Professional Documents
Culture Documents
INTRODUCTION
When one hears that an earthquake has occurred, one of the frst
questions is, Where was it? For the general public, this question
ofen determines the importance of another question, How big
was it? Upon learning the location and size, one may wonder
how this information was determined. For those interested in
how earthquakes are located, we have developed an interactive,
three-dimensional analog computer that uses a map, strings,
and a time-distance scale to fnd the location of an earthquake
(latitude, longitude, and depth) based on seismic wave arrival
times. We also have developed a set of lesson plans to present
the ideas used for locating earthquakes to grade-school students,
college classes, and the general public. Te device is suitable for
both permanent mounting in a science museum or can be trans-
ported easily to schools or other educational and outreach ven-
ues. Our prototype analog earthquake locator is housed in the
Public Earthquake Resource Center (PERC) at the University
of Memphis and also is taken to local classrooms.
Te most popular introductory method for showing how
to locate earthquakes is the circle method, which is based on
drawing circles around seismic stations on a map or a globe (fg-
ure 1). Te circles radii are based on the length of time between
the arrival of the P and S waves, T
s
T
p
, at each station. Tis
time diference is converted to a distance by using a table or
multiplying by a given velocity. How the velocity or the values
in the table are determined is usually not discussed. Te distance
determined from the T
s
T
p
time is used as the radius of a circle
that can be drawn on the map or globe by a student using a com-
pass. Laboratory exercises and presentations about earthquakes
to elementary, middle, and high-school groups typically apply
this method with a compass, a regional map, and data from at
least three stations. In this exercise, the distance between the
earthquake and the seismic stations has to be small enough that
the Earth can be considered fat. Drawing circles with appropri-
ate radii around the seismic stations produces a point where the
three circles intersect. Te intersection point is the surface loca-
tion, or epicenter, of the earthquake. Tis demonstration works
perfectly for earthquakes at the surface and noiseless P- and S-
wave arrival time data. Real earthquakes, however, occur inside
the Earth at some depth, not at the surface. In this case, the
circles drawn on the map will not intersect at one point because
the distances determined using the T
s
T
p
arrival times are the
distances from the earthquake to the stations, not the distances
from the point on the Earths surface above the earthquake to
the stations (fgure 2). Te problem can be fxed by using the dis-
tances found from the T
s
T
p
arrival times as the radii of spheres
in three dimensions, instead of two-dimensional circles on the
surface. Te three radii now create two points of intersection.
Both points are equidistant to the Earths surface. One is located
within the Earth and the other above the Earths surface. Te
point of intersection beneath the surface is the focal location of
the earthquake; hence the distance from the surface to the point
of intersection above the Earths surface also denotes the depth
of the earthquake. Te radii represent the ray paths of the seis-
mic rays traveling through a homogeneous medium. Te analog
earthquake locator forms the intersection of the radii of spheres
in three dimensions above the surface of a map, demonstrating
not only the epicentral location on the surface directly beneath
the intersection, but the depth of the earthquake as well.
ANALOG COMPUTING
Te term analog has two meanings that are relevant to the
earthquake locator. Te fundamental principle behind the
application of analog computing is the observation that many
seemingly diferent physical systems can be described math-
ematically by equations of the same form, difering only in the
interpretation of the parameters and variables. If two systems
Strings and Things for Locating Earthquakes
D. Sarah Stamps and Robert Smalley, Jr.
D. Sarah Stamps and Robert Smalley, Jr.
Center for Earthquake Research and Information, The University of Memphis
r = v(T
s
T
p
)
seismic
station
epicenter
Figure 1. This gure illustrates the circle method for locating
earthquakes. First draw circles of appropriate radii, based on the
T
s
T
p
times, around each station on a map. Data from one station
locates the earthquake somewhere on the circle drawn about that
station. Data from two stations further restricts the earthquake
location to one of the two places where the two circles intersect.
Finally, the intersection of the three circles gives the unique loca-
tion of the earthquake.
( )
=
p s
p s
s p
where D is the length of the ray path, T
s
is the S-wave arrival
time, T
p
is the P-wave arrival time, V
s
is the S-wave velocity, and
V
p
is the P-wave velocity. For this implementation of the locator
we used a homogeneous half-space model for the New Madrid
seismic zone with V
p
= 6 km/s and
V
V
s
= = 3 5
3
.
p
km/s.
Te map is approximately 0.5 m by 0.5 m and covers a 40 km
2
area over the thrust arm of the New Madrid seismic zone. In this
region the seismic stations have a spacing of 10 to 20 km, and the
earthquakes vary from 5 to 21 km in depth. Te region includes
Reelfoot Lake, located in the northwest corner of Tennessee,
and a section of the Mississippi River. Holes are drilled through
the map at four seismic stations (shown by stars). At each hole,
a metal loop is attached to a string that can be pulled out of the
hole away from the surface of the map. Te other end of the
string passes over the time-distance scale where markers show
the distance the end of the string has moved. Retracting mecha-
nisms mounted to the back of the locator keep the strings taut
and retract the string when the end is moved back toward the
hole. In Volponis original analog locator, the map was mounted
on the top of a table. Short sections of pipe, to which the ends
of the strings were attached, were slipped over the four table legs
and provided tension in the strings as the pipes slid up and down
the table legs with movement of the other end of the string.
Te components of the locator are very simple, consisting
of a wooden frame and board, a laminated and mounted map,
a scale marked in T
s
T
p
time and distance, strings, metallic
loops, key-ring retractors, and a device for holding the ends of
the strings together (fgure 4). Te markers are placed on the
T
s
T
p
time and distance = v (T
s
T
p
) scale
spring
loaded
reels
end of each string and the corresponding
marker each move the same distance
T = 0
D = 0
setup T
s
T
p
time and distance
markers on appropriate string
move the union
of the ends of
the strings until
markers line up
(at zero).
d
hypocenter
epicenter
T = 0
D = 0
seismic
station
hole in map, string
passes through
hole, behind map
string passes
over time-distance
scale
Figure 3. This gure shows a schematic diagram of both construction and use of the analog earthquake locator. For clarity, only three
stations are shown for the method based on T
s
T
p
times. The time and distance scale bar is produced by using the map scale for the dis-
tance part of the scale and the corresponding T
s
T
p
time as a function of distance based on the velocity model. Both the time and distance
scales are printed on the scale bar. To use the locator, one lets all the strings retract so that the end of each string is at the location of the
seismic station. One then places the marker at the T
s
T
p
time for a given station on the string that corresponds to that station (top). Next,
the ends of the strings are joined together and the union is moved until all the markers line up at zero (bottom). As the ends of the strings
are pulled from the locations of the seismic stations, the markers on each string move the same physical distance as the end of the string.
One can determine the distance the end of each string moves using the distance scale. For earthquakes with depths similar to or larger
than their epicentral distances, the union has to be moved noticeably away from the map surface. One can then determine the depth of
the earthquake by measuring the distance from the union of the ends of the strings from the map surface with a ruler that is marked at the
same scale as the map. The epicenter is the point directly below the union.