in league with his competitors# were routing
calls to other un$erta"ers. These operators# suppose$ly# gave busy signals to customers calling
Strowger or even $isconnecte$ their calls. Strowger thus invente$ a system to replace an operator
from han$ling local calls. %n the $istillation of these many stories# Stephan 7esher relates a story
from &lmon*s time in Tope"a:
D%n his boo"# Coo$ )onnections# telephone historian !ave 9ar" writes that Strowger grew $ar"ly
suspicious when a close frien$ in Tope"a $ie$ an$ the man*s family $elivere$ the bo$y to a rival
mortician. Strowger conten$e$ that an operator at the new telephone e'change ha$ intentionally
$irecte$ the call to a competitor // an allegation that gave rise to tales that the operator was either
marrie$ to# or the $aughter of# a competing un$erta"er.D
Coo$ connections : & )entury of Service by the Men 6 +omen of Southwestern (ell by !avi$
C. 9ar" 07ong out of print# but try htttp:MMwww#abe.com1
+hatever the circumstances# we $o "now that anti/(ell System sentiment ran high at this time#
that goo$ telephone inventions comman$e$ rea$y money# an$ that Strowger $i$ have numerous
problems with his local telephone company. Strowger was a regular complainer an$ one
complaint stan$s out.
Swihart $escribes how Southwestern (ell personnel were calle$ out to once again visit
Strowger*s business# to fi' a $ea$ line. The cause turne$ out to be a hanging sign which flappe$
in the bree-e against e'pose$ telephone contacts. This shorte$ the line. ,nce the sign was
remove$ the line wor"e$ again. %t may be suppose$ that this sort of problem was beyon$ a
customer*s ability to $iagnose# that Strowger ha$ a legitimate complaint. (ut on this occasion
Southwestern (ell*s assistant general manager# a one :erman Ritterhoff# was along with the
repair crew. Strowger invite$ the man insi$e an$ showe$ him a mo$el for an automatic switch.
So Strowger was wor"ing on the problem for 8uite some time an$ was no novice to telephone
theory.
(roo"s says that# in fact# Strowger "new technology so well that he built his patent on (ell
system inventions. %t must be pointe$ out# however# that every inventor $raws i$eas an$
inspiration from previously $one wor". (roo"s says specifically that the )onnolly/McTighe
patent 09atent number 222# 4># $ate$ !ecember E# 1>JE1 helpe$ Strowger# a faile$ $ial
switchboar$# as well as an early automatic switch $evelope$ by 2r-a Cillilan$. (ut Strowger $i$
not buil$ the instrument since he $i$ not have the mechanical s"ills. & rather clueless .eweler was
employe$ instea$ to buil$ the first mo$el# an$ much time was waste$ with this man# getting him
to follow instructions.
&s with (ell# Strowger file$ his patent without having perfecte$ a wor"ing invention. @et he
$escribe$ the switch in sufficient $etail an$ with enough novel points for it to be grante$ 9atent
number 44J#E1># on March 1<# 1>E1. &n$ in a further parallel with (ell# &lmon Strowger lost
interest in the $evice once he got it built. %t fell upon his brother# +alter S. Strowger# to carry
$evelopment an$ promotion further# along with a great man# Soseph :arris# who also helpe$ with
promotion an$ investment money. +ithout :arris# soon to be the organi-er an$ gui$ing force
behin$ &utomatic 2lectric# $ial service may have ta"en $eca$es longer for the (ell System to
recogni-e an$ $evelop. )ompetition by &.2. force$ the (ell System to play switching catchup#
something they really only accomplishe$ in the 1E4<s with the intro$uction of crossbar.
=ee$ something technical on Strowger*s wor"P %*ve put R.(. :ill*s switching history article on
line here:
http:MMwww.Telecom+riting.comMSwitchingM2arly@ears.html
The citation to that article is here.3or more on common battery an$ the last manual switchboar$
to be retire$ in &merica# clic" here
%n 1>EJ Milo Ciffor$ Lellogg foun$e$ the Lellogg Switchboar$ an$ Supply )ompany near
)hicago. Lellogg was a Dgra$uate engineer an$ accomplishe$ circuit $esignerDT9leasanceU# who
began his career in 1>J< with Cray an$ (arton# e8uipment manufacturers for +estern 2lectric.
There he $evelope$ +estern 2lectric*s best telephone switchboar$s: a stan$ar$ mo$el an$ a
multiple switchboar$. (oth were invente$ in 1>JE an$ patente$ in 1>>1 an$ 1>>4# respectively.
:e retire$ from +estern 2lectric in 1>># Dan$ began ma"ing an$ patenting a series of telephone
inventions of his own# which wor" e'ten$e$ over a perio$ of 12 years an$ which culminate$ in
the issue of 12 patents to him on ,ctober 1J# 1>EJ# besi$es which over 2 ha$ previously been
issue$ to him.DTTelephonyU :e was also 8uite political# successfully winning suits against (ell
an$ $elaying other (ell actions to his benefit. Telecom :istory calle$ him Dprobably the man in
the &merican in$epen$ent telephone business who first place$ himself in opposition to the (ell
)ompany.DTTelephonyU
:is ma.or accomplishment was the so calle$ $ivi$e$/multiple switchboar$# of which two were
built. ,ne was sol$ to the )uyahoga Telephone )ompany of )levelan$# ,hio an$ the other to the
Linloch Telephone company of Saint 7ouis. The )levelan$ installation boaste$ E#?<< lines# with
an ultimate capacity of 24#<<<R Such large switchboar$s were nee$e$ to han$le increasing
$eman$. The Lellog boar$s were much larger than (ell e8uipment# mostly $esigne$ by )harles
Scribner. Saint 7ouis an$ !etroit in$epen$ents starte$ switching to Lellog boar$s# DthreatenTingU
(ell*s profitable urban mar"ets.DTCrosvenorU In$er such pressure an$ once again running out of
money# (ell regroupe$.
%n 1>EE &merican (ell Telephone )ompany reorgani-e$ yet once again. %n a ma.or change#
&merican (ell Telephone )ompany conveye$ all assets# with the e'ception of &T6T stoc"# to the
=ew @or" state charte$ &merican Telephone an$ Telegraph )ompany. %t was figure$ that =ew
@or" ha$ less restrictive corporate laws than Massachusetts. The &merican (ell Telephone
)ompany name passe$ into history.
%n 1E<< loa$ing coils came into use. 9atente$ by 9hysics 9rofessor Michael %. 9upin# loa$ing
coils helpe$ improve long $istance transmission. Space$ every three to si' thousan$ feet# cable
circuits were e'ten$e$ three to four times their previous length. 2ssentially a small electro/
magnet# a loa$ing coil or in$uctance coil strengthens the transmission line by $ecreasing
attenuation# the normal loss of signal strength over $istance. +ire$ into the transmission line#
these electromagnetic loa$ing coils "eep signal strength up as easily as an electromagnet pulls a
weight off the groun$. (ut coils must be the right si-e an$ carefully space$ to avoi$ $istortion
an$ other transmission problems.
9upin*s patent is I.S. number ?2#23< which you can view at the Inite$ States 9atent ,ffice:
http:MMwww.uspto.gov 0e'ternal lin"1 :is patent in 1E<< cause$ almost as much controversy as
(ell*s telephone patents. &s the crucial invention for e'ten$ing long $istance circuits it was an
e'tremely valuable patent an$ hence conteste$ by groups li"e &T6T which eventually bought the
rights. %t also serve$ as an incentive for the (ell System to foun$ (ell 7abs. &s +asserman put it#
&T6T ha$ been Dplaye$ to a virtual tie with a lone inventor wor"ing in an aca$emic setting. . .
This point was not ignore$ by management.D
The $efinitive boo" on loa$ing coil history an$ early long $istance wor"ing is =eil +asserman*s
boo"# 3rom %nvention to %nnovation: 7ong !istance Telephone Transmission at The Turn of the
)entury. Sohn :op"insM&T6T Series in Telephone :istory. 1E>.
!etails from the patent. )lic" to enlarge
%n 1E<1 the &utomatic 2lectric )ompany was forme$ from &lmon Strowger*s original company.
The only ma"er of $ial telephone e8uipment at the time# &utomatic 2lectric grew 8uic"ly. The
(ell System*s +estern 2lectric woul$ not sell e8uipment to the in$epen$ents# conse8uently# &.2.
an$ then ma"ers li"e Lellog an$ Stromberg/)arlson foun$ rea$y acceptance. !esperate to fight
off the rising in$epen$ent ti$e# the (ell System concocte$ a wil$ an$ $evious plan. &T6T*s
presi$ent 3re$ric" 3ish approve$ a secret plan to buy out the Lellog Switchboar$ an$ Supply
)ompany an$ put it un$er (ell control. Lellog woul$ continue selling their ma.or switchboar$s
to the in$epen$ents for a year. &t that time the (ell System woul$ file a patent suit against
Lellog# which they woul$ intentionally loose. This woul$ force the in$epen$ents to rip out their
newly installe$ switchboar$s# crushing the largest in$epen$ents. The plan was $iscovere$#
aborte$# an$ further scan$ali-e$ &T6T.TCrosvenor2U
(y 1E<3 in$epen$ent telephones numbere$ 2#<<<#<<< while (ell manage$ 1#2J>#<<<. (ell*s
reputation for high prices an$ poor service continue$. &s ban"ers got hol$ of the company# the
(ell System faltere$.
%n 1E<J Theo$ore Aail returne$ to the &T6T as presi$ent# pressure$ by none other than S.9.
Morgan himself# who ha$ gaine$ financial control of the (ell System. & true robber baron#
Morgan thought he coul$ turn the (ell System into &merica*s only telephone company. To that
en$ he bought in$epen$ents by the $o-en# a$$ing them to (ell*s e'isting regional telephone
companies. The chart shows how &T6T management finally organi-e$ the regional hol$ing
companies in 1E11# a structure that hel$ up over the ne't seventy years. (ut Morgan wasn*t
finishe$ yet. :e also wor"e$ on buying all of +estern Inion# ac8uiring 3<Y of its stoc" in 1E<E#
culminating that action by installing Aail as its presi$ent. 3or his part# Aail thought telephone
service was a natural monopoly# much as gas or electric service. (ut he also "new times were
changing an$ that the present system coul$n*t continue.
%n Sanuary 1E13 the Sustice !epartment informe$ the (ell System that the company was close to
violating the Sherman &ntitrust &ct. Aail "new things were going ba$ly with the government#
especially since the %nterstate )ommerce )ommission ha$ been loo"ing into &T6T ac8uisitions
since 1E1<. S.9. Morgan $ie$ in March# 1E13O Aail lost a goo$ ally an$ the strongest (ell system
monopoly a$vocate. %n a ra$ical but visionary move# Aail cut his losses with a bol$ plan. ,n
!ecember 1E# 1E13# &T6T agree$ to ri$ itself of +estern Inion stoc"# buy no more in$epen$ent
telephone companies without government approval an$ to finally connect the in$epen$ents with
&T6T*s long $istance lines. Rather than let the government rema"e the (ell System# Aail $i$ the
.ob himself.
Lnown as the Lingsbury agreement for the &T6T vice presi$ent who wrote the historic letter of
agreement to the Sustice !epartment# Aail en$e$ any plans for a complete telecommunications
monopoly. (ut with the in$epen$ents paying a fee for each long $istance call place$ on its
networ"# an$ with the threat of governmental control ease$# the (ell System grew to be a $e facto
monopoly within the areas it controlle$# accomplishing by craft what force coul$ not $o.
%nterestingly# although the (ell System woul$ service eighty three percent of &merican
telephones# it never controlle$ more than thirty percent of the Inite$ States geographical area. To
this $ay# 1#43 in$epen$ent telephone companies still e'ist# often serving rural areas the (ell
System ignore$. Aail*s restructuring was so successful it laste$ until mo$ern times. %n 1EJ?# on
the hun$re$th anniversary of the (ell System# &T6T stoo$ as the richest company on earth.
//////////////////////////////////
Resources:
Crosvenor# 2$win S. an$ Morgan +esson. &le'an$er Craham (ell: The 7ife an$ Times of the
Man +ho %nvente$ the Telephone. :arry =. &brams# =ew @or" 01EEJ1 1?J 2'cellent.
Crosvenor2. ibi$# 1?J
(roo"s# Sohn. Telephone: The 3irst :un$re$ @ears. :arper 6 Row# =ew @or". 1EJ# 1EJ?: 1<<
:ill# R.(. DThe 2arly @ears of the Strowger SystemD The (ell 7aboratories Recor$ March# 1E3:
E
Swihart# Stanley. DThe 3irst &utomatic Telephone SystemsD Telecom :istory: The Sournal of The
Telephone :istory %nstitute =o. 2. Spring# 1EE: 3
9leasance# )harles &.# DThe !ivi$e$ Multiple Switchboar$D Telecom :istory: The Sournal of The
Telephone :istory %nstitute 1 01EE41 1<2
D+ell/Lnown :ea$s of +ell/Lnown :ousesD# Telephony 0Suly# 1E<11 &s reprinte$ in Telecom
:istory: The Sournal of The Telephone :istory %nstitute 1 01EE41 E3
ibi$ E3
&$$e$ note
X. % remember hearing once about how with point/to/point connections# re8uire$ before
switchboar$ e'changes evolve$# coul$ D$ar"en the s"iesD in urban areas // an$ % remember seeing
a photo of .ust that // a thic"et of lines criss/crossing between offices in some $owntown area. %
thin" it might have been the loop in )hicago. !o you have an info on this // specifically % woul$
love to fin$ that photo or a similar one.
&. They in$ee$ coul$ $ar"en the s"ies. & welter of open wire li"e that was not only unsightly but
coul$ be wrec"e$ by a win$ or ice storm. The photograph % am lin"ing to is of =ew @or" )ity but
the site was common in most large cities. %t*s a great before an$ after illustration:
http:MMwww.uh.e$uMenginesMnycan$wires..pg 0e'ternal lin"1
9ermalin" V )omments 0<1
'art B
&t this point we nee$ to loo" bac" a few years. %n 1E<? 7ee !e 3orest invente$ the three element
electron tube. %ts properties le$ the way to national phone service. 7ong $istance service was
previously limite$ to 1#<< miles or so. 7oa$ing coils an$ larger# thic"er cables helpe$
transmission to a point but no further. There was still too much loss in a telephone line for a voice
signal to reach across the country. Transcontinental phone traffic wasn*t possible# conse8uently#
so a national networ" was beyon$ reach. Something else was nee$e$. %n 1E<J Theo$ore Aail
instructe$ &T6T*s research staff to buil$ an electronic amplifier base$ on their own fin$ings an$
!e 3orest*s pioneering wor". They ma$e some progress but not as much as !e 3orest $i$ on his
own.
& nice !e 3orest biography is at:
http:MMwww.acmi.net.auM&%)M!2Q3,R2STQ(%,.html 0e'ternal lin"1
The site also inclu$es the photograph below.
The most popular boo" on !e 3orest is 2mpire of the &ir : The Men +ho Ma$e Ra$io by Tom
7ewis. Try searching for it with the 9owells.com search engine at the bottom of this page.
&T6T eventually bought his patent rights to use the tube in their telephone amplifier. ,nly after
this an$ a year of inspecting !e 3orest*s e8uipment $i$ the (ell Telephone 7aboratory ma"e the
trio$e wor" for telephony. Those years of research were worth it. 2lectron tube base$ amplifiers
woul$ ma"e possible ra$iotelephony# microwave transmission# ra$ar# television# an$ hun$re$s of
other technologies. Telephone repeaters coul$ now span the country# enabling a nationwi$e
telephone system# fulfilling &le'an$er Craham (ell*s 1>J> vision.
Recalling those years in an important interview with the %222# 7loy$ 2spenschie$ recounts D%n
May T1E<JU# several of us ha$ gone to a lecture that 7ee !e 3orest ha$ given on wireless at the
(roo"lyn %nstitute of &rts an$ Sciences. %n this lecture# he passe$ aroun$ a 8ueer little tube to all
the au$ience. %t was the first three/element tube to be shown in public# % foun$ out afterwar$s. :e
passe$ this aroun$ an$ everybo$y loo"e$ at it an$ sai$# DSo whatRD 2ven !e 3orest sai$ that he
$i$n*t "now what it was all about. :e loo"e$ on it as a $etector. Tan early $evice to pic" up ra$io
waves# e$.U &ctually it was an evolution of the 3leming valve# but he woul$ never give cre$it to
anyone.D 7ater in the interview# 2spenschie$ gives an opinion of !e 3orest share$ by many at the
time# D=o# he was no engineer. :e was .ust a playboy all his life. :e*s .ust plain luc"y that he
stumble$ into the three/ element $evice. Sust plain luc"y. (ut that was han$e$ to him for
perseveringO he "ept at it# grabbing an$ grabbing at all the patent applications without "nowing
what he was $oing.D
3or more 8uotes li"e the above an$ a great oral history of early electronic an$ vacuum tube
e'perimenting:
http:MMwww.ieee.orgMorgani-ationsMhistoryQcenterMoralQhistoriesMtranscriptsMespenschie$11.html
0e'ternal lin"1
7uc" or not# !e 3orest was first to buil$ an$ then e'ploit the the three element tube. %t later
enable$ the vacuum tube repeater which ushere$ in telephony*s electronics age.
& trio$e is sometimes calle$ a thermionic valve. Thermions are electrons $erive$ from a heate$
source. & valve $escribes the tube*s properties: current flows in one $irection but not the other.
Thin" of a faucet# a type of control valve# letting water go in only one $irection. This controlle$
flow of electrons# not .ust electricity itself# mar"s the en$ of the electrical age an$ the beginning
of the electronic age.
Co here for more on $e 3orest an$ how the trio$e wor"s 0internal lin"1
3or more comments# rea$ Ray Strac"bein*s comments below
&rmstrong later $evelope$ the regenerative circuit which fe$ bac" the input signal into the circuit
over an$ over again. %n electronic boo"s of the era many calle$ him D3ee$bac" &rmstrong.D :is
circuit amplifie$ the signal far more than original $esigns# allowing great wireless or wireline
transmission signal strength. The fee$bac" circuit coul$ also be over$riven# fe$ bac" so many
times that supplying a small current woul$ $evelop an e'tremely high fre8uency. The circuit
woul$ thus resonate at the fre8uency of a ra$io wave# letting the trio$e receive or $etect signals#
not .ust transmit them. !e3orest later claime$ to have invente$ regenerationO this was a lie.
!e3orest invente$ the three element tube by trial an$ errorO he $i$ not even un$erstan$ how it
wor"e$ until five years later when 2$win &rmstrong e'plaine$ it.
More on this regar$ing ra$io is here 0internal lin"1
&s evi$ence of the trio$e*s success# on Sanuary 2# 1E1 the first transcontinental telephone line
opene$ between =ew @or" )ity an$ San 3rancisco. The previous long $istance limit was =ew
@or" to !enver# an$ only then with some shouting. Two metallic circuits ma$e up the lineO it use$
2#<< tons of har$/$rawn copper wire# 13<#<<< poles an$ countless loa$ing coils. Three vacuum
tube repeaters along the way booste$ the signal. %t was the worl$*s longest telephone line. %n a
gran$ ceremony# ?> year ol$ &le'an$er Craham (ell in =ew @or" )ity ma$e the ceremonial first
call to his ol$ frien$ Thomas +atson in San 3rancisco. %n an insult to 7ee $e 3orest# the inventor
was not invite$ to participate. This insult was carrie$ over to the 1E1 +orl$*s 3air in San
3rancisco# in which &T6T*s theater e'hibit heral$e$ coast to coast telephone service without
mentioning the man who ma$e it possible. TMorganU
9rofessor Michael =oll# writing in Signals: The Science of Telecommunications# says a three
minute coast to coast call cost W22.2<. That*s W411.4J in 2<<4 $ollars.
%n 1E1E Theo$ore Cary an$ )ompany bought the &utomatic 2lectric )ompany. @ears later# when
&.2. became &C )ommunication Systems# the &C)S website sai$ DTheo$ore Cary aime$ to
cash in on the accelerating tren$ of replacing manual labor with machinery# an$ saw great
potential in the (ell System mar"et. Cary forme$ a syn$icate that secure$ an option on the
ma.ority of &utomatic 2lectric )ompany common stoc". %n 1E1E# he e'ercise$ his option to
purchase the company.D
Since &utomatic 2lectric $i$n*t manufacture for the (ell System the wor$s Dpotential in the (ell
System mar"etD means licensing potential. %n$ee$# the &C)S site goes on to say that# D(y the
mi$/1E2<s# &2 was licensing about >< percent of the automatic telephone e8uipment in the
worl$. %t became the secon$ largest telecommunications manufacturer in the Inite$ States after
+estern 2lectric.D
3inally# on =ovember ># 1E1E# in what must have been a humiliating e'perience for the
telecommunications giant# &T6T at last intro$uce$ large scale automatic switching e8uipment to
their telephone system. Ising step by step e8uipment ma$e# bought# an$ installe$ by &utomatic
2lectric. The cut over to $ial in =orfol"# Airginia was a complete (ell System policy change. =o
longer woul$ they convert automatic $ial systems to manual as they bought in$epen$ent
telephone companies# but they woul$ instea$ embrace step by step e8uipment an$ install more.
More on the many mergers of &utomatic 2lectric is here
%n 1E21 the (ell System intro$uce$ the first commercial panel switch# a very o$$ invention.
!evelope$ over eight years# it was &T6T*s response to the automatic $ialing feature offere$ by
step by step e8uipment. %t offere$ many innovations an$ many problems. &lthough customers
coul$ $ial out themselves# the number of parts an$ its operating metho$ ma$e it noisy for callers.
%ronically# some switchmen say it was a 8uiet machine insi$e the central office# emanating Da
collection of simply $elightful *clin"ing#* *whirring* an$ *s8uea"# s8uea"# s8uea"* noises.D +or"ing
li"e a game of Sna"es an$ 7a$$ers# the switch use$ selectors to connect calls# these mechanical
arms moving up an$ $own in large ban"s of contacts. +hen crossbar switching came on the
scene in 1E3># panel switches were remove$ where possible# although some remaine$ wor"ing
until the mi$ 1EJ<s. 9anel became the first $efunct switch in the public switche$ telephone
networ".
&t this site were marvelous photos of the last functional panel switch:
http:MM'y3.comMphoneMvintageMpanelY2<1.stm 0e'ternal lin"1. %f you have the time# you might try
entering the IR7 above into the %nternet &rchive +aybac" Machine 0e'ternal lin"1
3or a won$erful history of early electronic pioneering# clic" here for a must rea$ interview with
Ray Sears:
http:MMwww.ieee.orgMorgani-ationsMhistoryQcenterMoralQhistoriesMtranscriptsMsears.html 0e'ternal
lin"1
9ermalin" V )omments 0<1
'art C
%n 1E2 +estern 2lectric sol$ its overseas manufacturing plants to a small company with a big
name an$ even bigger i$eas: %nternational Telephone an$ Telegraph. & controversial $ecision
within the (ell System. &T6T sol$ factories in 11 countries# fearing a Inite$ States anti/trust
lawsuit. +estern "ept a minority interest in one foreign company# =orthern 2lectric# in )ana$a#
until 1E?3.. &T6T woul$ not return officially to the international mar"et until 1EJJ. TLimberlinU
D+estern 2lectric never controlle$ =orthern 2lectric 0now =ortel1 although they owne$ shares
always in a minority position# the most they hel$ was 43.JY in 1E2E# by 1E?2 they hel$ .<1Y
an$ by 1E?4 they were fully $iveste$. The ma.ority sharehol$er was the (ell Telephone )ompany
of )ana$a.D Than"s to Len 7yons# )urator# Telecommunications Museum Telecommunications
Museum#Maison $es benevoles retraites# =ortel Retirees )lub in Montreal# 7aSalle# X)
%TT*s owners# the curious# conspiratorial (ehn brothers# Sosthenes an$ :ernan$# bought +estern
2lectric %nternational for 3< million $ollars an$ rename$ it %nternational Stan$ar$ 2lectric. Their
purchase# bac"e$ by S.9. Morgan*s ban"# inclu$e$ +estern*s large (ritish manufacturer# rename$
Stan$ar$ Telephones an$ )able. The (ehns agree$ not to compete in &merica against +estern
2lectric# an$ to be the e'port agent for &T6T pro$ucts abroa$. &T6T agree$ in return not to
compete internationally against the (ehns. =ow e8uippe$ with a large manufacturing arm# %T6T
sprea$ across the globe# buying an$ influencing telephone companies 0an$ their governments1 on
nearly every continent.
%n Sanuary# 1E2J# commercial long $istance ra$io/telephone service was intro$uce$ between the
Inite$ States an$ Creat (ritain. &T6T an$ the (ritish 9ostal ,ffice got it on the air after four
years of e'perimenting. They e'pan$e$ it later to communicate with )ana$a# &ustralia# South
&frica# 2gypt an$ Lenya as well as ships at sea. This service ha$ fourteen $e$icate$ channels or
fre8uencies eventually assigne$ to it. The overseas transmitter was at Rugby# 2nglan$# an$ the
Inite$ States transmitter was at !eal# =ew Sersey. 0&ccor$ing to (ell 7abs# but see Limberlin*s
notes here.1T(7RU =early thirty years woul$ pass before the first telephone cable was lai$ un$er
the &tlantic# greatly e'pan$ing calling capacity. %n the ne't year The Creat !epression began#
hitting in$epen$ent telephone companies har$# inclu$ing the manufacturer &utomatic 2lectric.
)lic" here for an e'cellent $iscussion 0internal lin"1 of (ritish involvement with ra$io telephone#
by !on Limberlin# an$ a photograph of the main transmitting tube at Rugby# a ten foot tall# one
ton valve.
& photograph of &T6T*s overseas ra$io/telephone switchboar$
&lthough telephones ha$ been use$ in the +hite :ouse for many years# the instrument $i$ not
reach the presi$ent*s $es" until the :oover a$ministration at the start of the Creat !epression. D%n
1E2E# when the 2'ecutive ,ffices were remo$ele$ the historic one/position switchboar$ which
ha$ serve$ for so many years was retire$ from service an$ a new two/position switchboar$#
especially built to meet the 9resi$ent*s nee$s# was installe$. The number of stations was
materially increase$ in a$$ition to many special circuits for the use of the 9resi$ent. %t was at this
time a telephone was installe$ on the 9resi$ent*s $es" for the first time.D T:oover 7ibraryU
0Than"s to 7. =ic"el for researching this point1
The Inite$ States )ongress create$ the 3e$eral )ommunications )ommission in 1E34 to regulate
telephones# ra$io# an$ television. %t was part of 9resi$ent Roosevelt*s D=ew !ealD plan to bring
&merica out of the Creat !epression. =ot content to merely follow congressional $ictates# an$
unfortunately for wireless users# the agency first thought it shoul$ promote social change through
what it $i$. To promote the greater goo$ with ra$io# the 3.).). gave priority to emergency
services# broa$casters# government agencies# utility companies# an$ other groups it thought
serve$ the most people while using the least ra$io spectrum. This meant few channels for ra$io/
telephones since a single wireless call uses the same ban$wi$th as an 3.M. ra$io broa$cast
stationO large fre8uency bloc"s to serve .ust a few people.
Treating ra$io li"e a public utility# something li"e the railroa$s# it was thought a public agency
coul$ protect the public against monopoly practices an$ price gouging. (ut li"e many
bureaucracies# at every opportunity the 3)) trie$ to enlarge its role an$ power# eventually
aligning itself with large communications companies an$ then actually wor"ing against the
consumer. The worst e'amples were outsi$e of telephony# helping the R)& corporation against
3.M. broa$casting# ruining 2$win &rmstrong in the process# an$ favoring R)& over 3arnsworth#
the first real $eveloper of television# leaving him penniless as well. &long the way were
ma$$ening $elays in approving technical a$vances an$ fre8uency allocations# something that
continues to this $ay.
7ate in 1E34 the 3)) began investigating &T6T as well as every other telephone company. The
3)) issue$ a *9ropose$ Report* after four years# in which its commissioner e'coriate$ &T6T for#
among other things# un.ustifiable prices on basic phone service. The commissioner also urge$ the
government to regulate prices the (ell System pai$ +estern 2lectric for e8uipment# in$ee$# even
suggesting &T6T shoul$ let other companies bi$ on +estern 2lectric wor". The (ell System
countere$ each point of the 3))*s report in their 1E3> &nnual Report# however# it was clear the
government was now closely loo"ing at whether the (ell System*s structure was goo$ for
&merica. &t that time &T6T controlle$ >3 percent of Inite$ States telephones# E1 percent of
telephone plant an$ E> percent of long $istance lines. ,nly the outbrea" of +orl$ +ar %%# two an$
a half months after the final report was issue$ in 1E3E# stave$ off close government scrutiny.
%n 1E3J &lec Reeves of (ritain invente$ mo$ern $igital transmission when he $evelope$ 9ulse
)o$e Mo$ulation. % say mo$ern because Morse co$e an$ its variants are also $igital: organi-e$
on an$ off pulses of electrical energy that convey information. +hile 9)M too" $eca$es to
implement# the a$vent of $igital wor"ing was a momentous event an$ $eserves much
consi$eration. !avi$ Robertson# a biographer of Reeves# goes so far as to claim Reeves as the
father of mo$ern telecommunications. D% thin" a fair argument can be sustaine$ that the a$option
of $igital is the principal motor of change in the early 21st century. 3or sure# there*$ have been no
merger between &,7 an$ Time +arner an$ other moves towar$s combining me$ia with telecom
companies ha$ it not become possible to transmit information of all sorts in the same binary way.
+hether all this is goo$ news is# of course# another issue.D
3or more information on &lec Reeves clic" here 0internal lin"1
3or a website $evote$ to Reeves go here:
http:MMwww.&lec:arleyReeves.com 0e'ternal lin"1
%n 1E3J coa'ial cable was installe$ between Tole$o# ,hio an$ South (en$# %n$iana. 7ong
$istance lines began moving un$ergroun$# a big change from overhea$ lines carrie$ on poles. %n
that same year the first commercial messages using carrier techni8ues were sent through the coa'#
base$ on transmission techni8ues invente$ by 7loy$ 2spenschie$ an$ :erman &. &ffel.
Multiple'ing let toll circuits carry several calls over one cable simultaneously. %t was so
successful that by the mi$ 1E<s seventy nine percent of (ell*s inter city trun"s were multiple'e$.
The technology eventually move$ into the local networ"# improving to the point where it coul$
carry 13#<<< channels at once.
3or more information on 7loy$ 2spenchie$*s brilliant career# go here:
http:MMwww.ieee.orgMorgani-ationsMhistoryQcenterMoralQhistoriesMtranscriptsMespenschie$11.html
%n 1E3> retractile# spring# or spiral cor$s were intro$uce$ into the (ell System. & single cotton
bun$le containing the han$set*s four wires were fashione$ into a spiral. This re$uce$ the twisting
an$ curling of conventional flat or brai$e$ cor$s. Spiral cor$s were popular imme$iately. &T6T*s
2vents in Telecommunication :istory T2T:U reporte$ that intro$uction began in &pril# with
+estern 2lectric provi$ing ?#<<< cor$s by =ovember. Still# even with +.2. then pro$ucing 1#<<<
cor$s a wee"# the cor$s coul$ not be "ept in stoc".
%n 1E3> the (ell System intro$uce$ crossbar switching to the central office# a system as e'cellent
as the panel switch was 8uestionable. The first =o. 1 crossbar was cut into service at the Troy
&venue central office in (roo"lyn# =ew @or" on 3ebruary 13th.This culminate$ a trial begun in
,ctober 1E3J. T2T:U& $etail of a crossbar switch is shown on the right. +estern 2lectric*s
mo$els earne$ a worl$wi$e reputation for rugge$ness an$ fle'ibility. &T6T improve$ on wor"
$one by the brilliant Swe$ish engineer Cotthilf &nsgarius (etulan$er. They even sent a team to
Swe$en to loo" at his crossbar switch. %nstalle$ by the hun$re$s in me$ium to large cities#
crossbar technology a$vance$ in $evelopment an$ popularity until 1EJ># when over 2> million
(ell system lines were connecte$ to one. That compares to panel switching lines which pea"e$ in
1E> at 3#>3>#<<< an$ step by step lines pea"ing in 1EJ3 at 24#44<#<<<.
Much telephone progress slowe$ as +orl$ +ar %% began. (ut one ma.or accomplishment was
$irectly relate$ to it. ,n May 1# 1E43 the longest open wire communication line in the worl$
began operating between 2$monton# &lberta an$ 3airban"s# &las"a. (uilt alongsi$e the newly
constructe$ &las"an :ighway# the line was 1<< miles long# use$ E#<<< poles an$ feature$ 23
manne$ repeater stations. 3earing its ra$io an$ submarine cable communications to &las"a might
be intercepte$ by the Sapanese# the Inite$ States built the line to provi$e a more secure
communication lin" from &las"a to the Inite$ States.
& little bit on ra$ar $evelopment in +orl$ +ar %%
(ac" to crossbar. =ote the watch/li"e comple'ity in the $iagram. )urrent moving through the
switch move$ these electro/mechanical relays bac" an$ forth# $epen$ing on the $ial pulses
receive$. !espite its beauty# these switches were bul"y# complicate$ an$ costly. The ne't
invention we loo" at woul$ in time sweep all manual an$ electro/mechanical switching away.
///////////////////////////////////////////
Resources
T(7RU DThe ,pening of Transatlantic Service on ShortwavesD ? (ell 7aboratories Recor$ 1E2>:
4<
T:oover 7ibraryU 9ersonal correspon$ence from the :oover 7ibrary to 7. =ic"el 01<M1EM2<<<1D
T2T:U 2vents in Telecommunication :istory# &T6T &rchives 9ublication: +arren# =ew Sersey
0>.E2/2M1# p3
TLimberlinU D+hile &T6T purporte$ to stay out of international mar"ets# they always ha$ an
entity with several names li"e D(ell %nternationalD that functione$ as sales offices to those who
woul$ in8uire. =o special mo$ifications $one# even for &) power. @ou ta"e it the way we ma"e it
if you want it# was the slogan. To that e'tent# many of the overseas :3 ra$io/telephone points we
wor"e$ from &TT*s 3ort 7au$er$ale office ha$ +estern 2lectric :3 ra$ios an$ terminals that
matche$ ours. There are many more stories li"e this . . .D !on Limberlin 0internal lin" to !on*s
page at this site1.
9ermalin" V )omments 0<1
'art D
,n Suly 1# 1E4> the (ell System unveile$ the transistor# a .oint invention of (ell 7aboratories
scientists +illiam Shoc"ley# Sohn (ar$een# an$ +alter (rattain. %t woul$ revolutioni-e every
aspect of the telephone in$ustry an$ all of communications. ,ne engineer remar"e$# D&s"ing us
to pre$ict what transistors will $o is li"e as"ing the man who first put wheels on an o' cart to
foresee the automobile# the wristwatch# or the high spee$ generator.D ,thers were less restraine$.
%n 1E4# recently retire$ )hief of 2ngineering for &T6T# !r. :arol$ ,sborne# pre$icte$# D7et us
say that in the ultimate# whenever a baby is born anywhere in the worl$# he is given at birth a
number which will be his telephone number for life. &s soon as he can tal"# he is given a
watchli"e $evice with 1< little buttons on one si$e an$ a screen on the other. Thus e8uippe$# at
any time when he wishes to tal" with anyone in the worl$# he will pull out the $evice an$ punch
on the "eys the number of his frien$. Then turning the $evice over# he will hear the voice of his
frien$ an$ see his face on the screen# in color an$ in three $imensions. %f he $oes not see an$ hear
him he will "now that the frien$ is $ea$.D T)onlyUSheesh.
The first transistor loo"ing as cru$e# perhaps# as the first telephone. The point contact transistor
picture$ here is now obsolete.
)apitali-ing on a flowing stream of electrons# along with the special characteristics of silicon an$
germanium# the transistor was built into amplifiers an$ switching e8uipment. :earing ai$s#
ra$ios# phonographs# computers# electronic telephone switching e8uipment# satellites an$ moon
roc"ets woul$ all be improve$ or ma$e possible because of the transistor. 7et*s $epart again from
the narrative to see how a transistor wor"s.
Transistor stan$s for transit resistor# the temporary name# now permanent# that the inventors gave
it. These semi$con$uctors control the electrical current flowing between two terminals by
applying voltage to a thir$ terminal. @ou now have a minature switch# presenting either a freeway
to electrons or a bric" wall to them# $epen$ing on whether a signal voltage e'ists. (ul"y
mechanical relays that use$ to switch calls# li"e the crossbar shown above# coul$ now be replace$
with transistors. There*s more.
Transistors amplify when built into a proper circuit. & wea" signal can be booste$ tremen$ously.
7et*s say you have ten watts flowing into one si$e of the transistor. @our current stops because
silicon normally isn*t a goo$ con$ucter. @ou now intro$uce a signal into the mi$$le of the
transistor# say# at one watt. That changes the transistor*s internal crystalline structure# causing the
silicon to go from an insulator to a con$uctor. %t now allows the larger current to go through#
pic"ing up your wea" signal along the way# impressing it on the larger voltage. @our one watt
signal is now a ten watt signal.
Transistors use the properties of semi/con$uctors# seemingly innocuous materials li"e geranium
an$ now mostly silicon. Materials li"e silver an$ copper con$uct electricity well. Rubber an$
porcelain con$uct electricity poorly. The $ifference between electrical con$uctors an$ insulators
is their molecular structure# the stuff that ma"es them up. +eight# si-e# or shape $oesn*t matter#
it*s how tightly the material hol$s on to its electrons# preventing them from freely flowing
through its atoms.
Silicon by itself is an or$inary element# a common part of san$. %f you intro$uce impurities li"e
arsenic or boron# though# you can turn it into a con$uctor with the right electrical charge.
Selectively placing precise impurities into a silicon chip pro$uces an electronic circuit. %t*s li"e
ma"ing a magnetically polari-e$# multi/layere$ chemical ca"e. Aary the ingre$ients or elements
an$ you can ma"e up many "in$s of ca"es or transistors. &n$ each will taste or operate a little
$ifferently.
&s %*ve .ust hinte$# there are many "in$s of transistors# .ust as there are many $ifferent "in$s of
tubes. %t*s the trio$e*s soli$ state e8uivalent: the fiel$ effect transistor or 32T. The 32T we*ll loo"
at goes by an intimi$ating name# M,S32T for Metal ,'i$e Semicon$uctor 3iel$ 2ffect
Transistor. +hewR That*s a big name but it $escribes what it $oes: a metal toppe$ $evice wor"ing
by a phenomenon calle$ a fiel$ effect.
& silicon chip ma"es up the 32T. Three separate wires are wel$e$ into $ifferent parts. These
electro$e wires con$uct electricity. The source wire ta"es current in an$ the $rain wire ta"es
current out. & thir$ wire is wire$ into the top. %n our e'ample the silicon wafer is positively
charge$. 3urther# the manufacturer ma"es the areas hol$ing the source an$ $rain negative. These
two negative areas are thus surroun$e$ by a positive.
& much more accurate transistor e'planation here
=ow we intro$uce our wea" signal current# say a telephone call that nee$s amplifying. The circuit
is so arrange$ that its current is positive. %t goes into the gate where it pushes against the positive
charge of the silicon chip. That*s li"e two positive magnets pushing against each other. %f you*ve
ever trie$ to hol$ two li"e magnets together you "now it*s har$ to $o // there*s always a space
between them. Similarly# a signal voltage pushing against the chip*s positive charge gives space
to let the current go from the source to the $rain. %t pic"s up the signal along the way. )hec" out
this $iagram# mo$ifie$ only slightly from 7ucent*s e'cellent site:
http:MMwww.lucent.comMmin$sMtransistorMtech.html
&s 7ouis (loomfiel$ of Airginia puts it:DThe M,S32T goes from being an insulating $evice
when there is no charge on the gate to a con$uctor when there is charge on the gateR This property
allows M,S32Ts to amplify signals an$ control the movements of electric charge# which is why
M,S32Ts are so useful in electronic $evices such as stereos# televisions# an$ computers.D
% "now that this is a simple e'planation to a forbi$$ingly $ifficult topic# but % thin" it*s enough for
a history article. Than"s to &ustralia*s Sohn +ong for help with his section. %f you*$ li"e to rea$
further# chec" out 7ucent*s transistor page by searching their site: http:MMwww.lucent.com
0e'ternal lin"1
%f you have a better e'planation or something to a$$# please contact me &n$ now bac" to the
narrative.
9ermalin" V )omments 0<1
'art %
+e come to the 1E<s. !ial tone was not wi$esprea$ until the en$ of the $eca$e in =orth
&merica# not until $irect $ialing an$ automatic switching became common. !ial tone was first
intro$uce$ into the public switche$ telephone networ" in a Cerman city by the Siemens company
in 1E<># but it too" $eca$es before being accepte$# with the (ell System ta"ing the lea$. &T6T
use$ it not only to in$icate that a line was free# but also to ma"e the $ialing proce$ure between
their automatic an$ manual e'changes more familiar to their customers. Manual e'change
subscribers place$ calls first through an operator# who listene$ to the number the caller wante$
an$ then connecte$ the parties together. The (ell System thought $ial tone a goo$ substitute for
an operator*s D=umber pleaseD an$ re8uire$ this service in all of their automatic e'changes.
(efore the 1E<s most of the in$epen$ent telephone companies# but not all# also provi$e$ $ial
tone. &n$# of course# $ial tone was not possible on phones such as cran" mo$els# in which you
signale$ an operator who then later connecte$ your call. TSwihartU
% mentione$ $irect number $ialing# where callers ma$e their own long $istance calls# This was
first intro$uce$ into the (ell System in a trial in 2nglewoo$# =ew Sersey in 1E1. Ten years
passe$ before it became universal.
,n &ugust# 1J# 1E1 the first transcontinental microwave system began operating. T(ell
7aboratories Recor$U ,ne hun$re$ an$ seven relay stations space$ about 3< miles apart forme$ a
lin" from =ew @or" to San 3rancisco. %t cost the (ell System W4<#<<<#<<<O a milestone in their
$evelopment of ra$io relay begun in 1E4J between =ew @or" an$ (oston. %n 1E4 over 4<<
microwave stations were scattere$ across the country. & (ell System D)ornucopiaD tower is
shown at left. (y 1E> microwave carrier ma$e up 13#<<<#<<< miles of telephone circuits or one
8uarter of the nations long $istance lines. ?<< conversations or two television programs coul$ be
sent at once over these ra$io routes.
(ut what about crossing the seasP Microwave wasn*t possible over the ocean an$ ra$iotelephony
was limite$. @ears of $evelopment lea$ up to 1E? when the first transatlantic telephone cable
system starte$ carrying calls. %t cost 42 million $ollars. Two coa'ial cables about 2< miles apart
carrie$ 3? two way circuits. =early fifty sophisticate$ repeaters were space$ from ten to forty
miles along the way. 2ach vacuum tube repeater containe$ #<<< parts an$ cost almost W1<<#<<<.
The first $ay this system too" >> calls# JY more than the previous ten $ays average with
&T6T*s transatlantic ra$io/telephone service.
%n the early 1E<s The (ell System $evelope$ an improve$ neoprene .ac"ete$ telephone cor$ an$
shortly after that a 9A) or plastic cor$. T(7R.U These replace$ the cotton covere$ cor$s use$
since telephony began. The wires insi$e lai$ parallel to each other instea$ of being twiste$
aroun$. That re$uce$ $iameter an$ ma$e them more fle'ible. (oth# though# were flat an$ non/
retractable# only being ma$e into spring cor$s later. %n the authoritative !ates in &merican
Telephone Technology# ).!. :anscom# then historian for (ell 7aboratories# state$ that the (ell
System ma$e the neoprene version available in 1E4 an$ the plastic mo$el available in 1E?.
These were# the boo" $ryly in$icate$# the most significant $evelopments in cor$ technology since
1E2?# when sol$erless cor$ tips came into use.
,n Sune J# 1E1# &T6T an$ %nternational Telephone an$ Telegraph signe$ a cross/licensing
patent agreement. TMyerU This mar"s what Myer says Dle$ to complete stan$ar$i-ation in the
&merican telephone in$ustry.D 9erhaps. % $o "now that %TT*s L/<< phones are completely
interchangeable with +.2. Mo$el <<s# so much so that parts can be freely mi'e$ an$ matche$
with each other. (ut whether &utomatic 2lectric an$ other manufacturers pro$uce$ interoperable
e8uipment is something % am still researching. T+illiam Myre $iscussion on interchangeable
partsU
%t is significant# though# that after seventy/five years of competition the (ell System $eci$e$ to
let other companies use its patents. Myer suggests a 1E4E anti/trust suit against +2), an$
&T6T was responsible for their new attitu$e. ,n &ugust E# 1E1 %TT began buying Lellogg
stoc"# eventually ac8uiring the company. %n 1E2 the Lellogg Switchboar$ an$ Supply company
passe$ into history# merging with %TT.
Roger )on"lin relates# D%n .ust a few years after the buyout# %TT change$ the name from Lellogg
Switchboar$ 6 Supply )ompany to %TT Lellogg. Then# after merging 3e$eral Telephone an$
Ra$io )orporation# its separate telephone manufacturing company in )lifton# =S. into %TT
Lellogg an$ combining manufacturing operations into its )icero &ve. facility in )hicago# the
name was change$ again to %TT Telecommunications. . . . The last change to %TT
Telecommunications Ttoo"U place TinU1E?3.D
D%n 1E>E# %TT sol$ its entire worl$wi$e telecommunications pro$ucts business to &lcatel an$
with$rew totally from this business. %n 1EE2 &lcatel sol$ what ha$ formerly been %TT*s customer
premises e8uipment 0)921 business in the IS# inclu$ing its factory in )orinth# MS. to a group of
private investors hea$e$ by !avi$ 7ee. %nitially after purchasing this business from &lcatel# this
new company was "nown as )ortelco Lellogg. %t continues to manufacture an$ mar"et what ha$
formerly been %TT*s I.S./ma$e telephones an$ relate$ pro$ucts. The name *Lellogg* has since
been $roppe$ from its name an$ the company is now "nown as )ortelco. 3or a short while
)ortelco continue$ to use the %TT name an$ tra$emar" on its pro$ucts un$er a license from %TT#
but this also has been $iscontinue$.D
The %TT information above came from the e'cellent history site http:MMwww.sigtel.comM 0e'ternal
lin"# now $ea$1# pro$uce$ by the I.L.*s &n$rew 2mmerson# a first ran" telephone historian.
%n 1E2 the (ell System began increasing payphone charges from a nic"el to a $ime. T3agenU %t
wasn*t an imme$iate change since both the payphone an$ the central office switching e8uipment
that service$ it ha$ to be mo$ifie$. (y the late 1E<s many areas aroun$ the country were still
charging a nic"el. Most li"ely &T6T starte$ converting payphones in =ew @or" )ity first.
%n the mi$/<s (ell 7abs launche$ the 2sse' research pro.ect. %t concentrate$ on $eveloping
computer controlle$ switching# base$ upon using the transistor. %t bore first fruit in =ovember#
1E?3 with the 1<1 2SS# a 9(B or office telephone switch that was partly $igital. !espite their
computer e'pertise# &T6T agree$ in 1E? un$er government pressure not to e'pan$ their
business beyon$ telephones an$ transmitting information. (ell 7aboratories an$ +estern 2lectric
woul$ not enter such fiel$s as computers an$ business machines. %n return# the (ell System was
left intact with a reprieve from anti/monopoly scrutiny for a few years. %t is interesting to
speculate whether %(M woul$ have $ominate$ computing in the 1E?<s if &T6T ha$ compete$ in
that mar"et.
%n 1E Theo$ore Cary an$ )ompany merge$ into Ceneral Telephone# forming the largest
in$epen$ent telephone company in the Inite$ States. The combine$ company serve$ D>2#<<<
$omestic telephones through 2 operating companies in 1J states. %t also ha$ interests in foreign
telcos controlling 42?#<<< telephones.D &utomatic 2lectric# Cary*s most well "nown company#
retaine$ its name but fell un$er an even larger corporate umbrella. &C)S goes on to say#
The Cary merger pac"age inclu$e$ &utomatic 2lectric )o. 0&21# which now ha$ subsi$iaries in
)ana$a# (elgium an$ %taly. CT2 ha$ purchase$ its first telephone/manufacturing subsi$iary five
years earlier in 1E< / 7eich 2lectric. (ut the a$$ition of &2*s engineering an$ manufacturing
capacity assure$ CT2 of e8uipment for their rapi$ly growing telephone operations.
&n e'cellent timeline on &utomatic 2lectric history is at the &C)S site. The D&D in the name
stan$s for &T6T# the DCD for DCT2D. !ivisions from both companies combine$ in 1E>E to form
&C)S:
http:MMwww.agcs.comM 0e'ternal lin"1
Ceneral was foun$e$ in 1E2? as &ssociate$ Telephone Itilities by Sigur$ ,$egar$. The company
went ban"rupt $uring the Creat !epression an$ in 1E34 reorgani-e$ itself as Ceneral Telephone.
Ceneral ha$ its own manufacturing company# 7eich 2lectric# which began in 1E<J. Crowth was
unspectacular until !onal$ ). 9ower became presi$ent in 1E<. :e soon bought other companies#
buil$ing Ceneral Telephone into a large telecommunications company.
&fter the merger of &utomatic 2lectric# Ceneral ac8uire$ answering machine pro$ucer 2lectric
Secretary %n$ustries in 1EJ# carrier e8uipment ma"er 7en"urt 2lectric in 1EE# an$ Sylvania
2lectronics in that same year. %n 1EE the newly rename$ Ceneral Telephone an$ 2lectronics
provi$e$ everything the in$epen$ent telephone companies might want. &lthough they were not
the e'clusive manufacturer for the in$epen$ents# &utomatic 2lectric was certainly the largest.
&n$ where CT2 aggressively went after military contracts# the (ell System $i$ not. %n the late
1E<s# for e'ample# 7en"urt 2lectric pro$uce$ most of the arme$ forces* carrier e8uipment. CT2
laste$ until 1E>2.
%n Sanuary# 1E># +ichita 3alls# Te'as was the first &merican city in the (ell System to institute
true number calling# that is# seven numerical $igits without letters or names. &lthough it too"
more than fifteen years to implement throughout the (ell System# &=)# or all number calling#
woul$ finally replace the system of letters an$ numbers begun forty years before at the a$vent of
automatic $ialing. Telephone numbers li"e (Itterfiel$># 27liot 1/1<1J or 27mwoo$ 1/1<1J. 3or
a history of e'change names# please clic" here to rea$ my article on them. Leep in min$# too# that
many in$epen$ent telephone companies $i$ not use letters an$ numbers#
3or a history of country co$es# all number $ialing that let people call overseas on their own# clic"
here: http:MMmirror.lcs.mit.e$uMtelecom/archivesMarchivesMcountry.co$esM 0e'ternal lin"1
3or a loo" at the overwhelming sub.ect of &merican area co$es# go here:
http:MMmirror.lcs.mit.e$uMtelecom/archivesMarchivesMareaco$esM 0e'ternal lin"1
The 1E?<s began a $i--ying age of pro.ects# improvements an$ intro$uctions. %n 1E?1 the (ell
System starte$ wor" on a classic col$ war pro.ect# finally complete$ in 1E?. %t was the first coast
to coast atomic bomb blast resistant cable. %nten$e$ to survive where the national microwave
system might fail# the pro.ect burie$ 2<< reels of coa'ial cable in a 4#<<< mile long trench. E3<<
circuits were helpe$ along by E< burie$ concrete repeater stations. Stretche$ along the 1E state
route were 11 manne$ test centers# burie$ < feet below groun$# complete with air filtration#
living 8uarters an$ foo$ an$ water.
%n 1E?3 the first mo$ern touch/tone phone was intro$uce$# the +estern 2lectric 1<<. %t ha$ only
ten buttons. 7imite$ service tests ha$ starte$ in 1EE.
&lso in 1E?3 $igital carrier techni8ues were intro$uce$. 9revious multiple'ing schemes use$
analog transmission# carrying $ifferent channels separate$ by fre8uency# much li"e those use$ by
cable television. T1 or Transmission ,ne# by comparison# re$uce$ analog voice traffic to a series
of electrical plots# binary coor$inates to represent soun$. T1 8uic"ly became the bac"bone of
long $istance toll service an$ then the primary han$ler of local transmission between central
offices. The T1 system han$les calls throughout the telephone system to this $ay.
%n 1E?4 the (ell System put its star crosse$ vi$eotelephone into limite$ commercial service
between =ew @or"# +ashington an$ )hicago. !espite $eca$es of $reaming# $evelopment an$
$esire by (ell scientists# technicians an$ mar"eting won"s# the vi$eotelephone never foun$ a
mar"et.
1E?>. 2ven the astute Sapanese fell victim to $eveloping picturephones as this unflattering
photograph shows# this mo$el was probably $evelope$ by =ippon Telephone an$ Telegraph
%n 1E? the first commercial communications satellite was launche$# provi$ing 24< two way
telephone circuits. &lso in 1E? the 1&1 payphone was intro$uce$ by (ell 7abs an$ +estern
2lectric after seven years of $evelopment. Replacing the stan$ar$ three slot payphone $esign# the
1&1 single slot mo$el was the first ma.or change in coin phones since the 1E2<s.
1E? also mar"e$ the $ebut of the =o. 12SS# the (ell Systems first central office computeri-e$
switch. The pro$uct of at least 1< years of planning# 4#<<< man years of research an$
$evelopment# as well as W<< million $ollars in costs# the first 2lectronic Switching System was
installe$ in Succasunna# =.S. (uilt by +estern 2lectric the 12SS use$ 1?<#<<< $io$es# #<<<
transistors an$ 22?#<<< resistors. These an$ other components were mounte$ on thousan$s of
circuit boar$s. =ot a true $igital switch# the 12SS $i$ feature Store$ 9rogram )ontrol# a fancy
(ell System name for memory# enabling all sorts of new features li"e spee$ $ialing an$ call
forwar$ing. +ithout memory a switch coul$ not perform these functionsO previous switches such
as crossbar an$ step by step wor"e$ in real time# with each step e'ecute$ as it happene$. The
switch prove$ a success but there were some problems for (ell 7abs engineers# particularly when
a =o.12SS became overloa$e$. %n those circumstances it ten$e$ to fail all at once# rather than
brea"ing $own bit by bit.
///////////////////////////////////
Resources
TMyersU Myer# Ralph ,# 1EE# ,l$ Time TelephonesR: Technology# Restoration an$ Repair# Tab
(oo"s# =ew @or". 123 2'cellent.
TSwihart# StanleyU Telecom :istory: The Sournal of the Telephone :istory %nstitute# %ssue 2#
Spring 1EE
T2T:U 2vents in Telecommunication :istory# 1EE2 #&T6T &rchives 9ublication 0>.E2/2M1# p3
T(ell 7aboratories Recor$U D)oast to )oast Ra$io Relay System ,pens.D (ell 7aboratories
Recor$# May# 1E1. 42J
T(ell 7aboratories Recor$U +eber# ).&.# Sac"ete$ )or$s for Telephones# (ell 7aboratories
Recor$# May# 1EE 1>J
T3agenU 3agen# M.!.# e$. & :istory of 2ngineering an$ Science in the (ell System: Aolume 1
The 2arly @ears# 1>J /1E2. =ew @or": (ell Telephone 7aboratories# 1EJ# 3J (riefly
mentions coin services.
T+illiam Myre $iscussion on interchangeable partsU
&s a teenager in the ?<*s# % $i$ a $etaile$ e'amination of both our +estern 2lectric "eye$
telephones 0installe$ in 1E?<1 an$ a couple of &utomatic 2lectric phones 0on of which was
"eye$1. &ll the phones were $ial telephones. &t the time % was attempting to un$erstan$ the
wiring an$ reverse engineer the circuitry.
%t is my opinion that the parts were not $esigne$ to be mechanically interchangeable. The insi$e
of the phones were lai$ out $ifferently. The $ial on a +2 seeme$ to be $ifferent from a &2
mechanically.
The electrical DgutsD of both the +2 an$ &2 phones was a metal bo' with a plastic top on which
screw terminals were locate$. The layout of these terminals an$ the bo' si-e was not the same.
The han$set ha$ $imensional $ifferences as well# although the &2 an$ +2 mic an$ spea"er
might fit interchangeably.
2lectrically spea"ing# of course# all phones ha$ pretty much the same circuits an$ components# so
it woul$ probably be possible to wire a &2 circuit bo' into a +2 phone# an$ it li"ely wor".
The electrical $ifferences# if they e'ist# woul$ have to be in the microphone# spea"er# or capacitor
use$ in series with the ringer coil 0an$ the coil impe$ance1.
% $on*t remember if the same color co$ing was use$ on the internal wiring# but % can certainly say
that having a +2 phone to e'amine $i$ not help me re/wire the insi$e of an &2 phone that ha$
been unwire$.
% still have a "eye$ &2 phone in my garage. % also somewhere probably still have the technical
bulletin &2 sent me to rewire the &2 phone.
+illiam Myre
9ermalin" V )omments 0<1
'art (
%n Sune 1E?> the 3)) allowe$ non (ell e8uipment to be legally attache$ to (ell System lines.
!espite restrictions the (ell System woul$ impose on such e8uipment# many companies starte$
pro$ucing pro$ucts to compete with +estern 2lectric. %n 1E?E Microwave )ommunications
%nternational began transmitting business calls over their own private networ" between Saint
7ouis an$ )hicago. (ypassing (ell System lines# M)% offere$ cheaper prices. &T6T bitterly
oppose$ this speciali-e$ common carrier service# protesting that (ell System*s long $istance rates
were higher since they subsi$i-e$ local phone service aroun$ the country. Still# M)% was a minor
threat# economically. The real problem starte$ a few years later when M)% trie$ to connect to the
(ell System networ".
&t the en$ of the 1E?<s &T6T began e'periencing severe customer service problems# especially
in =ew @or" )ity. The reasons were many but most ha$ to $o with unforeseen $eman$# couple$
with re$uce$ maintenance. The (ell System fi'e$ the problems but not without an attitu$e that
embittere$ people by the millions. %n (oettinger*s pro/(ell System history# he recounts the
troubles this way: D%n 1E?E# unprece$ente$ .umps in usage an$ $eman$ cause$ service
$eterioration in several large cities. :uge an$ rapi$ in.ections of e8uipment an$ personnel traine$
in accelerate$ programs were re8uire$ before 8uality levels were restore$. The e'perience
showe$ how vital telephones ha$ become to mo$ern life 0when even persons on welfare were felt
to nee$ a phone1 an$ how frustrations with brea"$own le$ to aggressive behavior.D That the (ell
System $i$n*t un$erstan$ how vital telephones were to mo$ern life is beyon$ un$erstan$ingO that
welfare recipients weren*t thought to $eserve a phone is beyon$ acceptance# however# Ma (ell
was not alone in $ealing with $issatisfie$ customers. CT2 also ha$ problems.
CT2 an$ &utomatic 2lectric went through tremen$ous growth in the 1E?<s# with &.2. e'pan$ing
to four $ifferent facilities. %n 1E?E their )alifornia facility in San )arlos ma$e transmission
e8uipment. Switchgear an$ relate$ e8uipment came from =orthla"e an$ Cenoa# %llinois# an$
telephones an$ other customer apparatus came from :untsville# &labama. &utomatic 2lectric
7imite$ in )ana$a also pro$uce$ e8uipment. &.2.*s research in the 1E?<s resulte$ in their first
computeri-e$ switch being cut into service into Saint 9etersburg# 3lori$a in September 1EJ2. %t
was calle$ the =o. 1 2&B 02lectronic &utomatic 2'change1. Crowth wasn*t han$le$ well#
though# by their parent company# Ceneral Telephone an$ 2lectronics.
CT2 was then a poorly manage$ conglomerate of 23 regional phone companies an$ a ma"er of#
among other things# televisions an$ light bulbs. They ha$ their successes an$ failures. ,ne
notable achievement is below.
D%ntro$ucing a crimestopper so a$vance$ !ic" Tracy $oesn*t have it yet.D
%n1EJ1 Ceneral Telephone an$ 2lectronics 0CT2 Sylvania1 intro$uce$ a $ata system calle$
!igicom. %t let $ispatchers i$entifying patrol car locations on a screen# an$ allowe$ officers to run
license plate chec"s. +hen a patrolman touche$ a spot on the $igicom screen it lit up the same
spot on the $ispatcher*s map. 9ro$uce$ by their Sociosystems 9ro$ucts ,rgani-ation# % $o not
"now how many units were actually installe$ by CT2# but it certainly foresha$owe$ later
$evelopments. To$ay many police $epartments use cellular $igital pac"et $ata 0)!9!1 to run
plates an$ communicate in te't with their $ispatchers. )!9! runs on e'isting cellular networ"s#
with $ata rates no more that E.? or 1E.2 Lbs# a$e8uate for most purposes but slow when you
consi$er that in the year 2<<<# 2E years after this system was intro$uce$# we are still laboring
with creeping $ata rates. )lic" on the image above or here to get the full picture an$ story. 0%t*s a
huge graphic file so be careful: 3?4L1
CT2 ha$ their problems as well# especially with customer service# getting worse an$ worse
through the late si'ties# with the company a$mitting their problems by con$ucting a highly
unusual national maga-ine a$ campaign in =ovember# 1EJ1. The a$ in the =ational Ceographic
rea$:
D& lot of people have been shooting at the telephone companies these $ays. &n$# in truth# we*ve
ha$ our han$s full "eeping up with the -ooming $eman$ for increase$ phone service. (ut Ceneral
Telephone an$# in all fairness# the other phone companies haven*t been sitting aroun$ counting
$imes. 3or some time now# we*ve been paying a healthy *phone bill* ourselves trying to ma"e our
service $o everything you e'pect of it . . . !uring the ne't five years we*ll be spen$ing over W?
billion upgra$ing an$ e'pan$ing every phase of our phone operation . . . 7a$ies an$ gentlemen#
we*re wor"ing as fast as brains# manpower an$ money can combine to ma"e our service as
efficient as possible.D
&n$ although CT2 might not have Dsat aroun$ counting $imes#D CT2*s poor service recor$
continue$# a reputation that haunts it to this $ay. Rightly or wrongly# the phone companies#
particularly those in the (ell System# watche$ agog as customer relations got worse. :ac"ing an$
toll frau$ increase$ $ramatically# as the phone company became fair game# a soulless an$
uncaring monster to war against. &ttac"ing Ma (ell became common an$ almost fashionable.
1EJ2 Ma$ Maga-ine cartoon. The caption rea$s: DStoc"hol$ers Crow 3&T &s Telephone Isers
Co Ma$ &s Rates Rise &n$ Service 3lops.D
%n 1EJ4 the Sustice !epartment began investigating &T6T again for violating antitrust laws. They
recommen$e$ +estern 2lectric an$ 7ong 7ines be $iveste$ from &T6T. Many people in Sustice
as well as throughout the country were concerne$ with the si-e of &T6T an$ their monopoly
status. &lthough everyone "new the (ell System provi$e$ the best telephone service in the worl$#
it ha$ $one so with little or no competition. &T6T*s assets stoo$ at J billion $ollars. (ig was not
goo$ in the early 1EJ<s# with anti/establishment 0particularly the military in$ustrial
establishment1 feeling running high $uring the Aietnam an$ +atergate era. )ontributing to the
(ell System*s woes# in Suly# 1EJJ the 3)) institute$ a certification program# whereby any
telephone e8uipment meeting stan$ar$s coul$ be connecte$ to (ell System*s lines. !o-ens an$
then hun$re$s of manufacturers starte$ competing with +estern 2lectric# ma"ing everything from
answering machines# mo$ems# fa' machines# spea"erphones# to $ifferently style$ telephones.
!uring the 1E<s# 1E?<s# an$ 1EJ<s# Stromberg/)arlson of Rochester# =ew @or" an$ then 7a"e
Mary# 3lori$a# pro$uce$ a marvelously simple switch "nown as the B/@. +hile an in$epen$ent
phone ma"er at the turn of the century# Stromberg/)arlson ha$ by the early J<s been ac8uire$ by
Ceneral !yanmics. They were later bought by Rolm an$ then by Siemens of Cermany# who still
owns it to$ay. %t*s new name is Siemens/Stromberg. (ut bac" to their switch.
7ittle "nown outsi$e the in$ustry# the Stromberg/)arlson B/@ step by step switch soli$ly
compete$ for business against Strowger technology 0manufacture$ by &utomatic 2lectric an$
others1 in thousan$s of installations throughout rural &merica. Some may remain in Me'ico an$
South &merica. &lthough the (ell System an$ many in$epen$ents preferre$ the Strowger $esign
for small communities# many telephone companies $i$ not. Strowger e8uipment often wor"e$
reliably for $eca$es but it was more complicate$ than B/@s an$ it re8uire$ a great $eal of
preventative maintenance performe$ by s"ille$ craft wor"ers. Ray Strac"bein# who use$ to wor"
for Stromberg/)arlson# says that B/@s# by comparison# nee$e$ few repairs an$ fi'es were simple.
:e writes# D% once met a husban$/an$/wife team that travele$ throughout the Creat 9lains in their
+innebago motor home on a yearly cycle an$ routine$ hun$re$s of B/@ offices each year. They
woul$ wor" &ri-ona# =ew Me'ico# an$ Te'as in the winter# an$ Montana# +yoming# an$ =orth
!a"ota in the summer. 2ven a Switchman who coul$ not figure out how to wire a $oorbell for a
central office coul$ maintain a ).,. full of B/@ switches.D
Ray then goes on to $escribe the Stromberg/)arlson B/@ step by step switch# which coul$ be
configure$ or enlarge$ in bloc"s of 1<< lines:
D!escribing it is rough# but it was a mo$ular switch that was hori-ontally sli$ into a vertical bay
of shelves. &n array of 4<< 01<B1<B41 bare copper wires ran vertically behin$ the switch for the
whole length of the bay. 3our circuits were nee$e$ to ma"e a connection: Tip# Ring# Sleeve# an$
:elper Sleeve.
2ach switch sat on shelf about 12DBEDB2D 02D high1. +hen someone $iale$ a number# the
retracte$ switch move$ hori-ontally // the B $irection // 0left/to/right as you face$ it from the
front1# one step for each $ial/pulse. Then when the $iale$ $igit stoppe$ pulsing# the switch
rapi$ly e'ten$e$ hori-ontally away from you as you face$ it# with four contacts# one for each
circuit // T# R# S# an$ :S // sampling the 1< possible phone trun"s for an i$le trun" to the ne't
selector.
The $esign of the B/@ switch was brilliant. Inli"e the Strowger that lifte$ the armature for each
$ial pulse then rotating through a half/circle to fin$ an i$le line# the B/@ switch lifte$ no weight.
The moving switch reste$ on the plate an$ move$ only hori-ontally. This ma$e for a switch of a
much more simple $esign than the Strowger.D TStrac"beinU
9lease visit Ray Strac"bien*s site 0e'ternal lin"1
Stromberg/)arlson intro$uce$ their first $igital switch aroun$ 1EJ># the Stromberg )arlson
System )entury $igital switch.
&s switches were going $igital# so# too# were nearly all electronics in the telecommunication
fiel$. Still# a few technological hol$outs remaine$# as the (ell System replace$ their last local
cor$ switchboar$ in 1EJ># on Santa )atalina %slan$ near the coast of 7os &ngeles# )alifornia.
That*s right# operators still placing calls by han$ in the &ge of !isco. DTTUhe smallest version of
+estern*s 1?< toll switchboar$D was replace$ by a 32SS# the first (ell switch# inci$entally# to be
shippe$ by barge. The city serve$ woul$ have been &valon. This accor$ing accor$ing to the Sune#
1EJ> (ell 7aboratories Recor$ an$ personal correspon$ence with 9. 2gly of Santa Rosa#
)alifornia.
2gly relates the following about &valon:
DTom# &valon ha$ its own inwar$ operator an$ % even remember the route# 213 K <12 K... )alls
off the islan$ were han$le$ by the same operator using She surely $iale$ all calls in the same way
that any of the operators in the 7& toll centers $i$. % am not sure if the trun"s to the mainlan$
were by microwave or by cable. D
DTSince this was a manual e'changeU There were no $ial phones on &valon# all were manual
magneto service with even the payphones having cran"s. Most of the private subscribers ha$ 3<<
or << type sets with $ial blan"s connecte$ to magneto bo'es. The operator rang the subscriber
from her boar$ using her ring "ey to supply ringing current from a stan$ar$ +2), ring
generator.D
:e goes on to say that the (ell System ha$ a li"e system in =eva$a:
DThere was a similar situation in Airginia )ity# =eva$a with the subscribers having the ol$ walnut
an$ oa" magneto phones with local battery. %n this case# most subscribers resiste$ the cutover to
$ial service# since the magneto phones were 8uite elegant. . . all polishe$ woo$ an$ gleaming
brass bells. They were part of the perio$ atmosphere of the town.D
This simple switching technology came within si' years of outliving the most a$vance$
telephone company on earth. (ut one manual local toll boar$ remaine$ in the public switche$
telephone networ" even longer.
S.R. Sny$er Sr. remin$s us that toll boar$s# manual long $istance switches 0internal lin" to article1#
were still wor"ing in the (ell System after the last local plug boar$ was remove$.
//////////////////////////////
Resources
TStrac"beinU 9ersonal correspon$ence with Tom 3arley# Suly 1?# 2<<<. &nother comment from
Ray: D% $i$n*t "now that Strowger was from 9enfiel$. That may partially e'plain why Stromberg/
)arlson locate$ in Rochester. &s an asi$e# there is a buil$ing in Rochester calle$ D)arlson 9ar"D
0as in in$ustrial par"1. The par"ing lot loo"s .ust li"e it $i$ in the mi$ *J<*s when % last saw it 0%
was teaching a class for Bero' in +ebster last year an$ mentione$ that % use$ to wor" for
Stromberg an$ someone in the class sai$ that the ol$ plant was still there // which it is // so %
$rove over for a pee". The only $ifference is that they have sub/$ivi$e$ the a$ministrative offices
into private office suites an$ businesses.1 2'cept for the new business signs# everything loo"s
e'actly as % remember it from 2 years ago.D
T2T:U 2vents in Telecommunication :istory# 1EE2 #&T6T &rchives 9ublication 0>.E2/2M1# p3
9ermalin" V )omments 0<1
'art "
Michael :athaway reports that DTMyU parents owne$ the (ryant 9on$ Telephone )ompany in
(ryant 9on$# Maine# the last han$/cran" magneto company to go $ial. %t was in our living room
an$ the last call was ma$e ,ctober 11# 1E>3.D :an$ cran" magneto switchboar$s evolve$ aroun$
the turn of the century. Their arrangement was not common battery# where the e'change or
central office powers their e8uipment an$ supplies electricity to customer*s phones. Rather# as we
saw earlier in this series# a cran" at the switchboar$ operators position was turne$ to signal a
customer. Turn the cran" an$ you cause$ a $ial at a customer*s telephone to ring# a magneto in the
cran" generating the ringing current. To place a call a customer signale$ the operator with a
similiar cran" on their telephone. & big battery in the base of the customer*s telephone supplie$
the tal"ing power when a call got connecte$. This system is calle$ local battery# where the
customer*s phone supplies the power. :ere*s an e'ample of a magneto switchboar$ below# a 1E14
+estern 2lectric Type 12<<# "nown as a D(ull*s 2ye.D This boar$ is at the Roseville Telephone
)ompany Museum an$ it still wor"s for $emonstrations. )lic" here or on the image below to see
the large version.
So# you ha$ many people on non/$ial# can$lestic" or bo' telephones# as nearly a hun$re$ years
before. My father# inci$entally# wor"e$ a magneto powere$ switchboar$ in his youth# near
!avi$son# Michigan. Mi"e goes on to say that#
DMy father an$ mother 2l$en 6 (arbara :athaway sol$ the (ryant 9on$ Telephone )ompany in
1E>1 but it too" two years to convert. They $i$ have about 4<< customers 0 probably 2<< lines /
two switchboar$s full1. +hen they bought the company there were only 1<< customers. The
,'for$ )ounty Telephone )ompany# which bought it# retaine$ ownership of the last operating
switchboar$s# an$ they are currently $eci$ing what they woul$ li"e to $o with them. The options
inclu$e giving them to the town of (ryant 9on$# an$ % have hear$ there is interest from the
Smithsonian. My mother# who is >3# thin"s that*s 8uite e'citing.
& lot of the family memorabilia has been $onate$ to the 3ryeburg 3air 0Maine1 3arm Museum#
which although is only open $uring the > $ay fair# is visite$ by many thousan$s each year. %t is
hope$ to have within a year or so a wor"ing magneto switchboar$ there where someone can call
from an ol$ pay phone to anywhere. My mother has a lot of telephone parts left over which we
are slowly mar"eting for her as memorabilia from the last ol$ han$/cran" magneto company. %*ve
actually written a boo" about the (ryant 9on$ Telephone )ompany calle$ *2verything :appene$
&roun$ The Switchboar$.* %t*s 0obviously1 a story of family life aroun$ the switchboar$ an$ is
light rea$ing with hopefully humor an$ nostalgia. % have lots of copies left an$ sell it $irectly. The
a$$ress is Mi"e :athaway# 9, (o' J<# )onway# =: <3>1>. (ut it is also available from
9honecoinc.com# an$ several boo"stores.D
This site has a great list of en$ing $ates in telephonic history:
http:MMwww.sigtel.comMtelQhistQlasts.html
To sum up# although some manual switchboar$s may have remaine$ in the 9ST=# those being
small office switches# or 9(Bs# the (ryant 9on$ boar$ was the last central office manual
e'change in &merica. ,n this happy an$ nostalgic note of technology passing away# so at the
same time was the worl$*s greatest telephone company coming to an en$.
&lthough they ha$ pioneere$ much of telecom# many people though the information age was
growing faster than the (ell System coul$ "eep up. Many thought &T6T now stoo$ in the way of
$evelopment#
9ermalin" V )omments 0<1
%pilogue I& the death of Western %lectric
D,n Sanuary 1# 1E>4# the +estern 2lectric )ompany# then ol$er than the telephone itself# cease$
to e'ist 0:ochheiser 1EE1# 1431. ,n that $ay of court or$ere$ $ivestiture# the (ell System was
bro"en into seven regional operating companies 0the (aby (ells1 an$ a more compact &T6T.
&T6T retaine$ the long/$istance part of the business# its venerable research organi-ation 0(ell
7aboratories1# an$ its manufacturing operations 0which coul$ no longer have e'clusive supply
arrangements with the operating companies1. & newly create$ &T6T Technologies# %nc. assume$
the corporate charter of +estern 2lectric an$ continue$ ma"ing <</type#2<</type# an$ Trimline
telephones un$er the &T6T Technologies label for several years at plants in %n$ianapois an$
Shreveport. :owever# to become competitive in the mar"et# &T6T shifte$ resi$ential telephone
manufacturing to the 3ar 2ast# beginning in :ong Long in late 1E># Singapore the following
year# an$ later in (ang"o" an$ elsewhere. Thus en$e$ I.S. pro$uction of rugge$
electromechanical telephones# an$ though phones similar to the <</type# the 2<</type# the
9rincess# an$ the Trimline are still ma$e to/$ay# they are pro$ucts of the mo$ern electronics age#
rather than a bygone culture.D
3rom: ,l$ Time Telephones:Technology# Restoration an$ Repair by Ralph , Myer# 9ublishe$ by
T&( (oo"s# a $ivision of McCraw :ill# %nc.# (lue Ri$ge Summit# 9& 1J2E4 1 /><</>22/>1>
0J1J1/JE4/21E1 0J1J1/JE4/21<3 3&B %S(= =o. </<J/<41>1J/E 09aperbac"1
1EE
9ermalin" V )omments 0<1
%pilogue II& A personal note on W)%)C)O)
@ester$ay % brought home a battere$ an$ rotten woo$en crate % foun$ outsi$e a secon$ han$ store.
% say outsi$e because it was in such ba$ shape that not even the thrift store thought it saleable#
they $iscar$e$ it instea$. :ar$ly fit as even a gar$en planter# % brought this oily an$ bro"en bo'
home because of two wor$s stencile$ in three inch letters on the lengthwise si$es: +estern
2lectric. Cone are the rope han$les an$ original hinges# an$ although the clasp appears genuine#
it has been torn off once or twice an$ mounte$ in a new location each time. The styli-e$ (ell
System logo accompanies the lettering. There is an a$$ress on it. %n han$writing that coul$ only
be penne$ by someone now in their J<s# the labeling rea$s# +2),# 1?1< =. (roa$way# Stoc"ton#
)alifornia. (M) 4J3>. %*m not sure if % will restore the bo'# put plants in it# or put the boar$s with
the wor$ing into a frame. %t seems so sa$ an$ % "eep thin"ing of the Ralph Myers* 8uote % use$
above. . .
% recommen$ Myers boo" to anyone who repairs or wants to un$erstan$ ol$ telephones.
9ermalin" V )omments 0<1
%pilogue III& "raham versus "ra$
% haven*t given my opinion $irectly as to who was first at the patent office# Cray or (ell. %*m not
sure % can $o it now# at least# not without being long win$e$. (ut let me try# in long sentences.
!etractors claim that the ?<< court cases which followe$ the most valuable patent ever issue$
settle$ nothing. They say there was never any evi$ence that (ell $i$ not cheat Cray. They try to
prove a negative. They can*t fin$ any evi$ence that he cheate$ but they fin$ nothing that
absolutely clears (ell. :e must have cheate$.
(ut in his entire life of being a man an$ a humanist# for all his later wor"s of invention# an$
contributions to charity# the foun$ing of the =ational Ceographic Society# his continue$ wor"
with the $eaf# in his voluminous note ta"ing of all things scientific# in all of this# in this incre$ible
recor$# there is absolutely nothing in (ell*s character that suggests he was a cheat. =othing.
=othingR
%t is tough in this age of cynicism to a$mit that both (ell an$ +atson were truly great# gentle#
brilliant men. +ho $eserve$ every bit of fame an$ accola$e that came to them. (ell surroun$e$
himself with sharp (oston lawyers to protect himself. (ut the animosity people ha$ against his
legal staff shoul$ in no way $etract against (ell himself. (ell was an honest# courageous soul
who long suffere$ being calle$ a cheat. %t was completely un$eserve$.
+hat about 1E>4 to the presentP Rea$ an e'cellent summary of technology $evelopment since
the mi$/1E><s by Terry 2$war$s. %t is a free .p$f file from his boo" Cigahert- an$ Terahert-
Technologies for (roa$ban$ )ommunications 02> pages# 3?<L in .p$f1
,r$ering information for this title 0e'ternal lin" to &ma-on1
9ermalin" V )omments 0<1
Miscellaneous #istor$
+hy is there no DXD or D4D on many telephonesP
This fascinating story came from http:MMwww.7earningLing$om.com# now out of business.
Some voice mail systems $on*t ta"e into account that not every phone has a X or 4 . . .
The telephone*s pa$ of twelve buttons reflects its history. There are three letters on most buttons#
e'cept for -ero# one# octothorp 0H1 an$ the star symbol 0Z1# which have no letters. DXD an$ D4D are
usually missing from the list. +hyP
%nstea$ of twelve buttons# telephones use$ to have circular plates with ten holes numbere$ from
-ero to nine. To ma"e phone numbers easier to remember# the phone companies assigne$ letters
to the numbers# so people coul$ remember mnemonics li"e D)harlestonD for )/: instea$ of the
first two $igits of a number. ,f the ten $igits# -ero was alrea$y use$ to $ial the operator an$ one
was use$ for internal phone company signals. That left eight numbers to which letters coul$ be
assigne$. Three letters per number too" care of 24 of the alphabet*s 2? letters# an$ the least
common letters DXD an$ D4D were left out# but not forever. Many telephones now show DXD on
the seven button# an$ D4D on the nine button.
+ither the busy signalP
& comment from a rea$er: DThe busy signal is going away . . .D
TrueO with voice mail an$ answering machines you $on*t get one. %n 1EE The =ew (runswic"
Telephone )ompany announce$ they woul$ $o away with busy signals for calls ma$e within
their territory. %nstea$ of a busy signal callers got a recor$ing which as"e$ them to ma"e one of
three choices: sen$ a message# for a price# hang up# or be notifie$ when the line was available.
&gain# for a price. % won$er if anyone in that province misses the busy signal.
S()M9acific (ell offere$ this service in my area earlier this year# people hate$ it# % thin" because
it was so aggressively pitche$. %nstea$ of getting a busy signal# a frustrating e'perience by itself#
people got a come on# a promotion to buy something. %f the )ana$ian telco $i$n*t sell it too har$
then perhaps people accepte$ it.
Since we haven*t always ha$ them so % shan*t miss them when they go. They were an interlu$e
only# although a longish one# goo$ % shoul$ thin" for another $eca$e or two. +hen calls were
manually switche$ there was no nee$ for a busy signal. &n operator "new if a line was busy by
loo"ing at a lamp or a mar"er# what was calle$ a $rop# on a manual switch boar$. The operator
then tol$ the caller the line was busy.
+hen $ialing became automatic networ" progress tones such as $ial tone an$ busy signals were
nee$e$ to tell the subscriber the status of a call. There is another busy signal# of course# that one
being a Dfast busyD signal# going at twice the rate of the normal tone. %t in$icates that telephone
company circuits are too busy to han$le a call. =ot often hear$ on lan$line phones but 8uite
common on cellular telephone networ"s.
Aoice mail an$ answering machines an$ call waiting are# % suppose# .ust automatic operators# a
step up above the obno'ious busy signal an$ of course 8uite a few steps below that of a real
person to ta"e a message. &lthough their people $on*t switch calls# perhaps answering services for
$octors an$ lawyers are the last remnant of the always present# human atten$e$ e'change.
!i$ &le'an$er Craham (ell help $ispel the ether theoryP
!i$ &le'an$er Craham (ell help $ispel the ether theoryP &n$ how much $i$ it cost himP The
answers are yes# an$ 2<< buc"s. The fascinating rea$ing below is from Science in &merican
Society: & Social :istory by Ceorge :. !aniels# 1EJ1# (or-oi (oo"s# &lfre$ Lnoph:
D%n 1>>1# a young &merican physicist then stu$ying in Cermany receive$ a grant of W2<< from
&le'an$er Craham (ell to con$uct an e'periment on one of the most fascinating 8uestions of
nineteenth/century physics: the reality of the ether. The ether was a mysterious# .ellyli"e#
invisible entity which was thought to fill all of spaceO it was even present in soli$ matter. The
vibrations set up in this ether ma$e it possible to e'plain how the waveli"e ra$iations of light
coul$ be carrie$ through millions of miles without wea"ening or $iluting their initial energy.
&lthough the behavior of light seeme$ to $eman$ some such me$ium# &lbert &. Michelson
$oubte$ its e'istence# an$ he $esigne$ a relatively simple e'periment which he thought might
resolve the 8uestion uncon$itionally.D
D+ith his W2<< provi$e$ by (ell# Michelson ha$ a machine of his own $esign# calle$ the
interferometer# constructe$ by a (erlin manufacturer# an$ he too" it to the observatory at 9ots$am
for the crucial e'periment. :is conclusion# publishe$ in the &ugust %>>% issue of the &merican
Sournal of Science# was that *the hypothesis of a stationary ether is erroneous.* &lthough
Michelson later repeate$ the e'periment# with more sophisticate$ apparatus# in collaboration with
2$war$ +illiams Morley it was the first e'periment which# as &lbert 2instein remar"e$# *showe$
that a profoun$ change of the basic concepts of physics was inevitable* an$ le$ eventually to
Michelson*s becoming the first &merican recipient of a =obel pri-e.D
'rere*uisites
Re*uirements
There are no specific re8uirements for this $ocument.
Components +sed
This $ocument is not restricte$ to specific software an$ har$ware versions.
Conventions
Refer to )isco Technical Tips )onventions for more information on $ocument conventions.
Basic Call 'rogress
The progress of a telephone call with loop/start signaling in place can be $ivi$e$ into five phasesO
on/hoo"# off/hoo"# $ialing# switching# ringing# an$ tal"ing. 3igure 1 shows the on/hoo" phase.
(igure ,
+hen the han$set rests on the cra$le# the circuit is on/hoo". %n other wor$s# before a phone call is
initiate$# the telephone set is in a rea$y con$ition waiting for a caller to pic" up its han$set. This
state is calle$ on/hoo". %n this state# the 4>/A!) circuit from the telephone set to the ), switch
is open. The ), switch contains the power supply for this !) circuit. The power supply locate$
at the ), switch prevents a loss of telephone service when the power goes out at the location of
the telephone set. ,nly the ringer is active when the telephone is in this position. 3igure 2 shows
the off/hoo" phase.
(igure !
The off/hoo" phase occurs when the telephone customer $eci$es to ma"e a phone call an$ lifts
the han$set from the telephone cra$le. The switch hoo" closes the loop between the ), switch
an$ the telephone set an$ allows current to flow. The ), switch $etects this current flow an$
transmits a $ial tone 03</ an$ 44</hert- T:-U tones playe$ continuously1 to the telephone set.
This $ial tone signals the customer can begin to $ial. There is no guarantee that the customer
hears a $ial tone right away. %f all the circuits are use$# the customer coul$ have to wait for a $ial
tone. The access capacity of the ), switch use$ $etermines how soon a $ial tone is sent to the
caller phone. The ), switch generates a $ial tone only after the switch has reserve$ registers to
store the incoming a$$ress. Therefore# the customer cannot $ial until a $ial tone is receive$. %f
there is no $ial tone# then the registers are not available. 3igure 3 shows the $ialing phase.
(igure -
The $ialing phase allows the customer to enter a phone number 0a$$ress1 of a telephone at
another location. The customer enters this number with either a rotary phone that generates pulses
or a touch/tone 0push/button1 phone that generates tones. These telephones use two $ifferent
types of a$$ress signaling in or$er to notify the telephone company where a subscriber calls:
!ual tone multifre8uency 0!TM31 $ialing an$ 9ulse $ialing.
These pulses or tones are transmitte$ to the ), switch across a two/wire twiste$/pair cable 0tip
an$ ring lines1. 3igure 4 shows the switching phase.
(igure
%n the switching phase# the ), switch translates the pulses or tones into a port a$$ress that
connects to the telephone set of the calle$ party. This connection coul$ go $irectly to the
re8ueste$ telephone set 0for local calls1 or go through another switch or several switches 0for
long/$istance calls1 before it reaches its final $estination. 3igure shows the ringing phase.
(igure .
,nce the ), switch connects to the calle$ line# the swtich sen$s a 2</:- E<A signal to this line.
This signal rings the phone of the calle$ party. +hile ringing the phone of the calle$ party# the
), switch sen$s an au$ible ring/bac" tone to the caller. This ring/bac" lets the caller "now that
ringing occurs at the calle$ party. The ), switch transmits 44< an$ 4>< tones to the caller phone
in or$er to generate a ring/bac". These tones are playe$ for a specific on time an$ off time. %f the
calle$ party phone is busy# the ), switch sen$s a busy signal to the caller. This busy signal
consists of 4></ an$ ?2</:- tones. 3igure ? shows the tal"ing phase.
(igure /
%n the tal"ing phase# the calle$ party hears the phone ringing an$ $eci$es to answer. &s soon as
the calle$ party lifts the han$set# an off/hoo" phase starts again# this time on the opposite en$ of
the networ". The local loop is close$ on the calle$ party si$e# so current starts to flow to the ),
switch. This switch $etects current flow an$ completes the voice connection bac" to the calling
party phone. =ow# voice communication can start between both en$s of this connection.
Table 1 shows a summary of alerting tones that coul$ be generate$ by the ), switch $uring a
phone call.
Ta0le ,
The progress tones in Table 1 are for =orth &merican phone systems. %nternational phone
systems can have a totally $ifferent set of progress tones. 2veryone must be familiar with most of
these call progress tones.
& Dial tone in$icates that the telephone company is rea$y to receive $igits from the user
telephone.
& Bus$ tone in$icates that a call cannot be complete$ because the telephone at the remote en$ is
alrea$y in use.
& Ring1Bac2 3normal or 'B45 tone in$icates that the telephone company is attempting to
complete a call on behalf of a subscriber.
& Congestion progress tone is use$ between switches to in$icate that congestion in the long
$istance telephone networ" currently prevents a telephone call from being progresse$.
& Reorder tone in$icates that all the local telephone circuits are busy# an$ thus prevents a
telephone call from being processe$.
& Receiver off1hoo2 tone is the lou$ ringing that in$icates the receiver of a phone is left off/
hoo" for an e'ten$e$ perio$ of time.
& 6o such num0er tone in$icates that the number $iale$ cannot be foun$ in the routing table of
a switch.
Address Signaling and Tip and Ring
Address Signaling
6orth American 6um0ering 'lan
The =orth &merican =umbering 9lan 0=&=91 uses ten $igits to represent a telephone number.
These ten $igits are $ivi$e$ into three parts: the area co$e# office co$e# an$ station co$e.
%n the original =&=9# the area co$e consiste$ of the first three $igits of the telephone number an$
represente$ a region in =orth &merica 0inclu$ing )ana$a1. The first $igit was any number from 2
to E# the secon$ $igit was 1 or <# an$ the thir$ $igit was any number from < to E. The office co$e
consiste$ of the secon$ three $igits of the telephone number an$ uni8uely i$entifie$ a switch in
the telephone networ". The first $igit was any number from 2 to E# the secon$ $igit was any
number from 2 to E# an$ the thir$ $igit was any number from < to E. The area co$e an$ office
co$e coul$ never be the same because the secon$ $igit of each co$e was always $ifferent. +ith
this numbering system# the switch was able to $etermine whether this was a local call or long/
$istance call with the secon$ $igit of the area co$e. The station co$e consiste$ of the last four
$igits in the telephone number. This number uni8uely i$entifie$ a port within the switch that was
connecte$ to the telephone being calle$. (ase$ on this ten/$igit numbering system# an office co$e
coul$ have up to 1<#<<< $ifferent station co$es. %n or$er for a switch to have more than 1<#<<<
connections# it has to have more office co$es assigne$ to it.
&n increase in the number of phone lines installe$ in homes# %nternet access# an$ fa' machine
usage $ramatically re$uce$ the number of phone numbers available. This scenario prompte$ a
change in the =&=9. The present plan is basically the same as the ol$ plan e'cept for the area
co$e an$ office co$e sections of the telephone number. The three $igits for the area co$e an$
office co$e are now selecte$ in the same fashion. The first $igit can be any number from 2 to E#
an$ the secon$ an$ thir$ $igits can be any number from < to E. This scenario $ramatically
increases the number of area co$es available# it in turn increases the number of station co$es that
can be assigne$. %f the call is a long/$istance number# a one must be $iale$ before the 1</$igit
number.
International 6um0ering 'lan
The %nternational =umbering 9lan is base$ on %TI/T specification 2.1?4# an international
stan$ar$ that all countries must follow. This plan states that the telephone number in every
country cannot be greater than 1 $igits. The first three $igits represent the country co$e# but
each can choose whether to use all three $igits. The remaining 12 $igits represent the national
specific number. 3or e'ample# the country co$e for =orth &merica is 1. Therefore# when calling
=orth &merica from another country# 1 must be $iale$ first in or$er to access the =&=9. Then the
ten $igits re8uire$ by the =&=9 are $iale$. The 12 $igits of the national specific number can be
organi-e$ in any manner $eeme$ appropriate by the specific country. &lso# some countries can
use a set of $igits to in$icate an outgoing international call. 3or e'ample# <11 is use$ from within
the Inite$ States to place an outgoing international call. 3igure J illustrates networ" a$$ressing
in =orth &merica.
(igure 7
%n this figure# the caller generates a call from within a customer premise that uses a 9(B to
access the 9ublic Switche$ Telephone =etwor" 09ST=1. To get past the 9(B# the caller must $ial
E first 0this is how most 9(Bs are set up1. Then# the caller must $ial 1 for long $istance an$ the
ten/$igit number of the telephone the caller wants to reach. The area co$e ta"es the caller through
two switches# first a local switch an$ then an inter/e'change carrier 0%B)1 switch# which ta"es the
call long $istance. The office co$e 0secon$ three $igits1 ta"es the caller through a local switch
again# an$ then to another 9(B. 3inally# the station co$e 0last four $igits1 ta"es the caller to the
telephone calle$.
'ulse Dialing
9ulse !ialing is an in/ban$ signaling techni8ue. %t is use$ in analog telephones that have a rotary
$ialing switch. The large numeric $ial/wheel on a rotary/$ial telephone spins to sen$ $igits to
place a call. These $igits must be pro$uce$ at a specific rate an$ within a certain level of
tolerance. 2ach pulse consists of a Dbrea"D an$ a Dma"eD# which are achieve$ when the local loop
circuit is opene$ an$ close$. The brea" segment is the time $uring which the circuit is open. The
ma"e segment is the time time $uring which the circuit is close$. 2ach time the $ial is turne$# the
bottom of the $ial closes an$ opens the circuit lea$ing to the ), switch or 9(B switch.
& DgovernorD insi$e the $ial controls the rate at which the $igits are pulse$O for e'ample# when a
subscriber $ials a $igit on the rotary $ial to call someone# a spring win$s. +hen the $ial is
release$# the spring rotates the $ial bac" to its original position# an$ a cam/$riven switch opens
an$ closes the connection to the telephone company. The number of consecutive opens an$
closes//or brea"s an$ ma"es// represents the $iale$ $igits Therefore# if the $igit 3 is $iale$# the
switch is close$ an$ opene$ three times. 3igure > represents the se8uence of pulses that occur
when a $igit 3 is $iale$ with pulse $ialing.
(igure 8
This illustration $isplays the two terms# ma"e an$ brea". +hen the telephone is off/hoo"# a ma"e
occurs an$ the caller receives a $ial tone from the ), switch. Then the caller $ials $igits# which
generate se8uences of ma"es an$ brea"s that occur every 1<< millisecon$s 0ms1. The brea" an$
ma"e cycle must correspon$ to a ratio of ?< percent brea" to 4< percent ma"e. Then the phone
stays in a ma"e state until another $igit is $iale$ or the phone is put bac" to an on/hoo"
0e8uivalent to a brea"1 state. !ial pulse a$$ressing is a very slow process because the number of
pulses generate$ e8uates to the $igit $iale$. So# when a $igit E is $iale$# it generates nine ma"e
an$ brea" pulses. & $igit < generates ten ma"e an$ brea" pulses. %n or$er to increase the spee$ of
$ialing# a new $ialing techni8ue 0!TM31 was $evelope$. 3igure E shows the fre8uency tones
generate$ by !TM3 $ialing 0also calle$ touch/tone $ialing1.
DTM( Dialing
(igure 9
!TM3 $ialing is an in/ban$ signaling techni8ue .ust li"e pulse $ialing. This techni8ue is use$ in
analog telephone sets that have a touch/tone pa$. This $ialing techni8ue uses only two fre8uency
tones per $igit# as shown in 3igure E. 2ach button on the "eypa$ of a touch/tone pa$ or a push/
button telephone is associate$ with a set of high an$ low fre8uencies. ,n the "eypa$# each row of
the "ey is i$entifie$ by a low/fre8uency tone# an$ each column is associate$ with a high/
fre8uency tone. The combination of both tones notify the telephone company of the number
calle$# hence the term $ual tone multifre8uency. Therefore# when $igit < is $iale$# only fre8uency
tones E41 an$ 133? are generate$ instea$ of the ten ma"e an$ brea" pulses generate$ by pulse
$ialing. The timing is still a ?</ms brea" an$ 4</ms ma"e for each fre8uency generate$. These
fre8uencies were selecte$ for !TM3 $ialing base$ on their insusceptibility to normal bac"groun$
noise.
Single1(re*uenc$ and Multifre*uenc$ Signaling
R1 an$ R2 signaling stan$ar$s are use$ to transmit supervisory an$ a$$ress signaling information
between voice networ" switches. They both use single/fre8uency signaling for transmission of
supervisory information an$ multifre8uency signaling for a$$ressing information.
R! Signaling
R2 signaling specifications are containe$ in %TI/T Recommen$ations X.4<< through X.4E<. The
physical connection layer for R2 is usually an 21 02.<4> megabits per secon$ TMbpsU1 interface
that conforms to %TI/T stan$ar$ C.J<4. The 21 $igital facilities carrier runs at 2.<4> Mbps an$
has 32 time/slots. 21 time/slots are numbere$ TS< to TS31# where TS1 through TS1 an$ TS1J
through TS31 are use$ to carry voice# which is enco$e$ with pulse co$e mo$ulation 09)M1# or to
carry ?4 "bps $ata. This interface uses time slot < for synchroni-ation an$ framing 0same as for
9rimary Rate %nterface T9R%U1 an$ uses time slot 1? for &()! signaling. There is a 1?/frame
multiframe structure that allows a single >/bit time slot to han$le the line signaling for all 3< $ata
channels.
R! Call Control and Signaling
Two types of signaling are involve$: line signaling 0supervisory signals1 an$ inter/register
signaling 0call setup control signals1. 7ine signaling involves supervisory information 0on/hoo"
an$ off/hoo"1 an$ inter/register signaling $eals with a$$ressing. These are $escribe$ in more
$etail in this $ocument.
R! :ine Signaling
R2 uses channel/associate$ signaling 0)&S1. This means that# in the case of 21# one of the time
slots 0channels1 is $e$icate$ to signaling as oppose$ to the signaling use$ for T1. The latter uses
the top bit of every time slot in every si'th frame.
This signaling is out/of/ban$ signaling an$ uses &()! bits in a similar manner to T1 robbe$/bit
signaling to in$icate on/hoo" or off/hoo" status. These &()! bits appear in time slot 1? in each
of the 1? frames that ma"e up a multiframe. ,f these four bits# sometimes "nown as signaling
channels# only two 0& an$ (1 are actually use$ in R2 signalingO the other two are spare.
%n contrast to robbe$/bit signaling types such as win" start# these two bits have $ifferent
meanings in the forwar$ an$ bac"war$ $irections. :owever# there are no variants on the basic
signaling protocol.
7ine signaling is $efine$ with these types:
R!1Digital[R2 line signaling type %TI/I X.421# typically use$ for 9)M systems 0where & an$
( bits are use$1.
R!1Analog[R2 line signaling type %TI/I X.411# typically use$ for carrier systems 0where a
ToneM& bit is use$1.
R!1'ulse[R2 line signaling type %TI/I Supplement J# typically use$ for systems that employ
satellite lin"s 0where a ToneM& bit is pulse$1.
R! Interregister Signaling
The transfer of call information 0calle$ an$ calling numbers# an$ so on1 is performe$ with tones
in the time slot use$ for the call 0calle$ in/ban$ signaling1.
R2 uses si' signaling fre8uencies in the forwar$ $irection 0from the initiator of the call1 an$ a
$ifferent si' fre8uencies in the bac"war$ $irection 0from the party who answers the call1. These
inter/register signals are of the multifre8uency type with a two/out/of/si' in/ban$ co$e.
Aariations on R2 signaling that use only five of the si' fre8uencies are "nown as $eca$ic )&S
systems.
%nter/register signaling is generally performe$ en$/to/en$ by a compelle$ proce$ure. This means
that tones in one $irection are ac"nowle$ge$ by a tone in the other $irection. This type of
signaling is "nown as multifre8uency compelle$ 0M3)1 signaling.
There are three types of inter/register signaling:
R!1Compelled[+hen a tone/pair is sent from the switch 0forwar$ signal1# the tones stay on
until the remote en$ respon$s 0sen$s an &)L1 with a pair of tones that signals the switch to turn
off the tones. The tones are compelle$ to stay on until turne$ off.
R!16on1Compelled[The tone/pairs are sent 0forwar$ signal1 as pulses# so they stay on for a
short $uration. Responses 0bac"war$ signals1 to the switch 0Croup (1 are sent as pulses. There
are no Croup & signals in non/compelle$ inter/register signaling.
6ote: Most installations use non/compelle$ inter/register signaling.
R!1Semi1Compelled[3orwar$ tone/pairs are sent as compelle$. Responses 0bac"war$ signals1
to the switch are sent as pulses. This scenario is the same as compelle$# e'cept that the bac"war$
signals are pulse$ instea$ of continuous.
3eatures that can be signale$ inclu$e:
)alle$ or calling party number
)all type 0transit# maintenance# an$ so on1
2cho/suppressor signals
)alling party category
Status
R, Signaling
R1 signaling specifications are containe$ in %TI/T Recommen$ations X.31< through X.331. This
$ocument contains a summary of the main points . The physical connection layer for R1 is
usually a T1 01.44/Mbps1 interface that conforms to %TI/T stan$ar$ C.J<4. This stan$ar$ uses
the 1E3r$ bit of the frame for synchroni-ation an$ framing 0same as T11.
R, Call Control and Signaling
&gain two types of signaling are involve$: line signaling an$ register signaling. 7ine signaling
involves supervisory information 0on/hoo" an$ off/hoo"1 an$ register signaling $eals with
a$$ressing. (oth are $iscusse$ in more $etail:
R, :ine Signaling
R1 uses in/slot )&S by bit robbing the eighth bit of each channel every si'th frame. This type of
signaling uses &()! bits in an i$entical manner to T1 robbe$/bit signaling to in$icate on/hoo"
or off/hoo" status.
R, Register Signaling
The transfer of call information 0calle$ an$ calling numbers# an$ so on1 is performe$ with tones
in the time slot use$ for the call. This type of signaling is also calle$ in/ban$ signaling.
R1 uses si' signaling fre8uencies that are J<< to 1J<< :- in 2<</:- steps. These inter/register
signals are of the multifre8uency type an$ use a two/out/of/si' in/ban$ co$e. The a$$ress
information containe$ in the register signaling is prece$e$ by a L9 tone 0start/of/pulsing signal1
an$ terminate$ by a ST tone 0en$/of/pulsing signal1.
3eatures that can be signale$ inclu$e:
)alle$/party number
)all status
Tip and Ring :ines
3igure 1< illustrates tip an$ ring lines in a plain ol$ telephone service 09,TS1 networ".
(igure ,;
The stan$ar$ way to transport voice between two telephone sets is to use tip an$ ring lines. Tip
an$ ring lines are the twiste$ pair of wires that connect to your phone by way of an RS/11
connector. The sleeve is the groun$ lea$ for this RS/11 connector.
:oop1Start Signaling
7oop/start signaling is a supervisory signaling techni8ue that provi$es a way to in$icate on/hoo"
an$ off/hoo" con$itions in a voice networ". 7oop/start signaling is use$ primarily when the
telephone set is connecte$ to a switch. This signaling techni8ue can be use$ in any of these
connections:
Telephone set to ), switch
Telephone set to 9(B switch
Telephone set to foreign e'change station 03BS1 mo$ule 0interface1
9(B switch to ), switch
9(B switch to 3BS mo$ule 0interface1
9(B switch to foreign e'change office 03B,1 mo$ule 0interface1
3BS mo$ule to 3B, mo$ule
Analog :oop1Start Signaling
3igures 11 through 13 illustrate loop/start signaling from a telephone set# 9(B switch# or 3B,
mo$ule to a ), switch or 3BS mo$ule. 3igure 11 shows the i$le state for loop/start signaling.
(igure ,,
%n this i$le state# the telephone# 9(B# or 3B, mo$ule has an open two/wire loop 0tip an$ ring
lines open1. %t coul$ be a telephone set with the han$set on/hoo"# or a 9(B or 3B, mo$ule that
generates an open between the tip an$ ring lines. The ), or 3BS waits for a close$ loop that
generates a current flow. The ), or 3BS have a ring generator connecte$ to the tip line an$ \
4>A!) on the ring line. 3igure 12 shows an off/hoo" state for a telephone set or a line sei-ure
for a 9(B or 3B, mo$ule.
(igure ,!
%n this illustration# a telephone set# 9(B# or 3B, mo$ule closes the loop between the tip an$ ring
lines. The telephone ta"es its han$set off/hoo" or the 9(B or 3B, mo$ule closes a circuit
connection. The ), or 3BS mo$ule $etects current flow an$ then generates a $ial tone# which is
sent to the telephone set# 9(B# or 3B, mo$ule. This in$icates that the customer can start to $ial.
+hat happens when there is an incoming call from the ), switch or 3BS mo$uleP 3igure 13
shows this situation.
(igure ,-
%n the illustration# the ), or 3BS mo$ule sei-es the ring line of the telephone# 9(B# or 3B,
mo$ule calle$ by superimposing a 2</:-# E</A&) signal over the \4>A!) ring line. This
proce$ure rings the calle$ party telephone set or signals the 9(B or 3BS mo$ule that there is an
incoming call. The ), or 3BS mo$ule removes this ring once the telephone set# 9(B# or 3B,
mo$ule closes the circuit between the tip an$ ring lines. The telephone set closes the circuit when
the calle$ party pic"s up the han$set. The 9(B or 3BS mo$ule closes the circuit when it has an
available resource to connect to the calle$ party. The 2</:- ringing signal generate$ by the ),
switch is in$epen$ent of the user lines an$ is the only way to let a user "now that there is an
incoming call. The user lines $o not have a $e$icate$ ring generator. Therefore# the ), switch
must cycle through all the lines it must ring. This cycle ta"es about four secon$s. This $elay in
ringing a phone causes a problem# "nown as glare# when the ), switch an$ the telephone set
9(B# or 3B, mo$ule sei-e a line simultaneously. +hen this happens# the person who initiates
the call is connecte$ to the calle$ party almost instantaneously# with no ring/bac" tone. Clare is
not a ma.or problem from the telephone set to the ), switch because an occasional glare
situation can be tolerate$ by the user. Clare becomes a ma.or problem# when a loop/start is use$
from the 9(B or 3B, mo$ule to the ), switch or 3BS mo$ule because more call traffic is
involve$. Therefore# the chance of glare increases. This scenario e'plains why loop/start
signaling is use$ primarily when a connection is ma$e from the telephone set to a switch. The
best way to prevent glare is to use groun$/start signaling# which is covere$ in a later section.
Digital :oop1Start Signaling for !/<-/<-7== platforms
These $iagrams show the bit status for &()! bits for 3BSM3B, loop/start signaling as it applies
to 2?M3?M3J'' platforms:
Digital :oop1Start Signaling for AS.===
These $iagrams show the bit status of &( bits for 3BSM3B, loop/start signaling as it applies to
only &S''' platforms. This is not applicable to 2?M3?M3J'' platforms. This mo$e of operation is
most commonly use$ in off/premise e'tension 0,9B1 applications. This is a two/state signaling
scheme# using the D( bitD for signaling.
%$le )on$ition:
To 3BS: & bit 5 <# ( bit 5 1
3rom 3BS: & bit 5 <# ( bit 5 1
3BS ,riginates:
Step 1: 3BS changes & bit to 1# signaling the 3B, to close the loop.
To 3BS: & bit 5 <# ( bit 5 1
3rom 3BS: & bit 5 1# ( bit 5 1
3B, ,riginates
Step 1: 3B, sets the ( bit to <. The ( bit toggles with the ring generation:
To 3BS: & bit 5 <# ( bit 5 1
3rom 3BS: & bit 5 1# ( bit 5 1
:oop1Start Testing
:ow to test the signaling states of a loop/start trun" is $iscusse$ with reference to two
viewpoints: from the $emarc loo"ing towar$ the ), an$ from the $emarc loo"ing towar$ the
9(B.
Idle Condition 3on1hoo2> initial state5
The i$le con$ition is represente$ in 3igure 14. The bri$ging clips are remove$ to isolate the ),
from the 9(B.
7oo"ing towar$ the 9(B# an open con$ition is observe$ between the T/R lea$s at the $emarc.
7oo"ing towar$ the ), from the $emarc# groun$ is observe$ on the T lea$ an$ \4>A is observe$
on the R lea$. & voltmeter connecte$ between T an$ R on the ), si$e of the $emarc i$eally rea$s
close to \4>A.
(igure ,
Outgoing 3off1hoo25
%n or$er to test the operation towar$ the ),# remove the bri$ging clips an$ attach a test telephone
set across the T/R lea$s towar$ the ),. The test set provi$es loop closure. The ), $etects the
loop closure# attaches a $igit receiver to the circuit# establishes an au$io path# an$ transmits $ial
tone towar$ the 9(B. 0See 3igure 1.1
(igure ,.
,nce a $ial tone is receive$ by the test telephone# you can procee$ to $ial with either !TM3 or
$ial/pulse signaling as allowe$ by the ),. Some ),s are e8uippe$ to receive only $ial/pulse
a$$ressing. Those e8uippe$ to receive !TM3 can also receive $ial pulse. +hen the first $iale$
$igit is receive$# the ), removes $ial tone.
&fter all $igits have been $iale$# the $igit receiver is remove$ at the ),# an$ the call is route$ to
the $istant station or switch. The au$io path is e'ten$e$ over the outgoing facility# an$ au$ible
call/progress tones are returne$ to the test telephone. ,nce the call is answere$# voice signals can
be hear$ over the au$io path.
Incoming 3ringing at destination5
& test telephone at the $emarc can also be use$ to test loop/start trun"s for incoming call
operation. The test setup is the same as for outgoing calls. Typically the 9(B technician calls a
), technician on another line an$ as"s the ), technician to call the 9(B on the trun" un$er test.
The ), applies ringing voltage to the trun". %$eally# the test phone at the $emarc rings. The 9(B
technician answers the call on the test phone. %f the technicians can tal" to each other over the
trun" un$er test# the trun" functions normally.
Tests between the 9(B an$ the $emarc with bri$ging clips remove$ are $ifficult. The loop/start
interface circuits in most 9(Bs re8uire battery voltage from the ), for their operation. %f the
voltage is not present# the trun" cannot be selecte$ for outgoing calls. The usual proce$ure is to
test the trun" from the $emarc to the ),# first with the bri$ging clips remove$ as $escribe$# an$
then after installing the bri$ging clips. %f the trun" fails to function properly when connecte$ to
the 9(B# the problem is probably in the 9(B or in the wiring between the 9(B an$ the $emarc.
#o? Telephones Wor2
Click here to print this article.
&lthough most of us ta"e it completely for grante$# the telephone you have in your house is one
of the most ama-ing $evices ever create$. %f you want to tal" to someone# all you have to $o is
pic" up the phone an$ $ial a few $igits. @ou are instantly connecte$ to that person# an$ you can
have a two/way conversation. The telephone networ" e'ten$s worl$wi$e# so you can reach nearly
anyone on the planet. +hen you compare that to the state of the worl$ .ust 1<< years ago# when it
might have ta"en several wee"s to get a one/way written message to someone# you reali-e .ust
how ama-ing the telephone isR
This illustration sho?s the entire telephone net?or2> including a home
connection> cell phone to?ers> long distance e=changes and
transcontinental connections)
=ow# we will loo" at the telephone $evice that you have in your house as well as the telephone
networ" it connects to so you can ma"e an$ receive calls.
The TelephoneSurprisingly# a telephone is one of the simplest $evices you have in your house.
%t is so simple because the telephone connection to your house has not change$ in nearly a
century. %f you have an anti8ue phone from the 1E2<s# you coul$ connect it to the wall .ac" in
your house an$ it woul$ wor" fineR
The very simplest wor"ing telephone woul$ loo" li"e this insi$e:
&s you can see# it only contains three parts an$ they are all simple:
& s?itch to connect an$ $isconnect the phone from the networ" / This switch is generally
calle$ the hoo2 s?itch. %t connects when you lift the han$set.
& spea2er / This is generally a little </cent# >/ohm spea"er of some sort.
& microphone / %n the past# telephone microphones have been as simple as carbon
granules compresse$ between two thin metal plates. Soun$ waves from your voice
compress an$ $ecompress the granules# changing the resistance of the granules an$
mo$ulating the current flowing through the microphone.
That*s itR @ou can $ial this simple phone by rapi$ly tapping the hoo" switch // all telephone
switches still recogni-e Dpulse dialing.D %f you pic" the phone up an$ rapi$ly tap the switch hoo"
four times# the phone company*s switch will un$erstan$ that you have $iale$ a D4.D
The only problem with the phone shown above is that when you tal"# you will hear your voice
through the spea"er. Most people fin$ that annoying# so any DrealD phone contains a $evice calle$
a duple= coil or something functionally e8uivalent to bloc" the soun$ of your own voice from
reaching your ear. & mo$ern telephone also inclu$es a 0ell so it can ring an$ a touch1tone
2e$pad an$ fre*uenc$ generator. & DrealD phone loo"s li"e this:
Still# it*s pretty simple. %n a mo$ern phone there is an electronic microphone# amplifier an$ circuit
to replace the carbon granules an$ loa$ing coil. The mechanical bell is often replace$ by a
spea"er an$ a circuit to generate a pleasant ringing tone. (ut a regular W?.E telephone remains
one of the simplest $evices ever.
The Telephone =etwor"The telephone networ" starts in your house. & pair of copper ?ires
runs from a bo' at the roa$ to a bo' 0often calle$ an entrance 0ridge1 at your house. 3rom there#
the pair of wires is connecte$ to each phone .ac" in your house 0usually using re$ an$ green
wires1. %f your house has two phone lines# then two separate pairs of copper wires run from the
roa$ to your house. The secon$ pair is usually colore$ yellow an$ blac" insi$e your house. 0See
this Xuestion of the !ay for a $escription of the telephone bo'es an$ wires that you see by the
roa$.1
A t$pical phone compan$ 0o= that $ou see 0$ the side
of the road) Clic2 here to learn more)
&long the roa$ runs a thic" cable pac"e$ with 1<< or more copper pairs. !epen$ing on where
you are locate$# this thic" cable will run $irectly to the phone company*s switch in your area or it
will run to a bo' about the si-e of a refrigerator that acts as a digital concentrator.
This illustration sho?s the entire telephone net?or2> including a home
connection> cell phone to?ers> long distance e=changes and
transcontinental connections) Clic2 here to see the animated version@
The concentrator $igiti-es your voice at a sample rate of >#<<< samples per secon$ an$ >/bit
resolution 0see :ow &nalog an$ !igital Recor$ing +or"s for information on $igiti-ing soun$s1.
%t then combines your voice with $o-ens of others an$ sen$s them all $own a single wire 0usually
a coa' cable or a fiber/optic cable1 to the phone company office. 2ither way# your line connects
into a line card at the switch so you can hear the $ial tone when you pic" up your phone.
%f you are calling someone connecte$ to the same office# then the switch simply creates a loop
between your phone an$ the phone of the person you calle$. %f it*s a long/$istance call# then your
voice is $igiti-e$ an$ combine$ with millions of other voices on the long/$istance networ". @our
voice normally travels over a fiber/optic line to the office of the receiving party# but it may also
be transmitte$ by satellite or by microwave towers. 0See this Xuestion of the !ay for a more
$etaile$ $escription of long/$istance calling.1
)reating @our ,wn Telephone =etwor"=ot only is a telephone a simple $evice# but the
connection between you an$ the phone company is even simpler. %n fact# you can easily create
your own intercom system using two telephones# a E/volt battery 0or some other simple power
supply1 an$ a 3<</ohm resistor that you can get for a $ollar at Ra$io Shac". @ou can wire it up
li"e this:
@our connection to the phone company consists of two copper wires. Isually they are re$ an$
green. The green wire is common# an$ the re$ wire supplies your phone with ? to 12 volts !) at
about 3< milliamps. %f you thin" about a simple carbon granule microphone# all it is $oing is
mo$ulating that current 0letting more or less current through $epen$ing on how the soun$ waves
compress an$ rela' the granules1# an$ the spea"er at the other en$ DplaysD that mo$ulate$ signal.
That*s all there is to itR
The easiest way to wire up a private intercom li"e this is to go to a har$ware or $iscount store an$
buy a 1<</foot phone cor$. )ut it# strip the wires an$ hoo" in the battery an$ resistor as shown.
0Most cheap phone cor$s contain only two wires# but if the one you buy happens to have four#
then use the center two.1 +hen two people pic" up the phones together# they can tal" to each
other .ust fine. This sort of arrangement will wor" at $istances of up to several miles apart.
The only thing your little intercom cannot $o is ring the phone to tell the person at the other en$
to pic" up. The DringD signal is a E</volt &) wave at 2< hert- 0:-1.
#and "enerated@
@ou "now the hand cran2 on those ol$/
fashione$ telephonesP %t was use$ to
generate the ring/signal &) wave an$
soun$ the bell at the other en$R
)alling Someone%f you go bac" to the $ays of the manual switchboar$# it is easy to un$erstan$
how the larger phone system wor"s. %n the $ays of the manual switchboar$# there was a pair of
copper wires running from every house to a central office in the mi$$le of town. The switchboar$
operator sat in front of a boar$ with one .ac" for every pair of wires entering the office.
&bove each .ac" was a small light. & large battery supplie$ current through a resistor to each wire
pair 0in the same way you saw in the previous section1. +hen someone pic"e$ up the han$set on
his or her telephone# the hoo" switch woul$ complete the circuit an$ let current flow through
wires between the house an$ the office. This woul$ light the light bulb above that person*s .ac"
on the switchboar$. The operator woul$ connect hisMher hea$set into that .ac" an$ as" who the
person woul$ li"e to tal" to. The operator woul$ then sen$ a ring signal to the receiving party an$
wait for the party to pic" up the phone. ,nce the receiving party pic"e$ up# the operator woul$
connect the two people together in e'actly the same way the simple intercom on the previous
page was connecte$R %t is that simpleR
%n a mo$ern phone system# the operator has been replace$ by an electronic s?itch. +hen you
pic" up the phone# the switch senses the completion of your loop an$ it plays a dial tone soun$
so you "now that the switch an$ your phone are wor"ing. The $ial tone soun$ is simply a
combination of 3</hert- tone an$ a 44</hert- tone# an$ it soun$s li"e this:
Clic2 here to hear a dial tone)
03or more information on tones# see :ow Cuitars +or".1
@ou then $ial the number using a touch/tone "eypa$. The $ifferent dialing sounds are made of
pairs of tones, as shown here:
,>!;9
#A
,>--/
#A
,>77
#A
/97
#A
1 2 3
77;
#A
4 ?
8.!
#A
J > E
9,
#A
Z < H
& typical number that you $ial soun$s li"e this:
Clic2 here to hear a touch1tone num0er)
%f the number is busy# you hear a busy signal that is ma$e up of a 4></hert- an$ a ?2</hert- tone#
with a cycle of one/half secon$ on an$ one/half secon$ off# li"e this:
Clic2 here to hear a 0us$ signal)
Telephone (an$wi$th%n or$er to allow more long/$istance calls to be transmitte$# the
fre8uencies transmitte$ are limite$ to a 0and?idth of about 3#<<< hert-. &ll of the fre8uencies in
your voice below 4<< hert- an$ above 3#4<< hert- are eliminate$. That*s why someone*s voice on
a phone has a $istinctive soun$. )ompare these two voices:
Clic2 here to hear a normal voice)
Clic2 here to hear the same voice on the telephone)
@ou can prove that this sort of filtering actually happens by using the following soun$ files:
,>;;;1hertA tone
!>;;;1hertA tone
->;;;1hertA tone
>;;;1hertA tone
.>;;;1hertA tone
/>;;;1hertA tone
)all up someone you "now an$ play the 1#<<</hert- soun$ file on your computer. The person
will be able to hear the tone clearly. The person will also be able to hear the 2#<<</ an$ 3#<<</
hert- tones. :owever# the person will have trouble hearing the 4#<<</hert- tone# an$ will not hear
the #<<</ or ?#<<</hert- tones at allR That*s because the phone company clips them off
completely.
3or lots more information on telephones# telephone networ"s an$ relate$ technologies# chec" out
the lin"s on the ne't page.
#o? Spea2ers Wor2
Click here to print this article.
%n any soun$ system# ultimate 8uality $epen$s on the spea"ers. The best recor$ing#
enco$e$ on the most a$vance$ storage $evice an$ playe$ by a top/of/the/line $ec"
an$ amplifier# will soun$ awful if the system is hoo"e$ up to poor spea"ers. &
system*s spea"er is the component that ta"es the electronic signal store$ on things
li"e )!s# tapes an$ !A!s an$ turns it bac" into actual soun$ that we can hear.
A small spea2er set for computer use
=ow# we*ll fin$ out e'actly how spea"ers $o this. +e*ll also loo" at how spea"er
$esigns $iffer# an$ see how these $ifferences affect soun$ 8uality. Spea"ers are
ama-ing pieces of technology that have ha$ a profoun$ impact on our culture. (ut
at their heart# they are remar"ably simple $evices.
Soun$ (asicsTo un$erstan$ how spea"ers wor"# you first nee$ to un$erstan$
how soun$ wor"s.
%nsi$e your ear is a very thin piece of s"in calle$ the eardrum. +hen your
ear$rum vibrates# your brain interprets the vibrations as soun$ // that*s how you
hear. Rapi$ changes in air pressure are the most common thing to vibrate your
ear$rum.
&n ob.ect pro$uces soun$ when it vibrates in air 0soun$ can also travel through
li8ui$s an$ soli$s# but air is the transmission me$ium when we listen to spea"ers1.
+hen something vibrates# it moves the air particles aroun$ it. Those air particles in
turn move the air particles aroun$ them# carrying the pulse of the vibration through
the air as a traveling $isturbance.
To see how this wor"s# let*s loo" at a simple vibrating ob.ect // a bell. +hen you
ring a bell# the metal vibrates // fle'es in an$ out // rapi$ly. +hen it fle'es out on
one si$e# it pushes out on the surroun$ing air particles on that si$e. These air
particles then colli$e with the particles in front of them# which colli$e with the
particles in front of them an$ so on. +hen the bell fle'es away# it pulls in on these
surroun$ing air particles# creating a $rop in pressure that pulls in on more
surroun$ing air particles# which creates another $rop in pressure that pulls in
particles that are even farther out an$ so on. This $ecreasing of pressure is calle$
rarefaction.
%n this way# a vibrating ob.ect sen$s a ?ave of pressure fluctuation through the
atmosphere. +hen the fluctuation wave reaches your ear# it vibrates the ear$rum
bac" an$ forth. ,ur brain interprets this motion as soun$. +e hear $ifferent soun$s
from $ifferent vibrating ob.ects because of variations in:
Sound1?ave fre*uenc$ / & higher wave fre8uency simply means that the
air pressure fluctuates faster. +e hear this as a higher pitch. +hen there are
fewer fluctuations in a perio$ of time# the pitch is lower.
Air1pressure level / This is the wave*s amplitu$e# which $etermines how
lou$ the soun$ is. Soun$ waves with greater amplitu$es move our ear
$rums more# an$ we register this sensation as a higher volume.
& microphone wor"s something li"e our ears. %t has a diaphragm that is vibrate$
by soun$ waves in an area. The signal from a microphone gets enco$e$ on a tape
or )! as an electrical signal. +hen you play this signal bac" on your stereo# the
amplifier sen$s it to the spea"er# which re/interprets it into physical vibrations.
Coo$ spea"ers are optimi-e$ to pro$uce e'tremely accurate fluctuations in air
pressure# .ust li"e the ones originally pic"e$ up by the microphone. %n the ne't
section# we*ll see how the spea"er accomplishes this.
Ma"ing Soun$%n the last section# we saw that soun$ travels in waves of air
pressure fluctuation# an$ that we hear soun$s $ifferently $epen$ing on the
fre8uency an$ amplitu$e of these waves. +e also learne$ that microphones
translate soun$ waves into electrical signals# which can be enco$e$ onto )!s#
tapes# 79s# etc. 9layers convert this store$ information bac" into an electric current
for use in the stereo system.
& spea"er is essentially the final translation machine // the reverse of the
microphone. %t ta"es the electrical signal an$ translates it bac" into physical
vibrations to create soun$ waves. +hen everything is wor"ing as it shoul$# the
spea"er pro$uces nearly the same vibrations that the microphone originally
recor$e$ an$ enco$e$ on a tape# )!# 79# etc.
Tra$itional spea"ers $o this with one or more drivers. & $river pro$uces soun$
waves by rapi$ly vibrating a fle'ible cone# or diaphragm.
The cone# usually ma$e of paper# plastic or metal# is attache$ on the wi$e
en$ to the suspension.
The suspension# or surround# is a rim of fle'ible material that allows the
cone to move# an$ is attache$ to the $river*s metal frame# calle$ the 0as2et.
The narrow en$ of the cone is connecte$ to the voice coil.
The coil is attache$ to the bas"et by the spider# a ring of fle'ible material.
The spi$er hol$s the coil in position# but allows it to move freely bac" an$
forth.
Some $rivers have a dome instea$ of a cone. & $ome is .ust a $iaphragm that
e'ten$s out instea$ of tapering in.
A t$pical spea2er driver> ?ith a metal 0as2et> heav$
permanent magnet and paper diaphragm
The voice coil is a basic electromagnet. %f you*ve rea$ :ow 2lectromagnets +or"#
then you "now that an electromagnet is a coil of wire# usually wrappe$ aroun$ a
piece of magnetic metal# such as iron. Running electrical current through the wire
creates a magnetic fiel$ aroun$ the coil# magneti-ing the metal it is wrappe$
aroun$. The fiel$ acts .ust li"e the magnetic fiel$ aroun$ a permanent magnet: %t
has a polar orientation // a DnorthD en$ an$ an$ a DsouthD en$ // an$ it is attracte$
to iron ob.ects. (ut unli"e a permanent magnet# in an electromagnet you can alter
the orientation of the poles. %f you reverse the flow of the current# the north an$
south en$s of the electromagnet switch.
This is e'actly what a stereo signal $oes // it constantly reverses the flo? of
electricit$. %f you*ve ever hoo"e$ up a stereo system# then you "now that there are
two output wires for each spea"er // typically a blac" one an$ a re$ one.
The ?ire that runs through the spea2er s$stem
connects to t?o hoo21up Bac2s on the driver)
2ssentially# the amplifier is constantly switching the electrical signal# fluctuating
between a positive charge an$ a negative charge on the re$ wire. Since electrons
always flow in the same $irection between positively charge$ particles an$
negatively charge$ particles# the current going through the spea"er moves one way
an$ then reverses an$ flows the other way. This alternating current causes the
polar orientation of the electromagnet to reverse itself many times a secon$.
So how $oes this fluctuation ma"e the spea"er coil move bac" an$ forthP The
electromagnet is positione$ in a constant magnetic fiel$ create$ by a permanent
magnet. These two magnets // the electromagnet an$ the permanent magnet //
interact with each other as any two magnets $o. The positive en$ of the
electromagnet is attracte$ to the negative pole of the permanent magnetic fiel$#
an$ the negative pole of the electromagnet is repelle$ by the permanent magnet*s
negative pole. +hen the electromagnet*s polar orientation switches# so $oes the
$irection of repulsion an$ attraction. %n this way# the alternating current constantly
reverses the magnetic forces between the voice coil an$ the permanent magnet.
This pushes the coil bac" an$ forth rapi$ly# li"e a piston.
When the electrical current flowing through the voice coil changes direction, the
coil's polar orientation reverses. This changes the magnetic forces between the
voice coil and the permanent magnet, moving the coil and attached diaphragm back
and forth.
+hen the coil moves# it pushes an$ pulls on the spea"er cone. This vibrates the air
in front of the spea"er# creating soun$ waves. The electrical au$io signal can also
be interprete$ as a ?ave. The fre8uency an$ amplitu$e of this wave# which
represents the original soun$ wave# $ictates the rate an$ $istance that the voice coil
moves. This# in turn# $etermines the fre8uency an$ amplitu$e of the soun$ waves
pro$uce$ by the $iaphragm.
!ifferent $river si-es are better suite$ for certain fre8uency ranges. 3or this reason#
lou$spea"er units typically $ivi$e a wi$e fre8uency range among multiple
drivers. %n the ne't section# we*ll fin$ out how spea"ers $ivi$e up the fre8uency
range# an$ we*ll loo" at the main $river types use$ in lou$spea"ers.
)hun"s of the 3re8uency Range%n the last section# we saw that tra$itional
spea"ers pro$uce soun$ by pushing an$ pulling an electromagnet attache$ to a
fle'ible cone. &lthough $rivers are all base$ on the same concept# there is a wi$e
range in $river si-e an$ power. The basic $river types are:
Woofers
T?eeters
Midrange
Woofer
T?eeter
Midrange
Woofers are the biggest $rivers# an$ are $esigne$ to pro$uce low fre8uency
soun$s. T?eeters are much smaller units# $esigne$ to pro$uce the highest
fre8uencies. Midrange spea"ers pro$uce a range of fre8uencies in the mi$$le of
the soun$ spectrum.
&n$ if you thin" about it# this ma"es perfect sense. To create higher fre8uency
waves // waves in which the points of high pressure an$ low pressure are closer
together // the $river $iaphragm must vibrate more 8uic"ly. This is har$er to $o
with a large cone because of the mass of the cone. )onversely# it*s har$er to get a
small $river to vibrate slowly enough to pro$uce very low fre8uency soun$s. %t*s
more suite$ to rapi$ movement.
To pro$uce 8uality soun$ over a wi$e fre8uency range more effectively# you can
brea" the entire range into smaller chun"s that are han$le$ by speciali-e$ $rivers.
Xuality lou$spea"ers will typically have a woofer# a tweeter an$ sometimes a
mi$range $river# all inclu$e$ in one enclosure.
,f course# to $e$icate each $river to a particular fre8uency range# the spea"er
system first nee$s to brea" the au$io signal into $ifferent pieces // low fre8uency#
high fre8uency an$ sometimes mi$/range fre8uencies. This is the .ob of the
spea"er crossover.
The most common type of crossover is passive# meaning it $oesn*t nee$ an
e'ternal power source because it is activate$ by the au$io signal passing through
it. This sort of crossover uses in$uctors# capacitors an$ sometimes other circuitry
components. )apacitors an$ in$uctors only become goo$ con$uctors un$er certain
con$itions. & crossover capacitor will con$uct the current very well when the
fre8uency e'cee$s a certain level# but will con$uct poorly when the fre8uency is
below that level. & crossover in$uctor acts in the reverse manner // it is only a
goo$ con$uctor when the fre8uency is below a certain level.
The t$pical crossover unit from a loudspea2er& The
fre*uenc$ is divided up 0$ inductors and capacitors
and then sent on to the ?oofer> t?eeter and mid1range
driver)
+hen the electrical au$io signal travels through the spea"er wire to the spea"er# it
passes through the crossover units for each $river. To flow to the tweeter# the
current will have to pass through a capacitor. So for the most part# the high
fre8uency part of the signal will flow on to the tweeter voice coil. To flow to the
woofer# the current passes through an in$uctor# so the $river will mainly respon$ to
low fre8uencies. & crossover for the mi$/range $river will con$uct the current
through a capacitor an$ an in$uctor# to set an upper an$ lower cutoff point.
There are also active crossovers. &ctive crossovers are electronic $evices that pic"
out the $ifferent fre8uency ranges in an au$io signal before it goes on to the
amplifier 0you use an amplifier circuit for each $river1. They have several
a$vantages over passive crossovers# the main one being that you can easily a$.ust
the fre8uency ranges. 9assive crossover ranges are $etermine$ by the in$ivi$ual
circuitry components // to change them# you nee$ to install new capacitors an$
in$uctors. &ctive crossovers aren*t as wi$ely use$ as passive crossovers# however#
because the e8uipment is much more e'pensive an$ you nee$ multiple amplifier
outputs for your spea"ers.
)rossovers an$ $rivers can be installe$ as separate components in a soun$ system#
but most people en$ up buying spea"er units that house the crossover an$ multiple
$rivers in one bo'. %n the ne't section# we*ll fin$ out what these spea2er
enclosures $o an$ how they affect the spea"er*s soun$ 8uality.
(o'es of Soun$%n most lou$spea"er systems# the $rivers an$ the crossover are
house$ in some sort of spea2er enclosure. These enclosures serve a number of
functions. ,n their most basic level# they ma"e it much easier to set up the
spea"ers. 2verything*s in one unit an$ the $rivers are "ept in the right position# so
they wor" together to pro$uce the best soun$. 2nclosures are usually built with
heavy woo$ or another soli$ material that will effectively absorb the $river*s
vibration. %f you simply place$ a $river on a table# the table woul$ vibrate so much
it woul$ $rown out a lot of the spea"er*s soun$.
&$$itionally# the spea"er enclosure affects how soun$ is pro$uce$. +hen we
loo"e$ at spea"er $rivers# we focuse$ on how the vibrating $iaphragm emitte$
soun$ waves in front of the cone. (ut# since the $iaphragm is moving bac" an$
forth# it*s actually pro$ucing soun$ waves behin$ the cone as well. !ifferent
enclosure types have $ifferent ways of han$ling these Dbac"war$D waves.
A t$pical sealed spea2er enclosure that holds a t?eeter>
a ?oofer and a midrange driver)
The most common type of enclosure is the sealed enclosure# also calle$ acoustic
suspension enclosure. These enclosures are completely seale$# so no air can
escape. This means the forwar$ wave travels outwar$ into the room# while the
bac"war$ wave travels only into the bo'. ,f course# since no air can escape# the
internal air pressure is constantly changing // when the $river moves in# the
pressure is increase$ an$ when the $river moves out# it is $ecrease$. (oth
movements create pressure $ifferences between the air insi$e the bo' an$ the air
outsi$e the bo'. The air will always move to e8uali-e pressure levels# so the $river
is constantly being pushe$ towar$ its DrestingD state // the position at which
internal an$ e'ternal air pressure are the same.
In a sealed spea2er setup> the driver diaphragm compresses air in the
enclosure ?hen it moves in and rarefies air ?hen it moves out)
These enclosures are less efficient than other $esigns because the amplifier has to
boost the electrical signal to overcome the force of air pressure. The force serves a
valuable function# however // it acts li"e a spring to "eep the $river in the right
position. This ma"es for tighter# more precise soun$ pro$uction.
,ther enclosure $esigns re$irect the inwar$ pressure outwar$# using it to
supplement the forwar$ soun$ wave. The most common way to $o this is to buil$ a
small port into the spea"er. %n these 0ass refle= spea"ers# the bac"war$ motion of
the $iaphragm pushes soun$ waves out of the port# boosting the overall soun$
level. The main a$vantage of bass refle' enclosures is efficiency. The power
moving the $river is use$ to emit two soun$ waves rather than one. The
$isa$vantage is that there is no air pressure $ifference to spring the $river bac" into
place# so the soun$ pro$uction is not as precise.
A 0ass refle= spea2er produces t?o sound ?aves 0$ moving one
driver) When the driver compresses air for?ard> it rarefies it
0ac2?ard> and vice versa) The second sound ?ave is emitted from a
port at the 0ase of the spea2er enclosure)
'assive radiator enclosures are very similar to bass refle' units# but in passive
ra$iator enclosures# the bac"war$ wave moves an a$$itional# passive $river#
instea$ of escaping out of the port. The passive $river is .ust li"e the main# active
$rivers e'cept it $oesn*t have an electromagnet voice coil# an$ it isn*t connecte$ to
the amplifier. %t is move$ only by the soun$ waves coming from the active $rivers.
This type of enclosure is more efficient than seale$ $esigns an$ more precise than
bass refle' mo$els.
Some enclosure $esigns have an active $river facing one way an$ a passive $river
facing the other way. This dipole $esign $iffuses the soun$ in all $irections#
ma"ing it a goo$ choice for the rear channels in a home theater system.
The 0ac2?ard air compression and rarefaction caused 0$ the active
driver push and pull on the passive driver) A spea2er ?ith a dipole
design emits sound ?aves in 0oth directions)
These are .ust a few of the many enclosure types available. There are a huge range
of spea"er units on the mar"et# with a variety of uni8ue structures an$ $river
arrangements. )hec" out this page to learn about some of these $esigns.
&lternative Spea"er !esignsMost lou$spea"ers pro$uce soun$ with tra$itional
$rivers. (ut there are a few other technologies on the mar"et. These $esigns have
some a$vantages over tra$itional d$namic spea"ers# but they fall short in other
areas. 3or this reason# they are often use$ in con.unction with $river units.
The most popular alternative is the electrostatic spea2er. These spea"ers vibrate
air with a large# thin# con$uctive $iaphragm panel. This $iaphragm panel is
suspen$e$ between two stationary con$uctive panels that are charge$ with
electrical current from a wall outlet. These panels create an electrical fiel$ with a
positive en$ an$ a negative en$. The au$io signal runs a current through the
suspen$e$ panel# rapi$ly switching between a positive charge an$ a negative
charge. +hen the charge is positive# the panel is $rawn towar$ the negative en$ of
the fiel$# an$ when the charge is negative# it moves towar$ the positive en$ in the
fiel$.
The diaphragm is alternatel$ charged ?ith a positive
current and a negative current> 0ased on the var$ing
electrical audio signal) When the diaphragm is
positivel$ charged> it fluctuates to?ard the front plate>
and ?hen it is negativel$ charged it fluctuates to?ard
the rear plate) In this ?a$> it precisel$ reproduces the
recorded pattern of air fluctuations)
%n this way# the $iaphragm rapi$ly vibrates the air in front of it. (ecause the panel
has such a low mass# it respon$s very 8uic"ly an$ precisely to changes in the au$io
signal. This ma"es for clear# e'tremely accurate soun$ repro$uction. The panel
$oesn*t move a great $istance# however# so it is not very effective at pro$ucing
lower fre8uency soun$s. 3or this reason# electrostatic spea"ers are often paire$
with a woofer that boosts the low fre8uency range. The other problem with
electrostatic spea"ers is that they must be plugge$ into the wall an$ so are more
$ifficult to place in a room.
&nother alternative is the planar magnetic spea"er. These units use a long# metal
ri00on suspen$e$ between two magnetic panels. They basically wor" the same
way as electrostatic spea"ers# e'cept that the alternating positive an$ negative
current moves the $iaphragm in a magnetic fiel$ rather than an electric fiel$. 7i"e
electrostatic spea"ers# they pro$uce high/fre8uency soun$ with e'traor$inary
precision# but low fre8uency soun$s are less $efine$. 3or this reason# the planar
magnetic spea"er is usually use$ only as a tweeter.
(oth of these $esigns are becoming more popular with au$io enthusiasts# but
tra$itional $ynamic $rivers are still the most prevalent technology# far an$ away.
@ou*ll fin$ them everywhere you go // not only in stereo setups# but in alarm
cloc"s# public a$$ress systems# televisions# computers# hea$phones an$ tons of
other $evices. %t*s ama-ing how such a simple concept has revolutioni-e$ the
mo$ern worl$R
The telephone handset is $efine$
1
as a Dcombination of a telephone transmitter an$ a telephone
receiver mounte$ on a han$le.D The transmitter electro$es an$ the carbon/granule cup must be
constructe$ so that the granules cannot fall away from the electro$es an$ open the circuit for any
position in which the han$set is hel$O that is# the transmitter must be non/positional.
3igure 2. )onstruction of typical telephone han$set transmitters# 0a. )ourtesy +estern 2lectric
)o.O b. courtesy Lellogg Switchboar$ an$ Supply )o.1
Typical metho$s of construction are shown in 3ig. 2. %n each of these the $iaphragm is forme$
an$ place$ so that it acts as the front electro$e. The other electro$e is at the bac" of the carbon/
granule cup or container. The cups are not fille$ entirely with granules because space must be left
for e'pansion of the granules when the temperature rises. The $iaphragm of 3ig. 20a1 is cone
shape$ an$ ribbe$ so that it will be stiff an$ will move in an$ out somewhat li"e a piston. The
$iaphragm of 3ig. 20b1 is $ampe$ acoustically so that it $oes not vibrate e'cessively at certain
resonant fre8uencies.
& secon$ type of han$set transmitter is shown in 3ig. 30a1. The $iaphragm consists of two thin
aluminum/alloy cones. The two electro$es are separate$ by paper bellows. The fre8uency/
response curve is shown in 3ig. 30b1.
3igure 3. )onstruction 0a1 an$ fre8uency response 0b1 of a typical telephone han$set
transmitter. 3or the meaning of the wor$ bar# see 3ig. E. 0)ourtesy &utomatic 2lectric )o.1
The telephone transmitters of 3igs. 2 an$ 3 are "nown as Dcapsule typesD because they are ma$e
as a unit an$ cannot be a$.uste$ in the fiel$. The characteristics of the han$set telephone
transmitters are superior to those of the transmitter of 3ig. 1.