Quantity Surveying and Estimation

Course Outline:
Introduction to the subject
Prequalifcation in civil engineering
Tendering Process in civil engineering
Specifcations for various items of construction
Rate analysis
Estimation of 1 canal house
Preparation of !" #ill of quantities$
Books Recommended:
Estimating and %osting by E&'& Steel and Terence (& )c *+EE
Estimating and %osting in %ivil Engineering by S& ,utta --nd edition&
Estimating. %osting and /ccounts by ,&,&0ohli 1th edition&
2undamentals of construction. Estimating 3 %ost /ccounting by 0eith
%ollier -nd edition&
Introduction to the Subject:
/s the name implies quantity surveying is broadly concerned 4ith the
estimation. planning and control of the cost on construction projects& It
covers 4ide range of activities including5
%ost estimation
%ost planning
2easibility studies
%ost beneft analysis
6ife cycle costing
7aluation#valuation is the process of estimating 4hat something is
4orth$
So. this subject is related predominately to cost and contracts on
construction projects&
Quantity surveyor
The person 4ho deals 4ith quantity surveying and estimation is a quantity
surveyor& "S Provides 4ide range of services including5
%arry out estimating and measurement of construction 4or8s prior
to tender&
,etermine the types of materials that should be used&
Producing the bill of quantities
Produce tender documentation and manage the tender process
)anage the resultant contract through monthly valuations
The equipment used for construction sites and ensure all timelines are
met and remain 4ithin budget&
E9ective and e:cient utili;ation of resources #material. manpo4er and
money$ is the main objective of the quantity surveyor
Tyes o! Quantity Surveyors
ecause a "uantity Surveyor is trained in a 4ide variety of s8ills. most
"uantity Surveyors choose to receive speciali;ed training in one or more
of those s8ills& The result of that speciali;ed training is the emergence of
several di9erent types of "uantity Surveyors& 6isted belo4 are some of
the various types of "uantity Surveyors5
"# Contractor$%&s Quantity Surveyor <=> Responsibility includes
subcontractor formations and calculations of all related costs of the
project& The professional is also responsible for 8eeping the project 4ithin
budget at all times and creation of reports that each member must stic8
to throughout the project&
They are also 8no4n as 'Contracts manager' or 'Construction
surveyor'#
(#Senior Quantity Surveyor <=> This title is the most needed type of
"uantity Surveyor& This professional is e?pected to ta8e o4nership and
responsibility for the teams supported and reports daily to the lead
partner& This person supports the senior sta9 4ithin several teams and is
responsible for building and developing successful relationships quic8ly&
)#*echanical and Electrical +*,E- Quantity Surveyor <=> )anages
the fnancial performance and maintenance contracts related to all
)echanical and Electrical 4or8& The Surveyor creates contracts for large
governmental clients mainly& This type of surveyor is e?tensively
8no4ledgeable in maintenance projects and commercial projects&
.#/roject Quantity Surveyor <=> Provides project estimates. tender
appraisals. prepares bills of quantities. fnali;es projects and 4rites project
revie4s&
0#Construction Cost Consultant 1 Some "Ss are trained in techniques
of cost control& Those "Ss 4ho emphasi;e the cost discipline often use the
term 'Construction Cost Consultant'#They ensure that projects are
designed and constructed in such a manner as to secure value for money.
cost certainty and programme dates&
The main distinction amongst "Ss is bet4een those 4ho carry out 4or8 on
behalf of a client organi;ation. often 8no4n as a 'ro!essional 2uantity
surveyor'3 and those 4ho 4or8 for construction companies. often 8no4n
as a 'main contractor4s 2uantity surveyor'#
5ob Oortunities
The job opportunities are in abundance for these highly qualifed
professionals& )any of the jobs available to a "uantity Surveyor are
located 4ithin governmental construction sites. o:ce buildings. schools.
bridges. factories. hospitals. academics and apartment comple?es&
Essentially any4here that any type of building or construction e?ists a
"uantity Surveyor 4ould be needed& These are only a fe4 of the many
places 4here available job opportunities may e?ist for qualifed "uantity
Surveyors&
Instructions
)aintain a design copy for the estimation of 1 %anal +ouse and rate
analysis&
/re2uali6cation in civil engineering
/re2uali6cation
It is to ma8e an evaluation of capacity of an organi;ation& !rgani;ation
includes5
1&%lients #'ho pays$
-&%onsultant #4ho appointed by the client to do the design and supervise the
construction 4or8&$
@&%ontractor #'ho builds$
7eading clients in 8overnment sector
In *overnment sector leading clients are5
'/P,/ #'ater and Po4er ,evelopment /uthority$
A+/ #Aational +igh4ay /uthority$
Pa8istan Rail4ays
Irrigation and po4er department
%ommunication and 4or8s department #% 3 '$
7eading clients in /rivate sector
In private sector leading clients are5
ahria ,eveloper
Eden ,evelopers
Tricon developers #Real estate developers. Tricon village$
/tlas +onda
%oca %ola
Su;u8i
Pepsi
Aishat )ills
02%
7eading consultants
6eading consultants are5
AESP/0
/%E #/llied %onsultant Engineering$
/// consultants
RE% #Republic Engineering %onsultant$
A,% #Aational ,evelopment %onsultants$
Aoor ,urrani /ssociates
7eading contractors
6eading contractors are5
,escon
I;har *roup
anu )u8htar
+abib Rafque
S0 Engineering
2'!
E9amles o! /rojects
Construction o! Islamabad to /esha:ar *otor:ay +*1"-
%lient A+/

%onsultant
Pa8istan motor4ay consultants#Aational +igh4ay
/uthority has
appointed Pa8istan )otor4ay %onsultants comprising of )Bs Engineering
%onsultants. )Bs /&/& /ssociates. )Bs Engineering /ssociates. )Bs Sno4y
)ountain Engineering %orporation and )Bs 6ois erger Int& for providing
design revie4 and construction supervision services for the project&$
%ontrac
tor Pa8istan motor4ay contractor

Construction o! /ace to:er in 8ulberg
%lient Pace Pa8istan
%onsult
ant Aoor ,urrani
%ontrac
tor Pace Pa8sitan

Construction o! ;yover on *ughal /ura
Canal Crossing
%lient % 3 '
%onsult
ant AESP/0
%ontrac
tor 2'!
5oint <enture or Consortium
If the services required in construction projects is more than the capacity
of one single organi;ation. then often more than one organi;ation combine
to underta8e the design. supervision or construction of the project&
E9amle: Bena=ir Bhutto international airort +I>?@ , Aussnain
cote9-
<eri6cation o! the comany
Prequalifcation of <=C,esign %onsultant<= is by client&
Prequalifcation of <=C%ontractor<= is by client and ,esign
%onsultant&
Prequalifcation of <=CSupervision %onsultant<= is also by client
and ,esign consultant&
@ote: *ajor ?uthority and decision stands :ith the client#
Criteria$%&s o! /re2uali6cation
/n organi;ation has to undergo through t4o phases of prequalifcation5
1&Technical ability
-&2inancial ability
"1Technical ability
)ajor requirements in technical ability evaluation are5
Registration of company 4ith PE%&
Registration of company 4ith government and private client&
6ist of Past projects&
6ist of present projects in hand&
6ist of technical sta9&
6ist of registered o:ce 4ith telephone. fa? and eDmail addresses&
6ist of equipment and machinery #for contractor only$
(1Binancial ability
)ajor requirements in fnancial ability evaluation are5
an8 reference certifcate for successful maintenance of accounts&
6atest ban8 statement&
Income ta? registration certifcate&
Sales ta? registration certifcate&
Aational ta? number #ATA$
6itigation or arbitration certifcate&
6ist of costs of Past and Present major projects&
@otes: In short duration roject :e check 6nancial ability#
In Intermediate duration roject :e check 0CD B? , 0CD T?# In
long duration roject :e check Technical ability#
Client al:ays give the re2uali6cation notice in ne:saer in
!orm o! advertisement#
?ssignment
a-Re2uired to collect any /re2uali6cation notice !rom any
ne:saer !or design consultant3 contractor and suervision
consultant#
b-Bring tender notice#
Tendering rocess in Civil engineering
Tendering /rocess:
/ Tender Process is a method by 4hich suppliers are selected for the
provision of products and services to an organi;ation& The process
involves creating a suite of Tender ,ocuments to manage the supplier
selection process& The Tender ,ocuments help the organi;ation to select
the best possible supplier available&
Tender means to oEer or resent something !ormerly&
Fe6nition: ? :ritten oEer to contract goods or services3 at a
seci6ed cost or rate# +i1e a bid- E9amle o! tender notice
Stes involved in tendering rocess
/fter the prequalifcation of selected companies. these companies are
brought in stage of tendering& !nly prequalifed company can enter the
tender notice&
2or tendering minimum @ companies are required&
It comprises @ parts in civil engineering&
1&Tendering of design consultant
-&Tendering of contractor
@&Tendering of supervision consultant
"1Tendering o! design consultant
Tendering of design consultant can be done immediately after
prequalifcation of design consultant& +o4ever. the tendering of contractor
is impossible unless the design consultant fnished the preparation of
tender document&
The fee or charges of design consultant is either based on lump sum
basis or Eage against the total cost of the project&
In lump sum contract. design consultants are as8ed to submit a single
lump sum cost for the 4or8 and smallest bid is pic8ed by the client&
@ote: normally design consultant rate varies (1GD o! total cost o!
the rojects#
The minimum design consultant fee as8ed or bid by the prequalifed
design consultant is selected for the project and a formal contract is
established bet4een client and design consultant&
<etting consultant
The vetting consultant is company involve in the project by client to chec8
the 4or8 of design consultant& It is the consultant 4ho is chec8ing the
design consultant& #It is very rare$
(1Tendering o! contractor
/fter the preparations of tender documents by design consultant and
selection of contractor through the prequalifcation process. the client or
design consultant can start the tendering of contractor&
!nly the pre qualifed contractor is allo4ed to participate in tendering
process& The client or design consultant gives the advertisement 4ith the
title $%HTender notice$% # #Tender notice is a legal requirement$
Tender Aotice includes5
Tender Bee:
The client or design consultant is issuing the tender document through
prequalifed contractor only after the payment of tender fee& / tender fee
is a fee mutually agreed bet4een client and design consultant for the cost
of printing of tender documents and to hold the tendering process&
*enerally. more the cost of the project more is the tender fee&
Fate3 time and lace o! oening o! tender:
In tender notice advertisement. tender fee. tender submission time. time
and date of opening of tender. place of opening of tender and conditions
for the contractor participation are described&
Security deosit or Tender guarantee:
Registered contractors are usually required to submit a specifc sum as
security or earnest money deposit to be adjusted against 4or8 done.
normally in the form of an8 *uarantee or Surety&
The contractors 4ho are prequalifed and interested to participate in
tendering are required to deposit -DFE of the tender cost as tender
guarantee& The tender security can be in the form of demand draft #,&,$
or insurance company guarantee& The tender guarantee is required for the
reason that the lo4est tender should not 4ithdra4 from the project&
The ban8 or insurance guarantee is a legal document on stamp paper 4ith
underta8ing by the ban8 that if contractor 4ill not ta8e the project than
the ban8 4ill pay the client
the tender security& The tender security of a successful contractor remains
4ith the client and for others it is returned 4ith @GD1G days after opening
the tender&
The tender document should be properly sealed and submitted to client
before the o:cial tender opening date&
The tender document submitted by each company is opened by client in
presence of contractor representative&
/ny tender not accompanied by tender security 4ill not be considered
during tendering&
!n the day of opening of tender only the cost highlighted on the summary
page of !" is announced and the uno:cial lo4est tender is selected&
Then the complete chec8ing of !" is carried out based on the fnal
analysis a comparative statement of tendering contractor is established
and the lo4est company is selected for the project&
@on Resonsive Tender:
/ny incomplete or error based tender is 8no4n as non resonsive
tender& If t4o tenders come on the same price then they are allo4ed to
retender their !" and 4ho so ever is coming lo4est is selected for
project&
)1Tendering !or suervision consultant
If for a project the supervision cost of design consultant is more than the
budget of client. or design consultant don<=Ht have in house supervision
capability or if design consultant is overloaded 4ith no& of projects than in
that case an independent supervision consultant has been engaged&
If design and supervision consultant are same than at the time of design
tendering supervision charges are also included& +o4ever if supervision
consultant is separate then the supervision charges can be as8ed in
tendering process in any of the follo4ing modes5
1&6ump sum basis
-&Percentage against total cost of project
@&!n monthly basis
,epending upon the requirement of project any of the above modes of
tender fee is selected& !nly the prequalifed design consultant can
participate in the tender of supervision consultant&
The scoe o! services of supervision consultant is to5
Imlement tender :ith resect to construction and to ensure the 2uality in scoe3
schedule and budget o! the roject#
/rearation o! tender documents
It includes the follo4ing
Technical seci6cations:
It is a part of tendering process and it is supposed to be prepared by
design consultant& Technical specifcations used in civil engineering are of
t4o types5
a$*eneral Specifcations
b$,etail Specifcations
a-1 8eneral Seci6cations:
These specifcations are normally regarding the quality of materials given&
These general specifcations tender document&
provided in dra4ings in 4hich very brief information or fnished product is
described& Ao detail description is are referring to detail specifcations
4hich are the part of
eDg /roduct *aterial
%oncrete
1 %ement 5 - sand5 @
crush
In foundation ric8 and mortar
b-1 Fetail Seci6cations:
These specifcations are al4ays in the form of thic8 boo8let as the part of
tender document& The detail specifcations refer all the major and minor
materials and products. quantity and usage requirement for any specifc
construction project&
,etail technical specifcations should be properly noted by contractor for
evaluation of rates of project& 'ithout the understanding of detail
specifcations contractors are unable to provide their rates in !"& ,etail
technical specifcation for any construction comprise of follo4ing items&
"#Civil Iorks
Concrete: ,etail specifcations of concrete include&
1$)i?ing of concrete by volume or by 4eight&
-$%oncreting by manual method or concrete mi?er or concrete plant&
@$*rade of concrete&
*rades of concrete are normally referring to the concrete classI mostly
used classes include /..%.1.-.%1.%- etc& These classes are based on
compressive strengths of concrete iDe #/J1-GGG psi. %-J@GGG psi$
K$ %uring requirement of concrete&
F$/dmi?ture of concrete #admi?tures are modern chemicals added in
concrete to improve its physical and chemical properties$
L$2orm4or8 or shuttering of concrete&
M$7ibration or compaction requirement&
Steel: ,etail specifcations of steel include&
1$Nield and ultimate strength of steel&
-$+ot rolled or cold formed steel&
@$Tor or deformed steel&
K$6ap reinforcement&
F$ending and cutting reinforcement&
L$rand of steel& #iDe Prime steel. )ughal steel. /mbreli steel. )ali8 steel$
Bricks: ,etail specifcations of bric8s include&
1$2irst class bric8. -nd class. @rd class. underDburnt #Pilla ric8$ and overD
burnt bric8 #8hinger bric8$&
-$Porosity of bric8&
@$EOorescence of bric8&
K$%ompressive strength of bric8&
Cement: ,etail specifcations of cement include&
1$rand of cement&#iDe ,* cement. )aple leaf cement. /s8ari cement. 'hite
or grey cement for decorative purpose$
-$Physical and chemical properties of cement including compressive
strength. soundness. durability&
@$Initial and fnal setting time of cement&
K$'aterDcement ratio&
F$Slump requirement&
Sand: ,etail specifcations of sand include&
1$Type of sand& #iDe Ravi.%henab. 6a4rencepur$
-$*radation requirement sand #fne. medium and coarse$
@$Specifc gravity&
K$Shear strength&
F$/ngel of internal friction&
L$%ompaction requirement&
M$Permeability requirement&
Crush: ,etail specifcations of crush include&
1$Sources of crush& #iDe margalla crush. sargodha crush. dena crush. sa8hi
sar4ar$
-$Specifc gravity and 4ater absorption&
@$Soundness requirement&
K$!ptimum )oisture %ontent and ma?& dry density #PQd$&
F$*radation&
L$%rushing value&
M$2la8iness inde?&
R$Elongation inde?&
1$%R value&
(#?rchitectural :ork
Blooring: ,etail specifcations of Sooring include&
1$Type of Soor&#iDe )arble. Terra;;o or chip. Tiles. cement Soor#cheapest$$
-$2i?ing of marble or tile by 4hite or grey cement&
@$Pigment requirement&
K$Si;e of tile or marble&#standard si;e 1<=H ? 1<=H. if 4e increase si;e.
price 4ill increase$
F$S8irting Requirements&
L$oders&
M$rands of marble includes #oticena. %hina verona.Indian green. Tiarat
4hite. Tiarat grey $
R$rands of tiles include #)aster. Sone?. 2ort. Emco$
)ajority of imported tiles comes from china ho4ever the best imported
tiles are from Spain and 2rance&
1$*rinding requirement of Soor&
1G$Use of chemical polish #only for grinding Soor$
Iood: ,etail specifcations of 4ood include&
"- Type of 4ood @atural Iood
?rti6cal
:ood
Tea8 2ormica
Shisham
6asani
4ood
,iar Ply4ood
1$Treatment of 4ood& #Painting. Polishing and termite proofng$&
-$+ollo4 4ood fnishing or solid 4ood fnishing&
Steel :ork: ,etail specifcations of steel 4or8s include&
1$/rchitectural steel is used for railing. doors. grills. strands etc&
-$Protection of steel sheet through painting. oiling and greasing&
)- ,imensions required of steel sheet in 4indo4. door and other
installation&
/ainting: ,etail specifcations of painting 4or8s includes&
1$Types of paint includes #,istamper. 7arnish. !il paint. Emulsion. 'ater
paint. 'eather shield. Emulsion. 6iquo paint$
-$rand of paints #erger. I%I. lac8 horse. )aster$
@$Solvent for Paints #oil based or 4ater based$
K$Pigment requirement of paints&
F$Surface preparation requirement&#6evel the 4all. /pply plaster of paint. do
grinding. apply frst layer of paint. small grinding again. apply -nd coat of
paint$
@&/lumbing3 :ater suly and se:age :ork: ,etail specifcations of
plumbing. 'ater supply and se4age 4or8 includes&
1$Source of 4ater #'/S/. ore underground 4ater. 'ater tan8#storage$$
-$Pipes Requirement #*alvani;ed iron pipe . polypropylene pipe$
@$*rades of pipes #+igh pressure grade#used in po4er plant$. 6o4 pressure
grade#used in residential plant$. )edium Pressure grade#used in tubeD
4ells$$
K$/ccessories of 4ater supply system#Elbo4s. valves. bents. cor8s. tees.
reducers$
F$Protection of pipes against rusting and corrosion&
Se:age :ork:
1$Pipe requirements&
-$)anhole requirement&
@$)anhole covers&
K$Storm 4ater drain pipes&
.#Electrical :orks: ,etail specifcations of electrical 4or8s include&
1$Electric cable
-$Electric s4itch
@$%ircuit brea8er
K$,istribution board
F$6ights
L$2an
M$/%
R$Electric conduit pipe etc
0#*echanical Iorks: ,etail specifcations of )echanical 4or8s include&
1$Type of motor or pumps
-$%apacity of motor or pump in terms of horsepo4er or 8'
@$Electrical requirements for its running&
K$)aintenance requirement&
Estimation
Estimation is the scienti6c :ay o! :orking out the aro9imate cost o! an engineering
roject be!ore e9ecution o! the :ork#
It is totally di9erent from calculation of the e?act cost after completion of
the project& Estimation requires a thorough 0no4ledge of the construction
procedures and cost of materials 3 labour in addition to the s8ill.
e?perience. foresight and good judgment&
Estimate:
?n estimate o! the cost o! a construction job is the robable cost
o! that job as comuted !rom lans and seci6cations#
2or a good estimate the. actual cost of the proposed 4or8 after
completion should not di9er by more than #FD1G$E from its appro?imate
cost estimate. provided there are no unusual. unforeseen circumstances&
Fata re2uired !or Estimate:
To ma8e out an estimate for a 4or8. the follo4ing data is necessary&
1&,ra4ings
-&Technical Specifcations #Tender ,ocuments$
@&Unit Rates
"#Fra:ings:
Plan. cross sections. elevations all should be dimensioned&
(#Technical seci6cations
a$*eneral Specifcations
b$,etail Specifcations
)#Jnit Rates
The rates per unit of various items of 4or8. various materials and 4ages
of di9erent
categories of labor are required&
Tyes o! estimate
There are t4o main types of estimates&
a$Rough cost estimate&
b$,etailed estimate&
a-Rough cost estimate
Estimation of cost before construction from plans or architectural dra4ings
of the project scheme. 4hen even detailed or structural design has not
been prepared. is calledRough cost estimate&
@ote: These estimates are used !or obtaining ?dministrative
?roval !rom the concerning ?uthorities +client-# Sometimes3 on
the basis o! rough cost estimates3 a roosal +roject- may be
droed altogether#
Jnit cost is 4or8ed out for projects similar to the project under
consideration carried out recently in nearly the same site conditions& Unit
cost means cost of e?ecution of a unit quantity of the 4or8&
The rough cost estimate may be prepared on the follo4ing basis for
di9erent types of projects5
i&%ost per square foot of covered area #plinth area$ is the most commonly
adopted criterion for preparing rough cost estimate for most of
the residential buildings&
ii&
Bor ublic buildings. cost& Per person #cost per capita$ is
used& 2or e?ample.
i&Students hostel<=V<=V<=V<=V<=V<=V<=VD<=V%ost per student
ii&Aositals<=V<=V<=V<=V<=V<=V<=V<=V<=V<=V<=V<=V%ost per bed
iii&Aotel<=V<=V<=V<=V<=V<=V<=V<=V<=V<=V<=V<=V<=V%ost per *uest
iii&%ost per cubic foot is particularly suitable for commercial oKces3
shoing centers3 and !actory buildings. etc&
iv&2or 4ater tan8Breservoir. cost may be 4or8ed out on the basis of capacity in
gallons of 4ater stored&
v&Bor roads and rail:ays. cost may be found out per mileB8ilometer of
length&
vi&Bor streets. cost may be per hundred feetBmeters of length&
vii&In case of bridges. cost per footBmete of clear span may be calculated&
b-Fetailed estimate#
,etailed estimates are prepared by separately calculating in detail the
costs of various items of the 4or8 that constitute the 4hole project from
the detailed 4or8ing dra4ings after the design has been fnali;ed&
I#The mista8es. if any. in the rough cost estimate are eliminated in the
detailed estimate& ,etailed estimates are submitted to the competent
authorities for obtaining Technical sanction#
II&The 4hole project is subDdivided into di9erent items of 4or8 or activities& The
quantity for each item is then calculated separately from the dra4ings as
accurately as possible& The procedure is 8no4n as Wtaking out o!
2uantitiesW&
III&In fact this is the major part of estimation 4or8& The quantities for each item
may be estimated and sho4n in the pattern 4hich is called WBill o!
2uantities&W
I7&
The unit in 4hich each item of the 4o8 is to be calculated is very
importantI it should be

according to the prevailing practice as follo4ed in various departments
of the country&
7&Each item of the 4or8 is then multiplied by its estimated current rate
calculated by a f?ed procedure to fnd out cost of the item& /t the end. a
total of all items of the 4or8
are made to get the total estimated cost&
7I& The rates are usually as per Schedule of Rates for the locality plus a
premium to allo4 for rise in labour and material rates& / percentage.
usually FE is also provided on the
total estimated cost for the 4or8 to allo4 for the possible contingencies
due to unforeseen items or e?penditure or other causes. besides -E
establishment charges&
Bill o! Quantities +BOQ-

Sr#

Fescriti
on @o

*easurements

Quantit
y Total Remarks

@o

o! Items


Quantity

7engthBreadthAeight





?bstract o!
BOQ



Sr#
Fescrition o!
Item Jnit Quantity

Rate

Cost

Remark
s


@o#



Tyes o! Fetail Estimate:
There are three common types of detail estimates&
a&%ontractorXs estimate&
b&EngineerXs estimate&
c&Progress estimate&
a-Contractor4s estimate# It is made by the Contractor for determining the
cost of to be bid for tender& It is usually a carefully prepared detailed
estimate&
b-Engineer4s estimate# It is made by the Fesign Consultant for the
purpose of fnancing the 4or8 and for chec8ing bids made by contractors&
c-/rogress estimate# It is made by the Suervision Consultant at
regular intervals for the completed parts of the project during the progress
of the 4or8 for determining the amounts of partial payments to be made
to the contractor& !n large contracts. such estimates are commonly made
each month and. hence. are frequently called monthly estimates#
*ethods o! Fetailed Building Estimate
There are many methods available for detail estimation but t4o commonly
used methods 4ill be discussed here&
"#Searate or individual :all method
(#Center 7ine *ethod
"-Searate or individual :all method
In this method5
I&The 4alls running in longitudinal direction are termed as 'long :alls$% and
the 4alls running in the transverse direction are termed. as 'Short
:alls'3 4ithout 8eeping in mind 4hich 4all is lesser in length and 4hich
4all is greater in length&
II&6engths of long 4alls are measured as 'Out1to out' and those of short 4alls
as WIn1to1in'#
7ong :all length out1to1out
J%enter to center length Y half breadth on one Side Y half breadth on
other side
J%enter to center length Y one breadth
Short :all length in1to1in
J%enter to center length D half breadth on one Side D half breadth on other
side
J%enter to center length D one breadth
III& ,i9erent quantities are calculated by multiplying the length 9
breadth 9 height&
E9amle +Searate or individual :all m