^-..W.

cxv
LOW FREQUENCY SECOND ORDER
WAVE EXCITING FORCES ON
FLOATING STRUCTURES
J. A. PINKSTER
LOW FREQUENCY SECOND ORDER WAVE EXCITING FORCES ON
FLOATING STRUCTURES
LOW FREQUENCY SECOND ORDER
WAVE EXCITING FORCES ON
FLOATING STRUCTURES
PROEFSCHRI FT
TER VERKRUGI NG VAN DE GRAAD VAN DOCTOR IN DE
TECHNI SCHE WETENSCHAPPEN AAN DE TECHNI SCHE
HOGESCHOOL TE DELFT, OP GEZAG VAN DE RECTOR
MAGNI FI CUS,
VOOR EEN COMMI SSI E AANGEWEZEN DOOR HET COLLEGE VAN
DEKANEN TE VERDEDI GEN OP WOENSDAG 8 OKTOBER 1980
TE 14.00 UUR
DOOR
JOHANNES ALBERT PI NKSTER
SCHEEPSBOUWKUNDI G I NGENI EUR
GEBOREN TE EMSWORTH
H. VEENMAN EN ZONEN B. V. - WAGENI NGEN
Dit proefschnft is goedgekeurd
door de promotoren
Prof. Dr. Ir. A. J. Hermans
Prof. Ir. J. Gerritsma
STELLI NGEN
I
Bij het bepalen van de laag frekwente bewegingen van een in golven afgemeerde
konstruktie dient rekening gehouden te worden met viskeuze effekten in de
hydrodynamische reaktiekrachten.
II
Het relatieve bewegingsprincipe geeft inzicht in de krachten uitgeoefend door
variabele dwarsstroom op een varend schip en is een goed uitgangspunt voor het
bepalen van de grootte van deze krachten.
Ill
De afmetingen van een semi-submersible kunnen zodanig geoptimaliseerd
worden dat de bewegingen met golf frekwenties minimaal zijn. Het verdient
overweging eenzelfde optimalisatie toe te passen met betrekking tot de tweede
orde golfdriftkrachten.
IV
Spelende kinderen die een bal in het water gooien maken dikwijls gebruik van
tweede orde golfdriftkrachten om deze weer binnen bereik te drijven. Dit is, tot
nu toe, het enige nuttige gebruik van dit verschijnsel wat bekend is.
V
Door sommige onderzoekers is beweerd dat golfdriftkrachten op een
afgemeerde konstruktie in stroom en golven afhankelijk zijn van de
stroomsnelheid. Onderzocht moet worden of het juist niet de stroomkrachten
zijn die veranderen door de aanwezigheid van golven.
VI
Doordat energie in golven nauw verwant is aan het verschijnsel van de laag
frekwente golfdriftkrachten kan dit gebruikt worden voor het verminderen van
laag frekwente horizontale bewegingen van konstrukties afgemeerd in golven.
VII
Systemen voor het opwekken van energie uit golven zijn veelal gekoncipieerd op
basis van het gedrag van het golfoppervlak. Daar de energie van golven
gedragen wordt door de waterdeeltjes onder dit oppervlak verdient het
aanbeveling bij het ontwerpen van dergelijke systemen ook hier aandacht aan te
besteden.
VIII
De laag frekwente golfdriftkracht op een afgemeerde konstruktie in onregel-
matige golven kan, mits aan bepaalde voorwaarden wordt voldaan, voor-
speld worden aan de hand van gegevens over de gemiddeide driftkracht in
regelmatige golven.
IX
Een schip varend in recht voor- of recht achterinkomende golven kan grote
slingerbewegingen vertonen bij golf frekwenties die ver buiten de eigen slinger
frekwentie van het schip liggen.
X
Op grote schepen dienen gegevens aan boord aanwezig te zijn met betrekking tot
de gemiddeide golf-, wind- en stroomkrachten. Deze gegevens zijn van belang
voor het geval dat een schip ten gevolge van averij geassisteerd moet worden
door sleepboten.
XI
Meer jarenplannen voor onderzoek kunnen belemmerend werken op de
kreativiteit van de onderzoeker.
XII
Het is aan te bevelen de voor de Nederlandstalige leek nogal lachwekkende
benaming 'driftkrachten' te vervangen door een uitdrukking die minder
associaties met menselijk gedrag oproept.
Dissertatie J. A. Pinkster
Delft, 8 oktober 1980
Aan Martha
en de kinderen
C O N T E N T S
I. I N T R O D U C T I O N 1
I I . P A S T D E V E L O P M E N T S C O N C E R N I N G T HE C O M P U T A T I O N O F M E A N
A N D L O W FR E Q U E N C Y WA V E FO R C E S 8
I I . 1. I n t r o d u c t i o n 8
11. 2 , Hi s t o r i c a l r e v i e w 8
I I . 3 . C o n c l u s i o n s 15
I I I . HY D R O D Y N A M I C T HE O R Y 19
111. 1. I n t r o d u c t i o n 19
111. 2 . C o - o r d i n a t e s y s t e m s . 2 2
111. 3 . M o t i o n a n d v e l o c i t y o f a p o i n t o n t he hu l l o f
t he b o d y 2 3
111. 4 . Fl u i d m o t i o n s a n d b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s 2 4
I I I . 4 . 1. B o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s w i t hi n t he fl u i d , a t t he
fr e e s u r fa c e a n d o n t he s e a fl o o r 2 4
I I I . 4 . 2 . B o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s o n t he b o d y 2 6
I I I . 4 . 3 . B o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s a t i n fi n i t y 3 0
111. 5. P r e s s u r e i n a p o i n t w i t hi n t he fl u i d 3 0
I I I . 6. S e c o n d o r d e r w a v e fo r c e a n d m o m e n t 3 2
111. 6. 1. S e c o n d o r d e r w a v e fo r c e 32
111. 6. 2 . S e c o n d o r d e r w a v e m o m e n t 35
I I I . 7 . C o n c l u s i o n s 3 7
I V . E V A L U A T I O N O F T HE S E C O N D O R D E R WA V E E X C I T I N G FO R C E S ... 3 8
IV. 1. Introduction 38
IV.2 . The quadratic transfer function 38
IV.2.1. General 38
IV.2 .2 . Evaluation of the components dependent on first
order quantities 41
IV.2.3. Contribution of the second order potential .... 42
IV.2 .3.1. General 42
IV.2.3.2. Approximation for the contribution of the
second order potential 45
IV.2.3.3. Comparison between exact results and the
approximation 50
IV.2 .4. Symmetry of the quadratic transfer functions .. 53
IV.3. Frequency domain representation of the mean and
low frequency forces in irregular waves 5 7
IV.4. Time domain representation of the mean and low
frequency second order forces 59
IV. 5 . Conclusions 60
V. COMPARISON BETWEEN RESULTS OF COMPUTATIONS AND ANALYTI-
CAL RESULTS ON THE MEAN WAVE DRIFT FORCE IN REGULAR
WAVES 61
V. 1. Introduction 61
V.2 . Computations 61
V.2 .1. General 61
V.2 .2 . Motions and mean horizontal drift force 67
V.2 .3. Components of the mean horizontal drift force .. 69
V.2 .4 . Mean vertical drift force 71
V. 3. Conclusions 72
VI. COMPARISON BETWEEN COMPUTATIONS AND MEASUREMENTS OF THE
MEAN SECOND ORDER FORCE IN REGULAR WAVES 73
VI. 1. Introduction 73
VI.2 . Model tests 76
VI.2 .1. General 76
VI.2 .2 . Model test conditions 79
V I . 3. Computations 82
VI. 4. Results of computations and measurements 88
VI. 5 . Conclusions 102
VII. DETERMINATION OF THE QUADRATIC TRANSFER FUNCTION OF THE
LOW FREQUENCY SECOND ORDER FORCES 104
VII.1. Introduction 104
VII.2 . Model test set-up 105
VII.2 .1. General 105
VII.2 .2 . Realizations of two systems of restraint Ill
VII.3. Model tests 116
VII.3.1. Generation of waves 116
VII.3.2 . Test procedure and duration of measurements .. 120
VII.4 . Analysis of results of measurements of the low
frequency longitudinal force in head waves 121
VII.4.1. Regular wave groups 121
VII.4.2 . Irregular waves 122
VII.5. Computations 122
VII.6. Comparison between computations and experi-
ments 125
V I I . 7 . Approximation for the low frequency force in
irregular waves 132
V I I . 8. Conclusions 135
V I I I . APPLICATION OF T HE O R Y TO DYNAMIC POSITIONING OF A
VESSEL IN IRREGULAR WA V E S 137
V I I I . 1. Introduction 137
V I I I . 2 . T he o r e t i c a l prediction of the effect of w a v e -
feed-forward 139
V I I I . 3 . Generation of the wave-feed-forward control
signal 145
V I I I . 4 . P o s i t i o n i n g system 151
V I I I . 5. M o d e l tests 155
V I I I . 5. 1. General 155
V I I I . 5. 2 . Results of tests in irregular waves 155
V I I I . 5. 3 . Results of tests in irregular waves and
current 160
V III.6. Conclusions 162
IX. CONCLUSIONS 163
APPENDIX A - COMPUTATION OF THE FIR S T ORDER SOLUTION FOR THE
VELOCITY POTENTIAL AND BODY MOTIONS 166
APPENDIX B - C R O S S - B I- S P E C T R A L A N A L Y S IS 173
REFERENCES 182
NOMENCLATURE 196
SUMMARY 2 00
SAMENVATTING 2 02
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 2 04
I. INTRODUCTION
Stationary vessels floating or submerged in irregular
waves are subjected to large, so-called first order, wave forces
and moments which are linearly proportional to the wave height
and contain the same frequencies as the waves. They are also sub-
jected to small, so-called second order, mean and low frequency
wave forces and moments which are proportional to the square of
the wave height. The frequencies of the second order low frequen-
cy components are associated with the frequencies of wave groups
occurring in irregular waves.
The first order wave forces and moments are the cause of
the well known first order motions with wave frequencies. Due to
the importance of the first order wave forces and motions they
have been subject to investigation for several decades. As a re-
sult of these investigations, methods have evolved by means of
which these may be predicted with a reasonable degree of accuracy
for many different vessel shapes.
This study deals with the mean and low frequency second
order wave forces acting on stationary vessels in regular and
irregular waves in general and, in particular, with a method to
predict these forces on basis of computations. Knowledge concern-
ing the nature and magnitude of these forces is of importance
due to the effect they have been shown to have on the general
behaviour of stationary structures in irregular waves.
The components of mean and low frequency second order wave
forces can affect different structures in different ways and al-
though of the same origin have even been called by different
names. The horizontal components of the mean and low frequency
second order wave forces are also known as wave drift forces
since, under the influence of these forces, a floating vessel
will carry out a steady slow drift motion in the general direc-
tion of wave propagation if it is not restrained.
The importance of the mean and low frequency wave drift
forces from the point of view of motion behaviour and mooring
loads on vessels moored at sea has been recognized only within
the last few years. Verhagen and Van Sluijs [I-l], Hsu and Blen-
karn [1-2] and Remery and Hermans [1-3] showed that the low fre-
quency components of the wave drift forces in irregular waves
could, even though relatively small in magnitude, excite large
amplitude low frequency horizontal motions in moored vessels.
It was shown that in irregular waves the drift forces contain
components with frequencies coinciding with the natural frequen-
cies of the horizontal motions of moored vessels. Combined with
the fact that the damping of low frequency horizontal motions of
moored structures is generally very low, this leads to large
amplitude resonant behaviour of the motions. See Figure I-l.
RECORD OF AN IRREGULAR SEA
20 m
r
- 20 m
RECORD OF SURGE MOTION
100 200
TI ME in sec.
Fig. I-l Low frequency surge motions of a moored LNG carrier in
Irregular head seas.
Remery and Hermans [1-3] established that the low frequency com-
ponents in the drift forces are associated with the frequencies
of groups of waves present in an irregular wave train. See Fig-
ure 1-2.
E
c
LJ
O
tr
ID
I/)
Li.
o
UJ
Q
__>
a.
<
A =
NATURAL PERIOD OF SURGE MOTION
PERIOD OF WAVE GROUPS. REF [l-3]
Fig. 1-2 Surge motions of a moored barge in regular head wave
groups. Ref. [1-3].
Dynamically positioned vessels such as drill ships which
remain in a prescribed position in the horizontal plane through
the controlled use of thrust generated by propulsion units are
also influenced by mean and low frequency wave drift forces. The
power to be installed in these vessels is dependent on the magni-
tude of these forces. The frequency response characteristics of
the control systems must be chosen so that little or no power is
expended to compensate the large oscillatory motions with wave
frequencies, while the mean and low frequency horizontal motions
caused by the mean and low frequency drift forces should be re-
duced to values commensurate with the task of the vessel. This
has led to the development of sophisticated control systems.
See Figure 1-3.
CURRENT!
THRUSTER
ALLOCATION
CONTROL
SIGNAL
WAVES
MEASUREMENTS
VESSEL
WIND
MODEL
\
< r
WIND
WIND
FORCE
N
7'
FORCE <
DEMAND
VESSEL
STATE ~~
VESSEL
MODEL
r\
PREDICTED
MEASUREMENTS
-=6
V
CURRENT
FORCE
CURRENT
MODEL
STATE
CORRECTION
\
WAVE
MODEL
O
SETPOINTS
Fig. 1-3 Block diagram for typical dynamic positioning system.
The vertical components of the second order forces are
sometimes known as suction forces. This term is generally applied
in connection with the mean wave induced vertical force and
pitching moment acting on submarine vehicles when hovering or
travelling near the free surface. It is shown by Bhattacharyya
tl-4] that in extreme cases the upward acting suction force due
to waves can cause a submarine vehicle to rise and broach the
surface, thus posing a problem concerning the control of the ve-
hicle in the vertical plane. See Figure 1-4.
The vertical components of the second order wave forces
have also been connected with the phenomena of the steady tilt of
semi-submersibles with low initial static stability as indicated
by Kuo et al [1-5]. Depending on the frequency of the waves it
has been found that the difference in the suction forces on the
floaters of a semi-submersible can result in a tilting moment,
which can cause the platform to tilt towards or away from the
oncoming waves. Such effects are of importance in judging the
minimum static stability requirements for such platforms. From
observations in reality and from the results of model tests it
has been found that large, deep floating storage vessels can
carry out low frequency heave motions in irregular waves which
are of the same magnitude as the heave motions with wave frequen-
cies.
*-
c
X
.-
Q.
UJ
O
_J
UJ
UJ
_.
50
60
70
8 0
9 0
100 r
110
0 4 0
80 120
TIME in sec.
160 2 00
Fig. 1-4 Depth record showing effect of suction force on sub-
marine under waves. Quartering sea, wave height =
18 ft., vessel speed = 0 knot. Ref. [1-4]-
From the foregoing it can be seen that, depending on the
kind of structure or vessel considered, one or more of the six
components of the mean and low frequency second order wave forces
in irregular waves can be of importance. In order to be able to
evaluate the influence of such forces on the performance or be-
haviour of a structure the most reliable method available, which
can take into account in a relatively straightforward way those
factors which are deemed of importance for the behaviour of a
system, is by means of model tests. In many practical cases suf-
ficient insight in the complex behaviour of, for instance, a
large tanker moored to a single point mooring system is still
lacking for reliable prediction of the motion behaviour and forces
in the mooring system to be made by means other than physical
model testing.
Simulation techniques based on numerical computations are
becoming of increasing importance in the design phase of many
floating structures however. For instance, in order to evaluate
the effectiveness of control systems for dynamically positioned
vessels, time domain simulations, which take into account the
equations of motion of the vessel and the behaviour of external
loads such as the mean and low frequency wave drift forces, are
carried out. In such cases, due to the complexity of the control
system and the objectives of the study, it is more practical to
make use of simplified equations describing the environmental
forces and the reaction of the structure or vessel to external
forces than to simulate the characteristics of the control sys-
tems during a model test. See for instance Sjouke and Lagers
[1-6], Sugiura et al [1-7] and Tamehiro et al [1-8]. For such
simulation studies accurate numerical data on the behaviour of
the mean and low frequency wave forces are desirable, so that
meaningful results can be given regarding the systems under inves-
tigation. See for instance Van Oortmerssen [1-9] and Arai et al
[1-10]. In order to produce numerical results, however, a theory
must be available on which calculations can be based. In this
study such a theory is developed based on potential theory. The
final expressions are valid for all six degrees of freedom and
are obtained through direct integration of the fluid pressures
acting on the instantaneous wetted surface of the body. The final
expressions are evaluated using an existing computer program based
on three-dimensional linear potential theory. Numerical results
are compared with analytical results obtained for a simple shaped
body using a different theory. Experimental results for different,
more practical shapes of vessels and structures are compared with
results of computations. It is shown that the expressions obtained
for the mean and low frequency second order wave forces can be
used to gain more insight in the mechanism by which waves and
structure interact to produce the forces. It is also shown that
the insight gained using the method of direct integration can be
used to enhance the positioning accuracy of dynamically positioned
vessels in irregular waves. This is effected through the use of
a wave-feed-forward control signal based on the instantaneous re-
lative wave height measured around the vessel.
II. PAST DEVELOPMENTS CONCERNING THE COMPUTATION OF MEAN AND LOW
FREQUENCY WAVE FORCES
i i l: _ ._ i { _ .t _
r
2 * l
u
_ ^ 2 2
In this section, in which a review is given of developments
in the past concerning theories which may be used to predict the
second order wave forces, theories concerning the prediction of
the added resistance of ships travelling in waves will also be
taken into account, since the physical aspects are the same in
both cases. In fact the added resistance is simply the longitudi-
nal component of the mean second order wave forces for the case
of non-zero forward speed. Indeed, initially emphasis was placed
on obtaining good estimates of the added resistance in waves of
vessels with forward speed. Only in recent years, due to the enor-
mous increase in the number of vessels being moored at sea, have
theories been developed which did not have to take into account
the effect of forward speed which is of great importance for the
added resistance. Most of the work carried out in the past has
been concerned solely with the mean second order wave forces on a
vessel or structure travelling or stationary in regular waves.
Maruo [Il-l] and Gerritsma [II-2] show that on basis of
this information the mean component of the second order wave force
can be determined in irregular waves. As shown by Dalzell [II-3]
the low frequency component of the second order wave forces on
bodies in irregular waves can, strictly, only be determined from
knowledge of the low frequency excitation in regular wave groups
consisting of combinations of two regular waves with different
frequencies. The low frequency wave force will then have the fre-
quency corresponding to the difference frequency of the component
regular waves. As will be seen in this section only in recent
times have attempts been made to determine these components of
the second order forces.
Ii_i.:___Historical_reyiew
The existence of non-zero mean components in the total wave
force acting on a floating vessel was first noted by Suyehiro
8
[II-4] who, from experiments, found that a vessel rolling in reg-
ular beam waves was subjected to a mean sway force. Suyehiro
contributed this force to the capability of the vessel to reflect
part of the incoming wave.
Watanabe [II-5] gave an expression for the mean sway force
in regular waves based on the product of the first order roll m o -
tion and the Froude-Kryloff component of the roll moment, which
indicated that the phenomenon involved was of second order. Re-
sults of Watanabe's calculations accounted for about half of the
mean forces measured by Suyehiro.
Havelock [II-6] gave a similar second order expression for
the mean longitudinal component of the second order wave force or
added resistance on vessels in head seas involving the Froude-
Kryloff parts of the heave force and pitching moment and the heave
and pitch motions. This expression was used to estimate the in-
crease in resistance experienced by a vessel travelling into head
waves. The results obtained using Havelock's expression generally
overestimate the added resistance at pitch resonance and under-
estimate the added resistance in the range of short wave lengths,
where diffraction effects become more important. Watanabe's and
Havelock's expressions for the mean second order wave forces in
regular waves neglected diffraction effects.
Maruo tlI-7] presented expressions for the longitudinal
and transverse components of the mean horizontal second order wave
force on stationary vessels in regular waves. The theory is valid
for two and three-dimensions and is exact to second order within
potential theory. It is based on the application of the laws of
conservation of momentum and energy to the body of fluid surround-
ing the vessel. The final expressions derived are evaluated based
on knowledge of the behaviour of the potential describing the
fluid motions at great distance from the body. Numerical results
given by Maruo are, however, limited and do not give satisfactory
verification of the applicability of the theory since no correla-
tion is given with experimental results.
Kudou [II-8] has given analytical results on the mean ho r -
izontal wave force on a floating sphere in regular waves u s i n g
M a r u o 's [II-7] theory and shows reasonable correlation between
computed and m e a s u r e d data.
Newman [II-9] rederived Maruo's three-dimensional e xp r e s -
sions for the horizontal force components and extended the theory
by including an expression for the mean yaw m o m e n t . The e xp r e s -
sions w e r e evaluated using slender body assumptions and results
of computations compared with experimental results given by Spens
and Lalangas [ U - l O l . Through lack of sufficient experimental data
no final conclusions could be drawn regarding the validity of the
theory.
Faltinsen and Michelsen [11-11] modified N e w m a n 's e xp r e s -
sion and e v a l u a t e d their r e s u l t by using a computer p r o gr a m based
on three-dimensional potential theory using a distribution of
singularities over the surface of the body. Results of c o m p u t a -
tions compared w i t h experimental results of the mean ho r i zo n t a l
force on a box shaped barge in regular waves showed good a gr e e -
ment .
Recently M o l i n [11-12 ] modified Maruo's expression for the
horizontal force and evaluated it using a numerical fluid finite
elements method of computing the potential describing the fluid
m o t i o n . The m o d i fi c a t i o n to the original formulation lies in the
change of the surface of integration. Molin used the mean surface
of the vessel w hi l e M a r u o applied asymptotic expansions valid at
great distance from the v e s s e l . Molin's results compare w e l l with
experimental r e s u l t s on the mean longitudinal and t r a n s v e r s e force
and y a w i n g moment on a stationary tanker in he a d , beam and bow
quartering regular w a v e s .
Kim and C ho u [11-13] ha v e m a d e use of M a r u o 's [II-7] e x-
pression for the two-dimensional case of a vessel in beam seas to
derive the mean sway force on stationary vessels in oblique w a v e s .
Comparisons m a d e by Faltinsen and L^ken [11-14] w i t h results o b -
tained by other m e t ho d s and from experimental results w i t h the
method of Kim and C ho u indicate that the method can show large
10
d e v i a t i o n s .
Joosen [11-15] has d e t e r m i n e d , by application of slender
body t he o r y , the added r e s i s t a n c e of ships using Maruo's [II-7]
expression. The final result is similar to that found by Havelock
[I I - 6]. In Joosen's case the added resistance is independent of
speed.
Lee and Newman [11-16] have given expressions to determine
the mean vertical force and pitching moment acting on deeply s u b -
merged slender c y l i n d e r s . The method is based on momentum consid-
erations. N o computed results are given.
Karppinen [11-17] has developed a method to determine the
m e a n second order w a v e force and moment on semi-submersible s t r u c -
tures based on t hr e e - d i m e n s i o n a l p o t e n t i a l theory. Karppinen a s -
sumes that the structure may be subdivided into slender elements
which do not interact. The total mean forces and moments are found
by summation of the contributions of the elements. The mean force
on each element is determined from momentum considerations in a
manner similar to that given by Lee and Newman [11- 16]. Karppinen
gives computed results for a semi-submersible. N o comparisons are
m a d e w i t h e xp e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s . Mean forces on simple elements
are compared w i t h results obtained by o t he r s .
Lin and Reed [11-18] have presented a m e t ho d , based on m o -
m e n t u m consideration and through the use of an asymptotic form of
the Green's function valid at a large d i s t a n c e , for the mean ho r -
izontal second order force and yaw moment on ships travelling at
a constant speed in oblique regular w a v e s . N o results of computa-
tions are gi v e n .
A n approximative theory for the added resistance in regular
waves is given by G e r r i t s m a and Beukelman [11- 19]. In this method
the m e a n force is derived by equating the energy radiated by the
oscillating v e s s e l to w o r k done by the incoming w a v e s . The e xp r e s -
sion obtained ha s been applied t o the case of ships travelling in
head seas and the correlation between the computed and measured
added resistance is good. Strip theory m e t ho d s are used to e v a l u -
i i
ate the final e xp r e s s i o n . N o experimental data are given for the
case of a stationary v e s s e l .
Kaplan and Sargent [11-2 0] have proposed to use the ap-
proach of G e r r i t s m a and Beukelman to the case of oblique s e a s . No
comparisons with experimental data are given by these authors.
Ogilvie [II-2 1] developed expressions based on t w o - d i m e n -
sional p o t e n t i a l theory for the mean second order vertical and
horizontal wave forces on submerged circular cylinders fixed, free
floating or w i t h forced motions in regular beam w a v e s . The problem
is solved analytically and the results are exact within potential
theory. No assumptions are made regarding the slenderness of the
cylinders. N o comparisons are given with experimental r e s u l t s .
Goodman [11-2 2 ] has determined, by direct integration of
pressure acting on the hu l l , the mean vertical force acting on a
submerged cylinder in regular beam and head waves for w a v e lengths
in the order of the diameter of the cylinder. N o comparisons are
given between computed and experimental results.
Salvesen [11-2 3] has derived expressions for the total mean
and low frequency second order wave force and m o m e n t on floating
structures w hi c h is three-dimensional and exact to second order
within potential theory. The expressions were derived through in-
tegration of p r e s s u r e over the hull surface. The final r e s u l t s ,
ho w e v e r , make use of the asymptotic behaviour of the velocity p o -
tentials at great distance from the body. The theory w a s applied
t o the case o f stationary vessels and t o vessels w i t h forward
speed in regular w a v e s . In order to finally evaluate the e xp r e s -
sions slender body assumptions were applied. Comparisons m a d e by
Faltinsen and Lf6ken [11-14 ] with other theories show that the
slender body assumptions can scarcely be applied in many practical
c a s e s .
Dalzell and Ki m [11-2 4 ] have computed the mean and low
frequency components of the second order forces on a vessel using
Salvesen's [11-2 3] equation for the mean force in regular w a v e s .
Comparisons are given between computed and measured data w hi c h
show reasonable qu a l i t a t i v e agreement.
A n ku d i n o v [11- 2 5], [11-2 6] gives expressions for the mean
second order force and moment on stationary ships and the added
resistance of ships t r a v e l l i n g in regular waves in d e e p or shallow
w a t e r . The theory is exact and based on integration of pressure
on the body's wetted s u r fa c e . The expressions of Ha v e l o c k, M a r u o
and Newman are derived as particular cases of Ankudinov's final
e xp r e s s i o n s . N o n u m e r i c a l results are given on the mean force on
stationary v e s s e l s . The added resistance of ships travelling in
waves is computed using strip theory methods and compared w i t h
experimental data for deep and shallow w a t e r . The results compare
reasonably w e l l .
Based on direct integration of p r e s s u r e , Boese [11-2 7] ap-
proximated the added resistance of ships in regular w a v e s from the
relative wave height and the product of heave force and pitch m o -
tion. The final expressions w e r e evaluated by strip theory m e t h-
o d s . Results of c o m p u t a t i o n s agree reasonably with experimental
data.
Pinkster [11-2 8] gave an expression based on d i r e c t i n t e -
gration of pressure for the m e a n and low frequency second order
horizontal w a v e force on a v e s s e l in irregular w a v e s . This e xp r e s -
sion included the components used by Boese [11- 2 7 ]. U s i n g strip
theory m e t ho d s , only the same components could be e v a l u a t e d . R e -
sults of computations of the m e a n and low frequency surge m o t i o n s
of a vessel moored in irregular head seas were compared w i t h e x-
perimental results and showed reasonable agreement.
Pinkster and V a n Oortmerssen [11-2 9] presented results of
computations of the m e a n longitudinal and transverse force and yaw
moment on a stationary free floating rectangular b a r ge in regular
waves based on the method of direct integration of p r e s s u r e s .
Evaluation of the complete expressions gi v e n , which are exact
w i t hi n p o t e n t i a l t he o r y , requires accurate and detailed knowledge
of the flow around the hu l l . This w a s determined u s i n g a n u m e r i c a l
three-dimensional sink and source technique utilizing G r e e n 's
functions. See B o r e e l [11- 3 0]. The r e s u l t s of c o m p u t a t i o n s w e r e
13
compared with experimental results and good correlation was found.
Computed results of the mean vertical force are also shown. No
comparisons are given with experimental data for this component.
Faltinsen and L0ken [11-31] presented a two-dimensional
method based on potential theory to compute the mean and low fre-
quency components of the second order transverse force on cylin-
ders floating in beam seas. The method takes into account the
force contribution arising from the second order non-linear veloc-
ity potential as well as the usual components arising from pro-
ducts of the first order quantities. The expressions obtained are
exact within potential theory and results of computation of the
mean and low frequency transverse force on a number of cylinders
with different forms and breadth to draft ratios are presented by
Faltinsen and LjzSken in [11-32]. No comparisons were given with
experimental results.
Pinkster and Hooft [11-33] and Pinkster [11-34], [11-35]
extended the method of direct integration to include the low fre-
quency components of the second order wave forces on stationary
free floating bodies in regular wave groups. The contribution
arising from the second order, non-linear, potential is included
using an approximation based on the transformation of a first
order wave exciting force. The approximation for this component
is compared with two-dimensional exact results given by Faltinsen
and LjzSken for the case of a floating cylinder in beam waves.
Pinkster [11-34] compared results of computations of the mean
longitudinal wave force in regular head waves on a semi-submers-
ible with experimental results. The comparison indicates that po-
tential effects rather than viscous effects dominate in the second
order force on semi-submersibles.
Pinkster [11-35] computed by the method of direct integra-
tion the low frequency component of the second order longitudinal
force on a semi-submersible in head waves and compared the results
with experimental results obtained from tests in irregular head
waves using cross-bi-spectral analysis techniques as developed by
Dalzell [II-3]. The agreement was reasonable.
14
Bourianoff and Penumalli [11-36] determine the total hydro-
dynamic force including the first order force and the second order
mean and low frequency forces by means of time domain solution of
the Euler hydrodynamic equation coupled with the rigid body equa-
tion of motion for the ship. The method allows non-linear treat-
ment of ship-wave interaction and arbitrary two-dimensional geom-
etry. Furthermore ship motions are calculated in regular or ir-
regular waves and the effect of arbitrary mooring forces can be
included. Results of computations are compared with experimental
results regarding the low frequency motions of a vessel in irreg-
ular beam waves. The correlation is reasonable but computation
time exceeds real time by a factor of about four.
Pijfers and Brink [11-37] developed expressions by means
of which the mean horizontal wave force on semi-submersible struc-
tures consisting of slender elements could be determined. The
method is based on the use of Morison's equation and the relative
motion concept to determine the wave loads on the structural ele-
ments. Results of computations indicate that the viscous drag
plays an important role in the mean force. In regular waves the
mean force as determined by Pijfers and Brink is not a quadratic
function of the wave height. No comparisons with results of ex-
periments are given. Previously Wahab [11-38] presented a similar
method to that of Pijfers and Brink. The results of computations
were compared with limited data from experiments. However, no
general conclusions could be drawn.
Huse [II-39] has given an expression for the mean horizon-
tal force on semi-submersibles from which a qualitative indication
is drawn regarding the influence of viscous effects. Comparisons
are made with experimental results for two semi-submersibles.
For the computation of the mean force the restriction of long
waves relative to the platform dimensions is imposed.
H i 3^. .Conclusions
Resuming the foregoing it can be seen that the theories,
developed in the past, may be grouped in four main categories:
15
Potential theories which deduce the mean second order forces
based on m o m e n t u m and energy considerations applied to the body
of fluid surrounding the v e s s e l . The change in momentum (or
moment of m o m e n t u m ) of the fluid is equated to the mean force
(or moment) acting on the vessel. These theories generally
make use of knowledge of the far-field behaviour of the p o t e n -
tials d e s c r i b i n g the fluid m o t i o n s . Theories in this category
are due t o :
- Maruo [II-7]
- Newman [II-9]
- Faltinsen and M i c he l s e n [11-11]
- Molin [11-12 ]
- Kim and Chou [11-13]
- Joosen [11-15]
- Lee and Newman [11-16]
- Karppinen [11-17]
- Lin and Reed [11-18]
The theory of M a r u o , N e w m a n , Faltinsen and M i c he l s e n and Molin
are three-dimensional and exact to second order within p o t e n -
tial theory. Their basic expressions do not impose restrictions
on the hull form. Other methods in this category m a ke use of
slender body a s s u m p t i o n . The theory of Lin and Reed includes
the e ffe c t o f forward speed.
Potential theories which deduce the mean and in some cases also
the low frequency second order forces and moments through d i -
rect integration of the fluid pressure acting on the wetted
part of the hu l l . In a number of these cases the final e xp r e s -
sions a r e , by application of Gauss's t he o r e m , transformed to
equivalent expressions w hi c h ha v e to be evaluated on a fi c t i -
tious boundary at great distance from the v e s s e l , thus m a ki n g
use of the asymptotic or far-field behaviour of the p o t e n t i a l
describing the flow. T he o r i e s in this category are due t o :
- Watanabe [II-5]
- Havelock [II-6]
- Ogilvie [11-2 1]
- Goodman [11-2 2 ]
- Salvesen [11-2 3]
16
- Dalzell and Ki m [11-2 4 ]
- A n ku d i n o v [11- 2 5], [11-2 6]
- Boese [11-2 7]
- Pinkster [11- 2 8], [11- 3 4 ], [11-35]
- Faltinsen and Ljziken [II-31]
- Bourianoff and P e n u m a l l i [11-36]
Of the theories for the m e a n second order fo r c e s , those due t o
Ogilvie and Faltinsen and Lj6ken are two-dimensional and e xa c t
to second order. The theories of S a l v e s e n , Ankudinov and Pink-
ster are t hr e e - d i m e n s i o n a l and exact to second order. The t he -
ories which ha v e been used t o determine the low frequency part
of the second order forces are those due to Dalzell and Ki m ,
Faltinsen and Ljiken, Pinkster and Bourianoff and P e n u m a l l i . The
theory of D a l ze l l and Ki m makes use of slender body assumption
and is approximative. The theory of Faltinsen and Lj6ken is t w o -
dimensional and e xa c t to second order in basic formulation and
in the- results obtained. The theory of Pinkster is t hr e e - d i m e n -
sional and exact t o second order in basic formulation a n d , for
the greater p a r t , in the results obtained. The theory due t o
Bourianoff appears to be fully non-linear in basic formulation
and in the results o b t a i n e d . This theory i s , of a l l theories
discussed he r e , the only one solved in time d o m a i n .
Potential theories w hi c h deduce the mean second order forces
by equating the damping energy radiated by the oscillating v e s -
sel to work done by the incoming w a v e s . These theories are a p -
proximative and in all cases make use of slender body a s s u m p -
t i o n . Theories in t hi s category are due t o :
- Gerritsma and Beukelman [11-19]
- Kaplan and Sargent [11-2 0]
Approximative theories w hi c h make use of M o r i s o n 's equation and
the relative m o t i o n c o n c e p t . These m e t ho d s apply typically to
semi-submersible structures which are assumed to consist of
slender e l e m e n t s . T he s e t he o r i e s are due t o :
- Wahab [11-38]
- Pijfers and Brink [11-37]
- Hu s e [11-39]
17
In the following chapter the hydrodynamic theory for the
general three-dimensional case of a body floating in arbitrary
wave conditions will be treated. Expressions will be derived for
the mean and low frequency second order wave forces for six de-
grees of freedom based on the method of direct integration of
pressure over the wetted hull.
From the review of work already published in this field it
would appear that similar derivations may have been given by other
authors. This is, however, not the case. With respect to the meth-
od of direct integration of pressure, partial results of the same
nature as given in chapter III have been given by Ogilvie [11-21]
and Boese [11-27]. In neither case has the general hydrodynamic
theory been discussed or have the complete and general expressions
for the mean and low frequency second order forces been derived.
18
III. HYDRODYNAMIC THEORY
I I I . 1. Introduction
In this section the hydrodynamic theory which forms the
basis for computations of the mean and low frequency second order
wave drift forces on floating or submerged objects w i l l be treated.
The theory is developed b a s e d on the assumption that the fluid
surrounding the body is i n v i s c i d , i r r o t a t i o n a l , homogeneous and
incompressible. The fluid m o t i o n s may then be described by a v e -
locity p o t e n t i a l $ from w hi c h the velocity field can be derived
by taking the gr a d i e n t :
V = V.$ (III-l)
w i t h: * = *(X, t) (III-2 )
in which X, t are respectively the position vector relative to a
fixed system of rectangular co-ordinate axes and t i m e .
For an arbitrary case the m o t i o n s of the body and the p o -
tential $ are unknown qu a n t i t i e s which have to be determined t a k-
ing into account certain boundary conditions applicable to the
flow and the e qu a t i o n s of motion of the body. In accordance w i t h
classical hydrodynamic theory - see for instance Stoker [III-l] -
it w i l l be assumed that the velocity potential $ of the flow and
all quantities derivable from the fl o w , such as the fluid v e l o c -
ity, wave he i ght , p r e s s u r e , hydrodynamic forces and the m o t i o n s
of the o b je c t , may b e e xp a n d e d in a convergent power series w i t h
respect to a small p a r a m e t e r z, for instance:
- the p o t e n t i a l :
* = e $
( 1 )
+ e
2
*
( 2 )
+ 0(e
3
) e l (III-3)
- the w a v e e l e v a t i o n :
. = .
(0)
+ _.
U )
+
_V
2 )
+
O U
3
) (III-4)
- the motion of the object:
X = x
(0)
+
_x
(1)
+ E
2
x
( 2 )
+
0(.
3
) (III-5)
where the affix denotes the static value, indicates first
(2)
order variations and the second order variations, etc.
In waves the first order quantities are oscillatory quan-
tities with wave frequencies. In the most general case second
order quantities, besides containing low frequency components,
also contain high frequency components with a frequency in the
order of twice the wave frequencies. For some problems, for in-
stance hull vibrations, the high frequency components of the sec-
ond order wave forces may be of interest. In that case the excit-
ing forces can be obtained by taking the high frequency components
of the second order forces. Force and motion components of this
type are, however, of no consequence for the problem at hand and
will therefore be left out of consideration in this study.
It will be understood hereafter that first order quantities
are oscillatory with wave frequencies, while second order quanti-
ties are restricted to low frequencies with frequencies lower than
the wave frequencies.
In the following quantities are of second order if preceded
2 2
by . If, as in many cases, the e or E are discarded this will
be due to the fact that the expression involved will contain only
first or second order quantities. In such instances first order
quantities will be recognizable by the affix and second order
(2)
quantities by the affix or by the fact that a component is the
product of first order quantities with affix . For instance,
the pressure component:
H.p |V *
(1)
|
2
(III-6)
is recognized as a second order quantity.
For the derivation of the second order wave forces on an
object in waves it is sufficient that the expansions in a power
series w i t h respect t o a small parameter E only be carried out up
to and including the second order. In order to develop a c o n s i s -
tent theory it is assumed that the low frequency motions induced
by the low frequency second order forces are of second order and
small in relation to the first order m o t i o n s . From measurements
of low frequency m o t i o n s of moored vessels it is known that in the
range of p r a c t i c a l w a v e he i ght s this assumption is in some cases
strictly speaking i n c o r r e c t . This is due to the large dynamic m a g-
nification of the m o t i o n s resulting from small damping for low
frequency m o t i o n s . The t he o r y , ho w e v e r , is based on the assumption
of infinitesimal w a v e he i ght (e--0) in which c a s e , in spite of low
system d a m p i n g, the low frequency motions induced by the low fre-
quency second order w a v e drift forces are always small in relation
t o the first order m o t i o n s .
In this chapter the hydrodynamic boundary problem for the
potential $ w i l l be formulated to first and second order. If the
potential $ is known the pressure in a point in the fluid may be
determined using B e r n o u l l i 's e qu a t i o n :
P = P
0
" P g*
3
- P*
t
~ %p | V* |
2
+ C(t) (III-7)
w he r e :
p = atmospheric p r e s s u r e
X^ = vertical d i s t a n c e of the point below the mean w a t e r surface
C (t ) = a function independent of the co-ordinates
t = time
p = m a s s density of the fluid
g = gravity c o n s t a n t .
The fluid forces acting on the body are determined by the
method of direct i n t e gr a t i o n using the following basic equation
for the fo r c e s :
F = -/ / p.N.dS (III-8)
S
and for the m o m e n t s :
M = -/ / p . (X x N ) .dS (III-9)
S
_>.
in w hi c h:
p = fluid pressure
S = total wetted surface of the body
dS = a surface element
N = outward p o i n t i n g normal vector of dS
X = co-ordinates of dS
The n u m e r i c a l m e t ho d used to finally evaluate the fluid
forces and m o m e n t s w i l l be discussed in chapter IV.
Ill 1.2 i_Co-ordinate_sys terns
U s e is m a d e of three systems of co-ordinate axes {see Fi g-
ure I I I - l ) . The first is a right-handed system of G-x -x -x., body
axes with as origin the centre of gravity G and w i t h positive G-x.
axis vertically u p w a r d s in the mean position of the oscillating
v e s s e l . The surface of the hull is uniquely defined relative to
this system of a xe s . A point on the surface has as position the
vector x. The orientation of a surface element in this system of
axes is defined by the outward pointing normal vector n .
Fig. III-l Systems of c o - o r d i n a t e s .
The second system of co-ordinate axes is a fixed 0-X.-X--X,
system with axes parallel to the G-x.-x--x, system of axes with
the body in the mean position and origin 0 in the mean free sur-
face.
The third system of co-ordinate axes is a G-Xj-Xl-Xi system
of axes with origin in the centre of gravity G of the body and
axes which are at all times parallel to the axes of the fixed
0-X -X -X_ system.
1 2 3
J
The angular motions of the body about the body axes are de-
noted by the Eulerian angles x., x
5
and x^.
m^.3^_Motion_and_velocity_gf _aj2oint_gn_the_hu^_of_the_body
If the body is carrying out small amplitude motions in six
degrees of freedom under the influence of oscillatory first order
and low frequency second order wave forces the position vector of
a point on the hull of the body relative to the fixed system of
0-X -X
2
-X-. axes is:
x = x
(0)
+ _x
(1)
+
_
2
X
( 2 )
(111-10)
where X denotes the mean position vector with:
X<> = X
(0)
+ x (III-ll)
g
and X denotes the first order oscillatory motion with:
S
( D .
5
( D
+ H
( D
; ( I I I
.
1 2 )
g
where a is the oscillatory first order angular motion vector
with components xi , xi and xi respectively and X^ is the
oscillatory first order motion vector of the centre of gravity of
the body. Similarly the second order low frequency motion is:
X<
2
> = X<
2
>
+
a
( 2 )
x x (III-13)
(2.
where a is the low frequency second order angular motion vector
(2) (2) (2) (2 )
with components xl , x,- and x, respectively and X is the
low frequency second order motion vector of the centre of gravity.
The velocity V i s :
. l . 2 f 0 .
V = X = EX^ ' + X
1
' (111-14)
w he r e : x"
(1)
= V
(1
> = *
( 1 )
+
^
{ 1 )
x x (111-15)
g
and ,
2)
= V
(2 )
= *
(2
> + ^
(2 )
* x (IH-16)
in which the components of the angular velocity vectors a and
a are x^ , x^ , x^ and x. , xi and x^ respectively.
The orientation o f surface elements of the hu l l of the body
relative to the body axes G-x.-x^-x-, are denoted by the outward
pointing normal vector n. Relative to the fixed system of c o - o r d i -
nate axes 0-X.-X--X, and the G-X'-X'-X' axes the n o r m a l vector of
a surface element b e c o m e s :
N = N
( 0 )
+
E
N
( 1 )
+ _
2
N
( 2 )
(111-17)
where it is found t ha t :
N
( 0 )
= n (111-18)
N
( 1 )
= a
C l )
x n (111-19)
- (2 ) - (2 )
N
l z
' =
a
K s
x
n
(111-2 0)
miii_myi^_iI.2ti2l__^S^_b2yS^^Y_20^iti22^
III.4 .1. Boundary conditions within the fluid, at the free surface
and on the sea floor
The fluid domain is bounded by the free s u r fa c e , the sur-
face o f the body and the sea floor. Assuming that the fluid is
inviscid, i r r o t a t i o n a l , homogeneous and incompressible the fluid
motion m a y be described by m e a n s of the velocity p o t e n t i a l *:
= e 4
( 1 )
+ E
2
$
( 2 )
(111-2 1)
The potentials are defined relative to the fixed system of 0- X
1
~
X-X axes w i t h:
$ = *(X, t) (111-2 2 )
where t denotes time and X the position vector of the point under
consideration.
The p o t e n t i a l $ must comply with the following boundary
c o n d i t i o n s :
- Everywhere within the fluid domain the equation of continuity
must be satisfied o r :
V
2
$ = 0 (111-2 3)
In order to satisfy this requirement to first and second order
it follows t ha t :
V
2
$
( 1 )
=0 (111-2 4 )
V
2
$
( 2 )
=0 (111-2 5)
The boundary conditions at the free surface. The (unknown) free
surface is a surface of constant pressure and the velocity com-
ponent of the fluid n o r m a l to the free surface is e qu a l t o the
velocity of the surface in the same direction. The latter s t a t e -
ment implies that no fluid particles pass through the free s u r -
face. The boundary conditions on the moving free surface may be
expressed as b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s , w hi c h must be satisfied on the
m e a n , fixed free s u r fa c e . According to Stoker [III-l] the b o u n d -
ary condition is satisfied to first order i f:
g^i
1
* + *i i
J
=0 on X-. = 0 (111-2 6)
A - t t -3
The boundary condition is satisfied t o second order i f:
<
+
*__
)
-
2
-
< l,
--_
l> +
<
l ,
< *x ;x
3
+
i ^
on X
3
= 0 (111-2 7)
The boundary condition at the sea floor, which states that to
first and second order n o fluid particles shall pass through
this boundary o r :
V $
( 1 )
. n
b
=0 (111-2 8)
V $
(2 )
. n , =0 (111-2 9)
b
where n, is the normal vector of a point on the surface of the
sea floor.
I I I . 4 . 2 . Boundary conditions on the body
In general the b o u n d a r y condition on the body states that
the relative velocity between the fluid and the body in the d i r e c -
tion of the n o r m a l to the body be zero. This means that no fluid
passes through the hu l l . T hi s boundary condition has to b e s a t i s -
fied at the i n s t a n t a n e o u s position of the body surface and is as
follows:
V*.N = V . N (111-30)
Taking into account equations (III-3) and (111-14 ) through (III-
2 9) and grouping p o w e r s of e results in the first and second order
body boundary c o n d i t i o n s .
The boundary condition for the first order p o t e n t i a l *
on the b o d y , w hi c h states t ha t , to first o r d e r , there is n o r e l a -
tive motion b e t w e e n the fluid and the body surface in the d i r e c -
tion of the outward p o i n t i n g normal vector N , is as fo l l o w s :
V *
(1)
. n = V
( 1 )
. n (111-31)
(2)
The boundary condition for the second order p o t e n t i a l $
states t ha t , t o second o r d e r , the relative velocity in the d i r e c -
tion of the outward pointing normal N be zero or:
7 _
(2 )
. n = (V
(1)
- V *
(1)
) . N
(1)
+V
( 2 )
. n (111-32)
Equations (111-31) and (111-32) have to be satisfied at the
instantaneous position of the surface of the body. Assuming that
the motions are small and applying a Taylor expansion similar con-
ditions may be posed on the potentials at the mean position of the
surface. The first order boundary condition becomes:
V *
(1)
. n = V
U )
. n (111-33)
The second order boundary condition becomes:
V*
(2 )
.n = - (X
C 1)
.V ) .V *
(1)
.H+ (V
(1
> - v V ^ . N ^
+
+ V
( 2 }
. n (111-34)
where the additional term in equation (111-34) arises from the
second order correction to equation (111-31) when applying the
Taylor expansion to the velocity V$
In equation (111-33) and (111-34) the potentials and their
derivatives have to be taken at the mean position of the body.
We may decompose * in the following way:
.
(1
> = _
(1
>
+
. j
1
' + . <
1J
(111-35)
w d b
in which $ is the first order potential associated with the un-
disturbed incoming waves. Substitution of equation (111-35) in
boundary condition (111-3 3) gives the following:
(V $
(1)
+ V $<
1}
+ V**
1
*) -n = V
(1)
. K (111-36)
w d b
Since the expression is linear * we may decompose this equation
into two parts:
V*i
1J
.n = - 7 *
( 1 )
.K (111-37)
d w
and: V**
1)
.n = V
(1)
.n (11138)
b
Equation (11137) defines the diffraction potential <Jx
which compensates the normal velocity components due to the undis
turbed incoming waves at the motionless body surface. Equation
(11138) defines the body motion potential *. which must be in
troduced in order to satisfy the first order boundary condition on
the body oscillating in still water. From the solution of the dif
fraction potential $!: combined with the potential of the undis
(1)
turbed incoming waves $ the socalled first order wave exciting
W
(1)
forces are found. The body motion potential $^ is used to deter
mine the hydrodynamic reaction forces known as added mass and
damping for unit amplitude acceleration and velocity of the body
motions. From the first order wave exciting forces the added mass
and damping coefficients and the equations of motion of the body,
the unknown first order motions and hence the total first order
potential $ can be determined; see for instance Van Oortmerssen
[1112 3. Substitution of the first order potential $ of equa
tion (11135) in the nonhomogeneous second order free surface
boundary condition of equation (11127) shows that the second or
der potential has, in general, the following components:
*
(2)
= *
<2) +
^V
+
*iV + *T
+
*
(
^ + i h
)
+
ww dd bb wd wb db
+
X2)
+
,(2>
+
,(2)
+
(2) (H I 39 )
dw bw bd 0
where the first nine components on the righthand side are poten
tials which are particular solutions to the following type of
boundary condition at the mean free surface, e.g.:
g*
(2
>
+
*<
2
> 2V*
U)
.V*
{1)
+
*
( 1 )
( *
( 1 )
+
i*
C l )
)
w w
x
3
w
t t
w w
t
w
t
w
x
3
x
3
g w
ttx
3
(11140)
(2 )
The last potential *' is a potential which satisfies the homoge
neous boundary condition:
9*n
2) + $
n
2 ) =
(11141)
x
3
fct
(2 .
$x is therefore an "ordinary" potential which satisfies the lin-
earized free surface c o n d i t i o n . We will simplify equation (111-39)
by p u t t i n g:
.
( 2 )
= .
( 2 )
+ *<
2 )
(111-42 )
W U
(2)
in which $ represents the sum of the first nine components on
W
(2)
the right-hand side of e qu a t i o n (111- 3 9) . ** may be regarded as
the second order e qu i v a l e n t of the first order undisturbed incom-
ing wave p o t e n t i a l $ . We w i l l decompose 3x as fo l l o w s :
* n
2
' = * i
2 ) +
* H
2 >
f"
1
-
4 3
'
0 a b
Both these potentials satisfy the linearized free surface c o n d i -
tion of equation (111- 4 1) . Substitution in equation (111-4 2 ) gives
.
(2
= .
(2
>
+
. <
2 )
+ *'
2 )
(111-4 4 )
w d b
Substitution of e qu a t i o n (111-4 4 ) in the second order boundary
condition (111-34) gi v e s :
(V $
(2 )
+ V $i
2 }
+ V **
2 )
) - n = - (X
C 1}
. V ) . V $
C 1)
. n +
w a b
+ (V
C 1)
- V
( 1 )
) . N
( 1 )
+
V
( 2 )
. K
(111-4 5)
w hi c h may be d e c o m p o s e d i n :
v .'
2 )
X = x v .
( 2 )
- ( x
(
X v > .v *
( 1
> } .n
+
d w
+ (V
C 1)
- V $
C 1 )
) . N
{ 1 )
(111-46)
V $^
2 )
.n = V
C 2 )
.n (111-47)
Equation (111-4 6) d e fi n e s the second order diffraction p o t e n t i a l
(2)
Sx w hi c h firstly c o m p e n s a t e s the second order velocity c o m p o -
(2)
nents of $ and the second order correction to the first order
velocity V* , w hi c h r e s u l t s from the first o r d e r m o t i o n X ' in
a direction along the normal n to the surface and secondly the
second order velocity component of the difference between the
first order velocity V of the body surface and the first order
fluid velocity V* in a direction along the first order normal
N . From the solution of the second order diffraction potential
(2) (2)
$ combined with the undisturbed second order potential $ the
low frequency second order wave exciting forces are found. Equa
(2)
tion (11147) defines the second order body motion potential $/
which must be introduced in order to satisfy the boundary condi
tion on the body carrying out low frequency second order motions
in still water. This potential satisfies the same boundary condi
tion as the first order body motion potential *.; . The only dif
ference is that the motions are low frequency and of the second
order in magnitude. The same techniques may therefore be employed
in solving $i as used in solving $i . This means that $J; may
be expressed in terms of hydrodynamic reaction forces for unit
amplitude of motion velocity and acceleration of the body, better
known as added mass and damping.
III.4.3. Boundary conditions at infinity
For the potentials *^
1)
, *^
lj
and *
(
!
[
2)
# *^
2)
a radiation
condition, which states that at a great distance from the body the
waves associated with these potentials move outwards, must be sat
isfied. This restriction imposes a uniqueness which would not oth
(2)
erwise be present. Since the components of $ are particular
solutions to the free surface boundary condition (11127), which
is defined over the complete free surface, a radiation condition
need not be imposed.
IIIi5
i
_Pressure_in_a_gint_within_the_fluid
If the velocity potential * is known the fluid pressure
in a point is determined by Bernoulli's equation:
P = P
0
" pgX
3
p*
t
*fp|V*|
2
+ C(t) (11148)
where:
_n
p = atmospheric pressure
X
3
= vertical distance below the mean free surface
$ = velocity potential
C(t) = a function independent of the co-ordinates
t = time
p = mass density of the fluid.
In Bernoulli's equation p
Q
and C(t) may be taken equal to zero
without loss of generality, see ref. [III-l].
Assuming that the point is carrying out first order wave
frequency motions X and low frequency second order motions X
about a mean position X and applying a Taylor expansion to the
pressure in the mean position the following expression is found:
. p - p
( 0 )
+
_p
( 1 )
+
E
2
P
( 2 )
(IH- 4 9)
where:
- hydrostatic pressure:
P
(0)
= -pgx<> (111-50)
- first order pressure:
p
( 1 )
= -pgx'
1
' - p . *
1
' (111-51)
- second order pressure:
P
( 2 )
= XP| V*
( 1
>|
2
- p. , !
2
' - p t x ' X v . '
1
' ) - pgX<
2
>
( 111- 52)
In the above the derivatives of the potentials have to be taken in
the mean position of the point.
We have assumed that the point is moving within the fluid
domain. The same expression will be used to determine the pressure
on a point on the hull of the body. This means that derivatives of
31
the potentials are taken at the mean position of the hull which is
alternately within and outside the actual fluid domain. This ap
pears to be permissible if the potential functions are sufficient
ly "smooth" at the boundaries, see ref. [III3]. This is assumed
to be satisfied in this case.
IIIi^i_Second_order_waye_force_and_mgment
III.6.1. Second order wave force
In determining the second order wave force consideration
must first be given to the choice of the system of axes to which
will be referred. Since in general we are concerned with the slow
wave drifting force induced motions of bodies in the horizontal
plane we have chosen to determine the wave drifting force along
the axes of the GX'X'X' system of coordinates. See Figure
IIIl.
The fluid force exerted on the body relative to the GX'
X'XI system of axes, which is the system with axes parallel to
the axes of the fixed system 0X X
2
~X but with origin in the
centre of gravity G of the body, follows from:
F = // p.N.dS (11153)
S
where S is the instantaneous wetted surface and N is the instanta
neous normal vector to the surface element dS relative to the
GX'X'X' system of axes. N is given by equation (11117) and p
by equation (11149).
The instantaneous wetted surface S is split into two parts,
viz.: a constant part S up to the static waterline on the hull
and an oscillating part s between the static waterline on the hull
and the wave profile along the body. See Figure IIIl.
Substitution of the pressure p as given by equation (III
49) and the normal vector N as given by equation (11117) gives:
_ _
P =- J . (P
<0)
+ B P
(1
' +
E
2
p
(2 )
) (n
+ E
N
(1
>
+ E
2
N <
2
') d S
+
S
0
-/J (p
(0)
+ E
p
U )
+ E
2
p
( 2 )
) (K
+ E
N
(1
>
+ E
2
N
(2 )
) d S
S
(111-54)
= F
(0)
+
E F
( 1 )
+
E
2
F
( 2 )
+
0(e
3
) (111-55)
The hydrostatic force F follows from integration of the hydro-
static pressure p over the mean wetted surface S :
?(0) tt
v
(0) -
;
o
F^' = pg jj x;
UJ
.n.dS = (0,0,pgV) (111-56)
S,
J
The total first order oscillatory fluid force F follows from:
F
(1)
=- / / ( p
U ,
X
+
p
(0)
. N
(1)
) d S (111-57)
S
0
= -JJ p
( 1 )
.n.dS + a
(1)
x (0,0,pgV) (111-58)
S
0
The first part of this expression is the total first order fluid
force relative to the body axes G-x -x
2
~x . The second order force
is found by integration of all products of pressure p and normal
vector N which give second order force contributions over the con-
stant part S
n
of the wetted surface and by integration of first
order pressures over the oscillating surface s:
F
(2 )
=- / { (p
U )
. N
( 1 )
+ p
(2 )
. n
+
p
(0)
. N
(2 )
) d S
+
S
0
- / / p
(1)
. n . d S . (111-59)
s
Taking into account that:
N
( 1 )
= a
(1)
x n (111-60)
Since angular displacements are the same for all surface elements
dS, the first part of the first integral becomes:
-// p
C l )
. N
U )
. d S = a
U )
x -// p (D .H.dS (111-61)
S
0
S
0
The integral in this expression corresponds with the first term in
equation (11158) which is the total first order fluid force rela
tive to the body axes Gx.x
2
x
3
. Equation (11161) indicates that
a second order force contribution relative to the GX'XIX' sys
tem of axes arises from rotation of the first order fluid force
relative to the body axes. In the same way the gravity force act
ing on the body relative to the body axes must be accounted for in
the second order force. This force relative to the body axes is:
a
( 1 J
x (0,0,mg) = a
( 1 )
x (0,0,pgV) (11162)
Adding this component to equation (11161) gives:
a
( 1 )
* {"// p
U )
.n.dS + a
U )
x (0,0, pgV) } = a
C l )
x F
( 1 }
S
( i n - 6 3 :
where F is the total first order fluid force including the hy
drostatic restoring force, the wave exciting force and the hydro
dynamic reaction force. See equation (I1158). Consequently, ac
cording to Newton's law, we may put:
F
C l )
= M.X
(1)
(11164)
from which it follows that:
a'
1
' x F
( 1 )
= a
( 1 )
x (.f,
( I J I
_
6 S )
The second part of the first integral in equation (11159)
(2)
involves straightforward integration of the pressure p as given
in equation (11152). The third part of the first integral is a
second order hydrostatic component:
// p
(0)
.N<
2)
.dS = a<
2
> x /J
p
<0>.n.

s
o
S
0
dS
= a
( 2 )
x (0,0,pgV) (11166)
The second integral in equation (11159) over the oscilla
ting surface is solved by substituting p from equation (11151)
_ A
and writing the surface element dS as:
dS = dX
3
.dil (11167)
Also taking into account that at the waterline:
P*t
1J =
P9 C
U )
(11168)
this integral becomes:
c
(1)
/ J (pgX. + pgc
(1)
)n.dx .dl (11169)
(1)

X
3WL
whi ch r e s u l t s i n :
- / fcpgC*
11
. n . d * ( 111- 70)
WL
in which c is the relative wave elevation defined by:
4
1
' = ^
(1)
- *_ _ .
(III
-
71)
The final expression for the total second order force thus
becomes:
2
F
(2)
J fcpgt^.n.di + a
U )
x (
M
.*
(1
>)
+
WL
g
// {^P|V*
(1)
|
2
P*t
2)
" P(x
(l)
.v*
1
!
l)
)}K.ds +
S
0
// pgX*
2)
.n.dS + a
(2)
x (o,0,pgV)
S
0
(11172)
III.6.2. Second order wave moment
The moment about the axes of the GXjX'X' system of co
ordinates follows from:
M = "J/ P (X
1
* N) .dS (11173)
S
35
The derivation is analogous to that followed for the force. The
final expression for the second order wave moment i s :
2
M
( 2 )
= - / *_pg<;
(1)
. (x x n).dl + a
( 1 )
x (l . a
(1)
) +
WL
r
-jl {-.
P
|v.
(1)
|
2
- P* <
2 )
- Pi i
1 1 1
^ '
1 1
) ] .
. (x x n)-dS - / / - p gX *
2 )
. (x x n) .dS
S
0
(111-74)
Equations (111-72 ) and (111-74) give the total second order forces
acting on a v e s s e l , thus including the wave exciting force and the
hydrodynamic and hy d r o s t a t i c reaction forces. In most cases p r i m e
interest is focussed on the second order wave exciting forces and
m o m e n t s . It w i l l b e clear from the aforegoing that the second o r -
der hydrodynamic reaction forces are contained in the c o n t r i b u -
(2)
tions due to the total second order potential * . The hy d r o s t a t -
ic reaction forces are contained in the last parts of equations
(111-72 ) and (111- 7 4 ) . T a ki n g into account equation (111-44) the
second order w a v e exciting force and moment b e c o m e :
F
( 2 )
= - / W
1 , 2
. n . d * + a
U )
* <M.S
(1
>>
WL
r g
-/ / {- %P |?
( 1 )
|
2
- p (*<
2
>
+
f > )
+
S
Q
t
d
t
- p (X
(1)
. V *^
1}
) }n . d S
+
(111-75)
2
M
( 2 )
= - /
J
_p gC
U )
. (x x n).dl + a
( 1 )
x (i . a
(1)
) +
WL
r
-// { -% p |V
( 1 )
|
2
" P(* J,
2 )
+ * i
2 )
) +
S
Q
W
t
d
t
- p (X
(1)
, V #^
Z )
) }. (x x n) .dS
(111-76)
The hy d r o d y n a m i c reaction forces due t o m o t i o n s induced b y second
order forces may b e expressed in terms of added m a s s and damping
forces as has been shown in the aforegoing.
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IV. EVALUATION OF THE SECOND ORDER WAVE EXCITING FORCES
IV^l ^Introduction
In the previous section general expressions for the second
order wave exciting forces and moments have been obtained based on
the method of direct integration of pressure acting on the wetted
surface of a body. The expressions obtained are, however, not in
a form which is easily used for practical applications. In this
section it will be shown that the second order forces may be ex-
pressed more conveniently in terms of time independent quadratic
transfer functions by means of which it is possible to express the
second order wave exciting forces in the frequency domain in terms
of force spectra or in the time domain as time histories of second
order forces.
The components of the transfer functions for the second
order forces which depend on first order quantities can be evalu-
ated using an existing method of computation based on three-dimen-
sional linear potential theory of which a brief account will be
given. The contributions due to second order potential effects
will be determined by an approximation using results of computa-
tions based on the same method. Comparisons of this approximation
with some exact results will be given. Only the low frequency sec-
ond order forces are treated here. The same procedure applies to
the low frequency second order moments.
IYi2i_The_guadratic_transfer_function
IV.2 .1. General
In this study the total quadratic transfer function is
split up in contributions arising from the following components of
equation (111-75) :
I : First order relative wave elevation
M .
2
-^pg / C* .n.d (IV-1)
WL
II : Pressure drop due t o first order velocity
-j! - ^p |V *
(1)
|
2
. K. d S (IV-2)
S
0
III : Pressure due to p r o d u c t of gradient of first order
pressure and first order motion
-/ / - p (X
(1)
. W
1 }
) .n.dS (IV-3)
S
0
IV : Contribution due to p r o d u c t s of first order angular
motions and inertia forces
a
( 1 )
x (M . X
(1)
) (IV-4)
g
V : Contribution due to second order potentials
-/ / - P
(
*w
2 ) +
*i
2 )
) - n . d S (IV-5)
S
Q
w
t
d
t
The procedure to obtain the qu a d r a t i c transfer functions of the
forces dependent on first order quantities (I, I I , III and IV)
w i l l be illustrated by t a ki n g the low frequency part of the longi-
tudinal component of the force contribution due to the relative
wave e l e v a t i o n :
2
F[
2)
F<
2 )
(t ) = - J hpgK^ (t,l) .n (D.&l
WL
(IV-6)
in w hi c h:
C (t,) = time dependent relative wave elevation in a point I
along the w a t e r l i n e
n (Sl) = direction cosine of a length element dJL in longitudi-
nal d i r e c t i o n .
In irregular long-crested w a v e s the e l e v a t i o n , to first o r d e r , of
the incoming undisturbed w a v e s - referred to the m e a n position of
the centre of gravity of the floating body - may be written a s :
(1)
N
(1)
C M t ) = Z c \
1}
.cos(u.t + E . ) (IV-7)
i=l
x
i i
39
The first order relative wave elevation at a point on the w a t e r -
line of the b o d y m a y be written as follows:
tl
1]
(t,) = Z ^l
l)
.r,l
l)
' U ) .cos{w t + E . + E ^ () }
r
1 = 1 ^ 1
x
1
(IV-8)
in w hi c h:
c,. - amplitude of i-th regular wave component
e_. = random p ha s e uniformly distributed over 0 - 2TT
OJ . = frequency of i-th component
(1) '
C' () = transfer function of the amplitude of the first order
relative wave elevation at point in the waterline
e (} = phase angle of the relative wave elevation at point
related to the undisturbed wave crest passing the cen-
tre of gr a v i t y .
Substitution of (IV-8) in equation (IV-6) leads t o :
F.
l/ ;
(t) = Z Z C- -C-
i ;
. P . _. c o s {U . -to.)t + (E , - E . ) } +
1
i=l j=l
J J x J J
N N
(1) (1)
+ Z Z C, -Ci . Q ^- s i n U w . -ui.)t + (e. - e . ) } +
i-l j=l
J J J x J
+ high frequency terms
(IV-9)
where P. . and Q. . are the in-phase and out-of-phase components of
the time independent transfer function w i t h:
P.. = P(to,,co.) = / ^p gc ; U ) . t l () - C O S {E () +
1=1 J
WL i j
r
i
- E
r
_ (}}
n i
U ) -d
3
(IV-10)
Q*+ = Q(w. ,to.) = - / ^pgCi U ) - C l U J. s i n U ^ () +
i J
^
J
WL i
r
j i
- E
r >
(A ) }n
1
() . d
11
(IV-11)
/in
Taking the low frequency part of the square of the wave elevation
given by equation (IV-7) results in:
2 N N
C
U )
(t )
0
= Z Z ^C
n
U )
. c 5
1)
. c o s {(D . - u . ) t + (E . - E . ) }
1
i =l j=l
x ] J J
IV-12 )
Comparison w i t h equation (IV-9) shows that P,. and Q.. are t r a n s -
fer functions which give that part of the wave drifting force
w hi c h is in-phase and o u t - o f- p ha s e respectively with the low fr e -
quency part of the square of the incident wave elevation.
It w i l l be clear t ha t similar developments can be m a d e for
other contributions to the w a v e drifting forces which depend only
on first order qu a n t i t i e s . The total in-phase and out-of-phase
transfer functions are found by simple summation of the c o n t r i b u -
tions from the five c o m p o n e n t s . The w a v e drifting forces may thus
be presented as t r a n s fe r functions w hi c h, as can b e seen from the
aforegoing, are a function of two frequencies. In general the qu a -
dratic transfer functions w i l l also be functions of the direction
of the w a v e s .
I V . 2 . 2 . Evaluation o f the components dependent on first order
quantities
Evaluation of t he s e components of the quadratic transfer
functions of the low frequency w a v e drifting forces requires d e -
tailed knowledge of the first order vessel motions and fluid m o -
t i o n s . As can b e seen from equations (IV-10) and (IV-ll) knowledge
of the first order amplitude and phase transfer functions as a
function of the w a v e frequency are sufficient to evaluate these
components of the quadratic transfer functions.
A numerical m e t ho d by means of which such detailed i n fo r -
mation may be obtained (using a distribution of sources over the
m e a n w e t t e d surface o f t he b o d y ) ha s been developed by Boreel
[IV-1] and Van Oortmerssen [I V - 2 ], A brief description of this
method is given in A p p e n d i x A . The computer p r o gr a m D IFFR A C based
on the theory given in this appendix has been used to evaluate
41
these components of the quadratic transfer functions.
IV .2 .3 . Contribution of the second order potential
IY^.2 ^3
i
l^_General
When a body is floating in a regular wave group consisting
of two regular w a v e s w i t h frequencies OJ . and u. part of the second
order w a v e e xc i t i n g forces are due t o second order velocity p o t e n -
{ 2 ) ( 2 )
tials $ and $ ' as was already indicated in chapter III. The
W d
(2)
second order p o t e n t i a l <i> ha s to be determined taking into a c -
count the following boundary conditions at the mean free s u r fa c e :
g *
( 2
>
+
*
( 2 )
= - 2 _ V
( 1 )
_ W
1 )
+
* l
l )
- ( 4
l
l + ^ * t t x )
w w
t t
t t X
3
X
3
g t t X
3
'3
(IV-13)
in which $ represents the total first order p o t e n t i a l c o n t a i n -
ing the c o n t r i b u t i o n s from the undisturbed incoming w a v e s , d i f-
fracted w a v e s and waves due to first order body m o t i o n s . The cor-
responding boundary condition for the second order d i ffr a c t i o n
(2)
potential * - is as follows:
m
g$i
2 ) +
$i
2 >
=0 (IV-14)
d
x
3
d
t t
(2)
The second order d i ffr a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l $, also has t o satisfy
the following boundary condition at the surface of the body in the
m e a n p o s i t i o n :
V . ' X n = - V .
(2 )
. n - {(X
(
X v ) . V _
( 1 ,
}n
+
<V
(1
> -
( 1 )
) N
( 1
>
d w
(IV-I5)
Besides these conditions other boundary conditions discussed in
chapter III ha v e to be satisfied. Ho w e v e r , for the discussion in
this section only the above conditions are relevant.
42
As can be seen from equation (IV14) the second order dif
(2)
fraction potential <2>, satisfies the free surface boundary condi
tion which is applicable to normal first order potentials. This
means that in principle the same numerical techniques as indicated
in Appendix A can be used to determine this potential for arbi
trary body shapes.
The boundary conditions at the mean position of the body
given in equation (IV15) contains first order contributions which
are known on the basis of the first order solution and an unknown
second order contribution due to the "undisturbed" second order
(2 .
potential $ ' which has first to be determined taking into ac
r
w
count the nonhomogeneous free surface boundary condition (IV13).
(2)
This boundary condition prescribes the behaviour of * over the
complete mean free surface. No elementary solutions for this po
tential are known for the general threedimensional case. This is
due to the complexity of the righthand side of the free surface
boundary condition equation (IV13).
In the threedimensional case of a vessel floating in a
wave field consisting of two regular waves with frequencies ui. and
ox approaching from the same direction the total first order po
(1)
tential $ will contain contributions of the two longcrested
incoming regular waves and a complex pattern of cylindrical out
going waves due to diffraction and body motion effects. The right
hand side of the nonhomogeneous free surface condition of equa
tion (IV13) contains products of potentials associated with these
longcrested incoming and outgoing cylindrical waves. As shown in
chapte
parts:
(2)
chapter III, the potential * can be split into the following
*:
2)
* * *__> + <v * <v <v
in which:
(2)
* = second order potential associated with the undis
ww
c
turbed incoming first order wave potential
43
(2) (2)
x , .' ' = second order potentials associated with the outgoing
diffraction waves and waves due to body motions
second order potentials associated with in
between incoming waves and outgoing w a v e s .
(2) (2 )
$ ' $, , = second order potentials associated with interactions
wd bd ^
(2)
Of these potentials an analytical solution is only known for 0 .
The other p o t e n t i a l s m a y be written as complicated two-dimensional
Fourier i n t e gr a l s . E v a l u a t i o n of such i n t e gr a l s , ho w e v e r , presents
a considerable c o m p u t a t i o n a l problem. Therefore we prefer a d e -
scription in terms of a source distribution. In order to solve the
(2 )
second order potential $ a considerable increase in the number
* w
of sources is n e c e s s a r y . The general procedure using this n u m e r i -
cal technique w i l l b e d e s c r i b e d he r e briefly. Fi r s t l y , a source
distribution is defined over the mean wetted surface of the vessel
and over the mean free surface in the vicinity of the v e s s e l . In
the numerical method described in Appendix A the Green's function
chosen for the elementary sources which are distributed over the
mean surface of the vessel satisfies the homogeneous free surface
condition equation (I V - 14 ) . The source distribution over the free
surface cannot m a ke use of the same formulation for the elementary
source since in that case the non-homogeneous free surface c o n d i -
tion equation (IV-13) cannot be satisfied. Instead w e may choose
the elementary source function of the t y p e , which corresponds
to the first two terms of equation (A-7) given in Appendix A.
This type of source satisfies only the equation of continuity
equation (II1-2 3) and the kinematic condition equation (I11-2 9)
at the sea floor. The extent of the distribution over the free
surface w i l l b e the result of a compromise between the magnitude
of the error in the results due to the truncation some distance
away from the vessel and the increase in computation t i m e s . Second-
ly, the first order solutions obtained for two regular w a v e s with
frequency oi, and o)
2
are used to compute the values of the second
order free surface conditions of equation (IV-13) at the centre
of the sources distributed over the free surface. Since the source
distribution over the hu l l of the vessel satisfies the homogeneous
free surface condition equation (IV-14) these do not contribute
t o the source strengths in the free surface. The source strength
in the free surface m a y therefore be solved without consideration
of the source distribution over the hull surface. The n o n - ho m o ge -
44
n e o u s fr e e s u r fa c e c o n d i t i o n e qu a t i o n (I V - 13 ) l e a d s t o a s e t o f
s i m u l t a n e o u s e qu a t i o n s w hi c h a r e l i n e a r in t he u n kn o w n s o u r c e
s t r e n gt h o f t he fr e e s u r fa c e s o u r c e s w hi c h i s s o l v e d b y s t a n d a r d
(2 )
t e c hn i qu e s . T hi s s o l v e s t he u n kn o w n p o t e n t i a l $ . Ha v i n g s o l v e d
(2)
W
(2)
*J> the right-hand side of the boundary condition for <_x at the
mean position of the hu l l of the vessel equation (IV-15) can be
{2)
evaluated and Sx solved by the method described in A p p e n d i x A.
(2) (2)
Having solved both p o t e n t i a l s $ and $-. the contribution of
J c
w a
these potentials to the second order forces can be evaluated by
means of equation (I V - 5) .
The procedure given he r e indicates that for the second o r -
der potentials results can be obtained using numerical a p p r o xi m a -
tion t e c hn i qu e s . It w i l l be appreciated, ho w e v e r , that the compu-
tational effort to obtain results for this contribution w i l l be
considerable since the above procedure must be repeated for all
relevant combinations of frequencies ux and os_ . Advantage c a n , how-
(2)
e v e r , be gained of the fact that the basic solution of <Jx need
only be obtained once for every series of combinations of ax and
ax which yield the same difference frequency m - ux. For the p r e -
sent work a d i ffe r e n t , m o r e simplified approach has been followed
in order t o approximate the contribution of the second order poten-
tial to the second order fo r c e s .
IYi2
I
_3_
L
2_
L
_Aproximatign_f or_the_contribution_of _the_second_order
potential
t
The approximation is based on the assumption that the m a jo r
part of the low frequency second order force due to the second or-
der potential is the w a v e exciting force component due t o the c o n -
(2)
tribution $ of the undisturbed incoming waves t o the second or-
w w
der p o t e n t i a l , thus assuming that the first order diffraction and
body motion p o t e n t i a l s 0, and 0, are small relative to the u n -
ci (1)
b
disturbed wave p o t e n t i a l $ . This means that in the right-hand
side of the free surface boundary condition of equation (IV-13)
only terms involving the first order velocity p o t e n t i a l * ' of
the undisturbed incoming waves r e m a i n . The second order p o t e n t i a l
which satisfies this boundary condition and the boundary condition
at the sea floor of equation (111-2 9) as w e l l as the equation of
45
continuity (11125) has been given by Bowers [IV3]. We now con
sider a regular wave group travelling in the positive X direction
consisting of two regular waves with frequencies _j. and to, with
ox > a). The first order velocity potential associated with these
waves is:
2 c
( 1 )
g
cosh k (X th)
< J >
1 J
= Z 1, \ sin(k.X_ cu. t + E . )
w . _ to. cosh k.h ' i l l 1'
(IV17)
The low frequency component of the second order velocity potential
associated with these waves is as follows:
, ( 2 ) _ I
2
- < n
r
u >
A
c o s h { ( k
i -
k

) ( x
3
+ h ) }
9 ~ - h L r . C. A.. rn;n *
ww . . . *i 3 13 cosh(k. k.)h
sin{ (k
i
k . )X
X
((ix a).) t + (._ e )}
IV18
in which A. . is a coefficient depending on to. , to . and the water
i j i 3
depth h:
B. . + C. .
A. . = ^g
2
2J 3J
(OJ. to.)
2
(k k.Jg tanh(k. k )h
i J i J i J
(IV19)
in which:
i 2 , 2
k. k .
B. . = i a ^ oi. cosh k.h tu. cosh k .h
(IV2 0)
2k.k. (to. cu.) (1 ttanh k.h tanh k.h)
Q
=
3 i J _ 3
ij ^uij
(IV21)
46
The low frequency component of this second order p o t e n t i a l
represents a long w a v e which is induced by the presence of the reg-
ular wave group. The p ha s e of this long wave relative to the regu-
lar wave group is such that it has a trough where the wave group
attains its m a xi m u m w a v e he i ght . This is shown in Figure IV - 1.
DUE TO $
(2 )
ENVELOPE OF G R O U P
Fig. IV-1 Wa v e due to second order potential of a wave group.
The potential associated with such a wave does not satisfy the
boundary condition on the body which for the simplified case is
assumed to be equivalent to the normal first order boundary c o n d i -
tion. This means that in the right-hand side of equation (IV-15)
first order contributions are neglected.
As shown in chapter III the second order diffraction p o t e n -
(2)
tial $ satisfies the equation of continuity, the boundary c o n -
dition at the sea fl o o r , the radiation condition and the ho m o ge -
neous free surface c o n d i t i o n :
g $
x
3
+
* t t
=

(IV-2 2 )
This last condition gives r i s e to the w e l l known dispersion rela-
tionship:
co = kg tanh kh (IV-2 3)
The incoming w a v e s due t o the low frequency second o r d e r p o t e n t i a l
have a w a v e number e qu a l to k. - k. and wave frequency e qu a l to
47
UJ. - c o . . These w a v e s do not obey the dispersion equation (I V - 2 3 ) .
If the incoming w a v e s have a frequency of to. - c o . then the
diffracted waves have the same frequency but the wave number will
be according t o the relationship:
(LO. - C O . )
2
= kg tanh kh (IV-2 4)
In order t o simplify the situation w e allow the diffracted
waves to have the same wave number k. - k. as the incoming w a v e s .
This means that differences w i l l occur in the diffracted waves
further away from the v e s s e l . Close to the body the situation will
be similar since the boundary condition at the body still has to
be satisfied. The reason for this alteration in wave number of the
diffracted waves w i l l be apparent from the following.
We ha v e reduced the problem to the situation w he r e w e have
to determine the w a v e exciting force on the body due to a wave
which has a velocity potential as given by equation (IV-18) w hi l e
we allow the diffracted waves to have the same wave n u m b e r and
frequency as the incoming w a v e s . This is solved by considering the
ordinary first order wave exciting force F on the body in a
regular wave w i t h w a v e n u m b e r k equal to k, - k. in an ordinary
gravity field with g as constant of gravity. For such a case the
associated w a v e frequency LO w i l l be in accordance w i t h the d i s p e r -
sion relationship of equation (IV - 2 3 ) . The frequency of this wave
can be made equal to the frequency co. - co - of the second order
waves by selecting a different value for the constant of gravity:
(to
i
-co. )
g
i j
=
(k
i
- k. ) t a n h(k

- k. ) h (IV-2 5)
Since the w a v e e xc i t i n g force is proportional t o the constant of
gravity the initial force F with wave with frequency co, which
follows from e qu a t i o n (I V - 2 3 ) , becomes a second order force with
frequency tu. - co by simply applying the factor:
n
i j
=
^ <
I V
"
2 6
>
4 8
to the initial force. This does not complete the transformation,
however, since, besides satisfying the requirement that wave num
ber and wave frequency be equal, the amplitudes of the potentials
must be equal. After the alteration of the constant of gravity the
transformed potential of the first order regular wave is:
C
Cl)
g.. coshUk. k.)(X +h)}
* = T ^ ^r T"n^r e sin{(k. k .) X, +
(oi. - m .) cosh(k. k.)h i 3 1
- (u^ OJ. )t + {e

e_.) }
(IV2 7)
The amplitude of the second order potential is given in equation
(IV18). Equality of the amplitudes means that:
r
(D
0
a 9
\ = c
C l )
C
U )
A (IV28)
This means that the first order wave amplitude must be selected
so that:
C
( D ,
C
( D ( D * n
(
" i - V
( I V
.
2 9 )
a J. 1 M
J
^13
The first order force F is determined for a value of unity for
r, . Since forces are proportional to the wave amplitude equation
(IV29) gives a second correction factor which has to be applied
D t
(2)
to the force F in order to give the required second order force
F
(2) ^ M ^ A C^ux)
Fr:
!
= n . 2 2J L F^
i;
(IV30)
i j
which taking into account equation (IV22) gives:
PJ
2)
= f
j
.F
(1)
(IV31)
where:
f
j
= ^ ~
L
(IV32)
49
IYi.2i3^3^_Comp_arison_between_the_exact
mation
It can be shown that this method of approximation gives
exact results in two simple cases and gives a reasonable approxi-
mation for a third, more practical, case.
The first case concerns the second order pressure due to
the second order potential in undisturbed irregular waves in a
point X_ = -a below the still water l^vel. The second order pres-
sure is:
p
C 2 )
= - P ^
2 )
(IV-33)
For the low frequency component given in equation (IV-18) the am-
plitude of the pressure is:
(2) (I) (1)
C O s h { (k
i " V
(
"
a + h ) }
Pi3 = P C ^ C ^ A ^ K - ^ )
c o a

(k
3
) h
(IV-34)
For the first order potential the pressure follows from:
P
U )
= - P *^
11
(IV-35)
The amplitude of the pressure using a first order potential compo-
nent of the type given in equation (IV-17) , unit wave amplitude
z, and wave number k. - k. is:
a 1 3
, . cosh{ (k. -k . ) (-a +h) }
p
K
' = p g 7-7^ J: rr (I V - 3 6)
*a
M
^ c o s hfk. - k. ) h
U s i n g t he c o e ffi c i e n t f. . gi v e n i n e qu a t i o n (I V - 3 2 ) gi v e s t he fol-
l o w i n g a p p r o xi m a t i o n fo r t he s e c o n d o r d e r p r e s s u r e a m p l i t u d e :
f9
i
M
, ,-,, c o s hU k. - k . ) (-a + h) }
Pi.' - P c l
1 ,
^
1 ,
A
l j
(
1
-
j
) c o s hd c ^- k^h
(IV-37)
sn
w hi c h equals the exact value given in equation (IV - 3 4 ) . The reason
for this is that other contributions to the exact value which are
neglected in the approximation (those due to diffraction and body
motions) are in this case ze r o .
The second case concerns the horizontal low frequency w a v e
drifting fo r c e , due t o t he second order p o t e n t i a l , acting on a
vertical w a l l in deep w a t e r . It can be shown that the a p p r o xi m a -
tion is also equal to the exact result in this case. The reason
for this is that the first order incoming waves and the first o r -
der outgoing waves are identical (total reflection) and the low
frequency component of the total second order potential consists
of a contribution associated with the undisturbed incoming waves
and a contribution due to the outgoing diffraction w a v e s . Since
the approximation gives the exact value for the second order poten-
tial associated w i t h the incoming waves it also gives the e xa c t
value for the second order potential associated w i t h the outgoing
waves and hence the approximation is also the exact v a l u e .
The third e xa m p l e concerns the two-dimensional case of a
free floating cylinder in beam waves as presented by Faltinsen and
L0ken [l V - 4 ]. These authors solved the second order p r o b l e m and
gave numerical results on the contribution of the total second o r -
der potential to the low frequency second order sway force in reg-
ular wave groups in deep w a t e r . The method of approximation p r e -
sented here was applied to the same case using results given by
Vugts [IV-5] on the first order sway force in regular beam w a v e s .
The coefficient f.. of equation (IV-32) becomes for deep w a t e r :
^(U J. -to.) , . ,
f. . = - - - 3 -
C
1J
c - ' (IV-38)
ij g i 3
T he results are p r e s e n t e d in the form of the amplitude o f t he low
frequency second order forces due to the second order p o t e n t i a l
for a range of combinations of co. and LO . which are the frequencies
of two waves m a ki n g up a regular w a v e group. Faltinsen's results
are compared w i t h the approximation in Table I V - 1.
51
F / \ WA V E S
FALTINSEN
0 . 5 9
0 . 7 2
0 . 8 4
0 . 9 5
1 . 12
0 . 5 9
0
0 . 7 2
0 . 0 2
0
0 . 8 4
0 . 0 1
0 . 0 3
0
0 . 9 5
0 . 0 2
0 . 0 1
0 . 0 3
0
1. 12
0 . 1 3
0 . 1 0
0 . 0 4
0 . 0 6
0
L O . / d / g
co. / d / g
(2)
p gL c ^j
1
'
A P P R O X IM A T IO N
0 . 5 9
0 . 7 2
0 . 8 4
0 . 9 5
1. 12
0 . 5 9
0
0 . 7 2
0 . 0 3
0
0 . 8 4
0 . 11
0 . 0 3
0
0 . 9 5
0 . 2 0
0 . 1 1
0 . 0 4
0
1. 12
0 . 3 3
0 . 2 6
0 . 1 8
0 . 1 0
0
to ./ d / g
co. / d / g
.2)
p gi ^c j^
Table IV-1 L o w frequency drifting forces on a cylinder in b e a m
seas due to the second order p o t e n t i a l .
S?
Comparison of the results shows that near the line OJ . = cu.
the approximation is good b u t for larger differences between co.
and OJ . the approximation is considerably higher than Fa l t i n s e n ' s
v a l u e s . Further study w i l l be required to determine the reason for
the large differences which occur at higher frequencies. At the
p r e s e n t , ho w e v e r , it may be tentatively concluded that the method
of approximation gives the right order of magnitude to the low fre-
quency forces due to the second order potential for difference fre-
quencies which are not too large. For the cylinder in beam seas
large differences between Faltinsen's results and the approximation
occurred for values of the non-dimensional difference frequency
greater than about 0.1.
For floating b o d i e s the approximation will give best results
when the contribution to the second order potential of the first
order diffraction w a v e s and waves due to body motions are n e gl i gi -
b l e . This requirement is satisfied more by vessels such as s e m i -
submersibles than by ordinary ship or barge shapes. It w i l l be
found, ho w e v e r , that when first order diffraction and body motion
effects increase the influence of the first order contributions to
the total second order forces will become d o m i n a n t , so that the
increase in the error of the component due to the second order p o -
tentials still remains small relative to the total force.
IV .2 .4 . Symmetry of the quadratic transfer functions
The first order w a v e elevation in a regular wave group c o n -
sisting of two regular w a v e s with frequency ux and OJ . is as fo l -
lows :
2
C
(1)
(t) = Z c {
1 }
.costoi.t +
i
)
i=l
= c j^- c o s d u . t +E . ) + C
2
1J
.cos(oj
2
t + E
2
)
(IV-39)
The second order force associated w i t h such a w a v e train ha s the
following form:
2 2
F
( 2 )
( t ) = Z Z x
( 1 )
c !
n
P c o s { ( u ) . -
u
)
t
+ ( E , - E . ) } +
i = l j = l
J
-
1 3 J
2 2
+ I c {
1 )
c !
1 )
Q
i i
. s i n { ( t o
i
- t o , ) t + ( E
i
- e . ) }
i = l j = l J J J J
= r
{ 1 ) 2
P + r
( 1 ) 2
P +
c
i 11
C
2 ' * 2 2
+ C
l
1 ) c
_ |
a ) CP
12
+ P
2 1
}
-
c o s { ( t o
i "
a 3
2
) t + { E
1 ~
E
2
) J +
+ t ^
1
* ^
1 1 CQ
12 ~
Q
2 l ' '
s i n {
Cw
1
- c o
2
) t + ( j - E
2
) }
( I V- 4 0 )
From equation (IV-40) it is seen that the second order force con-
tains two constant components. Each of these components represents
the constant force which would be found if the wave train consisted
of a single regular wave with frequency co or oj
?
respectively.
This shows that, although the force is a non-linear phenomenon,
the constant or mean second order force in a wave train consisting
of a superposition of regular waves is the sum of the mean forces
found for each of the component waves. The quadratic transfer
function:
P
l l
=
P(to
1
/ ^
2
) (IV-41)
gives the mean second order force in regular waves with frequency
to,. In literature dealing with the mean second order forces on
floating objects in regular or irregular waves this is often ex-
pressed as a function dependent on one frequency co. . The above
equations show that the transfer function for the mean or constant
part is, however, only a specific case of the general quadratic
transfer function P (LO. /to
2
) for the force in regular wave groups.
Besides the constant parts the second order force contains
low frequency parts with a frequency corresponding to the differ-
ence frequency co, - OJ of the component regular waves. It is seen
that the amplitudes of the in-phase and out-of-phase parts depend
o n t he s u m o f t he i n - p ha s e qu a d r a t i c t r a n s fe r fu n c t i o n s P - a n d
P
2
a n d t he d i ffe r e n c e o f t he o u t - o f- p ha s e fu n c t i o n s Q _ a n d Q
2 l
*
Fr o m e qu a t i o n (I V - 4 0) i t i s s e e n t ha t t he t r a n s fe r fu n c t i o n s d o
n o t a p p e a r i n i s o l a t i o n b u t r a t he r i n p a i r s . In ge n e r a l , t he i n -
p ha s e a n d o u t - o f- p ha s e c o m p o n e n t s o f t he qu a d r a t i c t r a n s fe r fu n c -
t i o n s a s d e t e r m i n e d fr o m e qu a t i o n s (IV - 1) t hr o u gh (IV - 4 ) fo r c o m -
b i n a t i o n s o f UJ a n d cu
2
w i l l b e s o t ha t , fo r i n s t a n c e :
P ((_)._,(i)
2
) f P(to
2
, to
1
) (I V - 4 2 )
Ho w e v e r , s i n c e t he fo r c e a s gi v e n i n e qu a t i o n (I V - 4 0) d e p e n d s o n
t he s u m o r d i ffe r e n c e o f t he c o m p o n e n t s o f t he qu a d r a t i c t r a n s fe r
fu n c t i o n s t he s e m a y b e s o r e fo r m u l a t e d t ha t t he fo l l o w i n g s y m m e t r y
r e l a t i o n s a r e v a l i d :
P(to ,to
2
) = P(u)
2
,to
1
) (I V - 4 3 )
Q(to
1
,u)
2
) = - Q (w
2
, u
1
) (I V - 4 4 )
T he a p p r o xi m a t i o n fo r t he fo r c e d u e t o t he s e c o n d o r d e r p o t e n t i a l
(2)
$ as gi v e n i n e qu a t i o n (I V - 3 1) i s o n l y d e fi n e d fo r co. > to.. In
o r d e r t o c o n fo r m w i t h t he d e fi n i t i o n gi v e n i n e qu a t i o n s (I V - 4 3 )
a n d (I V - 4 4 ) fo r t he qu a d r a t i c t r a n s fe r fu n c t i o n t he i n - p ha s e a n d
(2)
o u t - o f- p ha s e p a r t s o f t he fo r c e c o m p o n e n t d u e t o $ b e c o m e :
P.. = ^P .
(2 )
co. > to. (I V - 4 5)
13 13 1 3
P. . = P. . (IV-46)
31 13
Q
i j
=
^
Q
i j
) u
i
> u
j (IV-47)
Q.. = - Q . . (IV-48)
ji *ij
In these equations P.. and Q.. represent the in-phase and out-of-
phase components of the second order force as determined by means
of equation (IV - 3 1) . T hi s transformation was applied to the exam-
ple concerning the free floating cylinder in beam w a v e s . The i n -
p ha s e component PtuiwUx) of the quadratic transfer function of the
total second order force takes the form of a m a t r i x w hi c h is sym-
m e t r i c a l about the d i a go n a l for which co, is equal to LO
?
while the
out-of-phase component Q(to , LO
?
) is asymmetrical about the diagonal.
The second order force given in equation (IV-40) may also be w r i t -
ten as fo l l o w s :
F
(2 )
(t ) = r
{ 1 ) 2
P + r
( 1 ) 2
P +
+ 2 c |
1}
C
_j
1 5
. T
12
. c o s { (co
1
-co
2
) t + (E
X
- E
2
) +
l 2
>
(IV-49)
in w hi c h T is the amplitude of the quadratic transfer function:
T
12
=
T ((J
1
, L O
2
) = yP
2
(co
1
, oo
2
) + Q
2
(L O
1
, U J
2
) . . . . (IV-50)
It also follows t ha t :
T(to
1
,U)
2
) = T(to
2
,to ) (IV-51)
, is a p ha s e angle defined b y :
Qfui-^tO
tan E
I 2
= tan E (
V
I O
2
> = - p ^ J ^ y (IV-52 )
e
12 9
i v e s
the phase angle of the low frequency part of the second
order force relative to the low frequency part of the square of
the wave elevation of equation (I V - 3 9) , which is as fo l l o w s :
2 2 2
C
U )
(t) = Z Z ^.ci
1,
C-
1)
.cos{(co. -io.)t + (E , - E . ) }
i=l j=l
3 x J x J
2 2
= HK[
1)
+ hK
{
2
l)
+ c {
1)
C
2
(1)
. c o s {(u )
1
- i o
2
) t +
+ (e-^ ~
2
) }
(IV-53)
__
v
__3__
Fr
gy
e
D__l25}*i-_:_-_:2ES2^
forces_in_irregular_waves
We consider the case of a body floating in irregular waves
which are characterized by a spectral density or energy density
S (co) w he r e :
(I )
2
S (oj).doj = ^ (IV-54)
The wave elevation in a p o i n t is a normally distributed process
with zero mean and a p r o b a b i l i t y density given by:
P (
- <1>, = _ _ _ . e
2 m
(IV-55)
/2"rrm
0
w he r e :
oo
m
n
= { S (co).dto = area of the spectrum . . . . (IV-56)
U
0
C
The mean second order force is found by putting OJ. = co. in equation
(I V - 9) :
(2)
N
(l )
2 N
(l )
2
mean 1=1 i=l
(IV-57)
Passing from a discrete to a continuous formulation taking into
account equation (IV-54) gi v e s :
(2)
L
mean
[
2)
(t) = 2 / S (to) .P(to,Lo) .da. (IV-58)
The spectral density o f the low frequency components of the force
in equation (IV-9) is found t o be as fo l l o w s :
S (y) = 8 / S (to+y).S (co).T (to+u,u.) . du.
*
0
t. Q
(IV-59)
w he r e :
T
2
(u)+y,u)) = P
2
(to+y,uj) + Q (u)+y,to) (IV-60)
and:
y = frequency of the low frequency second o r d e r
force
P(to+y,co), Q(to+y,to) = i n - p ha s e and o u t - o f- p ha s e c o m p o n e n t s of the
qu a d r a t i c transfer function
T(to+u,uj) = a m p l i t u d e of the qu a d r a t i c t r a n s fe r fu n c t i o n '
S (y ) ~ s p e c t r a l density of the fo r c e .
J.
Besides knowledge of the mean and spectral density of the
second order forces, knowledge of the distribution function of the
force is of interest. In general, however, the distribution func-
tion of a second order force in irregular waves of the type as
given by equation (IV-9) cannot be given. An indication can, how-
ever, be given of the type of probability distribution function
involved by inspection of a quantity which is closely related to
the second order force. This is the low frequency part of the
square of the wave elevation as given in equation (IV-12) . It can
be shown (see ref. [IV-6]) that the low frequency part of the
square of a normally distributed signal is of the exponential type
with a probability density function:
n o w
. 1.
2
1
m
0
P
(
=l o w ' = -
e (I V
"
61
>
In this e qu a t i o n nt- is the area of the w a v e s p e c t r u m gi v e n by equa-
tion (I V - 56) . T he d i s t r i b u t i o n function as given b y e qu a t i o n (IV-
61) is shown in Fi gu r e I V - 2 .
= . ft
m
0
, r <
1
>
2
.
low
Fig. IV-2 Probability density of low frequency part of the square
of the wave elevation.
IV
i
4^_Time_domain_representatign_of_the_mean_and_low_frequency
second_order_forces
According to Dalzell [IV-7] the low frequency second order
forces can be computed given the quadratic transfer function and
the time record of the wave elevation using the following relation-
ship:
F
( 2)
(t> = r r g ' ^ i t ^ i . ^ ' i t - t j i .
oo o o
.
(1)
(t - t
2
) , dt
1
.dt
2
(IV-62)
where:
(2)
g
v
(t ,t) = quadratic impuls response function
.
( 1 )
(
t )
t l
, t
2
= time dependent wave elevation
= time shifts.
(2)
The quadratic impuls response function g (t.,t-) is derived from
the following expression:
(
2)(
_ i ; ~ r (
i u
i
t
i -
i u
2
t
2
)
2TT - -
(
2
)
. G (LO
1
,OJ
2
) .dto. dux
(IV63)
in which:
(2)
G (co ,OJ ) = complex quadratic transfer function
= P(io ,(_)
2
) + iQ(u)
1
,uJ
2
) (IV64)
and:
P(co ,UJ
2
), Q(co ,0).) = inphase and outofphase components of the
quadratic response function.
From equation (IV62) it is seen that if the quadratic impuls re
(2)
sponse function g (t ,t ) is known the time record of the low
frequency second order forces can be computed for arbitrary wave
elevation records. The applicability of this technique has been
demonstrated extensively and convincingly by Dalzell [lV7] using
quadratic transfer functions for the second order forces obtained
from tests in irregular waves using crossbispectral analysis
techniques.
IV.5. Conclusions
In this chapter it is shown that the mean and low frequency
second order forces and moments may be expressed in the frequency
domain in terms of quadratic transfer functions which are depen
dent on two frequencies. Physically, the quadratic transfer func
tions contain information on the mean and amplitude of the low fre
quency second order forces on the body floating in regular wave
groups consisting of two regular waves. It has been indicated how
these quadratic transfer functions are evaluated and an approxima
tion for the contribution due to second order potential effects
has been discussed. Dalzell [lV7] has demonstrated that on the
basis of the quadratic transfer functions time records of the sec
ond order forces can be generated. In this study therefore atten
tion will be focussed on the frequency domain results only. If such
results can be accurately predicted by computations then time do
main results, which are often required for simulations, can also
be generated with good accuracy.
V. COMPARISON BETWEEN RESULTS OF COMPUTATIONS AND ANALYTICAL
RESULTS ON THE MEAN WAVE DRIFT FORCE IN REGULAR WAVES
V
i
l
i
_Introduction
In chapter III and chapter IV the theory and method of com-
putation of the mean and low frequency second order wave drift
forces on floating objects through direct integration of pressure
has been treated. In this section results of computation of the
mean wave drift forces in regular waves will be compared with an-
alytical results obtained by Kudou [V-l] who made use of an ex-
pression given by Maruo [V-2 ], This expression is based on energy
and momentum considerations. The results concern the three-dimen-
sional case of a free floating hemisphere in infinitely deep water,
In order to make a complete comparison results of first order wave
loads, added mass and damping and motions are also compared.
Y._.2-_.-Commutations
V.2 .1. General
For the computations the mean wetted surface of the body
is approximated by 206 facets as shown in Figure V-l.
TOTAL NUMBER OF WATERLINE
LINE ELEMENTS: 36
X
\
_/
./
/
/
TOTAL NUMBER OF
FACETS ON HULL: 206
Fig. V-l Distribution of facets on the sphere and the distribu-
tion of line elements on the waterline.
61
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2 5
2.0
.(1) 1.5
'1a
(1>
pvKt;
a
1.0
0.5
COMPUTED
500*
2 50
O 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
ka
Fi g. V - 2 Fi r s t o r d e r w a v e e xc i t i n g fo r c e in s u r ge .
2.5
2.0
.(1)
1 5
U - - * -f
3a
pg Ac 'J'
1.0
0.5
500
2 50
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
ka
Fi g. V - 3 Fi r s t o r d e r w a v e e xc i t i n g fo r c e i n he a v e .
63
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
0

.
a
n/pv
b
ii/pvu>
ANALYTICAL
COMPUTED
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
ka
Fig. V-4 Added mass and damping coefficient for surge.
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
a
33/ pV
/
b
33/p7W
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
ka
Fig. V-5 Added mass and damping coefficient for heave.
f,A
(1)
1a
(1)
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0. 5
< - <
COMPUTED
_ *
5 0 0
2 5 0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
ka
F i g . V-6 F i r s t o r d e r s u r g e mot i on t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n
2.5
2. 0
1.5-
*3a
0)
1.0
0. 5
" * ^ ^ _ , _ -
500
250"
O 0.5 1.0 15 2.0 2.5
ka
Fig. V-7 First order heave motion transfer function.
65
o
-0.25
m e a n
P ga
(1) '
-0.50
-0.75
-1.00
I~~ ^S- 1
\
1
1

1
COMPUTED
\ (
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
ka
Fig. V-8 Mean second order horizontal drift force.
1.0
0
mean
P ga
(1) 2 .
- 1.0
- 2 . 0
- 3 . 0
- !
&r
\
\
\
X Z
A
- ^*J.J- S -
. n l
n
nr
m
TOTAL
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
ka
Fig. V-9 Components of the computed mean second order ho r i zo n t a l
drift fo r c e .
3.0
2.0
1.0
'mean
Pga C
a
1.0
2.0
,.
/ >
'."
r
>*
k
**
A
i
i
/
/
y
y
y
r
1
<
\
^
\
\
\
\
N
\
\
\
\
\ V
v
*
N
I
>
y
y
/
/
J
/
i ^
i
m
~-A
'i,m
TOTAL
n
0.5 1.0 1.5
ka
2.0 2.5
Fig. V10 Components of the computed mean second order vertical
force.
V.2.2. Motions and mean horizontal drift force
From these results it is seen that the computed results of
both first and second order quantities agree well with analytical
results. When viewing the general characteristics of the mean hor
izontal drift force given in Figure V8 it is seen that for low
wave frequencies the force is zero. In this condition the sphere
has a first order heave amplitude equal to the wave amplitude as
seen in Figure V7. The sphere is following the wave motion com
pletely without creating noticeable disturbance. As the wave fre
quency increases the heave motion increases and at the same time
the mean horizontal drift force increases. The maximum heave mo
tion occurs at a slightly lower wave frequency than the maximum
horizontal drift force. In this range of frequencies the effects
due to diffraction and body motions on the wave drift forces are
increasing. At higher frequencies the body motions decrease con
tinuously to become zero at frequencies tending to infinity. In
the range of these frequencies the effects of body motions on the
drift force decrease rapidly and in the limit only effects due to
diffraction remain. As can be seen from Figure V8 the mean drift
67
force at high frequencies is of the same order of magnitude as the
peak value and at increasing frequency tends to some limit.
The value of the mean horizontal drift force for wave fre-
quencies tending to infinity is easily found by taking into con-
sideration that for very high wave frequencies the wave action,
due to the very small wave length, is confined to a thin layer
near the waterline of the stationary object. In this case the form
of the hull may be replaced by a vertical wall which totally re-
flects the short waves. The circumference of the waterline may be
considered as short sections of straight vertical walls by which
the incoming wave is reflected as is shown in Figure V-ll.
REFLECTED
WA V E
WAVE CREST OF
INCOMING WAVE
Fig. V-ll The mean horizontal drift force in short waves.
The contribution of such a section of the circumference of the
waterline to the mean horizontal drift force is due to components
I and II of equations (IV-1) and (IV-2) and is found to be as
follows:
dF. = -i.pgC
(1)
. (
si
n
2
6) -dX
9
(V-l)
mean
The total mean force is found to be:
2 +a
(1) . 2
'i
=
-^ P9
a
-f
(si n B) ,dx
:
mean -a
(V-2)
This equation has been given previously by a number of a u t ho r s .
See for instance M a r u o [V - 2 ]. It is applicable to floating objects
of arbitrary shape for determining the high frequency limit of the
horizontal w a v e drifting fo r c e s . Taking into account that at high
frequencies there are n o w a v e s behind the body the following r e -
sults are found for the s p he r e :
2
2 (li
P = - f p ga ^
i J
(V-3)
mean
which means that the hi gh frequency limit of the n o n - d i m e n s i o n a l
2
force given in Figure V - 8 e qu a l s - ^ .
V . 2 . 3 . Components of the m e a n ho r i zo n t a l drift force
The computed components I through IV of the mean ho r i zo n t a l
drift force are given in Figure V - 9. These components cannot be
compared w i t h analytical results since the analytical results
given by Kudou w e r e d e t e r m i n e d using a different theory and are
given only as a total force. Inspection of Figure V-9 reveals that
the total force consists of components which differ considerably
both in sign and m a gn i t u d e . Contribution I, due to the relative
wave e l e v a t i o n , is about twice as large and of the same sign as
the total force. Contribution I I , due to the square of the v e l o c -
ity, is different in sign and of about the same magnitude as the
total. Contribution III is smaller and different in sign to the
total force and also different in character since it tends t o zero
at high fr e qu e n c i e s . Contribution IV, due to products of angular
motions and a c c e l e r a t i o n s , r e m a i n s zero for all fr e qu e n c i e s . A t
high w a v e frequencies only contribution I and II r e m a i n . T hi s is
in agreement with the p r e v i o u s discussion on the high frequency
limit of the total force. It is of interest to discuss some a s -
pects of the various c o m p o n e n t s .
__:2l_liihy:ti2_}__[
The general equation for this contribution is as fo l l o w s :
fi .
2
-
*I = - / i.pgCr -
n
-
d Jl
(V-4)
m e a n WL m e a n
f,Q
The integrand in this case always represents a pressure increase
acting inwardly at the waterline. The sign of this contribution
in Figure V-ll is in the direction of propagation of the waves in-
dicating that, as may be expected, the relative wave elevation on
the incoming wave side is larger than on the shadow side of the
sphere. In general, therefore, if it is seen that an object float-
ing in waves exhibits a large difference in relative wave height
on both sides of the object, it may be expected that this contri-
bution will be large.
_r22thution_II
The general equation for this contribution is as follows:
F
I I
=
~M - *P |V *
(1)
|
2
.n.dS (V-5)
mean S_ mean
The integrand in this case always represents a pressure decrease
acting outwardly on the mean wetted surface of the hull. In gen-
eral, the fluid velocity V* tends to be largest on the incoming
wave side. This results in a mean force component which contrary
to intuition, is directed into the waves.
2Gi_ikution_iii
The general equation in this case is:
F = -/ / - p (X
U )
. V *^
1)
) . n . d S (V-6)
mean S
Q
mean
Since this is a mixed product of first order motion and pressure
gradient it is not possible, in general, to predict the sign of
this quantity. The sign depends on the phase angles of both quan-
tities. In the case of the sphere the mean force due to this com-
ponent was also directed into the waves. This force component is
dependent on the motions of the body and on pressure gradients.
At very high wave frequencies the motions and hence this component
tend to zero, while at very low frequencies it is the pressure gra-
dients which tend to zero and consequently the force also.
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Y.i_______:2 ._2 i]_.-_.i2 2
s
-
From the agreement obtained between numerical and analyti-
cal results it may be concluded that the potential accuracy of
numerical methods is sufficient for the prediction of both first
order oscillatory quantities and the mean second order drift
forces.
The agreement between results obtained using the method of
direct integration of pressure and the results given by Kudou
based on Maruo's theory demonstrates the equivalence of these for-
mulations with respect to the total force.
Inspection of the various contributions to the mean second
order force reveals that the total force consists of contributions
which differ both in sign and magnitude. From the results found
for the mean horizontal force on the sphere it is seen that the
general characteristics of the total force are also present in
contribution I due to the relative wave elevation (see Figure V-9)
although contribution I is greater than the total by about a fac-
tor 2.
In the next section, in which experimental data on the mean
horizontal drift forces on stationary vessels are compared with
computed results, attention will also be paid to the relative im-
portance of the various contributions.
V I . COMPARISON BETWEEN COMPUTATIONS AND MEASUREMENTS OF THE MEAN
SECOND ORDER FORCE IN REGULAR WAVES
!._.:_. .i_l2l_roduction
In this chapter e xp e r i m e n t a l results on the first order
oscillatory motions and m e a n second order forces and m o m e n t s for
different vessel forms floating in regular waves w i l l be compared
with results of c o m p u t a t i o n s . The purpose of this comparison is
to demonstrate the validity o f the theory with respect t o p hy s i c a l
reality. For this purpose the following vessels were selected:
- a t a n ke r ;
- a s e m i - s u b m e r s i b l e ;
- a rectangular b a r ge ;
- a submerged ho r i zo n t a l c y l i n d e r .
Main particulars and body p l a n s of these vessels are given in
Table V l - 1 and in Fi gu r e V I - 1.
The hull forms of the first three vessels encompass the
majority o f v e s s e l s in use b y the offshore industry e i t he r as p e r -
manent storage v e s s e l s , drill s hi p s , drilling p l a t fo r m s , s e m i - s u b -
mersible crane v e s s e l s , derrick barges and lay b a r ge s . Fo r these
vessels the first order m o t i o n s and mean horizontal drift forces
and yawing m o m e n t w e r e determined for a range of w a v e frequencies
and three wave d i r e c t i o n s , i.e. head waves (180 ) , b o w quartering
waves (135 ) and b e a m w a v e s from the starboard side (90) .
The submerged ho r i zo n t a l cylinder is representative of a
submersible ho v e r i n g just b e l o w the surface or of ho r i zo n t a l s u b -
merged elements of a s e m i - s u b m e r s i b l e . Fo r this vessel the first
order vertical m o t i o n s and the mean second order v e r t i c a l forces
w e r e determined for a range of w a v e frequencies and the same w a v e
directions as m e n t i o n e d a b o v e .
T *
Designation
Scale ratio
Length (between
perpendiculars)
Breadth
Draft
Displacement volume
Centre of gravity
above base
Metacentric height
Transverse gyradius
in air
Transverse gyradius
in water
Longitudinal gyradius
in air
Vertical gyradius in air
Natural period of heave
Natural period of roll
Natural period of pitch
Water depth
Symbol
-
L
P P
B
T
V
KG
GM
k
* K
k
xx
V
k
zz
T
z
T
*
T
0
Wd
Unit
-
m
m
m
m
3
m
m
m
m
m
m
sec.
sec-
sec.
m
Tanker
Tested
Calcu-
lated
1:82.5
310.00
47. 17
18.90
234,826
13.32
5.78
-
17.02
77.57
-
11.8
14.2
10.8
14.77
17.02
77.50
79.30
11.7
14.2
10.6
82.5
Seml-
submersible
Tested
1:40
Calcu-
lated
100.00
76.00
20.00
36,925
8.64
16.76
-
43.47
30.89
-
21.3
21.3
19.5
7.92
17.48
30.55
46.60
30.89
41.74
21.8
22.4
19.8
40.0
Rectangular
barge
Tested
1:50
Calcu-
lated
150.00
50.00
10.00
73,750
10.00
16.23
-
24.16
39.00
-
-
12.0
9.3
20.00
24.20
39.00
39.00
10.4
12. 1
9.4
50.0
Submerged
horizontal
cylinder
Tested
1:30
Calcu-
lated
75.60
8.40
12.60*
4,034
4.20
0.00
2.94
-
16.80
16.80
-
-
-
2.94
-
16.80
16.80
-
-
-
75.0
* Distance between base and mean still water surface.
Table VI-1 Main particulars and stability data-
TANKER SEMI SUBMERSI BLE
e
>
20
20
310.0
sl
o
o
tc
r>.
Ol
to
o O
o O C
100.0
10-6
"
Si i i
__f
BARGE
150.0
F i g . VI - 1 The v e s s e l s .
CYLINDER
f
^
- *- -
75.6 a.

7 5
YI-iZ^Model^tests
VI.2 .1. General
In order to measure the mean second order wave drift forces
on the model of a vessel in regular waves, attention has to be paid
to the measuring system employed. This generally takes the form of
a mooring system in which force transducers are incorporated which
measure the mooring force necessary to keep the vessel in a mean
position. The mean mooring force is equated to the mean second or-
der drift force. In chapter II and chapter III it was shown that
the second order forces are dependent on first order quantities.
First order quantities are, for instance, the body motions with
frequency equal to the wave frequency.
If it is required to measure the mean second order forces
on a free floating vessel the mooring system must be such that the
first order motion, etc. are not influenced by the system. In the-
ory this requires that the only force which the mooring system
applies to the vessel is a constant force equal and opposite to
the mean second order wave drift force.
The mooring system shown in Figure VI-2(a) makes use of a
falling weight to counteract the mean wave drift forces.
WEIGHT
^~X y a )
SPRING
b )
Fig. VI-2(a) and 2(b) Systems of restraint
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shown in Figure VI-3(a) . In this figure only one mooring line is
shown.
2 3
a )
b)
Fig. VI-3(a) and 3(b) Drift force measuring set-up.
This situation applies to a vessel for which it is required to
determine the mean horizontal drift forces. The mooring line runs
horizontally from the vessel to the mooring point with the vessel
in the rest position. The three force transducers shown in the
figure are:
- a force transducer measuring the longitudinal force component of
the mooring line force relative to the body axes (transducer 1) ;
- a force transducer measuring the tension in the mooring line
(transducer 2 ) ;
- a force transducer measuring the horizontal component of the
mooring line force relative to an earth-bound system of axes
(transducer 3 ) .
Since it is required to determine the horizontal drift force the
true force will be measured by transducer 3.
In order to determine the validity of measuring the force
by transducer 1 or transducer 2 we assume that the vessel is car-
rying out oscillatory motions which induce the angles a and $ be-
tween the mooring line and the horizontal plane and the longitudi-
78
nal axis of the vessel (see Figure VI-3(b) ) . If the force in the
mooring line is measured by transducer 2 is F^, then the relation-
ship between this force and the force F. is:
F
3
= F
2
cos a (VI-1)
or:
F
0
= F., I (VI-2)
2 3 cos a
Assuming that the angle ot is small we may write:
cos a = 1 - ^sa
2
(VI-3)
from which it follows that:
F
2
= F
3
(l + ha
2
) (VI-4)
From this it is seen that the error in F is in the order of
F^.^ot . Normally the angle a will be of the same order as the an-
gular motions of the vessel (pitch, roll and yaw) which, except
for the case of resonant roll motions, will normally have ampli-
tudes less than about 0.1 rad- Assuming this value of a the error
in F will, at most, be of the order of F^
x
0.005 or about one
half percent of F_. In the same way it can be shown that the error
in F is of about the same magnitude from which it can be con-
cluded that the forces may be measured in any of the three men-
tioned positions provided the angular motions of the vessel are
not large-
V I . 2.2. Model test conditions
Model tests were carried out in regular waves for three
directions, i.e. head waves, bow quartering waves and beam waves
for a range of regular wave frequencies. The test conditions with
respect to the wave direction/ wave frequencies and wave ampli-
tudes are given in Table VI-2 through Table VI-5.
7q
Wa v e fre
to in
rad./ sec.
0. 178
0.267
0-2 67
0.267
0.357
0.443
0.443
0.443
0.532
0.62 3
0.713
0.713
0.713
0.804
0.887
qu e n c y
.\/"f'
0.446
0.669
0.669
0.669
0.895
1. 110
1.110
1. 110
1.333
1.562
1.787
1.787
1.787
2.016
2 .2 2 3
Wa v e a m p lit ude c, i n
Wave direction
90 degrees
2 . 14
1.21
2.11
2.86
1.86
1.23
1.98
-
2.02
2 . 19
1.20
2.06
-
2.11
1.76
Wave direction
135 degrees
2.14
1.21
2 . 11
2.86
1.86
1.23
1.98
2.83
2.02
2.19
1.20
2.06
2.76
2 . 11
1.76
m e t r e s
Wave direction
180 degrees
2.14
1.21
2 .11
2.86
1.86
1.23
1.98
2.83
2.02
2 . 19
1.20
2.06
2.76
2 . 11
1.76
Table VI-2 Test conditions for model tests with a tanker.
Wa v e fre
OJ in
r a d ./ s e c .
0.300
0.300
0.300
0.455
0.455
0.455
0.525
0.6 30
0.630
0.630
0.72 7
0.785
0.805
0.910
0.920
0.920
1.047
1.047
1.060
1.168
1.200
1.200
1.278
1.339
1.350
1.398
1.570
quency
-\/Z'
0.550
0.550
0.550
0.834
0.834
0.834
0.963
1.155
1. 155
1.155
1.333
1.440
1.476
1.668
1.687
1.687
1.920
1.920
1.944
2.142
2.200
2 .2 00
2.344
2.455
2 .476
2 .564
2.879
Wa v e amplitude in
a
Wave direction
9 0 degrees
-
-
-
0.97
2.15
3.18
0.91
1.01
1.99
2.83
1.10
-
1.18
1.14
-
-
-
-
1.04
0.94
-
-
0.98
0.80
-
0.83

Wave direction
135 degrees
-
-
-
0.97
2.15
3.18
0.91
1.01
1.99
2.83
1.10
-
1.18
1.14
-
-
-
-
1.04
0.94
-
-
0.98
0.80
-
0.83

m e t r e s
Wave direction
180 degrees
2.61
4.49
5.09
1.02
1.96
2.79
0.98
1.02
1.97
-
-
1.03
-
-
1.04
1.76
0.98
1.61
-
-
0.78
0.81
-
-
0.64
-
0.43
Table VI-3 Test conditions for model tests with a semi-submersible
Wa v e frequency
a. in
r a d ./ s e c .
0.300
0.400
0.500
0.600
0.700
0.800
0.900
1.000
1. 100
.\K '
3
'
0.620
0.82 7
1.033
1.241
1.447
1.654
1.861
2 .067
2 .2 74
Wave amplitude ix in
a
Wa v e direction
90 degrees
0.81
0.94
0.96
0.98
1.09
1. 16
1.08
0.94
0.79
Wave direction
135 degrees
0.81
1.07
0.96
0.98
1.09
1.16
1.08
0.94
0.79
metres
Wave direction
180 degrees
0.81
1.07
0.96
0.98
1.09
1.16
1.08
0.94
0.79
Table VI-4 Test conditions for model tests with a rectangular
barge.
Wa v e frequency
a) in
rad./ sec.*
0.760
0.881
1.081
1.260
1.530
1.880
2 .167
-\/'f
0.968
1.122
1.377
1.605
1.949
2.395
2.760
Wa v e amplitude r in
a
Wa v e direction
90 degrees
0.55
0.73
1.06
1.08
1.20
0.75
0.50
Wave direction
135 degrees
0.55
0.73
1.06
1.08
1.20
0.75
0.50
metres
Wa v e direction
180 degrees
0.55
0.94
1.06
1.08
1.20
0.75
0.50
Table VI-5 Test conditions for model tests with a submerged
horizontal cylinder.
ft 1
Yli^i^Computations
The distribution of facet elements on the mean wetted part
of the hulls of the vessels and, for the surface vessels, the dis-
tribution of the line elements around the waterline are given in
Figures VI-4 through VI-8.
FACET SCHEMATISATION TANKER
TOTAL 302 FACETS
WATER LINE SCHEMATISATION
TOTAL 74 ELEMENTS
* I 1 PH 1* 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 .-
Fig. VI-4 Facet and waterline element distribution of a tanker,
BT
FACET SCHEMATISATION SEMI-SUBMERSIBLE
TOTAL 216 FACETS
WATER LINE SCHEMATISATION
TOTAL 72 ELEMENTS
Fi g. VI-5 Facet and wa t e r l i n e el ement d i s t r i b u t i o n of t he semi -
s ubmer s i bl e : 216 f a c e t s .
FACET SCHEMATI SATI ON BARGE
TOTAL 138 ELEMENTS
- e ?
WATER LINE SCHEMATISATION
TOTAL 48 ELEMENTS
H 1 H -.Ih
H 1 r
H 1 1 1 1 \-
Fig. VI-6 Facet and waterline element distribution of the rectan'
gular barge
FACET SCHEMATISATION CYLINDER
TOTAL 286 FACETS
Fig, VI-7 Facet distribution of the submerged horizontal cylinder.
85
FACET SCHEMATISATION SEMI - SUBMERSIBLE
TOTAL 360 FACETS
WATER LINE SCHEMATISATION
TOTAL 144 ELEMENTS
Fig. VI-8 Facet and waterline element distribution of the semi-
submersible: 360 facets.
86
The computations were carried out for the same wave direc
tions as the model tests and covered the range of wave frequencies
tested. The wave frequencies for which computations were carried
out for the four vessels are given in Table VI6.
Vessel
Tanker
Semi
submersible
Wave fre
oi in
rad./sec.
0.079
0. 112
0.189
0.266
0.354
0.444
0.523
0.600
0.713
0.758
0.887
0.098
0. 146
0.200
0.300
0.400
0.500
0.600
0.702
0.800
0.900
1.000
1.050
1.100
1.150
1.200
1.250
1.300
1.400
1.500
quency
i i / **_
. vz
0. 198
0.281
0.474
0.667
0.887
1.113
1.312
1.505
1.788
1.901
2.224
0.180
0.268
0.36 7
0.550
0.733
0.916
1.100
1.290
1.466
1.650
1.830
1.925
2.020
2.108
2.200
2.292
2.380
2.570
2.750
Vessel
Rectangular
barge
Submerged
horizontal
cylinder
Wave frequency
to in
rad./sec.
0.300
0.450
0.480
0.500
0.516
0.539
0.560
0.600
0.650
0.700
0.780
0.800
0.900
1.000
1.100
0.421
0.698
0.836
1.080
1.325
1.528
1.872
2.160
/ " i
- \ / ' r
0.620
0.930
0.990
1.035
1.070
1. 116
1.160
1.240
1.340
1.450
1.610
1.660
1.860
2.070
2.270
0.5 36
0.889
1.064
1.376
1.687
1.946
2.385
, 2.752
Table VI6 Frequencies used for computations.
Additional input data for the computations with respect to the
vessels are given in Table VI-1. In the case of the semi-submers-
ible some differences occur between the model data and input data
for computations with respect to the position of the centre of
gravity and the transverse radius of gyration in air. The influ-
ence of these differences on the results of computations was small,
however.
YJiii__, 5Hi_2 f_2 2 ^Eyt5ti2 _}_2 2 __r___^2 ^2 {___
The results of computations and measurements with respect
to the first order oscillatory motions of and about the centre of
gravity are given in Figures VI-9 through VI-13. The results are
presented in the form of non-dimensional frequency response func-
tions of the amplitudes of the motions to a base of the non-dimen-
sional wave frequency. The phase angles of the motions are given
in degrees, also to a base of the non-dimensional wave frequency.
A positive phase angle indicates that a motion reaches its posi-
tive maximum value before the crest of the undisturbed incoming
regular wave passes the centre of gravity of the vessel. The posi-
tive direction of motions and forces are in accordance with the
rectangular system of axes G-X'-X'-X" shown in Figure III-l.
Comparison of computed and experimental data on the first
order motions shows that the motion amplitudes of all four vessels
are generally well predicted by the computations. Significant dif-
ferences occur in roll and sway motion amplitudes near the natural
frequency of the roll motions of the barge and the tanker. These
are mainly due to the fact that the computations predict a larger
roll motion due to the omission of viscous effects in roll damping
in the computations. Due to the sway-roll coupling computed sway
motions also differ somewhat from the results of measurements.
At very low wave frequencies non-dimensional amplitudes of
the measured roll motions of the tanker become increasingly larger
than the computed values. The differences between computations and
measurements at these frequencies are, however, exaggerated due to
the way angular motions are made non-dimensional.
t l )
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( it
* 5a
0.5
500
e
1
0 1.0
( 1)
x
3 a
t f
0
o
\
HEAVE
/.
/
4 0
500*
500
rf
*
PITCH
' >v
X,


500
500
2
7
V3
4 0
Fig. VI9 First order motions in head waves.
SQ
TANKER
COMPUTED
o.a . MEASURED ( ASCENDING WAVE AMPLITUDE o _ . )
"1
l o
SURGE

V
>n_n .
/
V i
500
0 4
0 2
SEMI SUBMERSI BLE
SURGE
"^ 7

TLo n f
fi
500
0 4
*2a
500
z
2
11!
x
3 a
tf'
.
HEAVE
. A^
^
\
.
0
&
i l
1
4
1
SWAY
V

NvTL^n
V
500
0 1.0
500
500
2
BARGE
*
o
\
0
SURGE
k
w
L
r
i
5 0 0
0 2
( D
^2a
, t i i
.
CI
\
SWAY

r
P
KJ
\
-^r.
500
0 1.0
5 0 0
4 0
\ ^
Fig. VI10 First order linear motions in bow quartering waves.
1.0
if
1
'
4a
0 5
4a
__'
TANKEhf
COMPUTED
500
o.a.o MEASURED ( ASCENDING WAVE AMPLITUDE <=.* 1
500
n ROLL
\
/
k
/ .
.
4 " O 2
SEMI SUBMERSI BLE
500 i 1 1 i5O0*
O 1.0
5a
k f f
0.5
J
rw
PITCH
A
y
0
ROLL

^1 ?
V
V
\ ~
Nl o.o.

'
~
4
4 O
500
0 1.0
f "* n o
2
BARGE
0 1.0
YAW
Mo,
500
500
500
500
Fig. VI11 First order angular motions in bow quartering waves
91
x
2a
____.
TANKER
COMPUTED
1
I
V
SWAY
j
o
s.4.o MEASURED ( ASCENDING WAVE AMPLITUDE o. . o)
500* i 1 1 1500
\
\
SWAY

"L
IX:
;
500
0 1.0
ff
0.5
_
HEAVE
A 0
L IkfflP.
500
0 2
_t
__
*E
4 0
ROLL
J
500*
5 0 0
BARGE
X
11
'
*2a
* .
\
SWAY
K<T
IfV
! \

s.
500*
0 10
*3a
0.5
4 0
O Oj
HEAVE
o
r
>
\/I
^7T
9
500*
0 10
x
, 1)
x
4a
<
4 %
/
ROLL
i500
Fig. VI12 First order motions in beam waves
Q- >
10
*';*
"F
0.5
0
\
\
\
z
.
HEAVE
\
__v.
- 9 -
4
1.0
(1)
!_ 3_ L
0. 5
CYLI NDER ( (i=180*>
COMPUTED
MEASURED
500*
0 1.0
PITCH
\
\
HEAVE

500
5 00
500
Fig. VI-13 First order vertical motions of the cylinder in head
waves, bow quartering waves and beam waves.
93
In terms of absolute differences between the measured roll angle
and the roll angle computed for the wave amplitude concerned the
differences are comparable to those found at higher frequencies.
The phase angles of the first order motions are generally
reasonably well predicted. When motion amplitudes are small dif
ferences in the phase angles are somewhat increased. In such cases
the harmonic analysis technique, by means of which the amplitude
and phase angle of the motions are determined from measured data,
tends to give less correct results since at low motion amplitudes
the influence of errors in the measurements become more important.
The results of computations and experiments on the mean
second order forces are given in Figures VI14 through VI17.
These results are given in nondimensional form making use of the
displaced volume of the vessels. For equal displacement volumes
the results for the various vessels are directly comparable. The
forces and moments are given to a base of the nondimensional wave
frequency.
COMPUTED
2
1
O.H.B MEASURED ( ASCENDI NG WAVE AMPLI TUDE o.f l ._ )
n
^
TANKER
f^
t >
2
1
SEMISUBMERSIBLE
fi
1 *
S I
1
1

f.
COMP
^ 3 6 0 F
UTED
WETS
V ^
2
1
_ f l
BARGE
pa
Fig. VI14 Mean longitudinal drift forces in head waves
94
COMPUTED
o _ .o MEASURED ( ASCENDI NG WAVE AMPLI TUDE o 4.0 )
-2
M
cm
._
>
01
ct
-01
0 . 0 0-^
TANKER
P
' 0
SEMI - SUBMERSI BLE
_ c
0 / T
- L - COMPUTED
, / yf 3eoFACETS
J\
2
M
E-
a.
" 1
0
c - ^
3
c
/TANKER
I 4
i
_
j
/
0
>
4
' SEMI - SUBMERSI BLE
- ^
0 ,
/
c
a J
of
Aj
A / COMPUTED
L - | 360 FACETS
0 jo
0
BARGE
J
t
I S
2.5
0
-2. 5
TANKER
1..
Jv
a
2 5
-2.5
SEMI -SUBMERSI BLE
V
s
"*i j A n
V
COMPUTED
. 360FACETS
0
- 2 5
>
0 a
BARGE
A
I ^
0 0
1
_.___._
Fig. VI-15 Mean longitudinal and transverse drift forces and
yawing moment in bow quartering waves.
95
COMPUTED
o.a.t. MEASURED (ASCENDING WAVE AMPLITUDE 0.4.0 )
5.0
2.5
0
j "
TANKER
0
A-
0
_
9
f
1
>
4
5.0
2.5
SEMI-SUBMERSIBLE
__A^
/ COMPUTED
X - 360 FACETS
/
2 5
BARGE
t
0 t>
3
0
/
4 0
Fig. VI-16 Mean transverse drift forces in beam waves.
CYLINDER
r> 2
J
11=180
A-
M
\
COMPUTED
MEASURED
IS > 0
\i
V
11 = 160'
r V
0
4 (
1
D
li>135
0
0
;
V 0
'
2
<
) "
U = 90
c
,
^ 0
> <
H=135*
\ /
0
li=90"
s
*
^
Fig. VI-17 Mean vertical drift force and trim moment on the cyl-
inder in head waves, bow quartering waves and beam
waves.
96
The results given in Figure VI-14 through Figure VI-17 indicate
that in general the mean second order forces and moments are rea-
sonably well predicted with some notable exceptions. For the tan-
ker the mean transverse force in beam waves given in Figure VI-16
and the mean yaw moment in bow quartering waves in Figure VI-15
show a large difference between computations and measurements at
the non-dimensional wave frequency corresponding to the natural
roll frequency. At this frequency the mean transverse force given
in Figure VI-16 shows a large peak in the computed results which
is not present in the experimental results. The mean yaw moment
given in Figure VI-15 shows that at the natural roll frequency
computed and experimental results are opposite in sign. The com-
puted results show a marked negative peak which again is not pre-
sent in the experimental results. For the barge similar abrupt
changes in the computed drift forces and yawing moment are found
near the natural roll frequency. It is felt that, as is the case
with the overprediction by the computations of the first order
roll motions, the large discrepancies in the mean drift forces may
be also due to the fact that viscous effects in the roll damping
are not included.
In order to check, qualitatively, the influence of the roll
damping on the results of the mean drift forces, computations were
repeated for different values of the linear roll damping at the
natural roll frequency of the tanker. Computations were carried
out for roll damping values of 1, 3 and 5 times the potential roll
damping. The results of computations are shown in Table VI-7 in
which the mean values of the measured data, given at this frequen-
cy in the figures, are also given. From the results given in this
table it may be concluded that increasing the roll damping tends
to effect both first and second order quantities in such a way
that better agreement with experimental data is obtained. The re-
sults also show, however, that if the roll damping is increased
to such an amount that the computed roll motions agree with the
measured roll motions this does not necessarily result in agree-
ment in the computed and measured drift forces. This discrepancy
may be a result of the phenomenon that viscous damping effects
are less linear than has been assumed here.
97
FREQUENCY: w = 0.444 rad./ sec.
,1/3
= 1.113
D e s c r i p t i o n
Wave
d i r e c t i o n
i n d e g .
Un i t
C a l c u l a t i o n s
R o l l d a mp i n
1
g m u l t i p l i c a t i o n f a c t o r
V--
C
uC
V--
E
u .
Me a s u r e -
me n t s
V--
E
ur.
MOTIONS
Sway
He a ve
R o l l
S u r g e
Sway
( l e a ve
R o l l
P i t c h
Yaw
MEAN DRI FT FO
T r a n s v e r s e
f o r c e
L o n g i t u d i n a l
f o r c e
T r a n s v e r s e
f o r c e
Yaw moment
90
90
90
135
135
135
135
135
135
BCES AND MO
90
135
135
135
*._x
u
^zx
*axz
*!ZX
*.xx
-.i
1
".
1
'
-UXZ
*._XZ
*axz
MENT
F
2
A P 9 V
1 / 3
c i
1 ) 2
v^'V
2
F
2
A ^
1 / 3
^
1 ) 2
v^
273
^
2
0 . 3 5
1. 38
6 2 . 5 0
0 . 2 5
0 . 19
0 . 5 6
7 . 12
0 . 4 8
0 . 2 5
140
35 3
141
91
290
9
85
2 53
348
3 3 . 6 2 8
- 0 . 2 7 4
- 0 . 1 5 2
- 0 . 7 8 3
0 . 6 3
1. 38
15. 19
0 . 2 5
0 . 2 5
0 . 5 6
1. 73
0 . 4 8
0 . 2 6
2 55
353
172
91
2 68
9
117
2 53
356
9 . 6 5 0
- 0 . 2 0 3
0 . 2 3 3
0 . 4 0 5
0 . 7 0
1. 38
8 . 4 6
0 . 2 5
0 . 2 6
0 . 5 6
0 . 9 7
0 . 4 8
0 . 2 6
2 6 3
353
176
91
268
9
121
2 5 3
357
5 . 4 3 1
- 0 . 193
0 . 2 2 1
0 . 5 0 5
1 . 12
1. 35
9 . 36
0 . 2 8
0 . 4 1
0 . 6 8
5 . 1 8
0 . 7 1
0 . 2 6
2 67
2
248
112
2 7 3
33
2 53
2 71
8
1 . 2 1 0
- 0 . 2 0 3
0 . 4 4 3
1. 143
Table VI-7 Influence of linear roll damping on the motions and
mean drift forces and moment on a tanker at the natural
roll frequency.
98
With respect to the results obtained for the semi-submers-
ible it is noted that the mean drift force in head waves given in
Figure VI-14 shows rapid fluctuations with the wave frequency,
which are not present in the corresponding results for the tanker
and the barge. Fluctuations are also present in the results for
the tanker and barge at other headings. In that case they are main-
ly due to the additional peak at the natural roll frequency of the
tanker and the barge. For the semi-submersible these fluctuations
are not due to such effects since the frequencies at which reso-
nance in roll, pitch or heave occurs are restricted to quite low
frequencies as can be seen from the results on the first order mo-
tions given in Figures VI-9 through VI-12 .
For the semi-submersible the fluctuations in the mean drift
forces appear to be related to interaction effects between the col-
umns. In head waves the results given in Figure VI-14 show a marked
reduction in the mean drift force at a non-dimensional wave fre-
quency of 2.2. In beam waves the results given in Figure VI-16 show
a similar reduction at a non-dimensional wave frequency of about
1.8. The wave lengths corresponding to these frequencies for the
head waves and the beam wave case amount to 43 m and 62 m respec-
tively for the vessel size as given in Figure VI-l. These values
are quite close to the distance between the columns as measured in
the direction of the wave propagation which amount to 38 in and
60 m respectively. In such cases standing wave effects may occur
between the columns.
In order to check the quadratic relationship between the
mean second order forces and the wave amplitude, experiments with
the tanker and the semi-submersible were carried out in waves with
different amplitudes. The influence of the wave amplitude on the
various quantities at a number of wave frequencies can be seen in
the figures. The wave amplitudes are given in Table VI-2 and Table
VI-3. In general the quadratic relationship between the mean forces
and the wave amplitude is conformed with to a reasonable degree.
For the tanker there is a trend, however, which indicates that the
non-dimensional forces and motions reduce with increasing wave am-
plitudes. For the semi-submersible the influence of the wave ampli-
tude is less consistent.
For the computations the surface of the hull of the vessel
is approximated by a distribution of plane elements or facets.
These facets represent a distribution of source singularities
which each contribute to the potential of the flow about the ves-
sel. The choice of the number of facets used for the computations
is a compromise between the quality of the results obtained and
the costs of computations. Increasing the number of facets is ex-
pected to increase the quality of the results but the costs also
increase. The question as to whether a given number of facets will
yield satisfactory results can only be checked by repeating compu-
tations using more elements and comparing the results. In order to
show the influence of the number of facets on the results addition-
al computations were carried out for the semi-submersible at three
wave frequencies. For these computations 360 facets were used in-
stead of 216 facets. The distributions are shown in Figure VI-5
and Figure VI-8- From these figures it can be seen that for the
case of 360 facets the additional number of facets arises from the
finer distribution on the columns. The results of the additional
computations are indicated in the figures. In general the influence
of the number of facets is small. Some influence is found at the
highest wave frequency. The differences in the results using more
or less elements are, however, less than the differences found be-
tween measurements and computations, so that for this case 216
facets were sufficient to give satisfactory results.
In Figure VI-18 the computed components of the mean second
order longitudinal drift forces on the tanker, semi-submersible
and barge are given. The numerals indicate the components given
by equations (IV-1) through (IV-4) . From the results given in this
figure it is seen that, as was the case with the hemisphere treated
in chapter V, contribution I due to the relative wave elevation is
dominant in all cases. Contribution II, due to the pressure drop
as a consequence of the fluid velocity, is in a direction opposite
to contribution I. Contributions III and IV are generally less im-
portant. The sign of these contributions is different for the three
vessels. For the tanker they are predominantly of the same sign as
the total force. For the barge the opposite is true. For the semi-
submersible contribution IV is practically zero except for the very
low frequencies near heave and pitch resonance. For this vessel
I nr.
TANKER
~
-2.5 2 5
0
2 5
BARGE
\f
\
N.
Fig- VI-18 Components of the computed mean longitudinal drift
forces in head waves.
CYLINDER
I
n
m
TOTAL
2 5
0
2 5
H=180
A
i
\
0
-2.5
\
s
li = 90*
/ ' ^>
y ^ '
4 0
Fig. VI-19 Components of the computed mean vertical drift forces
on the cylinder in head waves and beam waves.
l n i
contribution III oscillates in sign with the wave frequency.
For the submerged cylinder the contributions to the total
mean vertical drift force are given in Figure VI-19 for the head
wave and beam wave case. Since the vessel is fully submerged no
contribution arises from relative wave elevations around a water-
line . Hence contribution I is zero. Since the cylinder is circular
with the centre of gravity in the centre of the cylinder no roll
motions occur. Due to this effect contribution IV is zero in beam
waves. The results shown in Figure VI-19 show that in this case
the relative importance of the contributions to the total force
can vary quite significantly. In head waves contribution II is
dominant and contributions III and IV have only minor effect on
the total. In beam waves, however, contributions II and III are of
the same order but opposite in sign. In both cases the total mean
force is directed upwards. The sign of contribution II is also up-
wards in both cases. It will be recalled that for surface vessels
the mean horizontal force due to contribution II was directed op-
posite to the total force.
VI
i
5
i
_Conclusions
From the results presented in this section it can be con-
cluded that the mean wave forces on bodies of arbitrary shape can
be computed with reasonable accuracy based on the method presented
in this study. It was generally recognized that the mean forces
acting on full forms such as barges and ships could be computed
with the aid of potential theory and the supposition that the
forces are basically a second order phenomenon. The correlation
shown here between the results of computations and measurements of
the mean wave forces acting on a semi-submersible and a submerged
cylinder indicates that the same theory can also be used to pre-
dict these forces on more slender forms.
From the results some interesting observations with respect
to the mean horizontal forces acting on a semi-submersible can be
made. The results shown in Figure VI-15 on the mean horizontal
drift force in head waves indicate that, contrary to expectation,
for equal displaced volumes the mean force acting on the semi-
submersible can be as large as the force acting on a rectangular
barge and considerably larger than the force acting on a tanker.
Furthermore, in beam waves the reverse is true. From Figure VI-16
it is seen that the mean forces on the semi-submersible are less
than on the barge or on the tanker. The mean force on the semi-
submersible in beam waves is of the same magnitude as in head
waves; however, the frequencies at which the mean forces are large
or small are different in head waves and beam waves. This means
that in irregular waves, if it is required to minimize the mean
forces acting on the vessel, it may be possible to let the peak of
the wave spectrum coincide with a minimum in the response function
of the mean force by altering the heading of the semi-submersible.
For the case of this semi-submersible, for instance, if the irreg-
ular wave spectrum is such that the non-dimensional frequency of
the peak of the spectrum is about equal to 1.8, the mean force on
the vessel will be smallest with the vessel turned beam-on to the
waves. If the non-dimensional frequency of the peak of the spec-
trum is appreciably lower, say about equal to 1.2, then the mean
force is smallest with the vessel head-on to the waves.
From the aforegoing discussion it can also be concluded
that, if a semi-submersible is to operate in a specific location
and under specific design conditions with respect to the irregular
waves, it is in principle meaningful and possible to investigate
the influence of the dimensions and layout of the vessel on the
mean second order drift forces with the aim of optimizing a design
from this point of view.
i n .
VII. DETERMINATION OF THE QUADRATIC TRANSFER FUNCTION OF THE LOW
FREQUENCY SECOND ORDER FORCES
YII__I___lt2 <__-_-2 l_i2 -}
Experimental determination of the low frequency components
of the second order wave forces acting on vessels in waves places
unusual demands on the system of restraint and the measuring sys-
tem employed. In this chapter the ideal characteristics of the
system of restraint are discussed and two possible realizations of
such systems are introduced. The ideal characteristics of the sys-
tem of restraint are only partly obtained by these two systems so
that it must be borne in mind that further development in this
field is necessary.
In order to demonstrate the type of results which may be
obtained experimentally and to verify the results of computations
some experimental results on the quadratic transfer functions for
the amplitude of the low frequency second order longitudinal force
on two vessels in head waves will be compared with results of com-
putations.
As indicated in chapter IV the quadratic transfer function
for the low frequency force corresponds with the low frequency
component of the second order force when a vessel is floating in a
regular wave group consisting of two regular waves with frequen-
cies u_ and Gux. There are two methods by means of which these re-
sults may be obtained from experiments:
1. From model tests in regular wave groups; the results are direct-
ly comparable with computed results.
2. From model tests in irregular waves; the time records of the
second order forces are analyzed by means of cross-bi-spectral
analysis techniques. The results of this analysis are directly
comparable with results of computations.
In this chapter some results obtained by both methods will be giv-
en. The cross-bi-spectral analysis technique employed here was
based on the method developed by Dalzell [VII-1]. The computations
of the quadratic transfer function are in accordance with the
method discussed in chapter IV.
Experiments and computations were carried out for the fol-
lowing vessels, which were also treated in chapter V I :
- a t a nke r ;
- a s emi - s ubmer s i bl e.
The main particulars of these vessels are given in Table VI-1. For
the tanker model tests were carried out in regular wave groups and
in irregular waves. For the semi-submersible model tests were car-
ried out in irregular waves only. In all cases results are given
for head waves. For many practical cases, for instance in very
high seas, head waves represent the most important wave direction
for moored vessels.
YI_t__2i_Model_test_set
z
up
VII.2 .1. General
In this section the specific requirements, which must be
met in order to be able to measure the low frequency second order
wave forces on a vessel, will be discussed.
From the expressions derived for the second order forces in
chapter III it can be concluded that, in order to arrive at the
correct value of the forces, the model restraint must be so that
first order motions are not affected by the method of restraint.
In case the mean second order forces are to be determined no other
requirements have to be met by the mooring system. When it is re-
quired to measure the low frequency second order force an addition-
al requirement must be fulfilled, namely that the model does not
carry out motions with frequencies which coincide with the frequen-
cy of the second order forces. This requirement is analogous to the
case where it is required to measure first order wave loads. In
that case the captive model must be rigidly held so that it does
not carry out motions at wave frequencies. Failure to comply with
this requirement results in incorrect values of the forces due to
dynamic magnification effects following from the elasticity of the
system of restraint. For the case under consideration the system
of restraint must allow the model to move freely at wave frequen-
cies while at the same time low frequency motions corresponding to
the low frequency wave drift forces must be fully suppressed. In
that case the forces in the mooring system will possess only mean
and low frequency components which will correspond to the required
forces.
The response of the mooring system is shown schematically
in Figure VII-1.
WA V E SPECTRUM
SPECTRUM O F L O W FREQUENCY
S E C O N D ORDER FORCE
IDEAL RESPONSE OF SYSTEM OF RESTRAINT
100%
UJ
CO
z
O
Q.
(/)
LU
Q_
r. o/
' "~v
N
\ l
\
\ I
\ I
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\I
s l ^--_
FREQUENCY
Fig. VII-1 Ideal characteristic of the system of restraint.
In this figure the wave spectrum and the spectrum of the low fre-
quency second order forces in irregular waves are given schemat-
ically to a base of frequency. Also shown in this figure is a line
which indicates the idealized characteristics of the system of
restraint of the vessel. In the range of frequencies of the second
order forces the system is at 100%, indicating that it must sup-
press fully motion components of these frequencies. At wave fre-
quencies the system is at 0%, indicating that for these frequencies
the system should, ideally, not exert any forces on the vessel.
The system of restraint, in effect, must possess low-pass charac-
teristics. The high frequencies to be filtered out in this case
being the frequencies of the waves. Such characteristics may be
approximated by the application of a dynamic system of restraint
incorporating control and servo systems which react in the required
manner to the motions of the vessel in waves. In Figure VII-2 a
block diagram of such a system is given.
WA V E S
S E R V O
S Y S T E M
VESSEL
POSITION
C O N T R O L L E R
Fig. VII-2 Block diagram of dynamic system of restraint.
This diagram represents a possible control system for a vessel
moored in waves. The waves exert forces on the vessel which in
turn cause motions which contain wave frequencies and low frequen-
cies due to the drift forces. The motions are measured and fed to
the control unit which filters out the high frequency part of the
motion signal and gives only low frequency force commands to the
servo system which exerts the required force on the vessel. In some
107
cases, instead of using an active system of restraint as described
here, a simple passive system consisting of linear springs may be
employed. Consider the case of a vessel restrained in the longitu-
dinal direction by means of linear springs. For simplicity we as-
sume the virtual mass and damping to be constant. The system of
restraint is shown schematically in Figure VII-3.
HY D R O D Y N A M I C
D A M P I N G
WAVE FORCE
H>
F
m
( t ) MEASURED FORCE
SPRI NG
VESSEL
Fi g. VI I - 3 Schemat i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a pa s s i ve moori ng syst em.
The waves e xe r t f i r s t and second or der f or ces on t he v e s s e l which
cause i t t o execut e mot i ons . The f or ce i s denot ed by F( t ) i n Fi g -
ure VI I - 3 . In t he moori ng syst em a f or ce t r a ns duc e r i s mounted
which measures t he moori ng f or ce
F
m
( t ) . I f t he s hi p- moor i ng- s ys t em
i s assumed t o be l i n e a r t he ampl i t ude r es pons e f unct i on of t he
measured f or ce i n r a t i o t o t he wave f or ce i s :
ma
V < l - A
2
)
2
+
vV
( VI I - 1 )
wh e r e :
X = U)/(D
tu = frequency of force excitation
U = natural frequency of the horizontal motion of the moored
vessel = /c/ni
c = stiffness of the mooring system
m = virtual mass of the vessel
v = non-dimensional damping factor = b/ / cm
b = damping coefficient.
The amplitude response function is shown in Figure VII-4 .
V= 0.063
Fig. VII-4 Amplitude response of measured force.
From the figure we can see that at low frequencies of excitation
the measured force equals the wave force while for frequencies
above the natural frequency the measured force becomes progres-
sively smaller in ratio to the wave forces. In between these
regions considerable dynamic magnification is evident. We now
consider the case that the vessel is moored in irregular waves.
The wave spectrum and the spectrum of the low frequency second
order forces are shown schematically in Figure VII-5. Superim-
posed on these spectra is the amplitude response function of
the measured force (mooring force) in ratio to the wave forces.
As can be seen from this figure, if the stiffness of the mooring
system is sufficiently large so that the peak of the response func-
tion is between the frequencies of the second order forces and the
wave frequencies, the dynamic magnification of the measured force
is small in the range of frequencies of the low frequency second
order forces. At the same time the ratio of measured or mooring
force to wave force in the range of the first order motions and
i n q
first order wave frequencies can be small. This means that, al-
though a stiff system is employed, the influence of the mooring
system on the first order motions, although present, need not af-
fect appreciably the first order motions.
WAVE SPECTRUM
SPECTRUM OF LOW FREQUENCY
SECOND ORDER FORCE
AMPLI TUDE RESPONSE OF MEASURED FORCE
X =
LO
u>e
Fig. VII-5 Schematic representation of wave spectrum, drift force
spectrum and amplitude response of the measuring sys-
tem.
It will be evident that the applicability of such a system of re-
straint becomes greater in irregular waves with a narrow spectrum
and with decreasing mean periods. In such cases the separation
between the high frequency wave spectrum and low frequency force
spectrum becomes larger so that the influence of the peak of the
response function of the measured force is reduced* In that case
both the dynamic magnification of the measured low frequency force
and the effect of the mooring system on the first order motions
are reduced. A drawback in this system is that, although the first
I in
order motions at wave frequencies may be relatively unaffected,
the measured force F (t) will nevertheless contain force components
with wave frequencies which are commensurate with the first order
motions and the mooring stiffness. These wave frequency force com-
ponents can be large relative to the second order forces. Before
the results of such measurements are analyzed further the high fre-
quency force components are filtered out of the force signals.
VII. 2.2. Realizations of two systems of restraint
In the aforegoing the basic principles of two systems of
restraint of a vessel have been discussed. The experimental data
on the low frequency second order horizontal forces acting on the
tanker were obtained using the dynamic system of restraint. The
vessel was positioned in the horizontal plane by means of three
servo units arranged as shown in Figure VII-6.
WAVES 180
FORCE
TRANSDUCER
SERVO SYSTEM
Fig. VII-6 Dynamic system of restraint.
One servo unit was used to control the surge motion while two
additional units were used to control the sway and yaw motion.
Each servo unit could exert forces on the model through the light-
weight metal rod connecting the model to the servo units. Force
transducers, from which the required forces were obtained, were
incorporated in the connecting rods.
Basically, each servo unit worked independently as a posi-
tion control system with characteristics based on feed-back of the
motions of the vessel in the direction of the axis of the connect-
ing rods. The motion and motion velocity were measured within each
of the units and fed to analog control units with proportional-
differential type characteristics. The output of these units gov-
erned the forces applied by the servo units on the vessel. The
proportional-differential characteristics were so adjusted that
the control systems applied small restoring forces and heavy damp-
ing to the vessel motions for the low motion frequencies. Through
the use of a low-pass filter on the motion velocities the damping
characteristics were filtered out for higher (wave) frequencies.
The proportional part of the control was independent of the wave
frequency.
The final settings chosen for the control systems allowed
determination of low frequency wave forces on the vessel with fre-
quencies up to approximately 0.05 rad./ sec. full scale. Above this
frequency dynamic magnification effects became evident. This was
due to phase lag introduced by analog filtering of the velocity
feed-back which introduced a resonance peak in the response of the
system at a frequency of about 0.11 rad./ sec. At higher frequen-
cies than 0.11 rad./ sec. the forces due to the system of restraint
rapidly reduced until only the relatively weak proportional re-
storing forces remained in the range of normal wave frequencies.
At these frequencies the effect of the system of restraint on the
first order motions was negligible.
The system of restraint used for the tanker did not fully
conform with the requirements discussed in section 2 of this chap-
ter. The discrepancies are evident from the relatively narrow band
(0 - 0.05 rad./ sec.) of the low frequencies for which the low fre-
quency second order wave forces may be measured without apprecia-
ble dynamic magnifications. This problem will probably be reduced
11?
by the application of more sophisticated control systems than used
for this investigation. From the point of view of practicality of
results obtainable by the present system it can be stated that,
since the natural frequencies of the horizontal motions of a moored
tanker are generally lower than 0.05 rad./ sec., it is possible to
measure accurately those low frequency horizontal wave forces which
are important for the low frequency horizontal behaviour of such
vessels.
In the aforegoing the feed-back control characteristics of
the dynamic system of restraint used for the model tests with the
tanker are discussed. In order to enhance the position keeping
characteri'stics of the system in the range of the low frequency
horizontal motions an additional control signal, based on the in-
stantaneous relative wave elevation measured at a number of points
around the tanker model, was generated and used as an additional
command signal for the servo units. This control signal consti-
tuted an approximation for the instantaneous value of the low fre-
quency second order horizontal wave forces on the vessel as derived
from instantaneous evaluation of equation (IV-1) . The effect of
including this additional control signal will be discussed in chap-
ter VIII in connection with dynamic positioning of a vessel at sea
and will not be treated further here.
As stated previously the model tests with the semi-submers-
ible were carried out using a passive system of restraint based on
stiff linear spring characteristics. The model tests were carried
out in head waves only, so that only in the longitudinal direction
a stiff spring system of restraint was used. The set-up is shown
in Figure VII-7. The system of restraint consisted of a forward
and aft mooring line, each incorporating a force transducer and a
linear spring. The restoring force of the mooring system in the
longitudinal or surge direction amounted to 513 tf per metre dis-
placement for full scale. From a surge motion decay test in still
water the natural frequency of the surge motion as induced by the
system of restraint (mooring system) amounted to 0.4 rad./ sec.
full scale.
i i i
l~^m^=r-
O O O
O O O
WAVES 180
SPRING
c^pJWW-!
FO R C E TRANSDUCER
Fig. VII-7 Passive system of restraint.
In order to show the influence of the stiffness of the moor-
ing system on the wave frequency motions of the semi-submersible
the amplitude response functions of the heave, surge and pitch mo-
tions in head waves were computed for the stiff mooring system and
compared with the results computed for the free floating case, i.e
for the case with zero mooring stiffness. The motion response func-
tions are compared in Figure VII-8.
l a
..ti)
I
\
SURGE
Vi z\
FREE-FLOATING
IN STIFF MOORING SYSTEM
1.0
0.5
0
I
HEAVE
1
(ii in r ad sec-
kt
10
0.5
PITCH
Fig. VII-8 Influence of mooring system on the amplitudes of the
motions of the semi-submersible in regular head waves
1 1 A
Fr o m this figure it i s seen t ha t the heave and pitch m o t i o n s are
practically unaffected by the stiffness of the mooring system. At
lower wave frequencies the surge response is increased due to the
stiffness of the m o o r i n g system. This indicates that from this
p o i n t of view the stiffness of the m o o r i n g w a s somewhat too great.
It w i l l be s e e n , ho w e v e r , that the second order wave exciting
forces are practically unaffected. Computations of the mean second
order forces in regular he a d waves on the free floating semi-sub-
mersible w e r e p r e s e n t e d in chapter V I . For some wave frequencies
the computations w e r e repeated taking into account the stiffness
of the mooring system in the longitudinal direction.
In Figure VII-9 the mean longitudinal force in regular waves
is compared for the stiff m o o r i n g system and the free floating v e s -
s e l .
-20
(NJ
cg
w cq
i^_fi
-10
o
A,
N STIFF MOOR
I
J
\
ING SYSTEM
fi
I
(A) in rad.sec.
-1
Fi g. V I I - 9 I n fl u e n c e o f m o o r i n g s y s t e m o n t he m e a n l o n gi t u d i n a l
d r i ft fo r c e o n t he s e m i - s u b m e r s i b l e i n r e gu l a r he a d
w a v e s .
115
The results show that the influence of the stiff mooring system on
the mean second order force is small. This result seems to be in
contradiction with the statement made previously that if the first
order motions are affected the second order forces will be affected
as well. In the case of the semi-submersible, however, the force
level at the lower wave frequencies is already small indicating
that the vessel is only causing slight diffraction of the incoming
waves due to the small size of the members, such as the columns
relative to the wave length at these frequencies. In such cases the
disturbance created by the vessel motions also contributes little
to the forces in which cases, even though the motions increase, the
second order forces still remain small. On the basis of this result
it is concluded that also the low frequency forces will be only
slightly affected by the stiff mooring system.
YI_=i3
i
_Model_tests
VII.3.1. Generation of waves
For both vessels model tests were carried out in the Wave
and Current Laboratory of the Netherlands Ship Model Basin. This
basin measures 60 m by 40 m with a variable water depth from 0 to
1.10 m. Wave generators of the fixed stroke, variable frequency
type are disposed on two sides of the basin; see Figure VII-10.
For the tests only the wave generators on the short side of the
basin were used.
3300m (FULL SCALE).
MOTOR
CD- ,
Fig. VII-10 Wave and Current Basin
116
_*9!_ i __:_ .wave _p roups
Since the wave generators are of the fixed stroke, variable fre
quency type it is not possible to generate regular wave groups in
a straightforward way. This would require wave generators of the
type which are variable both in frequency and stroke. In order to
generate regular wave groups consisting of two regular waves with
small difference frequency the bank of wave generators was split
into two independently driven sections denoted by A and B in Fig
ure VII10. By driving section A at a constant frequency to produce
regular waves of frequency 10 and section B to produce regular
waves of frequency (_. regular wave groups are created at the common
edge between these two wave fields. This is shown in Figure VII10.
The frequency of the wave groups is equal to the difference fre
quency to. w . The width of the overlap region between the two
fields of regular waves increases with the distance from the wave
generators. For the tests in regular wave groups the tanker model
was situated as indicated in Figure VII10. Examples of the wave
elevation in wave groups measured at the location of the tanker
model are given in Figure VII11. Due to the method of generating
wave groups these were not longcrested.
Irregular_wayes
Irregular waves are generated by varying in a random manner the
frequency of the wave generators at a fixed stroke of the wave pad
dles. The stroke of the wave paddles and the variations of the fre
quency are chosen so that irregular waves are generated which con
form with a given spectral density distribution or wave spectrum.
The irregular waves were in all cases longcrested. For the tests
with the tanker four wave spectra were used. These are shown in
Figure VII12. For the tests with the semisubmersible only one
wave spectrum was used. This spectrum is shown in Figure VII13.
0)
-1 -1
1
- 0)
2
= 0. 025 r ad. seer
1
O) ^0. 560 rad. seer' U)
2
=0. 535r ad. sec:
- 1
_ 1
00.pO.382 rad.sec.-' CU
2
= 0. 357 rad. sec
-1
CO-
-1
-1
- U)
2
= 0. 050 r ad. secr
1
0^ = 0 . 6 7 4 ^ . s e e r ' CU
2
= 0. 624 rad. sec.
-1
-1
OJ^ = 0. 49 6 r ad. secr
1
0J
2
= 0. 446 r ad. sec:
_1
I L
0 50 100 sec
Fi g. VI I - 11 Regul ar wave gr oups
Cu in r ad.sec ."
Fi g. V I I - 12 S p e c t r a o f i r r e gu l a r w a v e s fo r t e s t s w i t h t he t a n ke r .
u
0)
lA
cy.
y
*_
^wl / 3 = 3.31m
. f =8.1 sec.
0.5 1.0
U) in rad.sec.
-1
Fi g. V I I - 13 S p e c t r u m o f i r r e gu l a r w a v e s fo r t e s t w i t h t he s e m i -
s u b m e r s i b l e . '

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tests in irregular waves with the tanker corresponds to 950 to
1500 oscillations at wave frequency depending on the mean period
of the irregular waves. For the test with the semi-submersible the
test duration corresponded with about 2700 oscillations at wave
frequency.
YII
I
_4
i
_Analysis_of_results_of measurement s_of_the_low__freguency
VII.4.1. Regular wave groups
In Figure VII-14 some typical results of the low frequency
longitudinal force on the tanker in regular wave groups are shown.
In the same figure the corresponding wave elevation is also shown.
100 tf r
FORCE
-100tf
^/WVVvw^ xvA
\./\r
100sec.
Fig. VII-14 Longitudinal drift force on the tanker in regular
wave group.
The time record of the longitudinal force contains a constant part
corresponding to the sum of the mean second order force due to
121
each of the regular wave components and a low frequency oscillatory
part arising from the combined action of the regular wave compo-
nents; see equation (IV-49) . From the results of measurements the
quadratic transfer fiinction of the amplitude of the low frequency
force T,- is found by simply dividing the amplitude of the measured
low frequency force by 2C, C
2
where . and *
a r e t h e a m
"
plitudes of the regular wave components.
VII.4.2 . Irregular waves
In Figure VII-15 typical results on the low frequency com-
ponents of the longitudinal force in irregular waves on the tanker
and the semi-submersible are given with the corresponding wave
elevations. The time records of the longitudinal forces contain a
constant part corresponding to equation (IV-58) and low frequency
components.
In order to obtain results on the quadratic transfer func-
tion for the low frequency longitudinal forces cross-bi-spectral
analysis was applied based on methods developed by Dalzell [VII-1].
Due to the specialized nature a full discussion on cross-bi-spec-
tral methods is outside the scope of this work. For this we refer
to the above mentioned author. In Appendix B a brief discussion on
the method and some details on the analyses are given. The model
test results obtained for the tanker were analyzed in full accor-
dance with Dalzell's method. The results of the model tests with
the semi-submersible were analyzed using a slightly modified ver-
sion of Dalzell's method. The modification is discussed in Appen-
dix B.
YIl_L{ii_Com]2Utatigns
Computations of the quadratic transfer function of the am-
plitude of the longitudinal force in head waves were carried out
in accordance with the theory set forth in chapter II through
chapter IV.
For the tanker and the semi-submersible the quadratic trans-
fer functions are given in Table VII-1 and Table VII-2 respectively.
122
FORCE
TANKER
WAVE ^
w 1 /
=10.3m f = 13.3sec.
100sec.
- t
FORCE
WAVE
SEMI -SUBMERSI BLE
.
w 1
^ = 3. 3m T =8.1 sec.
100sec.
- t
Fig. VII-15 Longitudinal drift forces in irregular head waves.
123
The transfer functions are given in matrix form of which the two
axes represent the two frequency components of a regular wave group,
The data given in these tables represent the amplitude of the low
frequency forces as computed based on equation (IV-50) . The data
on the diagonal {ta - &__) represent the amplitudes of the forces
for zero difference frequency which, except for the sign, corre-
spond to the mean drift force in regular waves. Since the transfer
functions are symmetrical about the diagonal, values are only given
for IM > to-. The results give the quadratic transfer function for
the force in tf/m to a base of wave frequency for the full scale.
As can be seen from these tables the quadratic transfer
function for the tanker has been computed for frequency combina-
tions of which the smallest difference frequency w - co- is greater
than 0.05 rad./ sec. The results obtained from model tests apply to
frequencies of 0 rad./ sec., 0.025 rad./ sec. and 0.05 rad./ sec. re-
spectively. In order to be able to compare results of computations
with experimental results the computed data were cross-faired and
interpolated at the difference frequencies of 0.025 rad./ sec. and
0.05 rad./ sec. respectively. For a difference frequency of 0 rad./
sec. no problem exists since at this frequency computed data are
also available. These are the computed data on the diagonal of the
matrix of the quadratic transfer functions.
"2 ^ \
0.354
0.444
0.523
0.600
0.713
0.80 3
0.887
0.354 0.444
2.0 8.7
7.0
2
T in tf/ m
Fr e qu e n c i e s in
0.523
10.4
2 0.8
12 .4
r a d ./
0.600
2 4.5
19.4
16.4
14.0
sec.
0.713
10.0
2 5.7
8.3
9.5
8.6
0.803
38.4
12 .1
14 .3
18.0
4.3
9.2
0.887
37.5
35.2
14.2
14.9
6.7
4.7
8.6
Table VII-1 Quadratic transfer fiinction of longitudinal force on
the tanker in head waves.
"2 ^ \
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
0.5 0.6 0.7
0 8 11
1 6
0
T
1 2
in t f/ m
2
Fr e qu e n c i e s in rad
0.8
7
7
7
11
/ s e c .
0.9
8
5
15
2 3
25
1.0
20
14
3
20
21
20
1.1
15
19
18
13
9
21
2 4
Table VII-2 Quadratic transfer function of longitudinal force on
the semi-submersible in head waves.
For the semi-submersible the experimental data obtained
from cross-bi-spectral analysis are valid for difference frequen-
cies of 0 rad./ sec. and 0.1 rad./ sec. The data for these frequen-
cies are found on the diagonal and the first row next to the diag-
onal of the computed data given in Table VII-2 .
YII__i_Q^E__Ei2_hetween_computati
The quadratic transfer functions for the low frequency lon-
gitudinal force in head waves on the tanker as obtained from compu-
tations and experiments in regular wave groups and irregular wave
groups are compared in Figures VII-16(a) , (b) and (c) . In Figures
VII-17(a) and (b) the computed data and experimental data for the
semi-submersible in irregular head waves are compared. For each
value of the difference frequency the data are given in one figure
In each figure the data are given to a base of the mean frequency
of the regular wave components.
The experimental data for the tanker obtained by cross-bi-
spectral analysis of data from tests in irregular waves show a
rather irregular character. This is ascribed to the parameter set-
tings used during the cross-bi-spectral analysis.
A
COMPUTED
REGULAR WAVES
IRREGULAR WAVES:
w 1
/
3
= 2 . 7 m; T= 8.2sec.
= 4.8m; f = 10.1 sec.
= 7.3m ; T= 12.0sec.
= 10.3m ; f = 13.3sec.
30.0
."J
15.0
c
U)
1
0>
2 1
in rad.sec
1
Fig. VII16(a) Quadratic transfer function of the low frequency
longitudinal drift force on the tanker.
126
COMPUTED
REGULAR WAVE GROUPS
IRREGULAR WAVES:
w 1 /
= 2. 7m
= 4.8 m
= 7 .3 m
--10.3m
30.0
OJ
15.0
c
C\J
t= 8.2 sec.
f = 10.1 sec.
f =12.0sec
f =13.3 sec.
/
i

U),, - 0J
2
=0.025 rad.sec-
1

f}^\

o
0.5
L _ _ i
n
rad.sec.
-1
1.0
Fig. VII-16(b) Quadratic transfer function of the low frequency
longitudinal drift force on the tanker.
127
COMPUTED
REGULAR WAVE GROUPS
IRREGULAR WAVES: t
w
y
3
= 2 . 7 m; f = 8. 2 sec
= 4.8 m ; f =10.1 sec.
= 7.3 m; T =12.0 sec.
= 10.3 m; f =13.3 sec.
30.0
Oh 0J
2

~ in rad.sec.'
2
Fig. VII16(c) Quadratic transfer function of the low frequency
longitudinal drift force on the tanker.
128
- 4 0
0.5 1.0
(A) in rad.sec.
- 1
( a)
OJ
- 4 0
- 3 0
E
^ -20
c
oi
-10
0
COMPUTED (TOTAL)
FROM C.B.S. (TOTAL)
COMPUTED WITHOUT $
(2)
U)-, - U )
2
= 0.1 rad.secr
1
0.5 1.0
U)-i + t x ) p i
LO
=
.! *L_ m r a d .s e c r
1
2
(b)
Fi g, V I I - 17 (a ) a n d 17 (b ) Q u a d r a t i c t r a n s fe r fu n c t i o n o f t he l o w
fr e qu e n c y l o n gi t u d i n a l d r i ft fo r c e o n
t he s e m i - s u b m e r s i b l e .
129
By, for instance, changing the filter settings for these computa
tions a smoother set of data could be obtained. Essentially, the
results would, however, be the same. The tanker data also show that
the scattering of the experimental data from tests in irregular
waves is less for difference frequencies of 0.025 rad./sec. and
0.05 rad./sec. than for 0 rad./sec. This is probably related to the
fact that the number of oscillations in the low frequency force
components with frequencies tending to zero also become zero. This
will tend to decrease the reliability of the results of the cross
bispectral analysis.
Generally, the experimental data for the tanker from the
different tests in irregular waves show reasonable correlation con
sidering the complexity in both the test setup and the method of
analysis. It should also be remembered that the level of the actual
force varies considerably between the tests in the lowest and the
highest irregular waves. Since the low frequency forces vary qua
dratically with the wave height the force level in the highest
irregular sea state is about ten times larger than in the lowest
sea state. Bearing this in mind it can be concluded that the re
sults obtained from the various tests in irregular waves on the
quadratic transfer function agree reasonably well. The experimental
data obtained for the semisubmersible are smoother than those
obtained for the tanker. This is in part due to the increased test
duration and in part due to the different parameters used during
crossbispectral analysis of these results (see Appendix B).
In general the experimentally obtained data from tests
in irregular waves compare reasonably well with the computed data
for both the tanker and the semisubmersible. The data from tests
with the tanker in regular wave groups are somewhat lower than
computed data and data from tests in irregular waves. This may be
due to the method used to generate the regular wave groups in the
basin. The wave groups were only realized in a relatively narrow
field as indicated in Figure VII10 while the computations assume
that these will be longcrested. As a result of this it is possible
that the corresponding second order forces were not fully developed
during the experiments.
1 _/!
The computed data for the tanker for difference frequencies
of 0.025 rad./ sec. and 0.05 rad./ sec. given in Figures VII-16(b)
and 16(c) show a sharp increase for lower values of the mean wave
frequency. No experimental data are available at these frequencies
to confirm this trend. Examination of the contributions due to the
five components to the force given in equations (IV-1) through
(IV-5) shows that this effect is due to component V which is caused
by the non-linear second order potential.
Examination of the computed data for the semi-submersible
reveals that also here some influence of the non-linear second or-
der potential is found. In this case for a difference frequency of
0.1 rad./ sec. the experimental data appear to confirm the existence
of the contribution due to the non-linear second order potential.
In Table VII-3 the computed quadratic transfer function for
the semi-submersible is given without the influence of component V.
The contribution due to component V is given in Table VII-4 .
U
2 ^ \
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
0.5 0.6 0.7
0 1 1
1 1
0
T
1 2
in t f/ m
2
Frequencies in rad
0.8
5
3
3
11
/ s e c .
0.9
6
6
10
21
25
1,0
3
5
3
18
21
20
1. 1
7
12
8
8
11
20
2 4
Table VII-3 Quadratic transfer function of longitudinal force on
the semi-submersible in head waves without contribu-
tion due to second order potential.
\
M
1
*2 \ ^
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1. 1
0.5 0.6 0.7
0 7 12
0 6
0
2
T in tf/ m
Fr e qu e n c i e s in rad
0.8
11
10
6
0
/ s e c .
0.9
3
6
9
6
0
1.0
19
12
0
8
7
0
1. 1
12
15
15
6
6
7
0
Table VII-4 Contribution of second order potential to the qua-
dratic transfer function for the longitudinal force
on the semi-submersible in head waves.
Comparison of the results given in these tables and the
total given in Table VII-2 shows that for lower values of the fre-
quency of the regular wave components W and u>
?
the total low fre-
quency force at difference frequencies greater than zero are domi-
nated by component V. At higher wave frequencies components I
through IV tend to dominate the results. These components are due
to products of first order quantities which become large when ship
motions increase and/ or first order diffraction effects increase.
When components I through IV dominate the results the first of
these components generally is the largest of these, as was already
indicated in chapter VI.
VII^7^_AEr^ximation_for_the_low_freg
In this chapter some results have been given on the low fre-
quency second order longitudinal force in head waves. The results
of computations will be used in a discussion concerning a method
for approximating the low frequency components of the second order
forces in irregular waves.
It is generally believed that the low frequency components
of the second order forces in irregular waves can be predicted
using the mean forces in regular waves only; see ref. [1- 2 ], [1- 3 ],
[1- 10], [1-14] and [V I I - 2 ]. Within the framework of this study this
assumption implies that in a regular wave group with frequency com-
ponents u>, and a) the correct amplitude T - of the low frequency
component of the second order forces can be replaced by the value
for the amplitude found on the diagonal of the m a t r i x of the qu a -
dratic transfer function at the mean value of the two frequencies.
Thus :
ux + ux to. + ux
T
12
= T
^
1
, t o
2
) a T(
1
,
2
,
2
* ) (VII-2)
We may check the assumption for the case of the tanker and the
semi-submersible by inspection of Figures V I I - 16(a ) , (b) and (c)
and Figures V II- 17 (a ) and (b ) .
Equation (VII-2 ) implies that in Figures V I I - 16(a ) , (b) and
(c) the computed curves of T.- given for the difference frequencies
of 0.025 r a d ./ s e c . and 0.05 r a d ./ s e c . should be the same as the
computed curve given for zero difference frequency. Fo r mean fr e -
quencies below 0.4 r a d ./ s e c . this is clearly not the c a s e . A t
higher mean frequencies the discrepancies are less but n e v e r t he l e s s
increase for the larger value of the difference frequency. The d i f-
ferences below a mean frequency of about 0.4 rad./ sec. are mainly
caused by the force contribution V due t o the second order n o n -
linear p o t e n t i a l . This contribution is zero in regular w a v e s .
In Fi gu r e s V I I - 17 (a ) and (b) in w hi c h results are given for
the semi-submersible it is seen that for mean frequencies b e l o w
about 0.8 r a d ./ s e c . the correct value of T
2
for a difference fr e -
quency of 0.1 r a d . / s e c . w o u l d b e underestimated if it were replaced
by the value found for zero difference frequency. A t mean fr e qu e n -
cies higher than 0.8 r a d ./ s e c . the differences are s m a l l . In Fi g-
ure VII-17(b) computed results are also shown for the case that
the contribution V is n e gl e c t e d . Comparison with the total force
including this contribution shows that for mean frequencies higher
than about 0.8 r a d ./ s e c . the influence of this contribution is
s m a l l . At these mean frequencies the low frequency force is d o m i -
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frequency components of the force in irregular waves.
2
4
6
8
2
0 . 0 0
4
0 . 0 8
0 . 0 0
6
0 . 0 9
0 . 0 6
0 . 0 0
8
0 . 0 8
0 . 0 7
0 . 0 5
0 . 0 0
2k h
12
TfpgL
2 k
2
h
Table VII-5 Amplitude of low frequency second order transverse
force in regular wave groups on a submerged cylinder
in beam waves.
VI 1^8 ^Conclusions
In this chapter aspects were discussed of the system of
restraint necessary to determine experimentally the low frequency
second order wave forces on vessels in waves. Two possible reali-
zations of such a system were used for model tests. For the fre-
quency ranges in which the system behaved as required, reasonable
correlation between results of computations and measurements was
found. It should be stated, however, that further development of
such systems of restraint are necessary in order to increase the
frequency range of application.
On the basis of results of computations on the mean and low
frequency second order wave exciting forces, the applicability of
a method for approximating the low frequency forces in irregular
waves based on knowledge of the mean forces in regular waves was
discussed. The results of this discussion indicate that for surface
vessels the low frequency horizontal forces which are of importance
from the point of view of the low frequency motions (i.e.: force
components with frequencies near the natural frequency of the hor-
izontal motions of a moored vessel) can be predicted with reason-
able accuracy based on knowledge of the mean forces in regular
waves. Certain conditions with respect to the natural frequency of
the horizontal motions and the dominant period of the irregular
waves must be satisfied however.
In the case of a submerged horizontal cylinder it was found
that in regular beam waves the mean horizontal force is equal to
zero. The low frequency force in regular wave groups w a s , however,
found to be non-zero, thus indicating that in some cases the mean
force in regular waves cannot be used to predict the low frequency
force in irregular waves.
VIII. APPLICATION OF THEORY TO DYNAMIC POSITIONING OF A VESSEL IN
IRREGULAR WAVES
VIII
i
l^_Introductiori
In the previous chapters it has been shown that the mean
and low frequency second order horizontal forces acting on floating
vessels are dominated by the contribution from the relative wave
elevation at the waterline of the vessel. In this section it will
be shown that this knowledge may be put to practical use to improve
the positioning accuracy of dynamically positioned vessels at sea.
Dynamic positioning or station keeping of vessels is a tech-
nique which employs ship mounted propulsion units to counteract
environmental forces due to wind, waves and current acting on the
vessel, thereby maintaining as closely as possible some desired
position in the horizontal plane.
The last decade has seen a steady increase in the number of
vessels which are stationed at sea by means of dynamic positioning
systems. Up to now most dynamic positioning systems were used for
positioning drilling ships in deep water where conventional anchor-
ing systems were considered to be too cumbersome. Nowadays dynamic
positioning is also being used for diving support vessels and main-
tainance and survey vessels. This increasing interest in dynamic
positioning systems stems from the need for a means of maintaining
the vessel's positioning which is quick, accurate and versatile and
does not interfere with systems, such as pipelines, lying on the
sea floor.
The propulsion units used for dynamic positioning can be
either fixed, tunnel mounted controllable pitch propellers, azi-
muthing right-angle drive units with propellers externally fixed
to the vessel, or vertical axis propellers. The magnitude and di-
rection of the thrust produced by such units are governed by a
control system which has as input the position error of the vessel
relative to the required position and heading in the horizontal
plane (feed-back control) . Also, in most cases, the instantaneous
wind speed and direction measured from the vessel are used to
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TOTAL
U
2 \ ^
0.354
0.4 4 4
0.52 3
0.600
0.713
0.803
0.887
0.354 0.4 4 4
2 9
7
T
2
in t f/ m
2
Fr e qu e n c i e s in
0.52 3 0.600
10 25
21 19
12 16
14
r a d . / s e c .
0.713
10
26
8
10
9
0, 803
38
12
14
18
4
9
0.887
37
35
14
15
7
5
9
CONTRIBUTION I
\ " l
W
2 ^ \
0.354
0.4 4 4
0.52 3
0.600
0.713
0.803
0.887
0.354 0.4 4 4
10 19
2 5
2
T. in t f/ m
Fr e qu e n c i e s in
0.52 3
2 7
32
32
r a d ./
0.600
2 3
31
34
31
s e c .
0.713
21
26
2 7
29
2 3
0.80 3
20
2 8
30
29
27
2 5
0.887
2 i
2 8
2 7
27
25
2 8
2 5
TOTAL - 0.4 * CONTRIBUTION I
* 2 ^ \
0.354
0.4 4 4
0.52 3
0.600
0.713
0.80 3
0.887
0.354 0.4 4 4
2 9
3
2
T._ in tf/ m
Fr e qu e n c i e s in
0.52 3 0.600
15 20
10 10
1 13
2
r a d . / s e c .
0.713
15
19
5
6
1
0.803
31
5
3
11
7
1
0.887
37
2 4
15
10
6
7
1
Table VIII-1 Longitudinal force in head waves.
141
TOTAL
\ .
w
l
"2 \ ^
0.354
0.4 4 4
0.52 3
0.600
0.713
0.803
0.887
0.354 0.4 4 4 0
1 18
9
T
2
in t f/ m
2
Fr e qu e n c i e s in
.52 3 0.600
2 5 32
19 38
16 38
17
r a d . / s e c .
0.713
14
14
36
11
13
0.80 3
39
16
31
10
8
12
0.887
29
5
2 7
15
3
4
10
CONTRIBUTION I

2
\ ^
0.354
0.4 4 4
0.52 3
0.600
0.713
0.80 3
0.887
0.354 0.4 4 4
5 10
25
T .
2
in t f/ m
Fr e qu e n c i e s in
0.52 3 0.600
21 22
33 24
54 50
40
r a d . / s e c .
0.713
18
17
47
42
22
0.80 3
14
13
36
33
34
2 3
0.887
17
8
43
35
2 6
34
2 2
TOTAL - 0.4 * CONTRIBUTION I
\ " l
W
2 ^ \
0.354
0.444
0.52 3
0.600
0.713
0.80 3
0.887
0.354 0.4 4 4 0.52 3 0.600
1 2 1 17 32
1 6 30
6 19
1
T
2
in t f/ m
2
Fr e qu e n c i e s in r a d . / s e c .
0.713
16
10
19
18
5
0.803
39
12
18
13
13
2
0.887
30
5
10
6
8
9
2
Table VIII-2 Longitudinal force in bow quartering waves
142
T O T A L
\ " l
w
2 ^ \
0.354
0.444
0.52 3
0.600
0.713
0.803
0.887
0.354 0.4 4 4
1 35
5
2
T
i n
t f/ m
Fr e qu e n c i e s in
0.52 3
9
22
33
r a d ./
0.600
13
50
63
79
s e c .
0.713
34
42
3
57
91
0.803
19
69
2 4
15
58
90
0.887
2 4
116
2 1
8
6
60
95
C O N T R I B U T I O N I
* 2 ^ \
0.354
0.4 4 4
0.52 3
0.600
0.713
0.80 3
0.887
0.354 0.444
5 43
61
2
T _ in tf/ m
0.52 3
35
159
102
Fr e qu e n c i e s in r a d ./
0.600
49
4 4
165
259
s e c .
0.713
11
134
73
192
2 98
0.803
17
41
26
50
221
2 97
0.887
15
79
40
41
69
2 30
309
T O T A L - 0 . 3 * C O N T R IB U T IO N I
\ .
w
l
U
2 \ .
0.354
0.444
0.52 3
0.600
0.713
0.80 3
0.887
0.354 0.4 4 4 0.52 3 0.600
0 46 6 17
13 43 47
2 15
1
2
T in tf/ m
Fr e qu e n c i e s in r a d . / s e c .
0.713
31
29
20
13
2
0.803
2 1
65
19
21
17
1
0.887
2 1
103
17
5
2 3
16
2
Table VIII-3 Transverse force in bow quartering waves.
143
TOTAL
\ * 1
W
2 ^ \
0.354
0.444
0.523
0.600
0.713
0.803
0.887
0.354 0.444
364 7085
1527
2
T
?
i n tfm/m
Fr e que nc i e s i r
0. 523
9284
16655
2554
r a d. /
0.600
8809
7551
7577
782
s e c .
0. 713
14 33
3052
5870
5124
1193
0, 803
4448
5067
2937
2363
4576
200
0. 887
2544
12269
2994
2445
3574
4998
562
CONTRIBUTION I
o _
2
^ \
0. 354
0. 444
0. 523
0. 600
0. 713
0. 803
0. 887
0. 354 0. 444
1881 1993
11633
0. 523
3637
16368
9066
2
T,
2
i n tfm/m
Fr e que nc i e s i n r a d . /
0. 600
1611
26015
5377
1909
s e c .
0. 713
3742
3456
11610
14844
4366
0. 803
1669
9644
6747
12883
13830
678
0. 887
1872
7040
2808
2498
14818
13751
1003
W
2 ^ \
0. 354
0. 444
0. 523
0. 600
0. 713
0. 803
0. 887
TOTAL - 0
0. 354 0. 444
200 7589
1963
2
T.-j i n tfm/m
Fr equenci es i n
. 3 * CONTRIBUTION I
0. 523 0. 600
8223 8634
15856 8282
166 6081
2 0 9
r a d . / s e c .
0. 713
2515
2434
2626
6 7 7
117
0. 803
3989
3250
3330
2854
1402
404
0. 887
2685
11398
2292
3146
2 861
1196
2 6 1
Table VIII-4 Yaw moment in bow quartering waves
144
Y IIIi 3
i
_G e n e r a t i o n _o f_t he _w a y e - fe e d - fo r w a r d _c
The w a v e - fe e d - fo r w a r d control signal is derived from the
continuous evaluation of the following equations for the longitu-
dinal fo r c e , the t r a n s v e r s e force and the yaw m o m e n t :
- longitudinal fo r c e :
F, (t) - C
1
/ a.pgc'
15
-n .d
1 l
WL
(VIII-1)
- transverse force:
F
2
( t ) w
"
C
2 / ^P^l^ -
n
2
WL
.d (VIII-2 )
- yaw m o m e n t :
M, (t) w -C_ / ^p gc *
1}
. (x.n, - x
9
n . ) -dA . . . . (VIII-3)
J J
W L i / z i
in which C , C and C are gain factors which express the ratio
X __1 *J
between the total wave drift forces and the contribution due t o
the relative w a v e e l e v a t i o n .
The above e qu a t i o n s contain line integrals around the water-
line which involve the geometry of the hu l l form at the w a t e r l i n e
and the instantaneous v a l u e s of the first order relative w a v e e l e -
vation. It must be remembered that C is the wave elevation as
measured relative to the v e s s e l at the w a t e r l i n e . Its value at any
p o i n t can therefore be m e a s u r e d directly by means of a wave probe
fixed to the side of the v e s s e l . This is shown in Figure V I I I - 1.
M E A N WATER LINE ON VESSEL
Fi g. VIII-1 Wa v e probe m e a s u r i n g relative wave elevation t, .
145
A n o t he r m e t ho d t o determine the relative wave elevation is
to install pressure p i c k- u p s in the side of the vessel just below
the w a t e r l i n e . The pressure variations may be easily converted into
relative w a v e elevations m a ki n g use of the fact that near the wave
surface pressure variations are due to hydrostatic e ffe c t s . For the
experiments use w a s made of wave probes fixed to the side of the
v e s s e l .
The measured relative wave elevation at a point along the
waterline contains first and higher order c o m p o n e n t s :
C
r
= C ^
1}
+ e
2
^
2 )
+ (VIII-4)
The square o f <; gi v e s :
.
r
2
= e
2
C <
1 ) 2
+ e
3
. '
11
. '
2
' + 0 ( _
4
,
+
(VIII-5)
From this it follows that the lowest order in the square of
(1)
r
involves only t as is required for the elevation of equations
r
3
(VIII-1) through (V I I I - 3 ) . Components of order e and hi ghe r are
generally small and of hi gh frequency and w i l l be neglected he r e -
after.
In irregular w a v e s the first order relative wave elevation
in a point along the w a t e r l i n e may be written a s :
C *
a )
(t) = Z ci.
1
' -cos(o) t +e . ) (VIII-6)
i=l i
Squar ing this ex pr ession gives:
ll)
2 N N
( 1) ( 1)
ZI ' ( t ) = X Z ZI ZI . c o s ( u > . t + e . ) . c os (to. t + e . )
r
i=l j=l i j i i 1 3
N N
( 1) ( 1)
= Z Z %c; ' CJ .
X )
. c os{ ( w. - u . ) t + ( e. - e . ) } +
i - l 3 =1 i j i J i - 3
N N
( 1) ( 1)
+ 2 Z ^C;
}
K1
}
. c o s { ( u , + u . ) t + (EX + e . ) }
i =l j = l
r
i
r
j ! 3 - i - 3
( VI I I - 7)
146
This shows that the square of the measured wave elevation will in
general contain mean and low frequency components corresponding to
the difference frequencies and high frequency components correspond-
ing to the sum frequency of the frequency components in equation
(VIII-6) . In Figure VIII-2 time records of ci M t ) and the square
(1.
of C (t) are shown schematically. In this figure the dotted line
indicates the low frequency part of the square of the wave eleva-
tion.
. < t )
Fig. VIII-2 Relative wave elevation and square of relative wave
elevation.
For the model tests equations (VIII-1) through (VIII-3) were
evaluated by replacing the integrals by simple summations of the
following type:
K
F.(t) - C . _ . p g
C r n
X t ) . n .
n
. A .
n
n=l
(VIII-8)
1 Al
K
F
2
(t ) - C
2
I kpgZ
rn
(t) -n . A
n
n =l
(V I I I - 9)
M-, (t) ft* - C .
in w hi c h
K
i n d e x n
X
l n '
X
2 n
M
n
n , , Pr,
I n ' 2 n
K
Z
n=l
^pgc
(t) . (x, n~ - X . n , ) . AJt
rn In 2n 2n In n
(VIII-10)
= number of w a v e probes
= d e n o t e s wave probe under consideration
= m e a s u r e d relative wave elevation of n wave probe
= c o - o r d i n a t e s of n w a v e probe and the centre of a
straight line element approximating the local w a t e r -
line form
= length of n waterline element
th
= direction cosines of the n
C , C , C^ = gain fa c t o r s .
waterline element
For the m o d e l tests e i ght wave probes were used. The position of
the w a v e probes are shown in Figure V I I I - 3 . Equation (VIII-8)
through e qu a t i o n (VIII-10) w e r e evaluated continually by means of
an analog c o m p u t e r .
WA V E PROBE
SERVO UNIT
WAVE A N D
CURRENT
DIRECTION
Fig. VIII-3 Position of w a v e probes measuring relative w a v e ele-
v a t i o n .
148
From equation (VIII-7) it will be clear that the output of
the control signals as generated by equations (VIII-8) through
(VIII-10) will contain mean and low frequency components correspond-
ing to the difference frequencies of the irregular waves and high
frequencies corresponding to the sum frequencies of the irregular
waves. As indicated in the introduction of this chapter thruster
control signals may not contain high frequencies from the point of
view of wear and tear of mechanical components. The wave-feed-for-
ward thrust control signals must therefore be filtered to eliminate
the high frequencies which in this case are sum frequencies. As was
already indicated in the introduction care must be taken to select
an analog filter which, while removing the sum frequency component,
does not cause appreciable phase lag in the low frequency compo-
nents. With this type of signal this does not form a problem be-
cause the high frequencies are in the order of twice the wave fre-
quencies. This means that the demands placed on the filter are more
easily met in this case than in the case of a normal feed-back con-
trol system based on the position error signal. In such cases the
high frequencies coincide with the wave frequencies.
The amplitude and phase characteristics of the analog filter
through which the wave-feed-forward signals generated by equations
(VIII-8) through (VIII-10) were passed are given in Figure VIII-4 .
From this figure it is seen that the phase lag remains less than
45 degrees for frequencies up to 0.21 rad./ sec. full scale. The
spectra of the irregular waves in which model tests were carried
out are given in Figure VIII-5. From this figure it can be deduced
that the sum frequency components in the unfiltered wave-feed-for-
ward signals range from about 0.6 rad./ sec. upwards, which is twice
the lowest frequencies present in the irregular waves with the
longest mean period. The amplitude of the filter has at this fre-
quency reduced to 50%. For the wave spectrum with the lowest mean
period the sum frequency components have frequencies higher than
1.0 rad./ sec. At this frequency the filter amplitude is 4 0%.
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FREQUENCY in rad. secr
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FREQUENCY in rad.sec.-
1
Fig. VIII-6 Low-pass frequency characteristic of the d a m p i n g term,
The part of the control signal w hi c h was proportional t o the d i s -
placement remained u n fi l t e r e d . The contribution of this part to the
total feed-back control signal w a s weak and mainly served to limit
the mean displacement of the v e s s e l .
The overall characteristics of the feed-back control system
w e r e such that high d a m p i n g w a s achieved in the low frequency r e -
gion only. The ho r i zo n t a l m o t i o n s of the vessel in still water
after an initial d i s p l a c e m e n t out of the equilibrium position are
given in Figure V III- 7 and demonstrate the high damping introduced
by the feed-back system. D u r i n g the tests which were a l l carried
out in irregular w a v e s the feed-back system parameters remained
unchanged, except for the test in head seas (180 ) where the d a m p -
ing for surge motion w a s reduced in order to show m o r e clearly the
effect of w a v e - fe e d - fo r w a r d .
SURGE
O L
50 100
TIME in sec.
Fig. V III- 7 Surge m o t i o n decay after an initial displacement in
still w a t e r .
For each sea condition a model test was carried out twice
in the same wave train, once with and once without the wave-feed-
forward control signals. A block diagram of the control system is
shown in Figure VIII-8.
WAVE
FEED
FORWARD
SERVO
SYSTEMS
WAVES
-0
VESSEL
POSITION
FEED-BACK
CONTROLLER
Fig. VIII-8 Block diagram of dynamic positioning system.
The values of the gain factors C , C and C-. of the wave-feed-for-
ward signals were adjusted on a trial and error basis as at the
time of execution of model tests it was not possible to predict
these values on the basis of computations. Due to limitation in
the test set-up it also was not possible to determine afterwards
which value had actually been used.
V I I I . 5. Model tests
V I I I . 5. 1. General
The m o d e l tests w e r e carried out in irregular waves for the
following sea c o n d i t i o n s :
- In head w a v e s (180) w i t h a significant wave height of 4.9 m and
a mean period of 10.2 sec.
- In b o w qu a r t e r i n g w a v e s (135 ) w i t h a significant w a v e he i ght of
4.9 m and a mean period of 10.2 sec. with and without a current
of 1 knot from 45 d e gr e e s .
- In b o w quartering w a v e s (135 ) w i t h a significant w a v e he i ght of
2.6 m and a m e a n period of 8.2 sec.
The spectra of the irregular w a v e s are shown in Figure V I I I - 5. The
w a v e and current d i r e c t i o n s are defined in Figure V I I I - 3 .
During a m o d e l t e s t , w hi c h w a s carried out for a time d u r a -
tion corresponding to 35 m i n u t e s full s c a l e , the s u r ge , sway and
y a w motions and the t o t a l longitudinal and transverse forces and
y a w moment exerted on the v e s s e l by the servo units were measured
and recorded on F.M .- t a p e . T he r e s u l t s of measurements w e r e a n a -
lyzed to determine the spectra of the low frequency components of
the m o t i o n s and the forces as w e l l as the mean values of the forces,
The mean values of the m o t i o n s are not of importance in this c a s e ,
since this can be easily r e c t i fi e d in reality by the inclusion of
an additional control s i gn a l based on a time integral of the d i s -
p l a c e m e n t s .
V I I I . 5. 2 . Results of tests in irregular waves
The results of the tests are presented in the form of exam-
ples of time traces of the ho r i zo n t a l motions (Figures VIII-9 and
VIII-10) and in the form of spectra of the low frequency components
of fo r c e s , m o m e n t and ho r i zo n t a l motions (Figures V III- 11 through
V I I I - 13 ) .
155
WI THOUT WAVE-FEED-FORWARD
WITH WAVE-FEED-FORWARD
5 r n r WAVE
- 2 ml -
Fig. VIII-9 Surge motions in irregular head waves. Significant
height 4.9 m.
"5 rnr WA V E
TIME in sec.
Fig. VIII-10 Sway and yaw motions in irregular bow quartering
waves. Significant height 4.9 m.
156
From the results it is seen that, except for the surge mo-
tions in bow quartering waves (135) , the low frequency parts of
the horizontal motions are significantly reduced when applying
wave-feed-forward. It appears that a reduction in the motions need
not necessarily result in a corresponding increase in the thrust
to be applied to the vessel.
The mean wave drifting forces are not affected by the con-
trol system used as is demonstrated from the results given in Fig-
ures VIII-11 through VIII-13. In Figure VIII-12 it is seen that
the low frequency component of the sway force F does not change
significantly even though the sway motion itself is considerably
smaller when using wave-feed-forward. In the same figures it is
seen that the spectral density of the yaw moment is increased. In
terms of lateral forces applied at the end of the vessel the abso-
lute value of the moment is small.
WI T HO U T WA V E - FE E D - FO R WA R D
WIT H WA V E - FE E D - FO R WA R D
C\J
S
3
x
t/)
5 -
0
' '
~ ^
x
\
SURGE
l
^LONGITUDINAL FORCE
^ A
F
1 m e a r r -
2 8 t f
^ - 1
0. 25
- 1 x1 0
4

0.25
to i n rad. sec
- 1
Li-
en
Fig. VIII-11 Spectra of low frequency surge motion and force in
irregular head waves. Significant height 4.9 m.
157
WITHOUT WAVE-FEED-FORWARD
WITH WAVE-FEED-FORWARD
v
1)
tn
CM
X
0
SURGE
SWAY
YAW
LONGITUDINAL FORCE
F
i me a n = -
1 0 t f
-12 t t
o
___ 4)
- | 1x 10
4

CM
TRANSVERSE FORCE
2 mean
YAW MOMENT
r\
j ^110 tf.m
\
\
\
3mean =\ 200 t f . m
\
\
0.25 0
CO in rad.sec.
-1
0.25
0
u
1x10^
C\J
OJ
_ 1_
u
tn
1x 10
7
E
t/)
Fi g. VI I I - 12 Spe c t r a of low f r equency f or ces and mot i ons i n i r r e g-
ul a r bow qu a r t e r i n g waves. Si g n i f i c a n t he i ght 2. 6 m.
158
WITHOUT WAVE-FEED-FORWARD
WITH WAVE -FEED-FORWARD
u
10 10
04
E
x
uo
0
u
tu
tn 1 0
CM
OO
X
if)
O
u
QJ
(0
CM
O)
OJ
TD
( 0
X
I/)
0
SURGE
SWAY
YAW
0
LONGITUDINAL FORCE
F
i m e a n -
3 8 t t
-41 tf
TRANSVERSE FORCE
YAW MOMENT
M
3 m e a n
s 2 3 6 0 t f
'
m
A
y- \
2450t f . m\
CM
1x10'
li-
1x 10
5
_
if"
10
0
u
4J
tn
o CM
2 x 1 0
b
E
CM
ro
0. 25 O
CO i n rad.sec.
- 1
0.25
0
Fi g. VI I I - 13 Spe c t r a of low f r equency f or ces and mot i ons i n i r r e g-
u l a r bow qu a r t e r i n g waves. Si g n i f i c a n t he i ght 4 . 9 m.
159
In Figures VIII-12 and VIII-13 it is seen that the surge
motion is hardly affected by wave-feed-forward. It appeared that
the damping of the low frequency surge motion was so large that the
feed-back system alone could reduce low frequency surge motions to
almost minimal values. Adding the wave-feed-forward control signal
brought about only minimal changes. The corresponding surge motion
decay test in still water is shown in Figure VIII-7, indicated by
135 , being the wave direction in the tests shown in Figure VIII-12
and Figure VIII-13. For the test in irregular head waves, shown in
Figure VIII-11, the surge motion damping was reduced (see surge
motion decay test in Figure VIII-7: 180 ) , showing more clearly the
effect of wave-feed-forward on low frequency surge motions.
VIII.5.3. .Results of tests in irregular waves and current
Tests were carried out with and without wave-feed-forward
in bow quartering irregular waves (135 ) with a significant wave
height of 4.9 m and a mean period of 10.2 sec. and a stern quarter-
ing current (45 ) of about 1 knot. The spectra of the low frequency
parts of the motions and forces are shown in Figure VIII-14. The
results are similar to the results shown in Figure VIII-13. The
irregular waves are in both cases according to the wave spectrum
given in Figure VIII-5.
The results given in Figure VIII-14 show that current does
not affect the control signal. This is to be expected since the
wave-feed-forward signal is determined from wave elevation signals
which do not change appreciably for the normal values of the cur-
rent speeds encountered. From the results it is also seen that the
low frequency forces and motions are not appreciably different
from the results given in Figure VIII-13, which indicates that the
influence of current on the low frequency wave drift forces is,
in this case, not great.
From the results of the tests in irregular waves with and
without current it appears that it is possible to reduce the low
frequency part of the sway motion by about 70% and the low frequen-
cy yaw and surge motion by about 50% through the use of wave-feed-
forward.
160
WITHOUT WAVE-FEED-FORWARD
WITH WAVE-FEED-FORWARD
CM
X
to
u
m
CM
E
CM
X
u
m
<M
O)
0)
T3
(0
X
1 0 -
0
10
0
5 -
o
-
,
X
\
SURGE
i
SWAY
1
YAW
LONGITUDINAL FORCE
F
1 me a n ="
2 4 t f
TRANSVERSE FORCE
>
F
2 m e a n
= 1 7 9 t t
\ \ 177 tt
\ \
\ \
\ N
\ s
^ - i
YAW MOMENT
M
3 m e a n = -
8 4 0 t t m
/ - 6 0 0 t t . m
zxx
0
u
Li.
10
0
0.25 0
0) in rad.sec.-
1
0.25
- 1x10'
CM
CM
LL
to
0
- 2 x10
8 CM
CM
CO
5
to
Fig. VIII-14 Spectra of low frequency forces and motions in irreg-
ular bow quartering waves and 1 knot stern quartering
current. Significant height 4.9 irt.
161
This is less than could be expected on the basis of results of com-
putations given in section 2 of this chapter. It should be borne
in mind, however, that for the experimental determination of the
wave-feed-forward signals only eight wave probes were used- It may
be expected that increasing this number will lead to more accurate
evaluation of the low frequency component of the contribution due
to the relative wave elevation, thereby increasing the accuracy
of the control signals.
Y _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . ^ _ _ : 2 G_ =i y i 2 2
In this chapter it has been shown that, as a result of the
theory developed in this study, whereby the mean and low frequency
wave drift forces on floating objects are determined through di-
rect integration of all pressure contributions to the second order
forces over the wetted part of the hull, expressions are derived
which, after numerical evaluation, lead to conclusions regarding
the applicability of hitherto unknown methods to improve the accu-
racy of dynamic positioning of vessels in waves.
It is possible to predict on the basis of the results of
computations the effectiveness of a wave-feed-forward control sig-
nal with respect to the degree in which such a signal can compen-
sate the instantaneous mean and low frequency wave drift forces
acting on a vessel. Theoretical computations can be used to deter-
mine the values of the gain factors which are inherent to the wave-
feed-forward method. The results of model tests indicate that,
even without prior knowledge of such gain factors, wave-feed-for-
ward can function effectively.
162
IX. CONCLUSIONS
As a result of the investigations presented in this study
the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. The total low frequency hydrodynamic forces acting on a vessel
in waves may be considered as the sum of two parts:
- the mean and low frequency second order wave exciting forces;
- the hydrodynamic reaction forces resulting from the low fre-
quency motions induced by the low frequency wave forces.
Furthermore the mean and low frequency second order wave exci-
ting forces are independent of the low frequency motions. The
hydrodynamic reaction forces may be expressed in terms of added
mass and damping coefficients which are determined by means of
existing linear potential theory methods (chapter III) .
2. Based on the method of direct integration of fluid pressure
acting on the instantaneous wetted part of the hull of a body
it is shown that the total second order wave exciting forces
contain five components. Four of these components may be eval-
uated using existing computation methods based on linear po-
tential theory. The fifth contribution depends on the solution
of the second order non-linear velocity potential. This con-
tribution may be approximated using results on the first order
wave exciting forces (chapters III and I V ) .
3. The second order wave exciting forces acting on a body in ir-
regular waves are the sum of second order force components due
to regular wave groups present in irregular waves. The second
order wave exciting forces may be expressed in the form of
quadratic transfer functions which may be used to compute the
second order forces in irregular waves in the frequency domain
or the time domain (chapter I V ) .
4. The comparison between results of computations using the meth-
od of direct integration of pressure and analytical results
obtained using an existing method based on energy and momentum
considerations demonstrates the equivalence of both methods
with respect to the total force (chapter V ) .
5. Except at wave frequencies and wave directions which result in
large amplitude resonant roll motions, the mean second order
horizontal wave forces and yaw moment on a tanker and a rec-
tangular barge can be predicted with good accuracy by means of
computations based on potential theory (chapter V I ) .
6. The good comparison obtained between experimental results and
computed results on the mean second order horizontal forces
and yaw moment acting on a semi-submersible and the mean sec-
ond order vertical force and pitch moment on a submerged cyl-
inder indicates that viscous effects are small even for bodies
consisting of slender elements (chapter V I ) .
7. The mean second order horizontal forces acting on surface ves-
sels such as a hemisphere, a tanker, a barge and a semi-sub-
mersible are dominated by the contribution due to the relative
wave elevation around the waterline. This contribution deter-
mines the sign of the total force. The second most important
contribution is due to the non-linear pressure contribution
in the Bernoulli equation. This contribution is generally of
the same order as the total force, but of opposite sign. The
contribution of the second order non-linear velocity potential
to the mean forces is at all times equal to zero. The remaining
two contributions, due to products of local pressure gradients
and motions and due to products of angular body motions and
inertia forces, vary in sign and are generally smaller in mag-
nitude (chapter V I ) .
8. The mean second order vertical forces on a submerged horizontal
cylinder are dominated by the non-linear pressure contribution
in the Bernoulli equation. The contribution due to products of
local pressure gradients and motions are also of importance.
Other contributions are zero or small compared to the first
two contributions (chapter V I ) .
9. The low frequency second order longitudinal force in irregular
waves on a tanker and a semi-submersible contains contributions
arising from products of first order quantities and a contri-
bution due to the second order velocity potential. The relative
importance of these contributions depends on the wave frequen-
cies and the low frequencies of interest of the second order
force. At high wave frequencies, where first order diffraction
effects are large, the low frequency forces are dominated by
contributions arising from products of first order quantities.
At low wave frequencies, where first order diffraction effects
are small, the contribution due to the second order velocity
potential is relatively of greater importance. The importance
of this contribution becomes greater as the frequency of the
second order forces increases (chapter V I I ) .
10. Existing methods for computing the low frequency second order
forces in irregular waves on floating structures, which rely
solely on the mean forces in regular waves, are applicable for
surface vessels provided that:
- the wave frequencies are sufficiently high to ensure that the
second order exciting forces are dominated by products of
first order quantities;
- the frequencies of interest of the second order forces are
low (chapter V I I ) .
11. In the case of a long submerged horizontal cylinder in beam
waves computations of the low frequency horizontal force in
irregular waves cannot be based on the mean force in regular
waves (chapter V I I ) .
12. The accuracy of station keeping of a dynamically positioned
vessel can be improved through the application of a wave-feed-
forward control signal, which is based on the relative wave
elevation measured around the vessel (chapter V III) .
APPENDIX A - COMPUTATION OF THE FIRST ORDER SOLUTION FOR THE
VELOCITY POTENTIAL AND BODY MOTIONS
I_}
t
E2 5_lH2 i2 2
This appendix gives a short account of the underlying theory
and method of computation of the first order velocity potential and
first order body motions for an arbitrarily shaped body floating
in regular, long-crested waves as given by Van Oortmerssen [A-l].
A brief review of the method is given here for the sake of com-
pleteness and due to its importance with respect to the computa-
tion of the mean and low frequency second order forces. Since this
appendix deals only with first order quantities the affix ,
which is used in the main body of this work to distinguish between
first and second order quantities, is deleted. Furthermore, in
keeping with ref. [A-l] use is made of the complex notation e
1 W
to denote oscillatory quantities instead of sin tot and cos tut.
Descrigtion_of_the_theory
First order wave loads and motions
The ship is considered as a rigid body, oscillating sinusoi-
dally about a state of rest, in response to excitation by a long-
crested regular wave. The amplitudes of the motions of the ship as
well as of the wave are supposed to be small while the fluid is
assumed to be ideal and irrotational. A right-handed, fixed system
of co-ordinates O-X.-X -X_ is defined with the origin in the mean
position of the centre of gravity of the body and the 0-X axis
4- Vi
vertically upwards. The oscillating motion of the ship in the j
mode is given by:
Xj = Cj e "
l w t
j = 1 ,6 (A-l)
in which . is the amplitude of the motion in the j mode and ta
the circular frequency. The motion variables x , x
?
and x^ stand
for the translations surge, sway and heave, while x., x
c
and x,
denote rotations around the 0-X., O-X and 0-X., axes respectively.
The free surface at great distance from the ship is defined
by:
ik(x cos a + x sin a) - ioit
C = C
Q
e (A-2)
where:
C
n
= amplitude of the wave
k = wave number = 2 TT/ A, where X is the wave length
a. ~ angle of incidence.
The flow field can be characterized by a first order veloc-
ity potential:
*(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, t) = 4i(x
1
,x
2
,x
3
) e
1U )
(A-3)
The potential function $ can be separated into contributions from
all modes of motion and from the incident and diffracted wave
fields:
<j > = ito C
0
(<t>
0
+ *
7
> " i u Z * j
C
j
( A
~
4 )
The incident wave potential is given by:
cosh k(x. +c ) ik(x. cos a + x
9
sin a)
*n = ~ vT-^3
e
(A-5)
T
0 v cosh kd
in which:
2 .
v = co /g
c = the distance from the origin to the sea bed
d = water depth
a = angle of incidence of the waves.
The cases j = 1,....,6 correspond to the potentials due to the mo-
tion of the ship in the j mode, while 4>
7
is the potential of the
diffracted waves. The individual potentials are all solutions of
the Laplace equation which satisfy the linearized free surface
condition and the boundary conditions on the sea floor, on the
body's surface and at infinity. The potential function 4> can be
represented by a continuous distribution of single sources on the
boundary surface S:
i cn
>_j (x
l f
x
2
, x
3
) = / / Pj (a
a
, a
2
, a
3
) .
Y
j (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) d S
for j = 1, 2 , - . . . , 7
(A-6)
w he r e :
Y - (x, x, x- . , a , a , a
3
) = the Green's function of a s o u r c e , singular
a., a-,, a-.
a
j
( a
i '
a
2 '
a
3
]
in a
2
, a
2
, a
3
= the vector describing S
= the complex source strength.
For the Green's function a function is chosen which s a t i s -
fies the Laplace equation and the boundary conditions on the sea
b o t t o m , in the free surface and at infinity. This function is giv-
en by (see We ha u s e n and L a i t o n e [A - 2 ]) :
v = - + + PV .
1
r r
-?d
/
2 ( + v) e .cosh (a
3
+ c) .cosh (x
3
+ c)
sinh d - v cosh d
J
0
(R ) d +
2 2
2TT (k - v ) .cosh k (a, + c) .cosh k (x + c)
+ i = ~ J
n
(kR )
k^d - v d + v
u
in which:
= \/
(x
l -
a
l
)
2
+ (x
2
- a
2
)
2
+ (x
3
- a
3
)
2
1
=
\/
(x
l -
a
l
)
2
+ (x
2
~ a
2
)
2
+ (x
3
+2 c + a
3
)
2
R ^ ( x . - a ^
2
+ U
2
- a
2
)
2
(A-7)
. . . (A-8)
John [A-33 has derived the following series for y, w hi c h is
the analogue of (A - 7 ) :
2
- k
2
Y = 2-/T
9
v
= cosh k(a + c) .cosh k(x-, + c) .
k d - v d + v
J J
i aa
4 ( y
2
+ V
2
)
{Y
Q
( kR) - i J <kR)>
+
Z
2
l
2
i = l dy. + dv - v
cos y . ( x
3
+ c ) . c o s y^ (a., + c) .K (y . R)
(A-9)
wher e y. a r e t h e p o s i t i v e s o l u t i o n s of :
Vi. t a n ( y . d ) + v = 0 ( A-10)
Although these two representations are equivalent, one of
the two may have preference for numerical computations depending
on the values of the variables. In general, equation (A-9) is the
most convenient representation for calculations. When R = 0 the
value of K becomes infinite; therefore equation (A-7) must be
used when R is small or zero.
The unknown source strength function o must be determined
such that the boundary condition on the body's surface S is ful-
filled. Due to the linearization this boundary condition is ap-
plied to the surface in its equilibrium position S
0
n
j
=
- ^
j
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) + 47 // a
j
(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) .
S
0
" 3n
Y
j'
x
l '
x
2 '
x
3 '
a
l '
a
2 '
a
3 ^
d S f o r
J
= x
' '
6
3
*0
n
j
=
' I F ^r j = 7
(A-ll)
n through n
fi
are the generalized direction cosines on S , defined
by:
169
n
1
= cos (n,x,)
n
2
= cos (n,x
2
)
n~ = cos (n,x-J
n. = x-,n-> - x,n-
4 2 3 3 2
n
5
= x
3 n i
-
X l
n
3
n
6
= x
x
n
2
- x
2
n
x
(A-12)
To solve equation (A-6) numerically the surface S is sub-
divided into a number of finite, plane elements on which the source
strength is constant. The boundary condition is applied in one con-
trol point on each element being the centre of the element. The
integral equation (A-6) then reduces to a set of algebraic equa-
tions in the unknown source strengths. In general, the Green's
function y may be computed with sufficient accuracy as if the
source strength is concentrated in the centre (control point) of
each element. When, however, the influence of an element on its
own control point is evaluated y has a singularity of the type
1/r, which can be removed by spreading the source uniformly over
the panel. When the influence of a panel on a control point, which
is at a close distance of this panel and not lying in the same
plane, is considered the source is spread uniformly and integrated
numerically to obtain its contribution to <\> or
3
3n*
After solving the equations for the source strengths the
first,'order potential function is known. The pressure on the sur-
face S can then be found from Bernoulli's theorem. The linearized
hydrodynamic pressure is given by:
p(x
n
,x~ , x
v
t ) = -p -^r =
'l'~2'~3 3t
2 2
= {pio C
0
(<J>
0
+ tj>
?
) + po) E ax C. ) e
j=l
J J
-iut
(A-13)
Subsequently, the first order wave exciting forces and moments can
be found from:
X
k
pa)
2
C
0
e"
l u t
// (
0
+*
7
)n
k
dS
S
0
(A14)
The oscillating hydrodynamic forces (k = 1, 2, 3) and moments (k
4, 5, 6) in the k direction are:
F = pto
2
Z c e'
i(iit
// *. n dS
i = i J s
1
: i s>
0
(A15)
According to common practice the hydrodynamic forces are repre
sented by means of added mass and damping coefficients:
a
k
. = p Re {jj ^ n
k
dS} (A16)
S
0
b
k j
= poo Im {// $.. n
k
dS} (A17)
S
0
where:
a, . = the added mass coefficient in the kmode due to motion in
the jmode
the dam
jmode.
b, . = the damping coefficient in the kmode due to motion in the
Finally, the motion response to first order excitation is
computed by means of the well known equations of motion in the
frequency domain:
6
2
{to (M, . + a, . ) .sin(tot + e .) + b, . . to.cos (tot + e .) +
j !
K
3 *J J
K
3 3
+ Cj . . s i n t wt + e. ) H- = X
k
si n (tot + 6
fe
)
f or k = 1 , . . . . ,6
(A-18)
i n whi ch:
X
k
= wave excited force in the k mode
__ 6
k
= phase angles.
1 *T 1
M . is an inertia m a t r i x. Since the origin of the system of axes
coincides w i t h the centre of gravity of the ship in its rest posi-
tion it is found t ha t :
M
kj
m
0
0
0
0
0
0
m
0
0
0
0
0
0
m
0
0
0 -I
64
0
0
0
0
C
5
0
0
0
0
-
J
4 6
0
I, .
: A- I 9 )
whe re:
m = mass of the ship
th
I, = m o m e n t o f inertia in the k " m o d e
I, . = product of i n e r t i a .
172
APPENDIX B - CROSS-BI-SPECTRAL ANALYSIS
Introduction
The computer program which was used to analyze the input-
output relationship between the waves (input) and the low frequency
mooring or restraining forces (output) is based on the cross-bi-
spectral method as given by Dalzell [B-l], [B-2] and [B-3]. For a
complete description of the method we refer to his works.
The intention of this appendix is to give a "feel" for the
processes involved, rather than to give a condensed version of the
specialist's point of view as given by Dalzell.
We assume that the input (wave elevation) can be written as
follows:
(1)
N
(1)
Z
}
(t) = Z z;
}
.sin(w.t + e. ) (B-l)
i =l i J-
in which:
to. = frequency in rad./ sec.
e. = random phase, uniformly distributed from 0 - 2TT
Z- = amplitude of component with frequency to.
t = time
N = a large number.
The foregoing expression represents a zero-mean, normally distri-
buted, stationary random signal. The square of the wave elevation
is:
(ll
2 N
... 7
Z
K }
(t) = { Z Ci .cos(w.t + E . ) T
i=l
x x
N N
(1) (1)
= Z Z c- z\ .costto.t +e . ) .cos(io.t +e.)
i=l j=l
x J
i i 3 3
N N
= J l jl ^^C^cosUto.to.Jt + (Sij)) +
N N
(1) (1)
+ Z Z JfcJ t\ .cos{(to + to.)t + (e. + E . ) }
i=l j=l
J J x
J
(B2)
The low frequency part of the square of the wave elevation is:
2 N N
C
low
(t) = Z S
%ci
1,
C_{
1,
.cos{(io
i
<o.)t + ( E . E , ) }
i=l j=l
J J J
(B3)
It is assumed that the output (wave drift force or moment) contains
only low frequencies and is closely related to the low frequency
part of the square of the wave elevation:
N N
F
(2)
(t) = Z Z C.
(1)
c(
1)
P.,.cos{(to. to,)t + (E. E , ) } +
i=l j=i i j ij J J J
N N
(l) (1)
+ Z I Z\
}
Z\
1J
Q.,.sin{(to. to.)t + (e. .)}
i=l j = i J j LJ J j J J
(B4)
in which P.. and Q. are inphase and outof phase quadratic trans
fer functions dependent on the frequencies to. and to..
The problem is to determine P.. and Q.. for arbitrary val
J-J / j v i j
ues of to. and to. given that the input ? (t) and the output
(2)
x
^
F (t) are only known as time records. The ouput is a signal with
low frequency oscillatory components.
From equation (B4) it can be shown that the time record of
(2)
any component of F (t) with chosen frequency Aw is the sum of
contributions from components of which the difference frequencies
are equal to the chosen frequency Aio:
( 2)
N
( l ) . ( D
*' ( t ) = Z C-

' C-
i
' P- . - ; - cos {AOt + (E. - - ) } +
to . _ . i J J-3 J - J
N
+
Z c |
1 }
C-
1 )
Q
i
- - si n{At ot + ( ^ - E j ) )
(B-5)
i n which i and j ar e chosen such t h a t :
to. - to. = Ato (B-6)
Equation (B-5) becomes:
r N
F<
2 }
(
Ato
t) = [ Z c f^C ^^P i j. C O S t E . - E j) +
+ Q
x
< .sintE^ -Ej) } cos Atot +
f Z C ^d ^Q ^. c o s . E . - E . )
L
i=l J J J
- P ^. s i n . E . - E . ) } sin Atot
(B-7)
From equation (B-7) it can be seen that the amplitude of a fr e qu e n -
(2 .
cy component of F
v
'(t) contains information on a range of P.. and
Q.. v a l u e s . It is n o t p o s s i b l e to determine the value of individ-
ual P..*s or Q..'s from the s i gn a l . This is a result of the fact
that F
v
' (t) is a d o u b l e s u m m a t i o n . The foregoing indicates that
in order to determine the qu a d r a t i c transfer functions for required
combinations of to. and to. it is necessary to find a way t o e xt r a c t
from the time record of the output information which is essentially
in the form of a single summation of oscillatory components w i t h
amplitudes w hi c h are in themselves not a summation o f c o m p o n e n t s .
For i n s t a n c e , it is p o s s i b l e to generate a time signal U (t ) of the
following t y p e :
175
N
Utt) = I U ..cos{ {ta

-to. )t + (^-e. )} (B-8)

i=l
1
3 J J
where:
ta. + to - = to, = some chosen fixed frequency
EX , ex = random phases of i and j frequency components of
wave elevations of equation (B-l) .
(2)
If the signal is cross-correlated with the output F (t) of equa-
tion (B-4) it follows that:
i
+ T / 2
e>\
Rp
n
(T) = Iim i / U(t) . F
u
'(t +x) dt (B-9)
tU
T-*
l
-T/2
(2)
By this operation only those components of F (t) will be identi-
fied Which correspond with the components of equation (B-8) . Con-
tributions from all other components will disappear since they are
not correlated to the components of U (t ) .
The actual computation of the transfer functions starts with
a transformation of the input signal C(t) according to:
+ T
m
/ cos to
k
x.C
(1)
(t - T ) - C
( 1 )
(t +t) dT (B-10)
~
T
m
This represents the Fourier transformation of the product:
.
( 1 )
( _ - . ) . .
( 1 ,
( t
+
. ,
in which:
T = time shift
co
k
= some chosen fixed frequency
T = maximum time shift (maximum number of lags multiplied by
sampling interval) .
It will be clear that the output is a function of the chosen fre-
quency to
k
and time t. Substitution of the expression (B-l) for the
wave elevation gives the following result for the inner product:
176
C
( l )
(tT).C
U )
(t
+
t) =
N N
(1) (1)
Z Z .
i;
G .COS{li). (t T) + . }.COS{(0. (t +T) + E . }
i=l i=i
1 3 J J
N N
(D.d)
I hzl t\ .cos{ (to

+to.)x + {ta

to. )t +
i=l j = l * J J
+ (_E. E X) } + high frequency components
(Bll)
Mu l t i p l i c at i o n by cos OXT g i v e s :
CO S ( O
k
T . C
U )
( t - T ) . C
U )
Ct + T ) =
N N
= Z Z hZ
(1)
c i
1 }
. c o s [ { i o , - (to. + C O . ) } T + (to. - t o . ) t +
. . i J " J - J J - J
i =l j =l
J
J J
+
(. E X) ]
+
high frequency components
(B12)
Disregarding the high frequency components expression (B10) be
comes :
N N
(1) (1)
Z Z hz C
U,
.cos{((o. u>.)t +
i=l j=l
x D J
m
+ ...)} / COS{(0 ((0. + tO. ) }T.dT +
1 J K 1 J
"
T
m
N N
(1) (1)
Z Z ^C C. sin{ (to. to.)t +
i=l j=l
x J J
m
+ (ex ) } / sin {to, (to. + to.) }T .dT
J __
K
J J
m
(B13)
I n s p e c t i o n o f t hi s e xp r e s s i o n s ho w s t ha t t he c o n t r i b u t i o n s w hi c h
a r i s e fo r t he c a s e s t ha t to. = to. + to. w i l l d o m i n a t e , s o t ha t t he
K 1 J
o u t c o m e i s o f t he fo l l o w i n g t y p e :
N
2x
(l).(D
m
)}
J
x
^i C ^i
fk)
- c o 8{(
U i
-
U j(i # k)
) t
+
U

-
j ( i f l c )
(B - 14 )
T he o u t c o m e i s a s i gn a l w hi c h c o n t a i n s o n l y t ho s e d i ffe r e n c e fr e -
qu e n c y c o m p o n e n t s o f t he w a v e e l e v a t i o n w hi c h ha v e a s s u m fr e qu e n c y :
to
k
= to.
+
to.
(B - 15)
w hi c h i s w ha t w a s n e e d e d i n o r d e r t o b e a b l e t o i d e n t i fy c o r r e s p o n d -
( 2)
i n g c o m p o n e n t s i n t he o u t p u t F
v
' (t ) . T he a b o v e e xp r e s s i o n a p p e a r s
t o i n c r e a s e a s x i n c r e a s e s . It m u s t b e r e m e m b e r e d , ho w e v e r , t ha t
m
t he p r o c e s s e s i n v o l v e d a r e s t o c ha s t i c . T he o u t p u t o f t he a b o v e e x-
p r e s s i o n i s fi n i t e .
S o m e e xa m p l e s a r e gi v e n o f t he o u t p u t o f t he a b o v e e xp r e s -
s i o n i n Fi gu r e B - 2 . T he i n p u t i s t he w a v e e l e v a t i o n o f w hi c h t he
o r d i n a r y w a v e s p e c t r u m i s gi v e n i n Fi gu r e B - l . T he o u t p u t o f e x-
p r e s s i o n (B - 14 ) i s gi v e n fo r t hr e e v a l u e s o f t he s u m fr e qu e n c y to,.
10
u
ffl
C M .
E
(/)
w1/
3
"5. 5m
T =12 sec.
~ ^
z
0.5
U) in rad.sec-*
1
1.0
Fi g. B - l Wa v e s p e c t r u m .
178
+1
m
/ c o s co
k
x ( t - x ) . ( t *x) dx
-x m
0)
u
= 0.8 rad.secr
1
-15 m sec.
L
t u
k
= 1.2 rad.sec;
-1
15 m
2
sec. r-
-15 m
2
sec. -
-2 mL
WAVE ( t )
O 100
TIME in sec.
Fi g. B-2 Time r ecor ds of wave and t r ansf or med wave
179
From the plots given in Figure B2 it is seen that the mid
dle value of the sum frequency results in a signal which contains
large amplitude low frequency components and that the other to, val
ues result in signals with much less low frequency components. This
is explained by examination of the wave spectrum given in Figure
Bl. From this figure it can be deduced that the low frequency part
of the square of the wave elevation, which is related to the occur
rence of wave groups, has little energy for the highest and lowest
sum frequencies since in those cases the spectral density of the
waves and consequently the amplitude of wave groups is smaller than
for the middle value of to, .
This operation results in a signal which for arbitrary sum
frequency to, supplies the time record containing the low frequency
part of the square of the wave elevation (only for those difference
frequencies which have to, as sum frequency) . This solves the prob
lem of determining the transfer functions P. . and CL: By perform
ing crosscorrelation between this signal and the low frequency
output only those frequency components of the output corresponding
to the input will be identified. This means that the crosscorre
lation function contains only information for those combinations
of to. and to. which have co. as sum frequency. The final result after
1 3 K
Fourier transformation of the crosscorrelation function is the
crossspectrum of the transformed input and output or, in cross
bispectral terminology, the crossbispectrum of input, input and
output. The crossbispectrum is valid for the chosen sum frequen
cy ta, and contains information for the range of difference frequen
cies from zero upwards. Any chosen difference frequencies contain
information on the transfer function P.. and Q.. for unique values
of to. and to.. The values of the transfer functions are finally de
termined from the following type of expression:
GU
i '
u
j s ^ v i . . )
(B
-
16)
h 1 Z J
where:
C
F
(to
i
,io.) = crossbispectrum of inputinputoutput
S ((D.) = wave spectrum (scalar spectrum)
G(to
i
,to.) = quadratic transfer function of output.
180
The afore given explanation on the cross-bi-spectral analy-
sis method can be used to indicate how the computational method
can be altered in order to save computation time and increase the
accuracy for identifying the quadratic transfer fiinction for the
low frequency wave drift forces.
Since we are restricting ourselves to low frequencies in the
output the computations which take place after the initial trans-
formation of the input (see equation (B-10)) can be performed using
a considerably increased sampling interval. This can be done after
the output of the transformation examples, which are given in Fig-
ure B-2 , are low-pass filtered. Subsequent computation of cross-
correlation functions between the transformed input and the output
can be carried out using a greater value of the maximum time shift
between the signals thus allowing for potentially more accurate
determination of the quadratic transfer functions for very low fre-
quencies.
Analysis_of_model_tests_with_the_tanker_and^
The duration of tests in irregular waves with the model of
the tanker corresponded to 210 minutes full scale. The input (wave)
and output (forces) records were sampled at 0.8 sec. intervals.
The bi-spectral analysis of the digitized data were carried out
using 75 lags for the cross-correlation functions. In the analysis
the above described process by which the sampling interval is in-
creased was not applied.
The duration of the tests with the semi-submersible corre-
sponded with 360 minutes full scale. The time records of input and
output were digitized using a sampling interval of 1.5 sec. full
scale. The number of lags used for the cross-correlations amounted
to 30. After the initial transformation of the input (see equation
(B-10) ) , the transformed input and the output were low-pass fil-
tered and the remaining computations were carried out using 30 lags
and a sampling interval corresponding to 7.5 sec. full scale.
181
REFERENCES (CHAPTER I)
[I-l] Verhagen, J.H.G. and Van Sluijs, M.F.: "The low frequency
drifting force on floating bodies in waves", International
Shipbuilding Progress, Vol. 17, No. 188, April 1970.
[1-2] Hsu, F.H. and Blenkarn, K.A.: "Analysis of peak mooring
forces caused by slow vessel drift oscillations in random
seas". Paper N o . 1159, O.T.C., Houston, 1970.
[1-3] Remery, G.F.M. and Hermans, A.J.: "The slow drift oscilla-
tions of a moored object in random seas". Paper No. 1500,
O . T . C , Houston, 1971.
[1-4] Bhattacharyya, Rameswhar: "Dynamics of marine vehicles",
Wiley Series on Ocean Engineering, 1978.
[1-5] Kuo, C., Lee, A., Welya, Y. and Martin, J.: "Semi-submers-
ible intact stability-static and dynamic assessment and
steady tilt in waves". Paper No. 2 976, O . T . C , Houston,
1977.
[1-6] Sjouke, J. and Lagers, G.: "Development of dynamic posi-
tioning", Paper No. 1498, O . T . C , Houston, 1971.
[1-7] Sugiura, M., Nekado, Y. and Matsui, M.: "An experiment of
the dynamic positioning system of a semi-submersible plat-
form", Interocean, 1973.
[1-8] Tamehiro, M., Akasaka, N., Kasai, H. and Miwa, E.: "On
dynamic positioning system design in particular reference
to the positional signal filtering technique", J.S.N.A.
Japan, V o l . 14 2 , 1977.
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waves", N.S.M.B. Publication No. 510, 1976.
1 flO
[1-10] Aral, S., Nakado, Y. and Takagi, M.: "Study on the motion
of a moored vessel among the irregular waves", J.S.N.A.
Japan, Vol. 140, 1976.
I ft-.
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s e a s ", International Shipbuilding P r o gr e s s , V o l . 4 ,
N o . 3 5. 1957 .
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[II-3] D a l ze l l , J.F.: "Application of the fundamental polynomial
m o d e l to the ship added resistance problem". Eleventh
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L o n d o n , 1976.
[II-4] S u y e hi r o , K.: "The drift of ships caused by rolling among
w a v e s ". T r a n s . IN A , V o l . 66 (pp 60- 7 6) , 192 4 .
[II-5] Wa t a n a b e , Y.: "Some contribution to the theory of r o l l i n g",
T r a n s . I N A , V o l . 80 (pp 4 08- 4 3 2 ) , 1938.
[II-6] Ha v e l o c k, T.H.: "The drifting force on a ship among w a v e s ".
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nal of Ship R e s e a r c h, V o l . 4 , N o . 3, December i 960.
[II-8] Ku d o u , K.: "The drifting force acting on a t hr e e - d i m e n -
sional body in w a v e s ", J.S.N.A. Ja p a n , V o l . 14 1, 197 7 .
[II-9] N e w m a n , J.N.: "The drift force and moment on ships in
w a v e s ", Jo u r n a l of Ship Research, V o l . 11, N o . 1, M a r c h
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[11-10] S p e n s , P.G. and L a l a n ga s , P.A.: "Measurements of the mean
lateral force and yawing moment on a series 60 m o d e l in
oblique regular w a v e s ", Davidson L a b o r a t o r y , R e p o r t 880,
June 1962 .
i ft/ i
[11-11] Faltinsen, O.M. and Michelsen, F.: "The motions of large
structures in waves at zero Froude number". Symposium on
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London, 19 74 .
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O . T . C , Houston, 1979.
[11-13] Kim, C.H. and Chou, F.: "Prediction of drifting force and
moment on an ocean platform floating in oblique waves",
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1973.
[11-14] Faltinsen, O.M. and L^ken, A.E.: "Drift forces and slowly
varying forces on ships and offshore structures in waves",
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[11-15] Joosen, W.P.A.: "Added resistance of ships in waves".
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[11-16] Lee, C M . and Newman, J.N. : "The vertical force and moment
of submerged bodies under waves". Journal of Ship Research,
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[11-17] Karppinen, T.: "An approach to computing the second order
steady forces on semi-submerged structures", Report N o . 16,
Ship Hydrodynamics Laboratory, Helsinki University of
Technology, 19 79.
[11-18] Lin, W. C and Reed, A.: "The second order steady force and
moment on a ship moving in an oblique seaway". Eleventh
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[11-19] Gerritsma, J. and Beukelman, W.: "Analysis of the resis-
tance increase in waves of a fast cargo ship", Report No.
334 , Laboratorium voor Scheepsbouwkunde, Technical Univer-
sity of Delft, 1971.
[11-20] Kaplan, P. and Sargent, T.P.: "Motions of offshore struc-
tures as influenced by mooring and positioning systems",
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[11-21] Ogilvie, T.F.: "First and second order forces on a cyl-
inder submerged under a free surface". Journal of Fluid
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[11-22] Goodman, T.R.: "Forces on a hovering slender body of
revolution submerged under a free surface", Developments
in Mechanics, Pergamon Press, New York, 1965.
[11-23] Salvesen, N.: "Second order steady state forces and mo-
ments on surface ships in oblique regular waves", Sym-
posium on the Dynamics of Marine Vehicles and Structures
in Waves, London, 1974.
[11-24] Dalzell, J.F. and Kim, C.H.: "Analytical investigation of
the quadratic frequency response for added resistance",
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[11-25] Ankudinov, V.K.: "Non-periodical forces and moments on a
ship in waves". International Shipbuilding Progress, Vol.
16, No. 179, 1969.
[11-26] Ankudinov, V.K.: "The added resistance of a moving ship
in waves", International Shipbuilding Progress, Vol. 19,
No. 2 2 0, 1972.
[11-27] Boese, P.: "Eine einfache Methode zur berechnung der
Widerstandserhohung eines Schiffes im Seegang", Schiffs-
technik, Ed. 17, 1970.
[11-28] Pinkster, J.A.: "Low frequency second order wave forces
on vessels moored at sea". Eleventh Symposium on Naval
Hydrodynamics, University College, London, 19 76.
[11-2 9] P i n ks t e r , J.A. and V a n O o r t m e r s s e n , G. : "Computation o f
the first and second order wave forces on bodies o s c i l -
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varying ho r i zo n t a l forces on ships in w a v e s ", Timman Sym-
posium on A p p l i e d M a t he m a t i c s , D e l ft , 1978.
[11-32 ] Fa l t i n s e n , O.M. and LjzSken, A . E . : "Slow drift oscillations
on a ship in irregular w a v e s ", Journal of A p p l i e d R e s e a r c h,
N o . 1, 1979.
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forces on m o o r e d structures in w a v e s ". Fifth International
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[11-34 ] P i n ks t e r , J.A.: "Wave drifting forces", Proceedings o f
WE G E M T , A a c he n , 19 7 9.
[11-35] P i n ks t e r , J.A.: "Mean and low frequency w a v e drifting
forces on floating s t r u c t u r e s ", Ocean E n gi n e e r i n g, October
1979.
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tion of ship m o t i o n by Eulerian Hydrodynamic T e c hn i qu e s ",
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of two s e m i - s u b m e r s i b l e platform types in regular and i r -
regular w a v e s ", P a p e r N o . 2 97 7 , O . T . C , Ho u s t o n , 197 7 .
[11-38] Wahab, R.: "Wave induced motions and drift forces on a
floating structure". Report No. 1865, Netherlands Ship
Research Centre, TNO, Delft, 1974.
[11-39] Huse, E.: "Wave induced mean force of platform in direc-
tion opposite to wave propagation", Interocean, 1976.
REFERENCES (CHAPTER III)
[III-l] Stoker, J.J.: "Water waves", Interscience Publishers Inc.,
New York, 1957.
[III-2] Van Oortmerssen, G.: "The motions of a moored ship in
waves", N.S.M.B. Publication No. 510, 1976.
[III-3] Joseph, D.D.: "Domain perturbations: the higher order
theory of infinitesimal water waves", Archive for Rational
Mechanics and Analysis, Vol. 51 (pp 2 95-303) , 1973.
iftq
REFERENCES (CHAPTER IV)
[IV-1] B o r e e l , L.J.: "Wave action on large offshore s t r u c t u r e s ",
Conference on Offshore S t r u c t u r e s , Institute o f Civil
E n gi n e e r s , L o n d o n , 19 7 4 .
[IV-2 ] Van O o r t m e r s s e n , G.: "The motions of a moored ship in
w a v e s ", N .S .M .B . Publication N o . 510, 1976.
[IV-3] B o w e r s , E . C . : "Long period oscillation of moored ships
subject to short w a v e s e a s ", Paper presented to R.I.N.A.,
A u gu s t 19 7 5.
[IV-4 ] Fa l t i n s e n , O.M. and Ljbken, A . E . : "Slow drift oscillations
on a ship in irregular w a v e s ". Journal of Applied R e s e a r c h,
N o . 1, 1979.
[IV-5] V u gt s , J.H.: "The hydrodynamic coefficients for s w a y i n g,
heaving and rolling cylinders in a free s u r fa c e ", Report
N o . 194 , L a b o r a t o r i u m voor S c he e p s b o u w ku n d e , D e l ft , 1968.
[IV-6] D a v e n p o r t , Jr . , W. B . and R o o t , W. L . : "An introduction t o
the theory of random signals and n o i s e ", M c G r a w - Hi l l ,
New Y o r k, 1958.
[IV-7] D a l ze l l , J.F.: "Application of the fundamental p o l y n o m i a l
m o d e l t o the ship added resistance problem". E l e v e n t h
Symposium on N a v a l Hy d r o d y n a m i c s , University C o l l e ge ,
L o n d o n , 19 76.
190
REFERENCES (CHAPTER V )
[V-l] Ku d o u , K.: "The drifting force acting on a three-dimen-
sional body in w a v e s ", J.S.N.A. Ja p a n , V o l . 14 1, 1977.
[V-2 ] M a r u o , H.: "The d r i ft of a body floating in w a v e s ", Jo u r -
n a l of Ship R e s e a r c h, V o l . 4 , N o . 3, December 1960.
[V-3] S a l v e s e n , N . : "Second order steady state forces and m o m e n t s
on surface ships in oblique regular w a v e s ". Symposium on
the Dynamics of M a r i n e Vehicles and Structures in Wa v e s ,
L o n d o n , 197 4 .
REFERENCES (CHAPTER VII)
[VII-1] Dalzell, J.F.: "Application of the fundamental polynomial
model to the ship added resistance problem", Eleventh
Symposium on Naval Hydrodynamics, University College,
London, 19 76.
[VII-2] Pinkster, J.A.: "Low frequency phenomena associated with
vessels moored at sea". Paper SPE 4837, European Spring
Meeting of SPE-AIME, Amsterdam, 1974.
REFERENCES (CHAPTER VIII)
[VIII-1] Balchen, J. C , Jenssen, N.A. and Sealid, S. : "Dynamic
positioning using Kalman filtering and optimal control
theory", Automation in Offshore Oil Field Operation,
North Holland Publishing Co., 1976.
[VIII-2] Sjouke, J. and Lagers, G.: "Development of dynamic posi-
tioning". Paper No. 1498, O . T . C , Houston, 19 71.
REFERENCES (APPENDIX A)
[A-l] Van O o r t m e r s s e n , G.z " The motions of a moored ship in
w a v e s ", N . S . M . B . Publication N o . 510, 1976.
[A-2 ] We ha u s e n , J.V. and L a i t o n e , E.V.: "Handbuch der P hy s i k",
V o l . 9, Springer V e r l a g, Berlin, 1960.
[A-3] Jo hn , F.: "On the motions of floating b o d i e s ", Comm. on
Pure and A p p l i e d M a t he m a t i c s , Part I: 2 , 1949 and Part
I I : 3, 1950.
REFERENCES (APPENDIX B)
[B-l] D a l ze l l , J.F.: "Application of cross-bi-spectral analysis
to ship resistance in w a v e s ", Report S IT - D L - 7 2 - 1606, D a v i d -
son L a b o r a t o r y , Stevens Institute of T e c hn o l o gy , 1972 .
[B-2 ] D a l ze l l , J.F.: "Some additional studies of the application
of cross-bi-spectral analysis to ship resistance in w a v e s ",
Report SIT-DL-72 -16 4 1, Davidson Laboratory, Stevens In s t i -
tute of T e c hn o l o gy , 19 7 2 .
[B-3] D a l ze l l , J.F.: "The applicability of the functional p o l y -
nomial input-output m o d e l to ship resistance in w a v e s ".
Report S I T - D L - 7 5- 17 94 , Davidson Laboratory, Stevens In s t i -
tute of T e c hn o l o gy , 1975.
NOMENCLATURE
Lffix
(0 J
'
(1)
'
(2)
'
(3)
affix denotes whether a quantity is of first,
second, third order, etc.
A. . , B. . , C .
13' 13' 13
C.t)
F
l '
F
2'
F
3
= (2) =(2) =(2
F
l '
F
2 '
F
3
(2)
Gx
r
x
2
x
3
o-x
r
x
2
-x
3
GX X_ Xj
4'
46
V h
coefficients dependent on wave frequencies
to. and to .
pressure contribution independent of the co
ordinates of the point under consideration
force vector relative to the GX'X'Xl sys
tem of axes
components of the force vector
mean values of the second order force compo
nents
centre of gravity of a body
complex quadratic transfer function
body axes with origin in centre of gravity G,
x.axis positive in forward direction, xaxis
positive to port side and x.axis positive up
wards
fixed system of axes with origin in the mean
free surface, Xaxis and Xaxis in the hor
izontal plane and Xaxis positive vertically
upwards
system of axes with origin in centre of grav
ity of the body and axes parallel to OX.X
X system of axes
mass moment of inertia matrix
0
I
I
0
I,
46
46 "
A
6
mass moments of inertia of the body about the
Gx , Gx and Gx
3
axes respectively
product of inertia

length of a vessel or cylinder
M
M
M ., M-, M
3
N
*__ Qi j
T. .
13
S
s
o
dS
V
WL
X
X
l '
X
2 '
X
3
X
V , V
v
2
PV
A
X*
m a s s m a t r i x
m 0 0
0 m 0
0 0 m
m o m e n t vector relative to the G-X'-X'-X' s y s -
tem of axes
components of the moment vector
outward pointing normal vector of a point on
the surface of a body relative to the 0-X -
X
2 ~
X
3
o r G _ X
l ~
X
2 ~
X
3
s v s t e m s o f
axes
components of the quadratic transfer function
d e p e n d e n t on to. and to.
amplitude of the quadratic transfer function
dependent on to. and to.
w a v e spectrum
total wetted surface of the hull
mean w e t t e d surface of the hull
surface element of S or S
velocity vector relative to fixed system of
axes
static or mean waterline on the hull of a body
p o s i t i o n vector relative to the fixed system
of axes
components of X
p o s i t i o n of the centre of gravity of the body
relative to the fixed system of axes
vector operator
volume of the mean submerged p a r t of a body
Laplace operator
Principle V a l u e
area o f waterline of a sphere
position vector relative to the G-X!-X'-X'
system of axes
a radius o f sphere
d r a d i u s of cylinder
e 2 .718 (constant of natural logarithm)
g constant of gravity
(2)
g second order impuls response function
h w a t e r depth
i / =T
k w a v e n u m b e r = 2TT/ A
d line element of the waterline
m mass of body in vacuum
rrx area of wave spectrum
n outward pointing normal vector of a point on
the body relative to the body axes G - x
1
~x - x
3
n . , n
?
, n.. components of n
n
i i '
f
i i coefficients depending on to. and to-
p pressure
t time
u amplitude of an oscillatory quantity
a
x p o s i t i o n vector of a point on the hu l l of the
body relative to the body axes
x., x
?
, x-. components of x
a chapter V I : angle of mooring line
appendix A : angle of incidence of w a v e s ;
0 represents stern w a v e s , 90
represents waves from starboard
beam and 180 represents head waves
a angular motion vector
6 m o o r i n g line angle
F a small quantity << 1
E_. random phase angle of i frequency component
i a ft
phase angle between wave and some oscillatory
quantity u
Z wave elevation
C wave amplitude of a regular wave
a
Z relative wave elevation
C. amplitude of i frequency component
Z , /j significant wave height
T mean wave period
A wave length
A nondimensional frequency
y frequency of low frequency part of the second
order forces
p mass density of water
x time lag
$ velocity potential dependent on coordinates
and time t
<J> part of velocity potential independent of
time
to wave frequency
th r
t o . 1 frequency component
a source strength
y Green's function
a.., a added mass fpr surge and heave motions
k*il' ^33 damping for surge and heave motions
x , xJ , xJ: first order surge, sway and heave motions
x. , x, , x first order roll, pitch and yaw motions
SUMMARY
In this thesis the mean and low frequency second order wave
drift forces on bodies moored or stationed in waves are analyzed.
Expressions are derived for the second order forces based on direct
integration of pressure acting on the wetted part of the body. It
is shown that the second order forces in irregular waves may be
determined from knowledge of the mean forces in regular waves and
the low frequency forces in regular wave groups.
In order to calculate the mean and low frequency forces on
bodies of arbitrary shape use is made of a three-dimensional linear
potential theory computer program. The form of the body is approx-
imated by a distribution of plane facet elements representing a
source distribution. For a hemisphere the results of computations
of the mean second order horizontal forces in regular waves are
compared with analytical results. This comparison demonstrates the
accuracy of the computations and the equivalence of the expressions
for the second order forces developed in this thesis with respect
to an already existing expression based on momentum and energy con-
siderations.
In order to demonstrate the validity of the present theory
with respect to realistic hull forms, results of computations of
the mean second order forces in regular waves are compared with
results of experiments on a tanker, a semi-submersible, a rectan-
gular barge arid a submerged horizontal cylinder.
For the first three hull forms the mean horizontal forces
are compared. For the submerged cylinder the mean vertical forces
are compared. The correlation found between results of computations
and experiments confirms the general applicability of the theory
for predicting the second order forces on a wide range of hull
forms.
A detailed analysis of components of the mean second order
forces shows that for floating vessels the horizontal forces are
dominated by a contribution dependent on the relative wave eleva-
tion around the waterline of these vessels.
For the tanker and the semi-submersible results of computa-
tions of the low frequency horizontal force in regular wave groups
are compared with experimental results obtained from model tests
in regular wave groups and irregular waves. The experimental re-
sults from tests in irregular waves are analyzed by means of cross-
bi-spectral methods. Results of this comparison indicate that, pro-
vided certain conditions are fulfilled, the mean second order force
in regular waves may be used to approximate the low frequency force
in irregular waves.
Finally, for a dynamically positioned vessel the results of
computations are used to demonstrate the effectiveness of a wave-
feed-forward control signal based on relative wave elevation mea-
surements for reducing low frequency horizontal motions induced by
drift forces in irregular waves. The results show that model tests
confirm the theoretical predictions.
201
SAMENVATTING
In dit proefschrift wordt een analyse gegeven van de gemid-
deide en laag frekwente tweede orde golfdriftkrachten op een li-
chaam afgemeerd of gepositioneerd in golven. Uitgaande van integra-
tie van drukken over het natte oppervlak van een lichaam worden uit-
drukkingen voor de tweede orde krachten gegeven. Aangetoond wordt
dat de tweede orde krachten in onregelmatige golven bepaaid kunnen
worden uitgaande van kennis van gemiddeide krachten in regelmatige
golven en de laag frekwente krachten in regelmatige golfgroepen.
Voor het berekenen van de gemiddeide en laag frekwente
krachten op willekeurig gevormde lichamen wordt gebruik gemaakt van
een rekenprogramma gebaseerd op drie-dimensionale lineaire poten-
tiaal theorie. De vorm van het lichaam wordt benaderd door middel
van een aantal elementen die een verdeling van bronnen voorstelt.
Voor een halve bol worden de resultaten van berekeningen
van de gemiddeide horizontale golfdriftkracht in regelmatige golven
vergeleken met reeds bekende, langs analytische weg verkregen resul-
taten. De nauwkeurigheid van de berekeningsmethode wordt hiermee
aangetoond, alsmede dat de in dit proefschrift gegeven uitdrukking
voor de driftkrachten qua resultaat equivalent is aan een reeds
bekende uitdrukking die gebaseerd is op impuls en energie beschouw-
ingen.
Met het doel de geldigheid aan te tonen van de in dit proef-
schrift gegeven theorie met betrekking tot meer realistische romp-
vormen worden resultaten van berekeningen van de gemiddeide tweede
orde golfkrachten in regelmatige golven vergeleken met experimen-
teel bepaalde resultaten voor een tanker, een semi-submersible,
een rechthoekig ponton en een ondergedompelde horizontale cilinder.
Voor de drie eerstgenoemde rompvormen worden de resultaten
voor de horizontale krachten vergeleken. Voor de ondergedompelde
cilinder worden de resultaten voor de gemiddeide vertikale kracht
vergeleken. De overeenkomst tussen de resultaten van berekeningen
en metingen bevestigt de algemene toepasbaarheid van de theorie
voor het voorspellen van de tweede orde krachten op een grote ver-
scheidenheid van rompvormen.
Een nadere analyse van de komponenten van de gemiddeide
tweede orde krachten toont aan dat voor drijvende konstrukties
de horizontale krachten gedomineerd worden door een bijdrage die
afhankelijk is van de relatieve golfhoogte ter plaatse van de water-
lijn van de konstruktie.
Voor de tanker en de semi-submersible worden de resultaten
van berekeningen van de laag frekwente driftkracht in regelmatige
golfgroepen vergeleken met resultaten verkregen uit modelproeven
in regelmatige golfgroepen en onregelmatige golven. De meetresul-
taten verkregen uit proeven in onregelmatige golven zijn geanali-
seerd door middel van kruis-bi-spektrale methoden. Uit de verge-
lijking blijkt dat, mits aan bepaalde voorwaarden wordt voldaan,
de gemiddeide driftkrachten in regelmatige golven gebruikt kunnen
worden om de laag frekwente krachten in onregelmatige golven te
benaderen.
Tenslotte worden voor een dynamisch gepositioneerd schip
de resultaten van berekeningen gebruikt om een voorspelling te
geven van de effektiviteit van een wave-feed-forward regelsignaal
die gebaseerd is op metingen van de relatieve golfhoogte voor het
verminderen van de laag frekwente horizontale bewegingen, die op-
gewekt worden door de driftkrachten in onregelmatige golven.
Resultaten laten zien dat de modelproeven in overeenstemming zijn
met de theoretische voorspellingen.
?03
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am grateful to the Board of Directors of the Netherlands
Ship Model Basin for permission to publish this research in the
form of a thesis.
I am indebted to the participants in the industry supported
Wave Drift Research Program for their kind permission to make use
of part of the model test data obtained from Phase I of this pro-
gram.
My sincere thanks to the members of the Ocean Engineering
Department for their patience and co-operation which contributed
much to the realization of this work.