16

RC CIRCUITS
PART 1:
16-1
16-2
16-3
PART 2:
16-4
16-5
PART 3:
16-6
PART 4:
16-7
16-8
16-9
16-10
SERIES REACTIVE CIRCUITS
Si nusoi dal Response of RC
Ci rcui ts
l mpedance and Phase Angl e of
Seri es RC Ci rcui ts
Anal ysi s of Seri es RC Ci rcui ts
PARALLEL REACTIVE CIRCUITS
l mpedance and Phase Angl e
of Paral l el RC Ci rcui ts
Anal ysi s of Paral l el RC Ci rcui ts
SERI ES- PARALLEL REACTIVE
CI RCUI TS
Anal ysi s of Seri es-Paral l el
RC Ci rcui ts
SPECI AL TOPI CS
Power i n RC Ci rcui ts
Basi c Appl i cat i ons
Troubl eshooti ng
Technol ogy Theory i nto Practi ce
El ectroni cs Workbench
(EWB)
and
PSpi ce Tutori al s at
http ://www. p re n h al l.co m/f loyd
r I NTRODUCTI ON
An RC circuit contains both resistance and capaci-
tance. It is one of the basic types of reactive
circuits that you will study. In this chapter, basic senes
and parallel RC circuits and their responses to sinusoi-
dal ac voltages are presented. Series-parallel combina-
tions are also analyzed. True, reactive, and apparent
power in RC circuits are discussed and some basic RC
applications are introduced. Applications of RC
circuits include filters, amplifler coupling, oscillators,
and wave-shaping circuits. Troubleshooting is also
covered in this chapter.
The frequency response of the RC input net-
work in an amplifier circuit is similar to the one
you worked with in Chapter 13 and is the subject of
this chapter's TECH TIP.
I
COVERAGE OPTIONS
This chapter is divided into four parls: Series Reactive
Circuits, Parallel Reactive Circuits, Series-Parallel
Reactive Circuits, and Special Topics. The purpose of
this organization is to facilitate either of two
approaches to the coverage of reactive circuits in
Chapt er s 16- 17. and 18.
In the first approach, all RC circuits (Chapter
l6) are covered first, followed by all R,L circuits
(Chapter 17), and then all RIC circuits (Chapter 18).
Using this approach, you simply cover Chapters 16,
ll, and 18 in sequence.
In the second approach, a7l series reactive
circuits are covered first. Then all parallel reactive
circuits are covered next, followedby series-parallel
reactive circuits and finally special roplcs. Using this
approach, you cover Part l: Series Reactive Circuits
in Chapters 16, l'7
,
and 18; then Part 2: Parallel Reac-
tive Circuits in Chapters 16, 17, and 18; then Part 3:
Series-Parallel Reactive Circuits in Chapters 16, 17,
and 18. Finally, Pafi 4: Special Topics can be covered
in each of the chapters.
I
P
tr
TECHnology
Theory
Into
Practice
CHAPTER OBfECTTVES
1: SERIES REACTIVE CIRCUITS
Describe the relationship between current and
voltase in an RC circuit.
Determine impedance and phase angle in a series
RC circuit
Analyze a series RC circuit
2: PARALLEL REACTIVE CIRCUITS
Determine impedance and phase angle in a parallel
RC circuit
Analyze a parallel RC circuit
PART 3: SERIES-PARALLEL REACTIVE
CIRCUITS
tr Analyze series-parallel RC circuits
PART 4: SPECIAL TOPICS
O Deterrnine power in RC circuits
tr Discuss some basic RC applications
tr Troubleshoot RC circuits
16- 1
r SI NUSOI DAL RESPONSE OF RC CI RCUI TS
When a sinusoidul voltage is applied to any type of RC circuit, each resulting voltage
drop and the current in the circuit are also sinusoi.dal snd have the same
frequenc!
as the applied voltage. The capacitance causes a phase shift between the voltage and
current that depends on the relative values of the resistance and the capacitive reac'
tsnce.
ffier
completing this section, you should be uble to
I Describe the relationship between current and voltage in an RC circuit
.
Discuss voltage and current waveforms
.
Di scuss phase shi l t
.
Describe types of signal generators
As shown in Figure 16-1, the resistor voltage (Vn), the capacitor voltage (Vc), and the
current (/) are all sine waves with the frequency ofthe source. Phase shifts are introduced
because of the capacitance. As you will learn, the resistor voltage and current lead the
source voltage, and the capacitor voltage lags the source voltage. The phase angle
between the current and the capacitor voltage is always 90'. These generalized phase rela-
tionships are indicated in Figure 16-1.
FI GURE 16- 1
Illustration of sinusoidal response with general phase
relationships of Vp, Vs, and I relative to the source
voltage. Vp leads V,, Vs lags V", and I lead's V,. Vp and I
are in phase while Vp and. Vg are 90" out of phase.
".,ffi/
600
I MPEDANCE AND PHASE ANCLE OF SERI ES RC CI RCUI TS
I
601
The amplitudes and the phase relationships of the voltages and current depend on
the values of the resistance and the capacitive reactance. When a circuit is purely resis-
tive, the phase angle between the applied (source) voltage and the total current is zero.
When a circuit is purely capacitive, the phase angle between the applied voltage and the
total current is 90", with the current leading the voltage. When there is a combination of
both resistance and capacitive reactance in a circuit, the phase angle between the applied
voltage and the total current is somewhere between 0o and 90', depending on the relative
values of the resistance and the reactance.
Si gnal Generators
When a circuit is hooked up for a laboratory experiment or for troubleshooting, a signal
generator similar to those shown in Figure 16-2 is used to provide the source voltage.
These instruments, depending on their capability, are classified as sine wave generators,
which produce only sine waves; sine/square generators, which produce either sine waves
or square waves; or function generators, which produce sine waves, pulse waveforms, or
triangular (ramp) waveforms.
t _ _ "
FI GURE 16- 2
Typical signal (function) generators used in circuit testing and troubleshooting, (Photography
courtesy of B&K Precision Corp.).
A 60 Hz sinusoidal voltage is applied to an RC circuit. What is the frequency of the
capacitor voltage? What is the frequency of the current?
What causes the phase shift between V, and I in a series RC circuit?
When the resistance in an RC circuit is greater than the capacitive reactance, is the
phase angle between the applied voltage and the total current closer to 0' or to 90o?
16- 2 I I MPEDANCE AND PHASE ANCLE OF SERI ES RC CI RCUI TS
ii
il
!
. .. ..,.-..... . :!
(b)
sEcTtoN 16-1
1.
REVIEW
)
3.
The impedance of any type of RC circuit is the total opposition to sinusoidal current
und its unit is the ohm. The phase angle is the phase dffirence between the total cur-
rent und the source voltage.
After completing this section, you should be able to
I Determine impedance and phase angle in a series RC circuit
.
Define impedance
.
Express capacitive reactance in complex form
.
Express total impedance in complex form
.
Draw an impedance triangle
.
Calculate impedance magnitude and the phase angle
602
I RC CIRCUITS
In a purely capacitive circuit, the impedance is equal to the total capacitive reactance.
The impedance of a series RC circuit is determined by both the resistance and the capac-
itive reactance. These cases are illustrated in Figure 16-3. The magnitude of the imped-
ance is symbolizedby Z.
G"
51.
I t * ;
( a ) z = R
FI GURE 16- 3
Three cases of impedance,
(c) Z includes both R and X6
Recall from Chapter 13 that capacitive reactance is expressed as a complex number
in rectansular form as
X6
= -jXa
(16_l )
where boldface X6'designates a phasor quantity (representing both magnitude and angle)
urd X6 is just the magnitude.
In the series RC circuit of Figure 164, the total impedance is the phasor sum of R
and
-jX6
and is expressed as
Z = R - j X c (16-2)
FI CURE 16_4
Series RC circuit.
The l mpedance Tri angl e
In ac analysis, both R and X, are treated as phasor quantities, as shown in the phasor dia-
gram of Figure 16-5(a), with X6' appearing at a
-90o
angle with respect to R. This relation-
ship comes from the fact that the capacitor voltage in a series RC circuit lags the current,
z =
"/P
*xZ
\
_ _ L
(a)
FI CURE 16- 5
Develbpment of the impedance triangle
for
a series RC circuit.
(b)
( b ) z = x c
R
(9
(c)
I MPEDANCE AND PHASE ANCLE OF SERI ES RC CI RCUI TS T
603
and thus the resistor voltage, by 90'. Since Z is the phasor sum ofR and
-jX6,
its phasor
representation is shown in Figure 16-5(b). A repositioning ofthe phasors, as shown in part
(c), forms a right triangle. This is called the impedance triangle. The length of each phasor
represents the magnitude in ohms, and the angle 0 is the phase angle of the RC circuit and
represents the phase difference between the applied voltage and the current.
From right-angle trigonometry (Pythagorean theorem), the magnitude (length) of
the impedance can be expressed in terms of the resistance and reactance as
z=l Fi 4 (16-3)
The italic letter Z represents the magnitude of the phasor quantity Z and is expressed in
ohms.
The phase angle,0, is expressed as
0
= *tan
(16-4)
The symbol tan
I
stands for inverse tangent and can be found by pressing @, then [6I].
Combining the magnitude and angle, the phasor expression for impedance in polar form is
z=f * +* +x| z- t un (1
6-5)
EXAMPLE 16-1
[:ffi1#TJ,'*#t#iJ?*write
the phasor expression for the impedance in both
-t l Xc\
\ ^ /
- , / X. \
\ R /
(a)
FI GURE 16- 6
Solution For the circuit in Figure 16-6(a), the
Z= R
-
j0 =
R
=
56 O in rectangular form (X.= Q)
Z
=
RZjo
=
5610' O in polar form
The impedance is simply the resistance, and the phase angle is zero because pure resis-
tance does not cause a phase shift between the voltage and current.
For the circuit in Figure 16-6(b), the impedance is
Z
=
0
-
jXc =
-i100
O in rectangular form (R =
0)
Z
=
Xcl-90"
=
l00Z-90" O in polar form
The impedance is simply the capacitive reactance, and the phase angle is
-90'
because
the capacitance causes the current to lead the voltage by 90'.
For the circuit in Figure l6-6(c), the impedance in rectangular form is
Z = R- j Xc = 5 6 O
- j 1 0 0 O
604 I RC CI RCUI TS
sEcTroN 16-2
REVIEW
The impedance in polar form is
z
=
Vrp' * r' ..-tan
t(4c\
'
\ R /
=
\,/G6 Of + (t00el z_tan-,(J445!)
=
l15z_60.8. o
\ ) o r 2 /
In this case, the impedance is the phasor sum of the resistance and the capacitive
reactance. The phase angle is flxed by the relative values of X6 and R. Rectangu-
lar to polar conversion using a calculator was illustrated in Chapter 12 and can be
used in problems like this one.
Related Problem Use your calculator to convefi the impedance in Figure 16-6(c)
from rectangular to polar form. Draw the impedance phasor diagram.
l . The impedance of a certain RC circuit is 150 Q
-
j220
f2. What is the value of the
resistance? The capacitive reactance?
A series RC circuit has a total resistance of 33 kO and a capacitive reactance of
50 kQ. Write the phasor expression for the impedance in rectangular form.
For the circuit in
Question
2, whatis the magnitude of the impedance? What is the
phase angl e?
16_3 r ANATYSIS OF SERIES RC CIRCUITS
)
3.
In the previous section, you learned how to express the impedance of a series RC
circuit. Now, Ohm's law und Kirchhoff\ voltage law are used in the analysis of RC
circuits.
After completing this section, you should be uble to
I Analyze a series RC circuit
.
Apply Ohm's law and Kirchhoff's voltage law to series RC circuits
.
Express the voltages and current as phasor quantities
.
Show how impedance and phase angle vary with frequency
Ohm' s Law
The application of Ohm's law to series RC circuits involves the use of the phasor quanti-
ties of Z,Y, and I. Keep in mind that the use of boldface nonitalic letters indicates pha-
sor quantities where both magnitude and angle are included. The three equivalent forms
of Ohm's law are as follows:
Y
=l Z (1 6-6)
(16-7)
(1
6-8)
r = I
Z
z = !
I
ANALYSI S OF SERI ES RC CI RCUI TS
I
605
From your study of phasor algebra in Chapter 72, you should recall that multipli-
cation and division are most easily accomplished with the polar forms. Since Ohm's law
calculations involve multiplications and divisions, the voltage, current, and impedance
should be expressed in polar form. The following two examples show the relationship
between the source voltage and source current. In Example 16-2, the cuffent is the refer-
ence and in Example 16-3, the voltage is the reference. Notice that the reference is drawn
alons the X-axis in both cases.
EXAMPLE 16-2 If the cur:rent in Figure 16-7 is expressed in polar form as |
=
0.220" mA, determine
the source voltage expressed in polar form, and draw a phasor diagram showing the
relation between source voltase and cunent.
FI GURE 16- 7
C
0. 01 pF
Solution The magnitude of the capacitive reactance is
r - =
|
= r s q k ( )
" (
2nf C 2n( 1000 Hzt t 0. Ol pFl
The total impedance in rectangular form is
Z=R- j Xc =
10k A
-
j 15. 9k A
Converling to polar form yields
z
= \/F\ xrrz-run
'(\\
-
\ R /
=
ffiz-ra,' (ffi)
=
ra.ar-sl.S" krl
\
- - - -
,
Use Ohm's law to determine the source voltage.
Y,
=
IZ
= (0.220" mAXl 8.82-57.8' kO)
=
3.7 6 Z- 57 .8" Y
The magnitude of the source voltage is 3.76 V at an angle of
-57.8"
with respect to the
current, that is, the voltage lags the cur:rent by 57.8', as shown in the phasor diagram
of Figure 16-8.
FI GURE 16- B 1 = 0 . 2 mA
=
3 7 6 V
Related Problem Determine V. in Fieure 16-1 if f
=
2 kHz and I
=
0.210" A.
606
r
RC CI RCUI TS
EXAMPLE 16-3 Determine the current in the circuit of Figure 16-9, and draw a phasor diagram show-
ing the relation between source voltage and current.
FI GURE 16- 9
Fi gure 16. 10.
Ft cuRE 16-10
% = 1 0 v
Related Problem Determine I in Figure 16-9 if the frequency is increased to 5 kHz.
Solution The magnitude of the capacitive reactance is
Y - =
I
=
I
- s ? r - ( )
--(
2nfC 2n( 1.5 kHzt(0 ' 02 p.Fl
The total impedance in rectangular form is
Z=R- j Xc =2. 2k { l
- j 5. 3
k O
Convefiing to polar form yields
z=f R' z +x) z- nn- t ( k\
-
\ R i
=
@
.-r^-'
( !!E\
=
5.7 4 t-67.s. kO
\ 2 . 2 k a l
'
Use Ohm's law to determine the cur:rent.
r =I =
l oz9' Y
=1, 74167. 5" mA
z 5.742.-61.5" k{L
The magnitude of the current is | .7 4 mA. The positive phase angle of 6'l .5" indicates
that the current leads the voltage by that amount, as shown in the phasor diagram of
v
1020" v
FI
P)
se
Rel ati onshi ps of the Current and Vol tages i n a Seri es RC Ci rcui t
In a series circuit, the current is the same though both the resistor and the capacitor
Thus, the resistor voltage is in phase with the current, and the capacitor voltage lags the
current by 90'. Therefore, there is a phase difference of 90' between the resistor volt-
age, Vp, and the capacitor voltage, V6, as shown in the waveform diagram of Figure
16- 1 1.
l/
(e
f l
U.
fl GURE 16-11
Phase relation of voltages and current in a
series RC circuit.
vR
v, =f vA* vl z-t un
where the magnitude of the source voltage is
v, =f v' o* vl
and the phase angle between the resistor voltage and the source voltage is
. / v _ \
0 - - t a n ' l
' '
l
\
Yol
ANALYSIS OF SERIES RC CIRCUITS I 607
( 16- 10)
( 16- 11)
v(
FI GURE 16- 13
Volnge and current phasor diagram
for
the waveforms in
Figure 16-11.
You know from Kirchhoff's voltage law that the sum of the voltage drops must
equal the applied voltage. However, since Vp andV6 are not in phase with each other, they
must be added as phasor quantities, with V6' lagging Vp by 90", as shown in Figure
16-12(.a). As shown in Figure l6-12(b), V, is the phasor sum of Va and V6', as expressed
in rectangular form in the following equation:
Y, =Vp* j Vs
This equation can be expressed in polar form as
(1 6-9)
'(#)
(16-12)
Since the resistor voltage and the current are in phase, d also represents the phase
angle between the source voltage and the current. Figure 16-13 shows a complete voltage
and current phasor diagram that represents the waveform diagram of Figure 16-l l.
VR
,,7
-N,
(a) (b)
f l GURE 16- 12
Voltage phasor diagram
for
a series RC circuit.
608 T RC CI RCUI TS
Vari ati on of l mpedance wi th Frequency
As you know, capacitive reactance varies inversely with frequency. Since Z
=
f R' **r,
you can see that when X6 increases, the entire term under the square root sign increases
and thus the magnitude of the total impedance also increases; and when X. decreases, the
magnitude of the total impedance also decreases. Therefore, in an RC circuit, Z is
inversely dependent on
frequency.
Figure 16-14 illustrates how the voltages and current in a series RC circuit vary as
the frequency increases or decreases, with the source voltage held at a constant value. In
part (a), as the frequency is increased, X. decreases; so less voltage is dropped across the
capacitor. Also, Z decreases as X. decreases, causing the cuffent to increase. An increase
in the current causes more voltage across R.
In Figure l6-14(b), as the frequency is decreased, X6increases; so more voltage is
dropped across the capacitor. Also, Z increases as X6 increases, causing the current to
decrease. A decrease in the current causes less voltaee across R.
(a) As frequency is increased, I andVp increase
and Yc decreases.
(b) As frequency is decreased, 1 and Vlq decrease
and Va increases.
FI GURE 16- 14
An illustration of how the variation of impedance affects the voltages and current as the
source
frequency
is varied. The source voltage is held at a constont amplitude.
The effect of changes in Z and X6 can be observed as shown in Figure 16-15. As
the frequency increases, the voltage across Z remains constant because V" is constant.
Also, the voltage across C decreases. The increasing cunent indicates that Z is decreas-
ing. It does so because of the inverse relationship stated in Ohm's law (Z=VzlD.The
increasing culrent also indicates that Xs is decreasing (Xc =
VclD. The decrease in Vc
conesponds to the decrease in X6,.
Vari ati on of the Phase Angl e wi th Frequency
Since X6' is the factor that introduces the phase angle in a series RC circuit, a change in
Xg produces a change in the phase angle. As the frequency is increased, X. becomes
smalleq and thus the phase angle decreases. As the frequency is decreased, X. becomes
larger, and thus the phase angle increases. This variation is illustrated in Figure 16-16
where a "phase meter" is connected across the capacitor to illustrate the change in angle
between V" and Vp. This angle is the phase angle of the circuit because 1 is in phase with
Vn. By measuring the phase of Va, you are effectively measuring the phase of L An oscil-
loscope is normally used to observe the phase angle. The meter is used for convenient
illustration of the concept.
\
%i t
constant.
r-t
ffir
\qY,
G
A o
E C
Frequency is
increasing.
ANALYSIS OF SERIES RC CIRCUITS
T
609
By watching these two
meters, you can tell
whatZi s doi ng:1i s
increasing and V
2is
constant.
Thus, Z is decreasing.
By watching these two
meters, you can tell
what X6, is doing:
I is increasing and Vc' is
decreasing. Thus, X6'
is decreasing.
l t ,
=
FI GURE 16- 15
An illustration of how Z anil X6 change with
frequency.
FI GURE 16- 16
The
"phase
meter" shows the effect of
frequenc!
on the phase angle of a circuit, The
"phase
meter" indicates the phase angle change between two voltages, V, and Vp. Since Vp
and I are in phase, this angle is the same as the angle between V, and L
Figure 16-17 uses the impedance triangle to illustrate the variations inX6, Z, and 0
as the frequency changes. Of course, R remains constant. The key point is that because X6'
varies inversely with the frequency, so also do the magnitude of the total impedance and
the phase angle. Example 16-4 illustrates this.
vrl
7 f
f l GURE 16-17
As the
frequency
increases, Xg decreases, Z decreases, and
0 ilecreases. Each value of
frequency
can be visualized as
forming
a dffirent impedance triangle.
Increasing
/
ft
Lc3
^c2
J 2
J 1
Phase meter Phase meter
^cl
610 r RC CI RCUI TS
SECTION 1 6-3
1. In a certain series RC circuit, Vn
=
4 V, and Vc
=
6 V. What is the magnitude of the
REVIEW
source vol tage?
2. In
Question
1, what is the phase angle between the source voltage and the current?
3. What is the phase difference between the capacitor voltage aad the resistor voltage
in a series RC circuit?
4. When the frequency of the applied voltage in a series RC circuit is increased, what
happens to the capacitive reactance? what happens to the magnitude of the total
impedance? What happens to the phase angle?
EXAMPLE 16-4 For the series RC circuit in Figure 16-18, determine the magnitude of the total imped-
ance and the phase angle for each of the following values of input frequency:
(a) 10 kHz (b) 20 kHz (c)
30 kHz
FI GURE 16- 18
Solution
(a) For/= 10 kHz,
_ _ | I
=
1. 59 kQ
2nfC 2n(r0kHz)(Q.01 pF)
0. 01 pF
z=f R\ x/ z- t an- ' l I t \
-
\ R /
=
@z-t"''(ffi)
=
r.ssr-sz.e. ko
Thus, Z= 1.88 kO and 0
=
-57.9' .
( b) For f =20kHz,
"' =;rzo
**0o'
uo,
=
7e6 r2
z
=
@
Lan-,
(J9SP)
=
r.zz.-zs.s. ko
Thus, Z
=
1.28 kO and 0
= -38.5'.
(c) For/= 30 kHz,
x' =
t(30 kHhJl
,F)
=
531 o
z
=
@.2-tan-r(!11
I
\
=
t.tzt-zs.o" ko
Thus, Z= 1.13 kO and 0
=
-28.0".
Notice that as the frequency increases, X6, Z, and d decrease.
Related Prohlem Find the magnitude of the total impedance and the phase angle in
Figure 16-18 for
f
=
| kJlz.
I coverage of serics reuctive circuits continues in chapter 17, Part r, on page 664.
r IMPEDANCE AND PHASE ANGTE OF PARATTEL RC CIRCUITS
In this section, you will learn how to determine the impedance and phase angle of a
parallel RC circait. Also, capacitive susceptance and admittance of a parallel RC cir-
cuit are introduced,
After compkting this section, you should be able to
I Determine impedance and phase angle in a parallel RC circuit
.
Express total impedance in complex form
.
Define and calculate conductance, capacitive susceptance, and admittance
Figure l6-19 shows a basic parallel RC circuit connected to an ac voltage source.
FI GURE 16- 19
Basic parallel RC circuit.
The expression for the total impedance is developed as follows, using the rules of
phasor algebra. Since there are only two components, the total impedance can be found
from the product-over-sum rule.
z
(R/0")dcz-90")
t =
Ra x ,
By multiplying the magnitudes, adding the angles in the numerator, and converting the
denominator to polar form, we get
Rxcl(o"
-
90')
Z -
\/n\x'rz.--
(+)
611
612 r
RC CIRCUITS
Now, dividing the magnitude expression in the numerator by that in the denominatoq and
by subtracting the angle in the denominator from that in the numerator, we get
z 1
RX6
\ / . / Y- \ \
L
=
t _- __t . / t _90o
+ t an_' l * l l ( 16_13)
\ VR'
+ x(
l - \
' "
"*'
\
R
i /
Equation (16-13) is the expression for the total impedance for a basic parallel RC cu-
cuit. where the masnitude is
Z _
and the phase angle between the applied voltage and the total current is
0=-900+r--, l , +)
\ R /
Equivalently, this expression can be written as
^ - ' l R \
\x' l
EXAMPTE 16-5 For each circuit in Figure 16-20, determine the magnitude of the total impedance and
the phase angle.
R
1.0 ko
Solution For the circuit in Figure l6-20(a), the total impedance is
z = ( - : X . \ z - t u n - , / 4 \
\ V n' ) + xl - )
\ x. /
t
( l 0 0 Q x 5 0 Q )
- t
, r t o o o r
=l
_l l - t an'
l =J 4. 11_63. 1" { t
L V( l oo Q) ' + ( 50 Q) ' |
\
5u 12
/
Thts, Z
=
44.7 O and 0
= -63.4".
For the circuit in Figure l6-20(b), the total impedance is
t
(1.0 kfl x2 ko)
-l
/ I o k()\
Z=l
"
R. l z - t an' { +#l =894t - 26. 0. Q
I
v
t t . o kOr ' +
( 2
kQ) ' l
\
- Ns.
/
Thlas, Z= 894 O and I
=
-26.6".
Related Prohlem Determine Z in Figure l6-20(a) if the frequency is doubled.
I MPEDANCE AND PHASE ANCLE OF PARALLEL RC CI RCUI TS .
613
Conductance/ Susceptance/ and Adm ittance
Recall that conductance,
G
is the reciprocal of resistance. The phasor expression for
conductance is expressed as
Two new terms are now introduced for use in parallel RC circuits. Capacitive sus-
ceptance (86) is the reciprocal of capacitive reactance and the phasor expression for
capacitive susceptance is
G=#
=
Gt | o
Br =
nh=Bcl goo=+i Bc
"
=zh=Y/ ' +o
(16-17)
( 16- 18)
( 16- 19)
Admittance ()z) is the reciprocal of impedance and the phasor expression for admit-
tance is
The unit of each of these terms is the siemens (S), which is the reciprocal of the ohm.
In working with parallel circuits, it is often easier to use G, 86, and I rather than
R, Xc, and Z. In a parallel RC circuit, as shown in Figure 16-21, the total admittance is
simply the phasor sum of the conductance and the capacitive susceptance.
Y= G+ j Bc (16-20\
(a)
FI GURE 16_21
Admittance in a parallel RC circuit.
EXAMPLE 16-6 Determine the total admittance (Y) and total impedance (Z)
in Figure 16-22. Sketch
the admittance phasor diagram.
C
0. 2 pF
FI GURE 16- 22
614 r RC CIRCUITS
Solution From Figure 16-22, R
=
330 Q; thus G
=
llR= l/330 fl
=
3.03 mS. The
capacitive reactance is
xr
=
: L
=
- - . . - ]
=' 796
Q
2n[C 2n(1000 Hz1Q.2 pF1
The capacitive susceptance magnitude is
The total admittance is
16_5 r ANATYSIS OF PARALLET RC CIRCUITS
B. = L = 1
= 1 . 2 6 mS
"
xc 196a
Y,o,= G +
jBc =
3.03 mS +
j1.26
mS
which can be expressed in polar form as
Y
,o,
=
f c\ Bl ztan
' (4\
'
\ G /
=
m
zrun
t (
1.26 ^S
\ = t.zxzzz.6"
\ : . 0: ms ) - " ' * ' * "
Total admittance is converled to total impedance as follows:
zr ,
=
J- = - . - - l - .
-
=
3osZ- 22. 6" dL
Y, o, ( 3. 28222. 6' mS1
The admittance phasor diagram is shown in Figure 16-23.
FI CURE 16- 23
Br ' = 1. 26mS
I =
3. 28 rnS
G
=
3. 03 mS
Related Problem Calculate the total admittance in Fisure 16*22 if f is
to 2.5 kHZ
SECTION 16-4
1. Define conductance, capacitive susceptance, and admittance.
REVf EW 2. It Z= 100 e, whar i s the vatue of I?
3. In a certain parallel RC circuit, R
=
47 Q and X.
=
75 {t. Determine Y.
4. In
Questi on
3, what i s Z?
mS
In the previous section, you learned how to express the impedance of a parallel RC
circuit. Now, Ohm's law and Kirchhoff\ current law ure ased in the analysis of RC
circuits. Current and voltage relationships in a parallel RC circuit are examined.
After completing this section, you should be able to
I Analyze a parallel RC circuit
.
Apply Ohm's law and Kirchhoff's current law to parallel RC circuits
.
Express the voltages and currents as phasor quantities
ANALYSI S OF PARALLEL RC CI RCUI TS
T
6. 15
Show how impedance and phase angle vary with frequency
Convert from a parallel circuit to an equivalent series circuit
For convenience in the analysis of parallel circuits, the Ohm's law formulas using imped-
ance, previously stated, can be rewritten for admittance using the relation Y
=
l/2.
Remember, the use of boldface nonitalic letters indicates phasor quantities.
v = I
Y
(16-2"t )
(16-22)
(16-23)
I = V Y
Y = f
v
EXAMPLE 16-7
Determine the total cuffent and phase angle in Figure
showing the relationship of V" andl,or.
16-24. Draw a phasor diagram
Ft cuRE 16-24
Solution The capacitive reactance is
Xr =; 4; =
2nf C Zn(1.5
The capacitive susceptance magnitude is
C
0.02 pF
=
5. 31 ko
kHz)(0.02 pF)
1 l
Bc =4 =
5 * 3 t t o
=
1 8 8
PS
The conductance magnitude is
1 1
o =
o = r ; * = 4 5 5 p S
The total admittance is
Y, o, = G + j Bc= 455 pS +7188 pS
Converting to polar forrn yields
616 I RC CIRCUITS
Ft cuRE 16-26
Currents in a parallel RC circuit.
The phase angle is 22.5".
Use Ohm's law to determine the total current.
l ,o,=Y,Y,o,= (1020" V)(492222.5' pS) =
4.92222,5' mA
The magnitude of the total current is 4.92 mA, and it leads the applied voltage by
22.5', as the phasor diagram in Figure 16-25 indicates.
Ff GURE 16- 25
- /
' , ' =
- r ' el
r nA
, \ 2 2 . 5 .
,
I =
' n v
Related Prohlem What is the total cuffent (in polar form) iflis doubled?
Relationships of the Currents and Voltages in a Parallel RC Circuit
Figure l6-26(a) shows all the currents in a basic parallel RC circuit. The total curterrt, 1,o,,
divides at the junction
into the two branch currents, Ia and 16,. The applied voltage, V,,
appears across both the resistive and the capacitive branches, so V", Va, and Vg are all in
phase and of the same magnitude.
L
I ' R
V
The current through the resistor is in phase with the voltage. The current through
the capacitor leads the voltage, and thus the resistive current, by 90'. By Kirchhoff's cur-
rent law, the total current is the phasor sum of the two branch currents, as shown by the
phasor diagram in Figure l6-26(b). The total cuffent is expressed as
Ic
I,o,
l / i
l , / i
(b)
I,or= Io +
jI6
This equation can be expressed in polar form as
l , o, =YI ' n+ I f l t an
where the magnitude of the total current is
I' o'
=f
I' o + I"
and the phase angle between the resistor cunent and the total current is
-'l1"\
\ro /
(16-24)
(1
6-2s)
(16-26)
-rl 1c\
t - l
\1o /
V,
"T
0 = t a n ('t6-27)
ANALYSI S OF PARALLEL RC CI RCUI TS .
617
Since the resistor cuffent and the applied voltage are in phase, d also represents the
phase angle between the total current and the applied voltage. Figure 16-27 shows a com-
plete current and voltage phasor diagram.
FIGURE
,I6-27
Current and voltage phasor iliagram
for
a parallel RC circuit (amplitudes are arbitrary).
EXAMPTE 16-8 Determine the value of each culrent in Figure 16-28, and describe the phase relation-
ship of each with the applied voltage. Draw the current phasor diagram.
FI GURE 16- 28
Solution The resistor current, the capacitor current, and the total current are
expressed as follows:
t o=*
=f f i +=sl . st o' mA
I-
=
-L -
l2zo'Y
=
8oz9o" mA
c
-
Xc r5oz-go' t)
l,o,
=
Ia + jIc =
54.5 mA +780 mA
Converting Iro, to polar form yields
l , o,
=f
I ' o* I l zt un-t (! \
\ 1^/
=
@
zt un, ( f l Jn{ .
\ =96. Bt ss. 7o
mA
\
54.5 mA
/
As the results show, the resistor current is 54.5 mA and is in phase with the volt-
age. The capacitor curent is 80 mA and leads the voltage by 90". The total current is
96.8 mA and leads the voltage by 55.7". The phasor diagram in Figure 16-29 illus-
trates these relationships.
618 r RC CI RCUI TS
FI GURE 16-29
16
=
80 mA
1,o,
=
96.8 mA
54. 5 mA
Related Prohlem
Determine the total
In a parallel
cuffent.
In
=
10010' mA and lc
=
6029Oo tnA.
Conversi on from Paral l el to Seri es Form
For every parallel RC circuit, there is an equivalent series RC circuit. Two circuits are
considered equivalent when they both present an equal impedance at their terminals; that
is, the magnitude of impedance and the phase angle are identical.
To obtain the equivalent series circuit for a given parallel RC circuit, first find the
impedance and phase angle of the parallel circuit. Then use the values of Z and d to con-
struct an impedance triangle shown in Figure 16-30. The vertical and horizontal sides of
the triangle represent the equivalent series resistance and capacitive reactance as indi-
cated. These values can be found using the following trigonometric relationships:
R"q= Z cos 0
Xc( " q) = Zsi n0
FI GURE 16- 30
Impedance triangle
for
the series equivalent of a parallel
RC circuit. Z anil 0 are the known values
for
the parallel
circuit. R"o and Xs1"r:) are the series equivalent values.
EXAMPLE 16-9 Convert the parallel circuit in Figure 16-31 to a series form.
(16_28)
(16-29)
X6601= Z sin?
Lc
2'7 a
Rrq= Z cos
e
FI GURE 16- 31
Solution First, find the admittance of the parallel circuit as follows:
t l
O =
* = , r r = 5 5 . 6 m S
1 t
B - = L
= 3 7 . 0 mS
- L
x c 27A
Y
=
G + j Bc =
55.6 mS +737.0 mS
Converting to polar form yields
Y
=f
c\ B\ zrun-' (*\
\ G /
=
ffiz,un-' (..rj$
\
=
oo.z zst.o.
\
) ) . o m)
/
Then, the total impedance is
7 - l -
ut ot -
Y 66. 8233. 6' mS
ANALYSIS OF PARALLEL RC CIRCUITS
.
619
=
15.01-33.6" Q
mS
Converting to rectangular form yields
Z, o, =Zc os 0- j Z s i n0= R. q- j Xc Gq)
=
15.0 cos(-33.6")
-
j 15.0
si n(33.6' )
=
12.5 Q
-
j 8.31 O
The equivalent series RC circuit is a 12.5 f2 resistor in series with a capacitive
tance of 8.31 O. This is shown in Fisure 16-32.
FI GURE 16- 32
^c(eq)
Related Problem The impedance of a parallel RC circuit is Z
=
101,-26' kf). Con-
vert to an equivalent series circuit.
SECTION 16-5
1. The admittance of an RC circuit is 3.50 mS, and the applied voltage is 6 V. What is
REVIEW
the total current?
2. In a certain parallel RC circuit, the resistor current is 10 mA, and the capacitor cur-
rent is 15 mA. Determine the magnitude and phase angle of the total cuuent. This
phase angle is measured with respect to what?
3. What is the phase angle between the capacitor cuffent and the applied voltage in a
parallel RC circuit?
I Coverage of parallel reactive circuits continues in Chapter 17, Part 2, on page 672.
16_6 I SERIES.PARALLET RC CIRCUITS
In this section, the concepts studied with respect to series and parallel circuits ure
used to analyze circuits with combinutions of both series and parallel R und C ele-
ments.
After completing this section, you should be able to
I Analyze series-parallel RC circuits
.
Determine total impedance
.
Calculate currents and voltages
.
Measure impedance and phase angle
Series-parallel circuits consist of arrangements of both series and parallel elements. The
following two examples demonstrate how to approach the analysis of series-parallel RC
networks.
EXAMPLE 16-10
FI GURE 16_33
In the circuit of Figure
(a) total impedance
16-33, determine the following:
(b) total current (c) phase angle by which l,o,leads V"
c2
0.05,uF
SERI ES-PARALLEL RC CI RCUI TS .
621
Solution
(a) First, calculate the magnitudes of capacitive reactance.
x r , = - L = - , ' 1
- = 3 1 8 f )
2nf C 2r r 5 kHzr r 0. l pFl
xr,
=
-f=
= 6?'l a
2n[C 2n(5 kHzl r0.05 pFl
One approach is to lind the impedance of the series portion and the impedance of
the parallel portion and combine them to get the total impedance. The impedance
of the series combination of R1 and C1 is
Zt
=
Rt
-
j Xct =
1.0 kO
-
j 318
O
To determine the impedance of the parallel portion, first determine the admittance
of the parallel combination of R2 and C2.
t . = I = - !
= 1 . - l 7 mS
R2 680 O
u. , , =
* =
#
" =
1. 57 mS
Yz= Gz. + j Bcz =
1. 47 mS + j 1. 57
mS
Converting to polar form yields
Y
r =
f ci ' . , - B' - zt an
t ( l st 1
'
\ G , I
=
ffi zrun_,(!!l !]\=2.t5t46.e" ms
\ r . 4 /
ms /
Then, the impedance of the parallel portion is
Zr= l=
=
4652-46.9" e)
Y2 2. I 5146. 9" mS
Converting to rectangular form yields
Zz= Zzcos 0
-.i Z2si n
0
= (465 O)cos(-46.9' )
-
j (465
Q)si n(-46.9' )
=
318 A
-
fi 39
A
The series portion and the parallel portion are in series with each other. Combine
Z1 and 22 to get the total impedance.
Z , o , = Z r + 2 2
= ( 1. 0kO
- j 318
O) + ( 318 A
-
j 339
O)
=
1318 O-
j 651
O
Expressing Z,o, in polar form yields
z, u, = f z' 3
f
z- t an
t ( ?\
'
\ z , l
=
@
t-tan-'
(
-!!9\
=
1.47 t-26.5. kO
\
l J 1 6 s 2
/
(b)
Use Ohm's law to determine the total current.
I,,=5
===!4:- =6.80226.5"
mA
z,o, 1.41 2-26.5" kQ
(c) The total cunent leads the applied voltage by 26.5".
Related Problem Determine the voltages across 21 and 22 in Figure 16-33 and
express in polar form.
622
I
RC CIRCUITS
EXAMPLE 16_11
Determine all currents in Figure 16-34. Sketch a current phasor diagram.
V,
220" V
f = 2 MHz
z1
R1
? ? ' o
L l
0.001
z2
K1
4 7 A
C"
OilOZ pP
P F I
r
FI GURE 16- 34
Solution First, calculate Xg1 ard Xs2.
Xr,
=
-L
= 79'6 e)
2nfC 2trQMHz)t0.001 pF)
X? . = L
= 3 9 . 8 f )
2nfC 2n(2MHz)(0.002 p.F)
Next, determine the impedance of each of the two parallel branches.
zt
=
Rr
-
j xct =
33 a
-
j 19.6
A
Zz= Rz- j Xcz= 47 Q
-
j 39. 8 O
Convert these impedances to polar form.
Zr =. VR' r +xLz- t an- ' ( \ 1
\ R ' l
=
\,{x ol +
oe.o
ct z-tun-' (7?.6 ?\
=
86.2t-6j.5" e
\ 3 3 o )
" " - - " ' "
z,
=
f R', * xL z-nn-
t
(
452\
\ R z l
=
V{47 e)2 +
(3ei
af z-t an-' (}2}9\ =6t . 6t -40. 3. t L
\
47f 2
)
Calculate each branch cuffent.
t'
=
$
=
- ?lo.-]- ^
=
23.2t67.5' mA
z1 86.22-67.5" Q
r, =5
=
- ?l ol u-. ^
=32. 5t 40. 3' ma
z2 61.61-40.3" Q
To get the total current, express each branch cuffent in rectangular form so that
they can be added.
I r
=
8. 89 mA+
j 2l . 4mA
l z=24. 8 mA +721. 0 mA
The total cuffent is
l r or =11 * 12
= (8.89 mA + j 21.4 mA) + (24.8 mA + j 21.0
mA)
=
33.7 mA +
j 42.4
mA
Converting I,o, to polar form yields
1.,
=
@
za",(H*) =
st.z u:sr.6. mA
The current phasor diagram is shown in Figure l6-35.
SERIES-PARALLEL RC CIRCUITS .
623
Circuit
ground
Fl cuRE 16-3s
Related Prohlem Determine the voltages across each component in Fieure 16-34
and sketch a voltage phasor diagram.
Measurement of Zrorand 0
Now, let's see how the values of 2,,,, and 0 for the circuit in Example 16-10 can be deter-
mined by measurement. First, the total impedance is measured as outlined in the follow-
ing steps and as illustrated in Figure l6-36 (other ways are also possible):
step 1. Using a sine wave generator, set the source voltage to a known value (10 v) and
the frequency to 5 kHz. If your generator is not accurate, then it is advisable to
check the voltage with an ac voltmeter and the frequency with a frequency
counter rather than relying on the marked values on the generator controls.
Frequency
counter
.- Cz
0. 05 pF
R2
680 f,)
z , ^ , = v ' =
I o v
= t . + z t o
I,n, 6.79 mA
FI GURE 16- 36
Determining Z,o, by measurement of V, and lro,.
1r = 23. 2 mA
40. 3"
51. 6'
624 r RC CIRCUITS
Step 2. Connect an ac ammeter as shown in Figure 16-36, and measure the total cur-
rent.
Step 3. Calculate the total impedance by using Ohm's law.
To measure the phase angle, an analog oscilloscope is used in this illustration. The
basic method of measuring a phase angle on an analog oscilloscope was introduced in the
TECH TIP in Chapter 12. We will use that method here in an RC circuit.
To measure the phase angle, the source voltage and the total current must be dis-
played on the screen in the proper time relationship. Two basic types of scope probes are
available to measure the quantities with an oscilloscope: the voltage probe and the cunent
probe. Although the cunent probe is a convenient device, it is often not as readily available
or as practical to use as a voltage probe. For this reason, we will confine our phase mea-
surement technique to the use of voltage probes in conjunction with the oscilloscope. A
typical oscilloscope voltage probe has two points, the probe tip and the ground lead, that
are connected to the circuit. Thus, all voltage measurements must be referenced to ground.
Since only voltage probes are to be used, the total cur:rent cannot be measured
directly. However, for phase measurement, the voltage across R1 is in phase with the total
cuffent and can be used to establish the phase angle.
Before proceeding with the actual phase measurement, note that there is a problem
with displayin1 Vn. If the scope probe is connected across the resistor, as indicated in
Figure l6-31(a), the ground lead of the scope will short point B to ground, thus bypass-
ing the rest of the components and effectively removing them from the circuit electrically,
as illustrated in Figure 16-3'7(b) (assuming that the scope is not isolated from power line
ground).
To avoid this problem, you can switch the generator output terminals so that one end
ofRl is connected to ground, as shown in Figure 16-38(a). This connection does not alter
This pafi of the circuit is
shorted out by ground
connection through scope.
(r
FI
R
gt
FI
M
B is to short out the rest of the circuit.
FI GURE 16- 37
Unilesirable effects of measuring ilirect$ across a component when the instrument and the
circuit ure grounded.
F-
Ground
(a) Ground lead on scope probe grounds point B.
(b) The effect of grounding point
SERI ES- PARALLEL RC CI RCUI TS
I
625
the circuit electrically because Rt still has the same series relationship with the rest of the
circuit. Now the scope can be connected across it to display Va1, as indicated in part (b) of
the figure. The other probe is connected across the voltage source to display V" as indicated.
Now channel 1 of the scope has vp1 as an input, and channel 2 has v". The trigger source
switch on the scope should be on internal so that each trace on the screen will be triggered
by one of the inputs and the other will then be shown in the proper time relationship to it.
Since amplitudes are not important, the volts/div settings are arbitrary. The sec/div settings
should be adjusted so that one half-cycle of the waveforms appears on the screen.
/ar\
f ^ 1
r> r6t rd
\ - / Y Y
C
R
'A-m--litll
R z 3
(a) Ground repositioned so that one end of R1 is grounded
FIGURE 16-39
Measurement of the phase angle on the oscilloscope,
(b) The scope displays a half-cycle of Val and I/r. 7p1 represents the phase of the
total current. Decalibrate both channels to make both voltages appear to have
the same amplitude.
Onehal f - cycl e =
I 80'
c2
itioning ground so that a direct voltage measurement can be made with respect to
without shorting out part of the circuit.
Before connecting the probes to the circuit in Figure 16-38, you must align the two hor-
izontal lines (traces) so that they appear as a single line across the center of the screen. To do
so, ground the probe tips and adjust the vertical position knobs to move the traces toward the
center line ofthe screen until they are superimposed. This procedure ensures that both wave-
forrns have the same zero crossing so that an accurate phase measurement can be made.
The resulting oscilloscope display is shown in Figure 16-39. Since there are 180'
in one half-cycle, each of the ten horizontal divisions across the screen represents 18o.
Thus, the horizontal distance between the corresponding points of the two waveforms is
the phase angle in degrees as indicated.
| ^ | *
a l
I ^: ^ I
L
Each di vi si on =
t 8.
A
L
Phase angle
V/div V/div s/div
@ 0 0
CHl CHz
626
r
RC CIRCUITS
sEcTtoN 16-6
REVIEW
1. What is the equivalent series RC circuit for the series-parallel circuit in Figure
l 6-33?
2. What is the total impedance in polar form of the circuit in Figure 16-34?
I Coverage of series-parallel reactive circuits continues in Chapter 17, Pafi 3, on page 679.
16_7
.
POWER IN RC CIRCUITS
t
(r
F
D
In a purely resistive ac circuit, all of the energy delivered by the source is dissipated
in the
form
of heat by the resistance. In a purely capacitive ac circuit, all of the
energy delivercd by the source is stored by the capacitor during a portion of the voll.
age cycle
qnd
then returned to the source d.uring another portion of the cycle so that
there is no net conversion to heat. When there is both resistsnce and capacitance,
some of the energy is alternately stored snd returned by the capacitunce and some is
dissipated by the resistance. The emount of energy converted to heut is determineil by
the relative values of the resistance and the capacitive reactance.
\fter
completing this section, you should be able to
I Determine power in RC circuits
.
Explain true and reactive power
.
Draw the power triangle
.
Define power
factor
.
Explain apparent power
.
Calculate power in an RC circuit
POWER I N RC CI RCUI TS
.
627
It is reasonable to assume that when the resistance is greater than the capacitive reactance,
more ofthe total energy delivered by the source is converted to heat by the resistance than
is stored by the capacitance. Likewise, when the reactance is greater than the resistance,
more of the total energy is stored and returned than is converted to heat.
The formulas for power in a resistor, sometimes called true power (P*"), and the
power in a capacitor, called reactive power (P,), are restated here. The unit of true power
is the watt, and the unit of reactive power is the VAR (volt-ampere reactive).
Pou.= IzR
Pr= IzXc
(1 6-30)
(1 6-31)
The Power Triangle for RC Circuits
The generalized impedance phasor diagram is shown in Figure 1640(a). A phasor rela-
tionship for the powers can also be represented by a similar diagram because the respec-
tive magnitudes of the powers, P-" and P,, differ from R and Xs by a factor of 12. This
is shown in Figure 16-40(b).
Watts (W)
D
I , X,
N-
(reactive)
Volt-amperes
reactive (VAR)
(b) Power phasors (c) Power triangle
(a) Impedance phasors
RE
't
6-40
of the power triangle
for
an RC circuit.
The resultant power phasor, I2Z, rcpresents the apparent power, P". At any instant
in time Po is the total power that appears to be transferred between the source and the RC
circuit. The unit of apparent power is the volt-ampere, VA. The expression for apparent
power is
Po= I 2Z (16-32)
The power phasor diagram in Figure 16-40(b) can be rearranged in the form of a
right triangle, as shown in Figure 16-40(c). This is called the power triangle. Using the
rules of trigonometry, P,,u" can be expressed as
Poo"
=
Pocos d (1 6-33)
Since Po equals I2Z or VI, the equation for the true power dissipation in an RC cir-
cuit can be written as
P*"
=
VI cos 0
where V is the applied voltage and 1 is the total current.
(16-34)
628 T RC CIRCUITS
For the case of a purely resistive current, 0
=
0o and cos 0o
=
1, so P*" equals VL
For the case of a purely capacitive circuit, 0
=
90o and cos 90o
=
0, so P-" is zero. As you
already know, there is no power dissipation in an ideal capacitor.
The Power Factor
The term cos 0 is called the power factor and is stated as
PF=cos0 (1 6-3s)
As the phase angle between applied voltage and total current increases, the power
factor decreases, indicating an increasingly reactive circuit. The smaller the power factor,
the smaller the power dissipation.
The power factor can vary from 0 for a purely reactive circuit to 1 for a purely resis-
tive circuit. In an RC circuit, the power factor is referred to as a leading power factor
because the current leads the voltase.
EXAMPLE 16-12 Determine the power factor and the true power in the circuit of Figure 1641.
FI GURE 16- 41 p C
v,
1 5 V
/
= 10kHz
:
Solution The capacitive reactance is
Xr= =)-
=
r -] -
=
3. 18 ko
2nfC 2n(10 kHz)(0.005 pF)
The total impedance of the circuit in rectangular form is
Z
=
R
-
j Xc=
1. 0 kQ
-j 3. 18
kO
Converting to polar form yields
z=f R2 +xl z- t un- ' ( * \
'
\ R /
The angle associated with the impedance is 0, the angle between the applied voltage
and the total current; therefore, the
power
factor is
The current masnitude is
PF= cos 0
=
cos(-'72.5')
=
0.301
t
=L=
, 1:
y,
=
4. 50 mA
z 3. 33 kO
The true power is
P^.= V,I cos d
= (15 VX4.50 mAX0.301)
=
20.3 mW
Related Problem What is the power factor iflis reduced by half in Figure 164I?
POWER IN RC CIRCUITS
.
629
The Significance of Apparent Power
As mentioned, apparent power is the power that appears to be transfered between the
source and the load, and it consists of two components-a true power component and a
reactive power component.
In all electrical and electronic systems, it is the true power that does the work. The
reactive power is simply shuttled back and forth between the source and load. Ideally, in
terms of performing useful work, all of the power transferred to the load should be true
power and none of it reactive power. However, in most practical situations the load has
some reactance associated with it, and therefore you must deal with both power compo-
nents.
In Chapter 15, we discussed the use of apparent power in relation to transformers.
For any reactive load, there are two components of the total current: the resistive compo-
nent and the reactive component. If you consider only the true power (watts) in a load,
you are dealing with only a portion of the total current that the load demands from a
source. In order to have a realistic picture of the actual cuffent that a load will draw, you
must consider apparent power (VA).
A source such as an ac generator can provide current to a load up to some maxi-
mum value. If the load draws more than this maximum value, the source can be damaged.
Figure l6-42(a) shows a 120 V generator that can deliver a maximum current of 5 A to a
load. Assume that the generator is rated at 600 W and is connected to a purely resistive
load of 24 Q (power factor of 1). The ammeter shows that the current is 5 A, and the
wattmeter indicates that the power is 600 W. The generator has no problem under these
conditions, although it is operating at maximum current and power.
Ammeter indicates
that current i s excessi ve
Wattmeter indicates
that power is below
rated value.
Z = 1 8 Q
PF =0. 6
\
(a) Generator operating at its limits with a
resi sti ve l oad.
(b) Generator is in danger of intemal damage due to
excess culaent, even though the wattmeter
indicates that the power is below the maximum
wattage rating.
FI CURE 16- 42
Wattage rating of a source is inappropriate when the load is reactive. The rating should be
in VA rather thqn in v,atts.
Now, consider what happens if the load is changed to a reactive one with an imped-
ance of 18 o and a power factor of 0.6, as indicated in Figure 1642(b). The cur:rent is
120 Y/r8 a
=
6.61 A, which exceeds the maximum. Even though the wattmeter reads
480
W
which is less than the power rating of the generator, the excessive current
probably will cause damage. This illustration shows that a true power rating can be
deceiving and is inappropriate for ac sources. The ac generator should be rated at 600 VA,
a rating that manufacturers generally use, rather than 600 W.
5Amax
600 W max
630 I
RC CI RCUI TS
EXAMPLE 16-13 For the circuit in Fisure 16-43, find the true power, the reactive power, and the appar-
ent power.
FI CURE 16- 43
C
0. 15 pF
Solution From Figure
caDacitive reactance is
16-43. R
=
4'70 e): thus G
=
IlR
=
I/410 Q
=
2.13 mS. The
Xc =
1 _
=
1061 A
2rfC 2r(1000 HzX0.15 pF)
The true power is
, _ v , _
l O v
_ . r ,
l o =
R' = 4 . , 0 A = 2 l . J mA
, v" 10v
I r = i =
1 0 6 l O= 9 . - l 3 mA
pru.=
IIR
= (21.3 mA)2(4:.0 o)
=
213 mW
The reactive power is
p,=
ISXc
= (9.43 mA)2(1061 O)
=
94.3 mVAR
The apparent power is
P"=f P' ou"a
pl =
Related Problem What is the rrue power in Figure 1643 if the frequency
changed to 2 kHz?
(213 mW)2 + (94.3 mVAR)2
=
233 mVA
sEcTtoN 16-7
REVIEW
16-8 r
BASIC APPLICATIONS
1. To which component in an RC circuit is the power dissipation due?
2. The phase angle, 0, is 45" . What is the power factor?
3. A certain series RC circuit has the following paramerer values: R
=
330 {1, X,
=
460 {r, and I
=
2 A. Determine the true power, the reactive power, and the apparent
power.
RC circuits are
found
in a variety of applications, often as part of a more complex cir-
cuit. Two major applirations, phase shift networks and
frequency-selective
networks
ffilters),
are covered in this section.
After completing this section, you should be
qble
to
I Discuss some basic RC applications
.
Discuss and analyze the RC lag network
.
Discuss and anaTyze the RC lead network
.
Discuss how the RC circuit operates as a filter
BASIC APPLICATIONS .
631
The RC Lag Network
The RC lag network is a phase shift circuit in which the output voltage lags the input volt-
age by a specified amount. Figure 1644(a) shows a series RC circuit with the output volt-
age taken across the capacitor. The source voltage is the input, Vi,. As you know, 0, the
phase angle between the current and the input voltage, is also the phase angle between the
resistor voltage and the input voltage because Vp and l are in phase with each other.
FI GURE 16- 44
RC lag network (Vou, =
Vd.
(a) A basic RC lag network (b) Phasor voltage diagram
showing the phase lag
between Vi, andVou,
Since Vg lags Vp by 90o, the phase angle between the capacitor voltage and the
input voltage is the difference between
-90o
and d, as shown in Figure 16-44(b). The
capacitor voltage is the output, and it lags the input, thus creating a basic lag network.
When the input and output voltage waveforms of the lag network are displayed on
an oscilloscope, a relationship similar to that in Figure 16-45 is observed. The amount of
phase difference, designated
@,
between the input and the output is dependent on the rel-
ative sizes of the capacitive reactance and the resistance, as is the magnitude of the out-
put voltage.
@
(phase lag)
FI GURE 16- 45
Oscillnscope displny of the input and output voltage waveforms of a lag network (Vou, lags
V). The angle shown is arbitrary.
Phase Difference Between Input and Output As already established, 0 is the phase
angle between 1 and V;n. The angle between Vou, and V;, is designated
$
(phi) and is
devel oped as fol l ows.
The polar expressions for the input voltage and the current are V;,10o ard I/-0,
respectively. The output voltage is
Q=
-90"
+ 0
(phase lag)
Y,*,= (IZ0)(Xsl-90') =
IXcZ(-9}" + 0)
632 r RC CIRCUITS
The preceding equation states that the output voltage is at an angle of
-90"
+ 0 with
respect to the input voltage. Since 0
= *tarf
'(xclR),
the angle between the input and out-
put is
d
= _eoo..""_,(f)
(1 6-36)
This angle is always negative, indicating that the output voltage lags the input voltage, as
shown in Figure 1646.
FI GURE 16- 46
vor,
(a)
EXAMPLE 16-14
FIGURE 16_47
Determine the amount of phase lag from input to output in each lag network in Figure
1647.
u,
" f = 1 k Hz
(a) (b)
Solution For the lag network in Figure 1647(a),
d
= -90' *
run-' (*)
= -90o
+ tan-l /!
j 9
)
= -90' +
r8.4"
= -7r.6o
\ R / \ 1 5 k o /
The output lags the input by 71.6".
For the lag network in Figure 1647(b), first determine the capacitive reactance.
x r = = J : = ^ ; * 1 -
n = 1 . 5 9 k e
2nfC 2n(1k[1z)0.1 pr)
d
= -90'
* ,un-'1*)
= -e0o
* ,un-'/
t'1?
!o \
= -23.2"
\ R / \
6 8 0 C 2
/
The output lags the inputby 23.2'.
Related Prohlem In a lag network, what happens to the phase lag if the frequency
increases?
BASIC APPLICATIONS T
633
Magnitude of the Output Voltage To evaluate the output voltage in terms of its mag-
nitude, visualize the RC lag network as a voltage divider. A portion of the total input volt-
age is dropped across the resistor and a portion across the capacitor. Because the output
voltage is the voltage across the capacitor, it can be calculated as
v, =( - ! \ v, , ' o' 1- \ f * * x Z)
' "
Or it can be calculated using Ohm's law as
Vory
=
IXs
The total phasor expression for the output voltage of an RC lag network is
('t6-37)
(1 6-38)
Your= VourZQ (1
6-39)
The RC Lead Network
The RC lead network is a phase shift circuit in which the output voltage leads the input volt-
age by a specified amount. When the output of a series RC circuit is taken across the resistor
rather than across the capacitor, as shown in Figure r6a9@), it becomes a lead network.
EXAMPLE 16-15 For the lag network in Figure 1641(b) (Example 16-14), determine the output volt-
age in phasor form when the input voltage has an rms value of 10 V. Sketch the input
and output voltage waveforms showing the proper phase relationship. X6 (1.59 kO)
and
g (-23.2o) were found in Example 16-14.
Solution The output voltage in phasor form is
/ x - \
You,=
I--+= lv,,lE
\ YR' + XI /
_ /
l . s e k o
\ , ^ . , =
(m
)t 0t -23. 2'
Y
=
9. 20/ -23. 2o V rms
The waveforms are shown in Fisure 16-48.
FI CURE 16- 48 V
Related Prohlem In a lag network, what happens to the output voltage if the fre-
quency increases?
Vur t =9' 20Y r ms
634 r RC CIRCUITS
(a)
A basic RC lead network (b) Phasor voltage diagram showing
the phase lead between I{, and Vou,
@
(phase lead)
(c)
FIGURE 16-49
RC lead network (Vo,t =
Vd.
Phase Difference Between Input and Output In a series RC circuit, the current leads
the input voltage. Also, as you know, the resistor voltage is in phase with the curent.
Since the output voltage is taken across the resistor, the output leads the input, as indi-
cated by the phasor diagram in Figure 1649(b). A typical oscilloscope display of the
waveforms is shown in Figure 1649(c).
As in the lag network, the amount of phase difference between the input and output
and also the magnitude of the output voltage in the lead network is dependent on the rel-
ative values of the resistance and the capacitive reactance. When the input voltage is
assigned a reference angle of 0', the angle of the output voltage is the same as d (the
angle between total current and applied voltage) because the resistor voltage (output) and
the current are in phase with each other. Therefore, since
Q
=
0 in this case, the expres-
sion is
(1 6-40)
This angle is positive because the output leads the input. The following example illus-
trates the computation of phase angles for lead networks.
. - ' l X. \
d = t a n ' l - l
'
\ R i
EXAMPLE 16-16 Calculate the output phase angle for each circuit in Figure 16-50.
vt,
500 Hz
(a) (b)
FI CURE 16- 50
Solution For the lead network in Figure 16-50(a),
b
=
t an-' (*l
=
t un-' l ***)
=: +. : .
\ R / \ z z u s z l
The output leads the input by 34.3'.
For the lead network in Figure 16-50(b), first determine the capacitive reactance.
Xc = - L = # = l - 4 5 k f )
2rc[C 2n(500 Hztt0.22 pFl
e
=
tan-'
(\\
=,un-' /
"' o^s,9
)
=
5s.4"
\ R / \
t . 0 k o /
The output leads the input by 55.4'.
Related Problem In a lead network, what happens to the phase lead if the frequency
increases?
BASIC APPLICATIONS I
635
Magnitude of the Output Voltage Since the output voltage of an RC lead network is
taken across the resistor, the magnitude can be calculated using either the voltage-divider
formula or Ohm's law.
r / - /
R
\ , ,
Yo a l - \ . VR\ x i ) " ' '
Vo6
=
IR
The expression for the output voltage in phasor form is
(' t6-4"t)
(16-42)
Y
or,
=
VourZ$ (1
6-43)
636 T RC CIRCUITS
EXAMPLE 16_17 The input voltage in Figure 16-50(b) (Example 16-16) has an rms value of 10 V.
Determine the phasor expression for the output voltage. Sketch the waveform relation-
ships for the input and output voltages showing peak values. The phase angle (55.4")
andXs (1.45 kO) were found in Example 16-16.
Solution The phasor expression for the output voltage is
r / |
R
\ , , / t . O k o \ ,
\ ou, =l
/ . . l Vi , l Q=l _| 10255. 4' V
=5. 68155. 4oVr ms
\ Y n ' + Xl l
\ t ' l o Kl 2 /
The peak value of the input voltage is
Vi ,@)
=
l .4l 4vi n(*,)
=
| .414(10 V)
=
14. 14 V
The peak value of the output voltage is
Vo,t(p)
=
l .4l 4Vout(*,)
=
| .414(5.68 V)
=
8.03 V
The waveforms are shown in Fieure 16-51.
FI GURE 16- 51
Related Problem In a lead network, what happens to the output voltage if the fre-
quency is reduced?
The RC Ci rcui t as a Fi l ter
Filters are frequency-selective circuits that permit signals of certain frequencies to pass
from the input to the output while blocking all others. That is, all frequencies but the
selected ones are filtered out. Filters are covered in greater depth in Chapter 19 but are
introduced here as an application example.
Series RC circuits exhibit a frequency-selective characteristic and therefore act as
basic filters. There are two types. The f,rst one that we examine, called a low-pass filter,
is realized by taking the output across the capacitor, just
as in a lag network. The second
type, called a high-pass filter, is implemented by taking the output across the resistor, as
in a lead network.
Low-Pass Filter You have already seen what happens to the output magnitude and
phase angle in the lag network. In terms of its filtering action, we ale interested primar-
ily in the variation of the output magnitude with frequency.
Figure 16-52 shows the filtering action of a series RC circuit using specif,c values
for illustration. In part (a) of the figure, the input is zero frequency (dc). Since the capac-
itor blocks constant direct current, the output voltage equals the full value of the input
voltage because there is no voltage dropped across R. Therefore, the circuit passes all of
the input voltage to the output (10 V in, 10 V out).
In Figure l6-52(b), the frequency of the input voltage has been increased to I kHz,
causing the capacitive reactance to decrease to 159 Q. For an input voltage of 10 V rms,
BASICAPPLICATIONS I
637
I
out
1. 57 V rms
v i n
1 0 Vd c
0
(4,
10V dc
l 0 V d c
0
(b)
(c)
.W
0.79 V rms
W
(d)
fl cuRE 16-52
Low.pass
filter
action (phase shifts are not indicated).
the output voltage is approximately 8.5 V rms, which can be calculated using the voltage-
divider approach or Ohm's law.
In Figure 16-52(c), the input frequency has been increased to 10 kHz, causing the
capacitive reactance to decrease further to 15.9 Q. For a constant input voltage of 10 V
rms, the output voltage is now 1.57 V rms.
As the input frequency is increased further, the output voltage continues to decrease
and approaches zero as the frequency becomes very high, as shown in Figure I6-52(d).
A description of the circuit action is as follows: As the frequency of the input
increases, the capacitive reactance decreases. Because the resistance is constant and the
capacitive reactance decreases, the voltage across the capacitor (output voltage) also
decreases according to the voltage-divider principle. The input frequency can be
increased until it reaches a value at which the reactance is so small compared to the resis-
tance that the output voltage can be neglected because it is very small compared to the
input voltage. At this value of frequency, the circuit is essentially completely blocking the
input signal.
As shown in Figure 16-52, the circuit passes dc (zero frequency) completely. As the
frequency of the input increases, less of the input voltage is passed through to the outpuq
that is, the output voltage decreases as the frequency increases. It is apparent that the
lower frequencies pass through the circuit much better than the higher frequencies. This
RC circuit is therefore a very basic form of low-pass filter.
10 V rms
10 V rms
638 T RC CI RCUI TS
The frequency response of the low-pass fllter circuit in Figure 16-52 is shown
in Figure 16-53 with a graph of output voltage magnitude versus frequency. This
graph, called a response curve, indicates that the output decreases as the frequency in-
creases.
Vo* (Y)
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1. 57 +
0. 79 - 7
f
(.kJ]z)
FI GURE 16- 53
Frequency response cume
for
the low-pass
filter
in Figure 16-52.
High-Pass Filter High-pass filter action is illustrated in Figure 16-54, where the output
is taken across the resistor, just as in a lead network. When the input voltage is dc (zero
frequency) in part (a), the output is zero volts because the capacitor blocks direct current;
therefore, no voltage is developed across R.
In Figure I6*54(b), the frequency of the input signal has been increased to 100 Hz
with an rms value of 10 V. The output voltage is 0.63 V rms. Thus, only a small percent
age of the input voltage appears on the output at this frequency.
In Figure 16-54(c), the input frequency is increased further to 1 kHz, causing more
voltage to be developed across the resistor because of the further decrease in the capaci-
tive reactance. The output voltage at this frequency is 5.32 V rms. As you can see, the out-
put voltage increases as the frequency increases. A value offrequency is reached at which
the reactance is negligible compared to the resistance, and most of the input voltage
appears across the resistor, as shown in Figure l6-54(d).
As illustrated, this circuit tends to prevent lower frequencies from appearing on the
output but allows higher frequencies to pass through from input to output. Therefore, this
RC circuit is a very basic form ofhigh-pass filter.
The frequency response of the high-pass filter circuit in Figure 16-54 is shown in
Figure 16-55 with a graph of output voltage magnitude versus frequency. This response
curve shows that the output increases as the frequency increases and then levels off and
approaches the value of the input voltage.
The Cutoff Frequency and the Bandwidth of a Filter The frequency at which the
capacitive reactance equals the resistance in a low-pass or high-pass RC filter is called the
cutofffrequency and is designated/|. This condition is expressed as I/(2nf,Q
=R.
Solv-
ing for
f,
results in the following formula:
8. 5
, _
I
t " -
2nRC
('t644)
BASIC APPLICATIONS I 639
Vuu, vt,
10V dc
0
(a)
fl GURE 16-54
High-pass
filter
action (phase shifts are not indicated).
0. 63 V rms
-/-----\-
-______--__Z
5.32 V rms
W
10 V rms
ffi
(c)
10 V rms
W
(d)
0 0. 1 I
FI GURE 16- 55
Frequency response curve
for
the high-pass
filter
in Figure 16-54.
Xc = 15924
Xc = 159O
640 I RC CI RCUI TS
FI GURE 16- 56
Normalized general response cume of a
Iow-pass
filter
showing the cutoff
frequency
and the bandwi.dth.
FI GURE 16- 57
Ampffier bias and signal-coupling circuit.
Atr, the output voltage of the filter is 70.77o of its maximum value. It is standard
practice to consider the cutoff frequency as the limit of a filter's performance in terms of
passing or rejecting frequencies. For example, in a high-pass filter, all frequencies abovo
/f
are considered to be passed by the filter, and all those below
f,
are considered to be
rejected. The reverse is true for a low-pass filter.
The range of frequencies that is considered to be passed by a filter is called the
bandwidth. Figure 16-56 illustrates the bandwidth and the cutoff frequency for a low-
pass filter.
Coupl i ng an AC Si gnal i nto a DC Bi as Network
Figure 16-57 shows an RC network that is used to create a dc voltage level with an ac
voltage superimposed on it. This type of circuit is commonly found in amplifiers in which
the dc voltage is required to bias the amplifler to the proper operating point and the sig-
nal voltage to be amplified is coupled through a capacitor and superimposed on the dc
level. The capacitor prevents the low internal resistance of the signal source from affecf
ing the dc bias voltage.
Input
source
vo,
In this type of application, a relatively high value of capacitance is selected so that
for the frequencies to be amplified, the reactance is very small compared to the resistance
of the bias network. When the reactance is very small (ideally zero), there is practically
no phase shift or signal voltage dropped across the capacitor. Therefore, all of the signal
voltage passes from the source to the input of the amplifier.
' v D c
TROUBLESHOOTI NC . 641
Figure 16-58 illustrates the application of the superposition principle to the circuit in
Figure 16-51. In part (a), the ac source has been effectively removed from the circuit and
replaced with a short to represent its ideal internal resistance (actual generators typically
have 50 Q or 600 fl of internal resistance). Since C is open to dc, the voltage at point A is
determined by the voltage-divider action of R1 and R2 and the dc voltage source.
In Figure 16-58(b), the dc source has been effectively removed from the circuit and
replaced with a short to represent its ideal internal resistance. Since C appears as a short
at the frequency of the ac, the signal voltage is coupled directly to point A and appears
across the parallel combination of R1 and R2. Figure 16-58(c) illustrates that the com-
bined effect of the superposition of the dc and the ac voltages results in the signal voltage
"riding" on the dc level.
1";
a" I u"' Voltages i" ,up".i*por"d at point A
(a) dc equivalent: ac source replaced by (b) ac equivalent: dc source is replaced by
short. C is open to dc. R1 and R2 act short. C is short to ac. A11 of Vo" is
as dc voltage divider. coupled to pointA.
TI GURE 16*58
The superpositian of dc and ac voltages in an RC bias and coupling circuit.
sEcTtoN 16-8
REVIEW
16-9 I TROUBTESHOOTING
1.
3.
A certain RClag network consists of a4.'7 kQ resistor and a0.022,uF capacitor.
Determine the phase shift between input and output at a frequency of 3 kHz.
An RC lead network has the same component values as the lag network in
Question
1. What is the magnitude of the output voltage at 3 kllz when the input is 10 V rms?
When an RC circuit is used as a low-pass filter, across which component is the out-
put taken?
= :
(a) dc equivalent: ac source replaced by
short. C is open to dc. R1 and R2 act
as dc voltage divider.
In this section, the elfects that typical component
failures
or degradation hsve on the
response of basic RC circuits are considered.
Nfter
completing this secti.on, you shoul.d be sble to
I Troubleshoot RC circuits
.
Find an open resistor or open capacitor
.
Find a shorted capacitor
.
Find a leakv caoacitor
642 r RC CIRCUITS
Effect of an Open Resistor
It is easy to see how an open resistor affects the operation of a basic series RC circuit, as
shown in Figure 16-59. Obviously, there is no path for current, so the capacitor voltage
remains at zero; thus, the total voltage, V", appears across the open resistor.
FI GURE 16- 59
Effect of an open resistor.
1 0 v
Effect of an Open Capacitor
When the capacitor is open, there is no current; thus, the resistor voltage remains at zero,
The total source voltage is across the open capacitor, as shown in Figure 16-60.
FI CURE 16- 60
Effect of an open capaciton
1 0 v
Effect of a Shorted Capacitor
Capacitors rarely short; but when a capacitor does short out, the voltage across it is zero,
the current equals V"/R, and the total voltage appears across the resistor, as shown in Fig-
ure 16-61.
FI GURE 16- 61
Effect of a shorted capacitor.
10v
TROUBLESHOOTI NG
A 643
Effect of a Leaky Capacitor
When a large electrolytic capacitor exhibits a high leakage current, the leakage resistance
effectively appears in parallel with the capacitoq as shown in Figure l6-62(a). When the
leakage resistance is comparable in value to the circuit resistance, R, the circuit response
is drastically affected. The circuit, looking from the capacitor toward the source, can be
thevenized, as shown in Figure l6-62(b). The Thevenin equivalent resistance is R in par-
allel with R,"oo (the source appears as a short), and the Thevenin equivalent voltage is
determined by the voltage-divider action of R and R1"o1,.
R, 7, =Rl ] Rpop
R.,
-
RRt"ot
"'
R + R,.oo
v. , =(
R' "' r
\ v-
"'
\R
* Rr,opl
"
(1 6-45)
('t6-46)
As you can see, the voltage across the capacitor is reduced since V,7, < V". Also, the cir-
cuit time constant is reduced, and the current is increased. The Thevenin equivalent cir-
cuit is shown in Figure l6-62(c).
Rtt'
I
l
, , , =\ oi -.
o), ,
(c)
FI GURE
- I 6- 62
Effect of a leaky capacitor.
644 r RC CIRCUITS
sEcTroN 16-9
REVIEW
1. Describe the effect of a leaky capacitor on the response of an RC circuit.
2. rn a series RC circuit, if all of the applied voltage appears across the capacitor, what
is the problem?
3. What faults can cause 0 V across a capacitor in a parallel RC circuit if the source is
functioning properly?
16-10 r TECHnol ogy Theory Into Practi ce
EXAMPTE 16-18 Assume that the capacitor in Figure 16-63 is degraded to a point where its leakage
resistance is 10 ko. Determine the output voltage under the degraded condition.
Fl cuRE 16-63
Solution The effective circuit resistance is
R,n=J&!--
(4' 7 koxl qko)
=
3.20 ko
R I R1"o1, I4.1 kA
To determine the output voltage, find the Thevenin equivalent voltage.
v,,
= (;!(-)u, = (,
!o=\1 )'o
u =
6.80 v
\ R+ Rk , k )
'
\ l 4 . 7 k O/
-
Then,
vo,,,
=
|
-!\v,, =
/-4\o.go v
=
5.73 v
\t/
ni r+ x,,
J \
Vr:.2 ko)2 +
rs
kol ,
/
Related Problem what would the output voltage be if the capacitor were not leaky?
In chapter 13, you worked with the capacitively coupled input to an ampffier with volt-
age-divider bias. In this TECH TIP, you will check the output voltage and phase lag of
a similqr ampffier's input circuit to determine how they change with
frequency.
If too
much voltage is dropped across the coupling capacitory the overall performance of the
ampffier is adversely affected. You should review the TECH TIp in Chapter 13 before
proceeding.
As you learned in chapter 13, the coupling capacitor (cr) in Figure 16-64 passes the
input signal voltage to the input of the amplifier (point A to point B) without affecting the
dc level at point B produced by the resistive voltage divider (R1 and R2). If the input fre-
quency is high enough so that the reactance of the coupling capacitor is negligibly small,
essentially no ac signal voltage is dropped across the capacitor. As the signal frequency is
+ 1 8 V d c
ftGURE 16-64
A capacitively coupled amplifier.
TECHNOLOCY THEORY INTO PRACTICE . 645
reduced, the capacitive reactance increases and more of the signal voltage is dropped
across the capacitor. This lowers the overall voltage gain of the amplifier and thus
degrades its performance.
The amount of signal voltage that is coupled from the input source (point A) to the
amplifier input (point B) is determined by the values of the capacitor and the dc bias resis-
tors (assuming the amplifier has no loading effect) in Figure 16-64. These components
actually form a high-pass RC filter, as shown in Figure 16-65. The voltage-divider bias
resistors are effectively in parallel with each other as far as the ac source is concerned
because the power supply has zero internal resistance. The lower end of R2 goes to ground
and the upper end ofRl goes to the dc supply voltage as shown in Figure 16-65(a). Since
there is no ac voltage at the +18 V dc terminal, the upper end of R1 is at 0 V ac which is
refered to as ac ground. The development of the circuit into an effective high-pass RC
lilter is shown in parts (b) and (c).
0 V ac is ac ground
RC input network
q+
0. 1 l F | |
'
$, oun $0,
on
I =l_
u.r,ouno
:
FI GURE 16- 65
The RC input circuit acts effictively like a high-pass RC
filten
(a)
( cJ (b)
+18 V dc
i0 ko
ll
47 ko
646 I RC CIRCUITS
FI GURE 16- 66
Measuring the input circuit response at
frequency ft.
Circled numbers rehte scope inputs to
the probes. The channel 1 waveform is shown, Channel 1 settings are on bottom left, and
Channel 2 settings are on bottom right.
The Ampl i f i er I nput Ci r cui t
r Determine the value of the equivalent resistance of the input circuit. Assume the ampli-
fier (shown inside the white dashed lines in Figure 16-66) has no loading effect on the
input circuit.
The Response at Frequency f1
Refer to Figure 16-66. The input signal voltage is applied to the amplifier circuitboard
and displayed on channel I of the oscilloscope, and channel 2 is connected to a point on
the circuit board.
r Determine to what point on the circuit the channel 2 probe is connected, the frequency,
and the voltage that should be displayed.
FI
tu
ci
fl
cl
rls
t
A
c
J
(
i
FI GURE 16-67
Measaring the input
circuit response at
trequency f2.
The
channel 1 waveform
h shown,
FI GURE 16-68
Measuring the inpul
circuit response at
ftequency fi.
The
chnnnel 7 waveform
is shown,
TECHNOLOGY THEORY INTO PRACTICE
.
647
The Response at Frequency f2
Refer to Figure 16-61 and the circuit board in Figure 16-66. The input signal voltage dis-
played on channel I of the oscilloscope is applied to the amplifier circuit board.
I Determine the frequency and the voltage that should be displayed on channel 2.
r State the difference between the channel 2 waveforms determined for
f1
and
f2.
Explain
the reason for the difference.
The Response at Frequency f3
Refer to Figure 16-68 and the circuit board in Figure 16-66. The input signal voltage dis-
played on channel 1 of the oscilloscope is applied to the amplifier circuit board.
r Determine the frequency and the voltage that should be displayed on channel 2.
I State the difference between the channel 2 waveforms determined for
f2
and
fi.
Explain
the reason for the difference.
648
T
RC CIRCUITS
Response Curve for the Ampl i fi er Input Ci rcui t
I Determine the frequency at which the signal voltage at point B in Figure 16-64 is
70.77o of its maximum value.
r Plot the response curve using this voltage value and the values at frequencies
fi, /2,
and
fi.
r How does this curve show that the input circuit acts as a high-pass filter?
I
What can you do to the circuit to lower the frequency at which the voltage ts 70.770 of
maximum without affectins the dc bias voltase?
SECTION 16-10
1. Explain the effect on the response of the amplifier input circuit of reducing the
REVIEW
val ue of the coupl i ng capaci tor.
2. What is the voltage at point B in Figure 16-64 if the coupling capacitor opens when
the ac i nput si gnal i s l 0 mV rms?
3. What is the voltage at poinr B in Figure 16-64 it resisror R1 is open when rhe ac
input signal is 10 mV rms?
) Coverage of special topics continues in Chapter 17, Part 4, on page 683.
r
SUMMARY
r
When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to an RC circuit, the current and all the voltage drops are
also sine waves.
r Total current in an RC circuit always leads the source voltage.
r The resistor voltage is always in phase with the current.
r The capacitor voltage always lags the cuffent by 90'.
r In an RC circuit, the impedance is determined by both the resistance and the capacitive reactance
combined.
r Impedance is expressed in units of ohms.
r The circuit phase angle is the angle between the total current and the applied (source) voltage.
r The impedance of a series RC circuit varies inversely with frequency.
I The phase angle (0) of a series RC circuit varies inversely with frequency.
r For each parallel RC circuit, there is an equivalent series circuit for any given frequency.
r For each series RC circuit, there is an equivalent parallel circuit for any given frequency.
I The impedance of a circuit can be determined by measuring the applied voltage and the total cur-
rent and then applying Ohm's law.
r In an RC circuit, part of the power is resistive and part reactive.
r The phasor combination of resistive power (true power) and reactive power is called apparent
power.
r Apparent power is expressed in volt-amperes (VA).
r The power factor (P-Q indicates how much of the apparent power is true power.
r A power factor of 1 indicates a purely resistive circuit, and a power factor of 0 indicates a purely
reactive circuit.
r In a lag network, the output voltage lags the input voltage in phase.
r In a lead network, the output voltage leads the input voltage.
r A fllter passes certain frequencies and rejects others.
crossARY
FORMUTAS
Seri es RC Ci rcui ts
FORMULAS
.
649
These terms are also in the end-of-book glossary,.
Admittance A measure of the ability of a reactive circuit to permit current; the reciprocal of
impedance. The unit is the siemens (S).
Apparent power The phasor combination of resistive power (true power) and reactive power. The
unit is the volt-ampere (VA).
Bandwidth The range of frequencies that is considered to be passed by a filter.
Bias The application of a dc voltage to an electronic device to produce a desired mode of opera-
tion.
Capacitive susceptance The ability of a capacitor to permit current: the reciprocal of capacitive
reactance. The unit is the siemens (S).
Conductance The reciprocal of resistance. The unit is the siemens (S).
Cutoff frequency The frequency at which the output voltage of a filter is'/0.7Vo of the maximum
output voltage.
Filter A type of circuit that passes certain frequencies and rejects all others.
Frequency response In electric circuits, the variation in the output voltage (or current) over a
specified range of frequencres.
High-pass filter A certain type of filter whereby higher frequencies are passed and lower fre-
quencies are rejected.
Impedance The total opposition to sinusoidal cuffent expressed in ohms.
Lag Refers to a condition of the phase or time relationship of waveforms in which one waveform
is behind the other in phase or time.
Lead Refers to a condition of the phase or time relationship of waveforms in which one wave-
form is ahead of the other in phase or time.
Low-pass fllter A certain type of filter whereby lower frequencies are passed and higher fre-
quencies are rejected.
Power factor The relationship between volt-amperes and true power or watts. Volt-amperes mul-
tiplied by the power factor equals ffue power.
(16-1)
(16-2)
(16-3)
(164)
(16-s)
(16-6)
(16-7)
(16-8)
(r6-e)
(16-10)
(16-11)
(16-12)
X6=-jXs
Z=R- j Xc
Z=f R2 +Xz c
A
= -tun
tf&\
\ R /
z=f F +frz-tun
Y
=I Z
V
t =z
v
" = ,
Y, =Vn- j Vc
v, =f v' o*v?l - t ^
v,
=f
v' o* vt,
a
= -tun
' /&\
\
Yol
- r l Xc\
\ ^ /
'(#)
650
I RC CIRCUITS
Paral l el RC Ci rcui ts
r R X . \ / - / V - \ \
( 16- 13) Z=[ ^- - l z[ - go"
+t an- ' l Tl ]
\ V R ' + x ' r l \ \ R / /
RXc
( 16- 14) Z=
f O**r ,
( r 6- 1s) o=- 90" *, un' / *)
\ R /
(16-16) o
= -tun-'13)
\x, )
I
(16-17) , =
U, =G/ O"
(16-18) B,
=
Xrh=BcZ9| o
=*i Bc
I
( 16- 19)
" =
UO=YZ+o
(16-20) Y=G+j Bc
I
( 16- 21) v=i
(1G22) I
=
VY
T
tr6-23t Y=i
(16-24) I,o,= Ip+
jlg
( 16- 25)
l , o, =f i oj r Zt u" ' ( 4\
'
\ 1ol
16-261 l ,o,=f I' *+ I1
(t 6-27t o
=
run-' / ! )
\ I n l
(16-28\ R"q= Z cos 0
(16-29) Xc@q)= Z sin 0
Power in RC Circuits
(16-30) Pour= I2R
(16-31) P,= I2Xc
(16:32) Po= I2Z
(16-33) Pt
u"
=
Pocos 0
(16:34) P,,u"=VI cos 0
(16-35) PF
=
cos 0
Lag Network
(16-36)
0=-90"*run-' f *\
\ R /
/ X c \
(16-37)
V*,
=
| ^,.^,
-, l Vi ,
\
V R, + X 7
I
(16-38) Von= IXs
(16-39) Yo,,=VourZ$
SELF-TEST r
651
Lead Network
(16-40)
(16-4r)
(16-42)
(16-43)
(16-44)
Troubl eshooti ng
(16-4s)
(16-46)
. - t l X. \
d = t a n ' l - l
\ R /
t R \
v-.,=l ^ /------------7 l v;-
\
VR' +Xi l
" '
Vorr= I R
Y
our=
VourZS
" l
"-
2nRC
n
RRt"ot
r f , a = -
"'
R + Rkuk
v. "=(
Ru' t
\ r-
"'
\R
* Rr"o*
I
"
r
SEI-F.TEST
1. In a series RC circuit, the voltage across the resistance rs
(a) in phase with the source voltage (b) lagging the source voltage by 90.
(c) in phase with the current (d) Iagging the current by 90o
2. In a series RC circuit, the voltage across the capacitor is
(a) in phase with the source voltage (b) lagging the resistor voltage by 90.
(c) in phase with the current (d) lagging the source voltage by 90'
When the frequency of the voltage applied to a series RC circuit is increased, the impedance
(a) increases (b) decreases (c) remains the same (d) doubtes
When the frequency of the voltage applied to a series RC circuit is decreased, the phase angle
(a) increases (b) decreases (c) remains the same (d) becomes erratic
In a series RC circuit when the frequency and the resistance are doubled, the impedance
(a) doubles (b) is halved
(c) is quadrupled (d) cannot be determined without values
In a series RC circuit, l0 V rms is measured across the resistor and 10 V rms is also measured
across the capacitor. The rms source voltage is
( a) 20V ( b) 14. 14V ( c) 28. 28V ( d) 10V
The voltages in
Question
6 are measured at a certain frequency. To make the resistor voltage
greater than the capacitor voltage, the frequency
(a) must be increased (b) must be decreased
(c) is held constant (d) has no effect
When R
=
Xc, the phase angle is
(a) 0' (b) +90" (c)
-90"
(d) 45'
To decrease the phase angle below 45", the following condition must exist:
( a ) R= X . ( b ) R< X c ( c ) R> X . ( d ) R= 1 0 X c
When the frequency of the source voltage is increased, the impedance of a parallel RC circuit
(a) increases (b) decreases (c) does not change
In a parallel RC circuit, there is 1 A rms through the resistive branch and 1 A rms through the
capacitive branch. The total rms culrent is
( a) 1A ( b) 2A ( c) 2. 28A ( d) 1. 4144
A power factor of 1 indicates that the circuit phase angle is
(a) 90' (b) 45" (c) 180' (d) 0'
3.
4.
6.
1
8.
9.
10.
l t .
L2.
652
r
RC CIRCUITS
13.
t4.
For a certain load, the true power is 100 W and the reactive power is 100 VAR. The apparenl
power is
(a) 200VA (b) 100VA (c) 141. 4VA (d) 141. 4w
Energy sources are normally rated in
(a) watts (b) volt-amperes (c) volramperes reactive (d) none of these
r
PROBLEMS
v,
5010" v
f
=
\00H2
(a)
(aJ
FI GURE 16- 69
v"
5t20" Y
"f
= 100 kHz
( c)
o v ,
'fron
r=rirl;,
t l
;tF
- n n n r , , E -
More dfficult problems are indicated by an asterisk (*).
PART 1: SERIES REACTIVE CIRCUITS
SECTION 16-1 Si nusoi dal Response of RC Ci rcui ts
1. An 8 kHz sinusoidal voltage is applied to a series RC circuit. What is the frequency of the
voltage across the resistor? Across the capacitor?
2. What is the wave shape of the current in the circuit of Problem 1?
SECTION 16-2 l mpedance and Phase Angl e of Seri es RC Ci rcui ts
3. Express the total impedance of each circuit in Figure 16-69 in both polar and rectangular
forms.
4. Determine the impedance magnitude and phase angle in each circuit in Figure 16-70.
0.02 pF
(b)
L j
0.0022 pF
R3
1800 cl
Ft cuRE 16-70
PROBLEMS I
653
5. For the circuit of Figure 16-71, determine the impedance expressed in rectangular fbrm for
each of the following frequencies:
(a) 100 Hz (b) 500 Hz (c) 1 kHz (d) 2.5 kHz
FI GURE 16- 71
ffi.t--l
'o?
_t
:
6. Repeat Problem 5 for C
=
0.005
sF.
7' Determine the values of R and X6 in a series RC circuit for the following values of total
impedance:
( a) Z= 33O- j 50O ( b) Z=3002- 25" e
(c) Z =
l.82-67.2' kQ (d\
Z =
78gZ-45" e
SECTION 16-3 Anal ysi s of Seri es RCCi rcui ts
8. Express the current in polar form for each circuit of Figure 16_69.
9. Calculate the total current in each circuit of Figure 16-70 andexpress in polar form.
10. Determine the phase angle between the applied voltage and the current for each circuit in
Figure 16-70.
11. Repeat Problem 10 for the circuit in Figure 16-71, using/= 5 kHz.
12. For the circuit in Figure 16-72, draw the phasor diagram showing all voltages and the total
cunent. Indicate the phase angles.
FI GURE 16- 72 .
v"
220" Y rms
f
=
15kHz
13. For the circuit in Figure 16-73, determine the folowing in polar form:
(a) Z (b) I,, (c) Vn (d)
yc
FI GURE 16-73
, R
R2
100 c)
16-74 to make the total current 10 mA?
., -^.r__/Utr__t
'1TlJil:?
560
,r;,,.
:
*14.
To what value must the rheostat be set in Fisure
Whar i s t he resul ri ng angl e?
FI GURE 16- 74
0.027 pF
654
r
RC CIRCUITS
\
t0^10' v
PART 2: PARALLEL REACTIVE CIRCUITS
SECTION 16-4 l mpedance and Phase Angl e of Paral l el RCCi rcui ts
16. Determine the impedance and express it in polar form for the circuit in Figure 16-76.
FI GURE 16- 76
*1.5.
Determine the series element or elements that must be
to meet the following requirements: P,.u"
=
400 W
(1ro, Ieads V").
FI CURE 16- 75 R.
installed in the block of Figure 16-75
and there is a leading power factor
AC
2ko
R2
330 cl
R2
180 0
vs
10V rms
17. Determine the impedance magnitude and phase angle in Figure 16-77.
18. Repeat Problem 17 for the following frequencies:
(a) 1.5 kHz (b) 3 kHz (c) 5 kHz (d) 10 kHz
FI CURE 16- 77 R.
VS
i8 V rms
.f
= 2kJIz
v"
820"V
-f
= 50 kHz
SECTION 16-5 Anal ysi s of Paral l el RC Ci rcui ts
19. For the circuit in Figure 16-78, find all the currents and voltages in polar form.
20. For the parallel circuit in Figure 16-79, find the magnitude of each branch current and the
total cuffent. What is the phase angle between the applied voltage and the total current?
r
^c
90cl
r = 5 2 0 4
0.047 pF
|
0.02 pF
FI GURE 16- 78 FI GURE 16- 79
FI GURE 16- 80
22. Repeat Problem 2l for R
=
5.6 kA, Cr
=
0.05 p.F, C,
=
0.022 pp, and,
f
=
500 Hz
*23.
Convert the circuit in Figure 16-81 to an equivalent series form.
FI GURE 16- 81
I
I
PROBLEMS I
655
21. For the circuit in Figure
(a) Z (b) In (c)
16-80, determine the following:
Ic1rotl (d) 1., (e) I
V,
2t0"v
"f
=
100 kHz
R1
10 ko
R2
12kA
0. 1 rF ' w 2
0.05 pF
Rl
470 A
c1
100 pF
c2
50 pF
*24.
Determine the value to which R1 must be adjusted to get a phase angle of 30o between the
source voltage and the total cunent in Figure 16-82.
HCURE 16- 82
VJ
nz0"v
+ - 1 L - U -
PART 3: SERIES-PARALLEL REACTIVE CIRCUITS
SECTION 16-6 Seri es-Paral l el RCCi rcui ts
25. Determine the voltages in polar form across each element in Figure 16-83. Sketch the volt-
age phasor diagram.
26. Is the circuit in Figure 16-83 predominantly resistive or predominantty capacitive?
27. Find the current through each branch and the total current in Figure 16-83. Express the cur-
rents in polar form. Sketch the current phasor diagram.
FI CURE 16- 83
vs
1210" Y
f =15kJI z
R3
180 f,)
100-0' mV
R2
330 f)
0.22 pF
656
r
RC CI RCUI TS
28. For the circuit in Figure
(a) I,, (b) 0 (c)
FI CURE 16- 84
V,
1020" v
f
--
2.5 kIIz
16-84, determine the following:
Vnr (d) Ynz
(e) Vn: (f) Vc
vs
1 5 V
f
= lkHz
*29.Determine
the value of C2in Figure 16-85 whenVo= l/u.
FI GURE 16- 85
R1
2ko
R2
1.0 ko
B
L 1
0.05 pF
*30.Determine
the voltage and its phase angle at each point labeled in Figure 16-86'
31. Find the current through each component in Figure 16-86.
32. Sketch the voltage and current phasor diagram for Figure 16-86.
FI GURE 16- 86 L3
-t-l'
i*'"
: I
PART 4: SPECIAL TOPICS
SECTION 16-7 Power i n RCCi rcui ts
33. In a certain series RC circuit, the true power is 2 W, and the reactive power is 3.5 VAR. Deter-
mine the apparent power.
34. In Figure 16J3, what is the true power and the reactive power?
35. What is the power factor for the circuit of Figure 16-81?
36. Determine P^., P,, Po, and PF for the circuit in Figure 16-84. Sketch the power triangle,
*37.
A single 240 V, 60 Hz source drives two loads. Load A has an impedance of 50 C) and a power
factor of 0.85. Load B has an impedance of 72 Q and a power factor of 0.95.
(a) How much current does each load draw?
(b) What is the reactive power in each load?
(c) What is the true power in each load?
(d) What is the apparent power in each load?
(e) Which load has more voltage drop along the lines connecting it to the source?
PROBLEMS .
657
SECTION 16-8 Basi c Appl i cati ons
38. For the lag network in Figure 16-87, determine the phase shift between the input voltage and
the output voltage for each of the following frequencies:
(a) 1Hz (b) 100 Hz (c) 1 kHz (d) 10 kHz
FI GURE 16- 87
39.
40.
The lag network in Figure 16-87 also acts as a low-pass filter
circuit by plotting the output voltage versus frequency for 0
ments.
Repeat Problem 38 for the lead network in Figure 16-88.
Draw a response curve for this
Hz to 10 kHz in 1 kHz incre-
41.
42.
*43,
FI CURE 16- 88
Plot the frequency response curve of the output amplitude for the lead network in Figure
16-88 for a frequency range of 0 Hz to 10 kHz in I kHz increments.
Draw the voltage phasor diagram for each circuit in Figures 16-87 and 16-88 for a frequency
o f 5 k Hz wi t h %= 1 V r ms .
What value of coupling capacitor is required in Figure 16-89 so that the signal voltage at the
input of amplifier 2 is at least 10.7Va of the signal voltage at the output of amplifier I when
the frequency rs 20 Hz?
FI GURE
, I 6- 89
44, The rms value of the signal voltage out of amplifier A in Figure 16-90 is 50 mV. If the input
resistance to amplifier B is 10 kC), how much of the signal is lost due to the coupling capac-
itor when the frequency is 3 kHz?
50 mV
FI GURE 16- 90
?qry
658
I
RC CI RCUI TS
vs
t l j " v
f
=
10Hz
(al
FI GURE 16- 92
SECTION 16-9 Troubl eshooti ng
45. Assume that the capacitor in Figure 16-91 is excessively leaky. Show how this degradation
affects the output voltage and phase angle, assuming that the leakage resistance is 5 kQ and
the frequency is 10 Hz.
FTGURE 16- 91 R
v.
t0/0"
y
*46.
Each of the capacitors in Figure 16-92has developed a leakage resistance of 2 kQ. Determine
the output voltages under this condition for each circuit.
v,
510" Y
f
= l00Hz
(b)
Determine the output voltage for the circuit in Figure 16-92(a) for each of the following fail-
ure modes, and compare it to the coffect output:
(a) R1 open (b) ft2 open (c) C open (d) C shorted
Determine the output voltage for the circuit in Figure l6-92(b) for each of the following fail-
ure modes, and compare it to the coffect output:
(a) C open (b) C shorted (c) R1 open (d) R2 open (e) R3 open
EWB Troubl eshooti ng and Anal ysi s
These problems require your EWB compact disk.
49. Open flle PRO16-49.EWB and determine if there is a fault. If so, flnd the fault.
50. Open file PRO16-50.EWB and determine if there is a fault. If so, find the fault.
51. Open file PRO16-51.EWB and determine if there is a fault. If so, find the fault.
52. Open flle PRO16-52.EWB and deterrnine if there is a fault. If so, flnd the fault.
53. Open file PRO16-53.EWB and determine if there is a fault. If so, find the fault.
54. Open file PRO16-54.EWB and determine if there is a fault. If so, find the fault.
55. Open file PRO16-55.EWB and determine the frequency response for the filter.
56. Open file PRO16-56.EWB and determine the frequency response for the filter.
47.
48.
r
ANSWERS
TO SECTION
REVIEWS
Secti on 16-1
L. The voltage frequency is 60 Hz. The current frequency is 60 Hz
2. The capacitive reactance causes the phase shift.
3. The phase angle is closer to 0' .
ANSWERS TO SECTTON REVTEWS r
659
Secti on 16-2
r . R= 150 Q; Xc=220Q
2. Z=33 kO- j 50kO
3. z
=
f tr +
4=
59.9 ke; 0
= -tar-t(xctR)
= -56.6.
Secti on 16-3
l . V, =f V' ^ +Vt r =7. 21y
2. 0
= -tan-t
(Xcl R)
= -56.3.
3 . 0 = 9 0 '
4. When/increases, X6 decreases, Z decreases, and 0 decreases.
Secti on 16-4
1. Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance, capacitive susceptance is the reciprocal of capacitive
reactance, and admittance is the reciprocal of impedance.
2. Y
=
rl Z= 1/ \ , F +
4=
l 0 mS
3 . Y=l / Z=2 5 . 1 1 3 2 . 1 " m5
4. Z=39. 82- 32. 1' f J
Secti on 16-5
l . I r , = V, Y
=21
mA
2. Ibt
= \fiT4= 18 mA; 0
=
tan-1(Iclln) =
56.3"; 0 is with respect to applied voltage.
3. d=90'
Secti on 16-6
1.. See Figure 16-93.
2. Z,o, =
Y
"n,o,
=
36.92-51.6 {t
FI GURE 16- 93 ^ .
Secti on 16-7
1. Power dissipation is due to resistance.
2. PF=cos0=0. 70' 7
3. P- "
=
I 2R= 1. 32 kW;
p, =
I 2Xc= 1. g4 kVAR;
p" =
f Z=2. 26kyA
Secti on 16-8
1.
d
= -90'
+ an
](xclR)
= -62.8'
2. vou, =( nNr r +?r ) / ; , =
8. 90v r ms
3. The output is across the capacitor.
Secti on 16-9
1. The leakage resistance acts in parallel with
C which alters the circuit time constant.
2. The capacitor is open.
3. Any shorted parallel component can cause 0 V across the capacitor.
660 r RC CIRCUITS
Sect i on 16-10
1. A lower vaiue coupling capacitor will increase the frequency at which a significant drop in volr
age occurs.
2. Vu
--
3. 16 V dc
3. VB
=
10 mV rms
r ANSWERS
TO RETATED
PROBLEMS
FOR
EXAMPLES
16-1. Select polar on mode screen:
A@ @ A@e@@Ef E$i en
ez. 6123s02ssz-60. j s.
. . )
See Fisure 16-94.
j 100
FIGURE 16-94
16: 2 Y, =2. 562- 38. 5" Y
16- 3 l =3. 682i 5. 9" mA
16-4 Z= 15.9 kA, 0
= -86.4'
16-5 Z=24.32-' 76.0" Q
L6- 6 Y=436246. 0' mS
16- 7 l = 5. 91239. 6" mA
16-8 lt.t= 177137.0' mA
L6-9 R"q
-
8.99 kf), Xc("q)
=
4.38 kA
16-10 Vl
=
7.1428.9" V Vz
=
3.162-20.4" Y
16-11 VRl
=
7 60267 .5" mV; V61
=
1.85 2-22j" Y; Y
az
See Figure 16-95.
=
1.53240.3' V; V.,
=
1.292-49.7' Y:
FI GURE 16- 95
ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST .
661
16-12 PF
=
0.155
16-1.3 Ptu.
=
213 mW
16-14 The phase lag increases.
16-15 The output voltage decreases.
16-16 The phase lead decreases.
16-17 The out put vol t age i ncreases.
16-18 vot =7. 29Y
r
ANSWERS TO
SELF.TEST
t.
9.
(cl
(cl
2. (b)
10. (b)
3. (b) 4.(a) s. (d)
11. (d) 12. (d) 13. (c)
6. (b)
14.
o)
t .
\ a) 8. (d)